U.K. Press Discourses Surrounding Representations of Rape in Film and the Subject of Male Violence Against Women

1 U.K. Press Discourses Surrounding Representations of Rape in Film and the Subject of Male Violence against Women Natalie Haygarth Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Art, Media and American Studies University of East Anglia June 2018 This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author and that use of any information derived therefrom must be in accordance with current UK Copyright Law. In addition, any quotation or extract must include full attribution. 2 Abstract Representations of rape in film have contributed significantly to the mass of representations of rape present in popular culture. The attention these have attracted, and continue to attract, from audiences, cultural critics and academics is substantial. What has often been overlooked, and what this study does, is explore how these films have been discussed across the U.K. national popular press (including individual newspapers’ online counterparts). Developing on the work of scholars working in the area of film publicity and critical reception who have suggested that film criticism may be socially impactful, this thesis contends that press discussions of films that include representations of rape contribute to discourses surrounding rape that circulate in society and culture and that, as such, they play a part in the construction of specific frameworks of thinking about rape and other forms of male violence against women. Paying particular attention to the language used to describe the rape, the language used to describe the female characters who are raped, and language used to describe the male perpetrators of rape, this thesis demonstrates how press discussions of mainstream films that include representations of rape can reinforce, propagate, challenge and reject rape myths and misconceptions surrounding rape and other forms of male violence against women. 3 Contents List of Tables and Figures 4 Introduction 5 Chapter 1 52 Straw Dogs and Rape Myths Chapter 2 75 Representations of Rape-Revenge Chapter 3 99 Representations of Rape and the Criminal Justice System Chapter 4 125 Representations of Intra-Military Rape Chapter 5 159 Representations of Domestic Violence and Rape Chapter 6 202 Gone Girl and Rape Myths Conclusion 215 Bibliography 230 Filmography 261 4 List of Tables Table 1 Data Set and Number of Press Texts Referenced 46 List of Figures Figure 1 ‘No Regrets’ Campaign Poster 35 5 Introduction This study explores how mainstream films that include representations of adult men raping adult women have been discussed in the U.K. national popular press. By paying particular attention to the language used to describe the rape, the language used to describe the female characters who are raped, and the language used to describe the male perpetrators of rape, this thesis seeks to determine how the press discourses surrounding these films interconnect with media and cultural attitudes surrounding rape as well as exemplifying how the press texts contribute to discourses surrounding rape and other forms of male violence against women. This research is not suggesting that the press discussions about these films cause and/or encourage men to rape women. What it does suggest is that the way these films, their representations, and their subject matters are discussed contribute to wider social, media, and cultural discourses about rape and that, as such, they play a part in the construction of specific frameworks of thinking about rape that circulate in society and culture. As Tanya Horeck notes, ‘discussions of...filmic depictions of rape have been particularly prone to pivot on the question of whether a depiction of sexual violence is “positive” or “negative”, “good” or “bad”’ (2004: 3). This thesis’ aim is not to discuss, explore or interrogate attitudes towards the inclusion (or exclusion) of representations of rape in film. My concern is with the language of rape present in the press texts in which my selected films are discussed. In her book Virgin or 6 Vamp: How the Press Covers Sex Crimes, Helen Benedict describes how the ‘language of rape’ is insidious and how it is used unconsciously, quickly and carelessly (2005: 126). She also acknowledges that language can be and has been reformed in the media and, symbiotically, in everyday life (2005: 126) and argues that the media needs not only to learn to reform its language about rape, but that it can also lead the reform of the language of rape. This study is, therefore, concerned primarily with language and its ability to reinforce as well as to reform. More specifically, it is concerned with discourses about rape. Michel Foucault highlights the power of discourse, arguing: …in a society such as ours, but basically in any society, there are manifold relations of power which permeate, characterise and constitute the social body, and these relations of power cannot themselves be established, consolidated nor implemented without the production, accumulation, circulation and functioning of a discourse. There can be no possible exercise of power without a certain economy of discourses of truth which operates through and on the basis of this association. We are subjected to the production of truth through power and we cannot exercise power except through the production of truth (1980: 93). What versions of ‘truth’ regarding rape are circulated in society? Who are we (consumers of the press) encouraged to believe are ‘real’ victims? Who have we been / are we being told commit these crimes? How have they been / are they being described? The media, in its various forms, constitute a significant part of the current social and cultural climate. If media discourse constitutes social knowledge and participates in constructing frameworks of thinking about the subject of rape and other forms of male violence against women, it is important to interrogate these discourses. 7 I use similar methods of discourse analysis as have been used to analyse newspaper reports of real-life incidents of male sexual violence against women (in particular rape) to analyse how mainstream films that include representations of rape have been discussed in the U.K. national popular press. Rather than press texts that report real- life incidents of rape, the discussions of rape I analyse throughout the course of this thesis appear in texts that are not primarily about rape and / or violence against women but films that contain representations of these. I argue, however, that it is important to interrogate the way in which the subject of rape is discussed in the popular media in all contexts – whether this be in relation to real-life events or fictional representations. In Media and Violence: Gendering the Debates, Karen Boyle notes how the film Thelma and Louise (Dir. Ridley Scott, 1991) ‘creates a public forum whereby feminism, rape and justice can be discussed’ (2005: 142). Approached from this perspective, films that include representations of rape (and indeed other representations of male violence against women) have the ability to create public forums where social issues such as rape and male violence against women can be discussed. Mainstream, popular films that include representations of rape and other forms of male violence against women have the potential to instigate media discussion about such subjects that, otherwise, may not be discussed in the popular media at all. These discussions can take place in a variety of contexts, and amongst and between different groups of people – between friends, amongst work colleagues, and in organised debates (to name but a few). Some of these discussions are more 8 visible than others – popular press discussions being one of these. I contend that these discussions in the popular press contribute to and form an integral and important part of culture that defines what rape is and the circumstances attributed to it – that these discussions constitute part of social rape discourse which helps to construct and / or reinforce specific frameworks of thinking about rape, hence, why it is important to study these texts. Chapter Overview In Chapter 1, I analyse how Straw Dogs (Dir. Sam Peckinpah, 1971) has been discussed in the national press from the time surrounding its original theatrical release in 1971 up to the release of the film’s remake which was directed by Rod Lurie and released in 2011. I argue that myths about rape were reinforced in the press coverage that surrounded the initial release of the film – mainly that women’s dress and behaviour are at least partially responsible for rape. Later texts also did this, with the interpretation of Amy’s1 behaviour being perceived as teasing, flirtatious and ‘encouraging’. In such instances, Amy’s voice, was ignored, with certain writers seemingly more concerned with her appearance and their own interpretation of her behaviour than what she had to say, reflecting a (continuing) cultural response to women who express discomfort at the way they are harassed by some men where they are not taken seriously or ignored altogether. I argue that while the representation of rape included in the film was distinguished from the other representations of violence (in that it was discussed as a representation of rape rather 1 While individuals are usually referred to by their surname in academic work, there are instances throughout the course of this thesis where characters from the films being discussed have the same surname. In such instances, I refer to these characters using their first names as to avoid confusion. 9 than as a representation of violence), it was, more often than not, discussed in conjunction with debates about film censorship and what was considered to be gratuitous violence. As such, the sex / gender specific elements of rape were lost in much of the press coverage that surrounded the release of the film, the sex-specific nature of the sexual harassment and sexual violence represented in the film, notably only committed by men against women, ignored.

Load more