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A typology of questions in Northeast Asia and beyond An ecological perspective Andreas Hölzl language Studies in Diversity Linguistics 20 science press Studies in Diversity Linguistics Editor: Martin Haspelmath In this series: 1. Handschuh, Corinna. A typology of marked-S languages. 2. Rießler, Michael. Adjective attribution. 3. Klamer, Marian (ed.). The Alor-Pantar languages: History and typology. 4. Berghäll, Liisa. A grammar of Mauwake (Papua New Guinea). 5. Wilbur, Joshua. A grammar of Pite Saami. 6. Dahl, Östen. Grammaticalization in the North: Noun phrase morphosyntax in Scandinavian vernaculars. 7. Schackow, Diana. A grammar of Yakkha. 8. Liljegren, Henrik. A grammar of Palula. 9. Shimelman, Aviva. A grammar of Yauyos Quechua. 10. Rudin, Catherine & Bryan James Gordon (eds.). Advances in the study of Siouan languages and linguistics. 11. Kluge, Angela. A grammar of Papuan Malay. 12. Kieviet, Paulus. A grammar of Rapa Nui. 13. Michaud, Alexis. Tone in Yongning Na: Lexical tones and morphotonology. 14. Enfield, N. J. (ed.). Dependencies in language: On the causal ontology of linguistic systems. 15. Gutman, Ariel. Attributive constructions in North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic. 16. Bisang, Walter & Andrej Malchukov (eds.). Unity and diversity in grammaticalization scenarios. 17. Stenzel, Kristine & Bruna Franchetto (eds.). On this and other worlds: Voices from Amazonia. 18. Paggio, Patrizia and Albert Gatt (eds.). The languages of Malta. 19. Seržant, Ilja A. & Alena Witzlack-Makarevich (eds.). Diachrony of differential argument marking. 20. Hölzl, Andreas. A typology of questions in Northeast Asia and beyond: An ecological perspective. ISSN: 2363-5568 A typology of questions in Northeast Asia and beyond An ecological perspective Andreas Hölzl language science press Andreas Hölzl. 2018. A typology of questions in Northeast Asia and beyond: An ecological perspective (Studies in Diversity Linguistics 20). Berlin: Language Science Press. This title can be downloaded at: http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/174 © 2018, Andreas Hölzl This book is a revised version of a doctoral dissertation written at the University of Munich (Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München) that was defended in February 2017. Published under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Licence (CC BY 4.0): http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ISBN: 978-3-96110-102-3 (Digital) 978-3-96110-103-0 (Hardcover) ISSN: 2363-5568 DOI:10.5281/zenodo.1344467 Source code available from www.github.com/langsci/174 Collaborative reading: paperhive.org/documents/remote?type=langsci&id=174 Cover and concept of design: Ulrike Harbort Typesetting: Andreas Hölzl, Felix Kopecky, Sebastian Nordhoff Proofreading: Alec Shaw, Alena Witzlack-Makarevich, Amir Ghorbanpour, Benjamin Brosig, Jaime Peña, Jeroen van de Weijer, Linda Lanz, Ludger Paschen, Maksim Fedotov, Martin Haspelmath, Stefan Hartmann, Sune Gregersen Fonts: Linux Libertine, Libertinus Math, Arimo, DejaVu Sans Mono Typesetting software:Ǝ X LATEX Language Science Press Unter den Linden 6 10099 Berlin, Germany langsci-press.org Storage and cataloguing done by FU Berlin Für meine Eltern Margret und Wolfgang Contents Acknowledgments v Abbreviations vii 1 Introduction 1 2 An overview of language families in Northeast Asia 15 2.1 Ainuic ..................................... 19 2.2 Amuric (Nivkh) ................................ 20 2.3 Chukotko-Kamchatkan ............................ 20 2.4 Eskaleut (Eskimo-Aleut) ........................... 21 2.5 Indo-European ................................. 22 2.6 Japonic (Japanese-Ryūkyūan) ........................ 25 2.7 Koreanic .................................... 25 2.8 (Khitano-)Mongolic .............................. 26 2.9 Trans-Himalayan (Sino-Tibetan) ....................... 28 2.10 Tungusic .................................... 30 2.11 Turkic ...................................... 32 2.12 Uralic ...................................... 33 2.13 Yeniseic (Yeniseian) .............................. 34 2.14 Yukaghiric ................................... 34 3 Areal typology and Northeast Asia 37 3.1 Theoretical considerations .......................... 37 3.2 The Eurasian macro-area ........................... 41 3.3 Mainland Southeast Asia ........................... 41 3.4 Northeast Asia ................................. 43 3.5 Subareas in Northeast Asia .......................... 49 4 The typology of questions 53 4.1 Introduction to the typology of questions .................. 53 4.2 Question marking ............................... 56 4.2.1 Marking strategies .......................... 61 4.2.2 The scope of question marking ................... 70 4.2.3 Interaction of functional domains .................. 72 4.2.4 The number of markers ....................... 75 Contents 4.3 Interrogatives ................................. 76 4.3.1 Semantic scope of interrogatives .................. 80 4.3.2 Word class membership of interrogatives ............. 84 4.3.3 The diachrony of interrogatives ................... 85 4.3.4 Inflectional properties of interrogatives ............... 88 4.3.5 Interrogatives and demonstratives ................. 89 4.4 Towards an ecological theory of questions ................. 90 5 Survey of the grammars of questions in Northeast Asia 103 5.1 Ainuic ..................................... 103 5.1.1 Classification of Ainuic ........................ 103 5.1.2 Question marking in Ainuic ..................... 104 5.1.3 Interrogatives in Ainuic ....................... 109 5.2 Amuric ..................................... 113 5.2.1 Classification of Amuric ....................... 113 5.2.2 Question marking in Amuric .................... 114 5.2.3 Interrogatives in Amuric ....................... 117 5.3 Chukotko-Kamchatkan ............................ 120 5.3.1 Classification of Chukotko-Kamchatkan .............. 120 5.3.2 Question marking in Chukotko-Kamchatkan ........... 121 5.3.3 Interrogatives in Chukotko-Kamchatkan .............. 124 5.4 Eskaleut .................................... 128 5.4.1 Classification of Eskaleut ....................... 128 5.4.2 Question marking in Eskaleut .................... 128 5.4.3 Interrogatives in Eskaleut ...................... 136 5.5 Indo-European ................................. 140 5.5.1 Classification of Indo-European ................... 140 5.5.2 Question marking in Indo-European ................ 140 5.5.3 Interrogatives in Indo-European ................... 152 5.6 Japonic ..................................... 165 5.6.1 Classification of Japonic ....................... 165 5.6.2 Question marking in Japonic .................... 167 5.6.3 Interrogatives in Japonic ....................... 189 5.7 Koreanic .................................... 200 5.7.1 Classification of Koreanic ...................... 200 5.7.2 Question marking in Koreanic .................... 201 5.7.3 Interrogatives in Koreanic ...................... 214 5.8 Mongolic .................................... 217 5.8.1 Classification of Mongolic ...................... 217 5.8.2 Question marking in Mongolic ................... 219 5.8.3 Interrogatives in Mongolic ...................... 244 5.9 Trans-Himalayan ............................... 255 5.9.1 Classification of Trans-Himalayan ................. 255 ii Contents 5.9.2 Question marking in Trans-Himalayan ............... 256 5.9.3 Interrogatives in Trans-Himalayan ................. 274 5.10 Tungusic .................................... 284 5.10.1 Classification of Tungusic ...................... 284 5.10.2 Question marking in Tungusic ................... 286 5.10.3 Interrogatives in Tungusic ...................... 312 5.11 Turkic ...................................... 331 5.11.1 Classification of Turkic ........................ 331 5.11.2 Question marking in Turkic ..................... 333 5.11.3 Interrogatives in Turkic ....................... 354 5.12 Uralic ...................................... 363 5.12.1 Classification of Uralic ........................ 363 5.12.2 Question marking in Uralic ..................... 364 5.12.3 Interrogatives in Uralic ........................ 371 5.13 Yeniseic ..................................... 377 5.13.1 Classification of Yeniseic ....................... 377 5.13.2 Question marking in Yeniseic .................... 377 5.13.3 Interrogatives in Yeniseic ...................... 381 5.13.4 Dene-Yeniseian? ........................... 383 5.14 Yukaghiric ................................... 386 5.14.1 Classification of Yukaghiric ..................... 386 5.14.2 Question marking in Yukaghiric ................... 386 5.14.3 Interrogatives in Yukaghiric ..................... 392 6 Interrogative constructions in Northeast Asia: A summary 395 6.1 Question marking ............................... 395 6.1.1 Marking strategies .......................... 395 6.1.2 Semantic scope ............................ 398 6.1.3 Interaction of functional domains .................. 399 6.1.4 Borrowing ............................... 402 6.2 Interrogatives ................................. 405 6.2.1 Formal properties ........................... 405 6.2.2 Semantic scope ............................ 406 6.2.3 Diachrony of interrogatives ..................... 410 6.2.4 Borrowing ............................... 412 6.3 The significance of the grammar of questions ................ 412 6.4 An atlas of the grammar of questions in Northeast Asia .......... 418 7 Conclusion 435 Appendix A: Data for geographical maps 441 References 449 iii Contents Index 501 Name index ...................................... 501 Language
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  • The Lawu Languages

    The Lawu Languages

    The Lawu languages: footprints along the Red River valley corridor Andrew Hsiu ([email protected]) https://sites.google.com/site/msealangs/ Center for Research in Computational Linguistics (CRCL), Bangkok, Thailand Draft published on December 30, 2017; revised on January 8, 2018 Abstract In this paper, Lawu (Yang 2012) and Awu (Lu & Lu 2011) are shown to be two geographically disjunct but related languages in Yunnan, China forming a previously unidentified sub-branch of Loloish (Ngwi). Both languages are located along the southwestern banks of the Red River. Additionally, Lewu, an extinct language in Jingdong County, may be related to Lawu, but this is far from certain due to the limited data. The possible genetic position of the unclassified Alu language in Lüchun County is also discussed, and my preliminary analysis of the highly limited Alu data shows that it is likely not a Lawu language. The Lawu (alternatively Lawoid or Lawoish) branch cannot be classified within any other known branch or subgroup or Loloish, and is tentatively considered to be an independent branch of Loloish. Further research on Lawu languages and surrounding under-documented languages would be highly promising, especially on various unidentified languages of Jinping County, southern Yunnan. Table of contents Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Lawu 3. Awu 4. Lewu Yao: a possible relative of Lawu 5. Alu: a Lalo language rather than a Lawu language 6. Conclusions 7. Final remarks: suggestions for future research References Appendix 1: Comparative word list of Awu, Lawu, and Proto-Lalo Appendix 2: Phrase list of Lewu Yao Appendix 3: Comparative word list of Yi lects of Lüchun County 1 1.