Teachers' reflections and cognitive appraisals in response to the Christchurch earthquake “I thought I was going to die”: Teachers’ reflections on their emotions and cognitive appraisals in response to the February 2011 Christchurch Earthquake

Veronica M. O'Toole University of Canterbury, Christchurch

This article reports a subset of findings from a mixed-methods study reporting February, 2011, approximately 150,000 the emotional impacts of the February 2011 earthquake on a small sample students and 10,000 staff were in school of twenty Christchurch teachers, who functioned as first responders when or education settings (Education Review this struck while they were on duty at school. This article reports a qualitative Office [ERO], 2013, p. 3). The teachers’ analysis of their retrospectively reported emotions experienced at the impact unspoken question about the size of the of the disaster and early aftermath, through the lens of Lazarus’s (1991) earthquake confirms that large aftershocks cognitive-motivational-relational emotion theory. Focusing on the emotions were expected, in the context of thousands and appraisals as discussed in a narrative context, the qualitative findings of aftershocks since September 2010, in provide support for Lazarus’s core relational themes for fright/fear, anxiety a uniquely unprecedented “long drawn- and relief. The teachers’ retrospective appraisals and core relational themes out process” (Wilson, 2013, p. 209). supported previous emotion appraisal research. The emotion findings also Since September, schools had updated resonate with other Christchurch earthquake research findings. their safety protocols and had practised their earthquake drills such as “stop, Keywords: fear anxiety and relief, cognitive appraisals, core relational themes, drop and cover” or “turtles” (Education teachers' emotions, February earthquake 2011 . Review Office [ERO], 2013, p.8) for younger children. Despite the extreme threat to environmental and personal Introduction aftershock sequence from a previous safety, no fatalities occurred on school On Tuesday 22nd February 2011, 7.1 magnitude earthquake that struck the premises (O’Connor, 2013). The city’s routine lunchtime was underway region on 4th September, 2010. (GNS, children remained safely in the care of in education settings throughout 2011a). The September earthquake had their teachers until they could be returned Christchurch, New Zealand, when a 6.3 been an unexpected event that shocked to the care of their families. Immediate magnitude earthquake struck the city. residents from their sleep at 4.35am on tragedies for many Christchurch families Hearing the rumble of a supersonic boom a Saturday morning, causing extensive upon this earthquake’s impact, and the and feeling the bouncing trampoline- destruction but no fatalities, mainly logistical difficulties in negotiating like movements underground, teachers attributed to its timing. However the damaged roads, liquefaction, congested recalled instantly thinking or looking September earthquake caused significant traffic, and/or travelling on foot, for at each other wordlessly to convey psychological and financial impacts caregivers to collect children from the question, “Is this going to be a big on the populace, and five months later, schools, meant that some teachers one or not?” (Geonet Sciences [GNS], the city was in early recovery mode, remained at school with children until 2011a; O’Toole & Friesen, 2016, p. 61). while also coping with thousands of late into the night. Beyond the first 24 The answer came immediately in the aftershocks up to and including 12.51pm hours, Christchurch teachers continued affirmative through the forcefulness of that Tuesday (Rowney, Farvid & Sibley, to support children and families through the earthquake’s accelerations at twice 2014). The lower magnitude February school based community hubs and the force of gravity (GNS, 2011b), earthquake was more violent, traumatic individual communications. Three weeks making it difficult for some teachers and devastating than its predecessor, later, while the city remained under a to remain standing so that the children causing further building collapses, 185 state of emergency for a further nine could see them for guidance. For schools fatalities and injuring at least 8600 weeks approximately, teachers returned on or close to hillsides and in central people (Richardson & Ardagh, 2013). to duty to tend to the 84% of school city buildings, cascading cliffs and The February earthquake also brought children/students who had returned rocks, and the “clatter of bricks” and extensive further liquefaction and to 64% of schools that had reopened falling masonry respectively, provided triggered another series of aftershocks, (Ministry of Education [MoE], 2012). compelling evidence of the earthquake’s including two earthquakes on 13th June, Some schools were relocated temporarily severity (O’Toole & Friesen, 2016). This 2011, another school day (GNS, 2011c). or permanently and others were site earthquake was technically part of the At 12.51pm on Tuesday 22nd sharing.

New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 46, No. 2, July 2017 • 71 • Veronica M. O’Toole

The pivotal role played by the reflecting the realization that not only emotions during and beyond a natural Christchurch teachers as non-professional had they survived individually but there disaster, may be increased in situations first responders and beyond, took some had been no loss of life, and possible where they function as untrained first time to be acknowledged (Mutch, 2015; “habituation” (p.284). However there responders, such as occurred following O’Toole & Friesen, 2016). Personal was an increase in cognitions relating to Hurricane Katrina (Campbell, 2007; repercussions such as their increased “worry and concern” (p. 284). Kannis- Kuriansky, 2013). Hometown disasters potential for burnout as a personal cost of Dymand et al. recommend that post also bring further impacts for teachers their immediate and continuing support earthquake peritraumatic cognitions and helping professionals such as of children/students and families have should be examined as an important increased workload demands (Kuntz also recently been documented (Kuntz, variable post-earthquake. et al., 2013), and personal loss (Snell Näswell & Brockett, 2013; O’Toole & In light of the various findings above, et al., 2014). Teachers are also effective Friesen, 2016). Studies of the personal the present study aims to contribute facilitators of the recovery of students’ repercussions on other Christchurch the perspectives of a small sample of psychosocial health both internationally professionals associated with the first teachers to the current “social memory” (DeVaney, Carr & Allen, 2009) and response, at various time frames post- (Wilson, 2013, p. 214) and growing locally, post February 2011 (Mutch earthquake such as: the police, 12 to 18 body of knowledge on the responses of & Gawith, 2014). But the impact of months later (Snell, Surgenor, Dorahy helping professionals to the Christchurch natural disasters on teachers themselves & Hay-Smith, 2014); hospital nurses, earthquakes. Given the likelihood of warrants more research attention three years later (Johal, Mounsey, further major earthquakes recurring (Seyle, Widyatmoko & Silver, 2013). Brannelly & Johnston, 2015), and (Sheehan et al., 2014; Wilson, 2013), the Following Hurricane Katrina in 2005, junior doctors on emergency duty up to aim of the present study is to contribute and Hurricanes Rita (2005) and Ike three months later (Sheehan, Thwaites, to the ongoing recovery efforts with and (2008), emotions reported by teachers York & Lee, 2014), indicated similar for teachers as helping professionals, trying to balance their daily living needs concerns that the personal impacts on and assist with future disaster response with supporting their students at school, helping professionals may have been planning. included poor emotional wellbeing, under-appreciated and that these to be depression, apprehension and a number better understood. International post- Post Disaster Impacts of fears related to job security, financial disaster research on teachers specifically, implications, personal property loss and A community’s recovery from has argued a similar need to pay more functioning at home in survival mode a large earthquake can be difficult and research attention to the emotional (Carlson, Monk, Irons & Walker, 2010; challenging, as people try to balance their impacts on teachers, due to the nature DeVaney, Carr & Allen, 2009; Lowery desire for normality in their daily lives, of their role in supporting students post- & Burts, 2007). with the multiple issues that undermine disaster in a hometown disaster context their recovery (Gordon, 2013). Negative Positive emotions have also been (Carlson, Monk, Irons & Walker, 2010; emotions that might be expected include reported post disaster. For example, DeVaney, Carr & Allen, 2009). sadness, grief, regret, anxiety, worry, Italian researchers found some increases Wilson (2013) has highlighted the fearfulness, depression and a fluctuating in positive emotions and a corresponding sudden and unexpected commencement mood (Gordon, 2013; Rowney et al, reduction in general distress, anxiety of the 2010 series of earthquakes and the 2014). Accompanying states may include and anger experienced by disaster hitherto relative lack of an earthquake stress, fatigue, financial stress, insecurity, volunteers who assisted in the relief history, as having fostered a belief that loss of self-confidence and pessimism phase following a fatal earthquake in Christchurch was “one of the safest cities (Gordon, 2013). Sleep disturbances, L’Aquila, Italy, in 2009 (Cristea, Legge, in New Zealand” (p. 211). He found hypervigilance, guilt and feeling in limbo Prosperi, Guazzelli, David & Gentili, that this has impacted the community’s have been reported by Christchurch 2014). The relief phase of this earthquake resilience, which he described as, a residents following the September, 2010, was characterized as a more positive “weakly-developed social memory has earthquake, partly due to the relentless phase that followed the “gruesome and been partly responsible for relatively aftershock sequence (Rowney et al, intensive rescue operations” (p. 748), and weak adaptive capacity so far” (p. 2014). International research focusing was attributed to volunteers being able to 214). This observation is consistent on teachers post disaster, has reported see the benefits of their work. Similarly, with findings from a recent study a similar range of negative emotions. following the Christchurch earthquake, investigating the core cognitive themes For example, following the 7.4 and 7.3 alongside the negative emotions of fear, of Christchurch adults from two suburbs magnitude earthquakes in Turkey in guilt, apathy, frustration, sadness and contrastingly affected by the September 1999 (Akbaba-Altun, 2005), and the anxiety experienced by a small sample of 2010 earthquake (Kannis-Dymand, 2008 Wenchuan magnitude 8 earthquake Christchurch nurses who were working Dorahy, Crake, Gibbon & Luckey, (Long & Wong, 2012) principals and with trauma victims, the positive states 2015). These authors found that despite teachers respectively reported shock, of pride, gratitude, relief, empathy, the ongoing aftershocks, cognitions anxiety, panic, stress, hypervigilance, and happiness were reported (Johal, relating to “current threat” (p. 282) and post-traumatic stress, depression and Mounsey, Brannelly & Johnston, 2015). “safety seeking” (p. 282) reduced post grief. The risk of teachers and helping Like the Christchurch teachers (Mutch, September and pre-February, perhaps professionals experiencing negative 2015; O’Toole & Friesen, 2016), these

• 72 • New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 46, No. 2, July 2017 Teachers' reflections and cognitive appraisals in response to the Christchurch earthquake nurses put aside their own fears to Lowe & Honey, 2003, p. 515). For impulse to attack, compassion the “focus on the situation at hand” (Johal example, is a stressor or event important impulse to reach out and fright or et al., 2015, p. 12). Snell et al. (2014) enough to our wellbeing and safety to anxiety the need for avoidance or escape found similar contrasts in the coping warrant a response (Smith & Kirby, (Lazarus, 2006). Negative stimuli such and resourcefulness of the Christchurch 2009)? Is a stressor negative and therefore as frightening sounds, may result in a Police following the earthquakes. stressful, or positive and therefore more rapid and stronger physiological Negative emotional impacts related challenging (McCuaig-Edge & Ivey, response (Keltner et al., 2014). This to resource losses included “sadness 2012)? Secondary appraisal includes may be regarded as an unconscious at the loss of people and history” (p. our evaluations as to whether we blame primary appraisal of a situation that 9), and disappointment at the lack of ourselves or others for the event (agency), is then unconsciously evaluated, and acknowledgement from the department our coping potential or perceived control, may motivate a rapid approach or for their “‘above and beyond’ work [in and the degree to which we have certainty avoidance response (LeDoux, 1993). the equivalent of] a war zone” (p. 8). In about what will happen next (Chang, Recent research has further hypothesised contrast, resource gains such as enhanced 2009; Keltner, Oatley & Jenkins, 2014; that immediately prior to a primary self-efficacy and pride in being able to Moors et al., 2013). Secondary appraisal appraisal there may be a moment of contribute in their role as police, were therefore determines whether we feel inaction or freezing as an “orientation also found, similar to the feeling of pride resourceful and able enough to cope response” (Schauer & Elbert, 2016, p. expressed by the nurses above (Johal with the situation. Problem focused 111) that enables a person to stop, look et al, 2015). These statements from the coping potential refers to whether we and listen, before fleeing or staying, police have also indicated their perceived believe we can act to solve the cause of similar to a deer caught in the headlights antecedents for their emotions. As noted the emotion. Emotion focused coping of a car (Lazarus, 1991). by Freitag, Grimm and Schmidt (2011), refers to the need to make an emotional Appraisal theory has received the cognitive component of emotion is an or psychological adjustment to cope considerable research attention, most of aspect of post disaster emotion research with something that cannot be changed which has confirmed Lazarus’s (1991) that warrants further exploration, and this (Smith & Kirby, 2009). The appraisal relationships between specific cognitive is the purpose of the present research. process also determines the intensity and appraisals and some specific emotions quality of the experience of an individual such as anger’s core relational theme Emotion and Appraisal emotion including its physiology, action being related to injustice and someone This study draws on Lazarus’s tendencies, behaviours and feelings else to blame, fear-anxiety relating to (1991, 2006) cognitive-motivational- (Clore & Ortony, 2000; Moors et al., danger, guilt to self-blame, and happiness relational theory of emotion, which defines 2013). The secondary appraisal may related to the belief that one has what emotions as “cognitive-motivational- also be referred to as the “core relational one wants (Bennett et al., 2003; Smith & relational configurations” (Lazarus 1991, theme” (Keltner et al., 2014, p. 168) or Lazarus, 1993; Tong, Bishop, Enkelmann, p.13 ) that change according to how we the meaning of the emotion, because Why, Diong, Khader & Ang, 2005; Wong perceive and appraise our relationship it includes the causal attribution, how & Tong, 2012). Nezlek, Vansteelandt, with the environment at any moment. we might respond, and the future Van Mechelen and Kuppens (2008) These appraisals may be automatic consequences. confirmed these relationships and also and unconscious, changing moment to Lazarus has identified core relational found that appraisals may relate to more moment, based on our interpretation of themes for fifteen basic emotions: eight than one emotion. Strongman (2003) the meaning and relevance of events in negative (anger, anxiety, fright, guilt, has acknowledged that Lazarus’s theory everyday life (Clore & Ortony, 2000). shame, sadness, envy & jealousy) and has developed over thirty years, with its The act of appraising or “inputing seven positive (happiness, pride, relief, core elements of appraisal and coping relational meaning” (Lazarus, 2006, p. hope, love, gratitude & compassion) unchanged over that time, and that this 10), is an ongoing process of “detecting emotions. Negative emotions tend to be is a “substantial and complex theory, that and assessing the significance of the elicited by perceived threat or harm, and is likely to have a lasting influence” (p. environment for wellbeing” (Moors, positive emotions by perceived benefits. 88). Overall there is general support for Ellsworth, Scherer & Frijda, 2013, For example the core relational theme for appraisal as an important part of emotion, p. 119). Appraisal is therefore key to anger is “a demeaning offense against with consistency of appraisals made by understanding why emotional responses me and mine” (Keltner et al., 2014, p. individuals evident over time (Bennett et might differ between-individuals 168; Lazarus, 2006, p. 16), and is usually al., 2003). The veracity of the appraisals in similar circumstances or within- blamed on another (Chang, 2009). For themselves cannot be confirmed in individuals to similar circumstances fear/fright, the core relational theme retrospective data collection, because on different occasions (Smith & Kirby, is “facing an immediate, concrete and appraisals reported after the event may 2009). Primary appraisal occurs first, overwhelming physical danger” (Keltner reflect either “post hoc reinterpretations” when we evaluate the importance or et al., 2014, p. 168). Most emotions also (p. 519) or “current appraisal of the past relevance of an event in relation to our have a corresponding action tendency event” (p. 519). However, findings goals, purposes or concerns (Chang, or impulse that links the emotion to its on the consistency of appraisals of 2009; Moors et al, 2013) also known physiological or behavioural response. similar circumstances over time, together as “motivational congruence” (Bennett, For example anger may prompt the with an absence of contradiction from

New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 46, No. 2, July 2017 • 73 • Veronica M. O’Toole other contextual observations, means and being positive role models for negative and positive emotions such as that retrospective appraisals may children (Sutton, 2004). These appraisals anger have tended to be consistent rather “at least provide ‘noisy’ data when are consistent with the emotional than contradicted, and have contributed to other methods of data gathering are labour perspective that service-related our understanding of teachers’ emotional inappropriate” (Bennett et al., 2003, professionals should exhibit some, but experiences and emotion regulation in p. 519). For example, retrospective not other emotions as part of their job their routine teaching (Sutton, 2004, appraisals by teachers when asked to requirements (Hochschild, 1983). This 2007). In situations where teachers’ remember emotional events that have may be achieved through surface acting, current perceptions are relevant, such angered or frustrated them, have shown or deep acting. Whereas there may be as for the purpose of current emotion consistency across more than one study, some similarities between the emotion regulation (Gross, 2013), their present thus confirming typical triggers of these regulation strategy of reappraisal and appraisals of past events may be relevant. emotions, such as students not following the emotional labour strategy of deep Overall, the mechanism of the appraisal instructions or misbehaving in class acting (Grandey, 2015; Gross, 2013), it process is worthy of further insights for (Chang, 2009; Sutton, 2004). is a topic of debate as to whether teachers the benefits of emotion regulation, and actually perform emotional labour or “there appears to be a movement towards Appraisals in Teaching, Emotion emotion work (Oplatka, 2007). Emotion greater agreement about the core features Regulation and Emotional work refers to teachers’ autonomous of appraisal theories” (Moors et al, 2013, Labour management of their workplace emotions p. 123). unrelated to their remunerated job Teachers experience a wide range performance criteria, and motivated by of positive and negative emotions on a Antecedents attributions and their beliefs such as the importance of daily basis in the classroom (Hargreaves, appraisals caring and warmth as underpinning their 1998; Sutton, 2004; Taxer & Frenzel, Further analysis of the appraisal work (Hargreaves, 1998; Oplatka, 2007). 2015), for which their appraisals are process itself has identified the importance In New Zealand, registered teachers are the most likely antecedents (Becker, of distinguishing between knowledge bound by their Code of Ethics, of which Keller, Goetz, Frenzel & Taxer, 2015). of the cause of a situation, and the one of the four fundamental principles is Teachers’ positive and negative emotions evaluation of its impact (Smith, Haynes, “responsible care” (Education Council may be elicited naturally in response Lazarus & Pope, 1993). Knowledge in of New Zealand, 2017, p.1). This is to their appraisals of student successes this case is the causal attribution (Weiner, in alignment with the Maori concept and failures respectively (Sutton, 2004). 2010) or the individual’s inferred cause of Manaakitanga, meaning an “ethos Alternatively, in order to artificially of the event (David, David, Cristina, of care” (Macfarlane, 2010, p. 7). In self-generate positive emotions such as Macavel & Kallay, 2006). This precedes teaching this hospitable approach gives enthusiasm, teachers might use self-talk the appraisal or evaluation that elicits teachers the same responsibility to their as a reappraisal or “cognitive change” the emotion. Causal attribution alone students as a host would demonstrate (Sutton, 2004, p. 389) to elicit the feeling as a cognitive process does not elicit in caring “for their visitor’s emotional, of enthusiasm for their teaching. This is the emotion; the evaluated or appraised spiritual, physical and mental wellbeing” one of a number of emotion regulation impact of the event must also occur (ERO, 2016, p.7). strategies used by teachers on a daily (Smith et al., 1993). Smith at al. (1993) basis (Jiang, Vaurus, Volet & Wang, Regarding specific negative confirmed the theoretical distinction 2016; Sutton, 2004). Emotion regulation emotions in teaching as may be elicited between attributions and appraisals, is defined as “the processes by which in a natural disaster, fear has not appeared the latter being more strongly related to individuals influence which emotions in recent literature that has focused on emotional experience, confirming that they have, when they have them, and discrete negative emotions, whereas the attribution needs to be evaluated in how they experience and express these anxiety has been included (Lee, Pekrun, terms of its significance to goals and emotions” (Gross, 1998, p. 275). Emotion Taxer, Schutz, Vogl & Xie, 2016; Taxer wellbeing, in order for emotion to be regulation may be activated consciously & Frenzel, 2015). Examples of appraisals experienced. David et al. (2006) repeated or unconsciously before, during or after made by teachers when retrospectively and extended Smith et al.’s (1993) results an emotional response, and may be reflecting on their anxiety include feeling by testing the contributions of appraisal, preventative (antecedent focused) or unprepared for teaching, relationships irrational beliefs and attributions relating responsive (response-focused) (Gross, with colleagues and students, and for new to a range of functional and dysfunctional 2013). Of the various antecedent focused teachers feeling concerned about having emotions. For anxiety-related emotions methods, reappraisal is regarded as more enough knowledge (Chang, 2009). As they found that irrational beliefs effective and better for wellbeing (Gross, noted by Chang, these appraisals fit with contributed marginally more than 2013), and draws on earlier appraisal Lazarus’s (2006) core relational theme appraisals for anxiety, depression, and and coping theory (Folkman & Lazarus, for anxiety as facing uncertain existential guilt, while appraisals contributed 1988, cited in Gross, 1998). Other threat. Anxiety is a “circumstance caused significantly more to the emotions of cognitive appraisals that teachers report emotion triggered by uncertainty” concern and anger. For all the anxiety- include their beliefs about presenting (Chang, 2009, p. 207). Together with this related emotions tested, the attributions a professional image by not acting out commonly stated core relational theme, contributed very little. They also noted negative emotions in front of students teachers’ retrospective appraisals on other that there was a qualitative experiential

• 74 • New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 46, No. 2, July 2017 Teachers' reflections and cognitive appraisals in response to the Christchurch earthquake difference between concern and anxiety. of the present teachers were in highly Twenty teachers volunteered for dangerous environments at the time, and the study (17 women and 3 men). Emotions and appraisals in a that the teachers’ emotion perception These included 15 primary school, two natural disaster and emotion regulation were significant early childhood, two secondary school Exposure to any trauma is likely predictors of their teaching efficacy. teachers and one tertiary teacher. Their to elicit fear, anger, sadness and disgust Although reference was made in the teaching experience ranged from two (Bovin & Marx, 2011), described as previous report to the teachers managing to thirty-two years with 45% of the “peritraumatic” (p. 53) because they their fears, the scope of the previous participants having more than 20 years originate with the trauma and have been article did not allow for detailed analysis teaching experience (M = 17.15 years; associated with subsequent posttraumatic of the discrete emotions elicited at the SD 10.05). stress disorder (PTSD), which is beyond time nor their cognitive appraisals. the scope of this report. Emotional Having identified the emotions that Procedures numbing may also occur, perhaps due teachers most frequently recalled having Following their individual to the shock of the event itself, or to the experienced at the time the aims of the detailed telephone conversation with speed of events not allowing time for present study were to: the researcher and having received emotional processing. Aside from the 1) Identify the core relational further emailed information as to the typical appraisals associated with these themes of the emotions as retrospectively purposes and procedures of the study, four emotions, Bovin and Marx have reported and compare them to those the teachers were invited to participate noted that individuals may appraise of Lazarus (2006). This will indicate in an individual interview. These were the same event differently based on whether the emotions and core relational held in a research interview facility at a perceived differences in specific impacts themes as enunciated and elaborated local university, away from their current to their wellbeing. In order to understand on during the teachers’ narrative and school environment, in a safe suburb the peritraumatic response better, Bovin semi-structured interviews, follow the of the city relatively undamaged by and Marx argue that the peritraumatic previously reported patterns of Lazarus the earthquakes. All participants were experience should be conceptualized as and others since. referred to local counselling professionals “a rich integration of appraisals, action 2) Improve our understandings if the interview raised issues that required tendencies, and physiological changes” of the relationships between specific further exploration. (p. 60). Grimm and colleagues (2012) emotions and the teachers’ cognitive At the interview, after reviewing the have investigated the peritraumatic and appraisals as recalled from a real life information and signing consent forms, post disaster cognitions and emotions of post-disaster context, through the lens the teachers told their personal earthquake individuals through linguistic analysis of Lazarus’s (1991) cognitive appraisal story and related experiences in the of the narratives of trauma victims theory. aftermath of the February earthquake. from seven different types of disasters 3) Gain further insights into the At the conclusion of their retrospective across seven European countries. teachers’ experiences of this disaster earthquake narrative, the semi-structured Emotional states that they identified and to contribute their perspectives and interview drew upon the topics discussed as most frequently reported included voices to the growing body of research in the narratives with more specific focus peritraumatic detachment, fear, and on the Christchurch earthquakes on their emotions, including how they panic with some reports of anger, sadness recalled managing the situation at the and depression. Fear was expressed time of the earthquakes and during the in “gradations [of] nervous, scared Method ensuing 18 months. The semi-structured and scared to death” (p.117) and was interviews were based on Sutton’s the greatest predictor of subsequent Participants (2004) method investigating teachers’ psychological distress. Less frequently Following review and approval emotion regulation strategies, which was reported emotions were “guilt, shame of the study by the university human also based on retrospective reports of or feeling horrified or helpless” (p. ethics committee, participants were emotion regulation goals and strategies 117). Grimm and colleagues have recruited by invitation to all primary that teachers recalled using in specific recommended that future research should schools in the greater Christchurch area, situations. Other open-ended questions investigate peritraumatic emotions and in July 2012. Principals forwarded the discerned further themes and sub-themes cognitions during different stages of a invitation to their staff to contact the (Murray, 2015). The narratives and disaster. researcher confidentially to learn more interviews were recorded, and transcribed about the project and to arrange their verbatim. The strategies of Lincoln The present study individual interview. The invitation and Guba (1985) as recommended This article draws on a subset of was also extended to any teachers by Teddlie and Tashakkori (2009), data from a mixed methods investigation who registered with the University including independent parallel coding into how twenty Christchurch teachers of Canterbury’s (2012) QuakeBox (Thomas, 2006) were employed to functioned as first responders on 22nd research project that was set up to record ensure trustworthiness of the qualitative February 2011 and beyond (O’Toole & Cantabrians’ earthquake stories (Clark, analyses. Friesen, 2016). Relevant to the present McGougan, Hay & Walsh, 2016). study are the findings that almost half

• 75 • New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 46, No. 2, July 2017 Veronica M. O’Toole

Results and discussion teachers also recalled similar immediate part of an aftershock sequence, the more inner thoughts and self-dialogue such as, surprising and intensely emotionally- Recalled earthquake “is this going to be a big one or not? Is engaging an event is, the more likely experiences it just a small aftershock?” (Teacher 20). the memory will persist and be resistant to intrusions (Hirst & Phelps, 2016; Eighteen of the twenty teachers Other sensory recollections included Koss et al., 1995). Another important recalled and described their experiences electrical smells, and the dust hindering variable is that “differential attention” in terms of what they had heard, seen and one’s breathing. Two teachers whose first (Koss et al., 1995, p. 121) during the felt, as though they were re-experiencing recollections did not immediately refer event being processed into memory the moment through these three senses. to the three senses, commenced their contributes to better memory for the For example one teacher recalled: earthquake stories from their cognitive perspectives. Teacher 3 explained, central details that are capturing one’s “I could hear a clatter of bricks “then the quake hit and to start off full attention, and less accurate memory and it was like I imagine if you with, I thought, what’s going on?” She for the peripheral details. Although some bounced loose bricks up and explained it was a “big shock”, and “I memory decay can be anticipated, more down on top of each other – that’s was just like, what do you do?” For the recent research has shown that cognitive what I was hearing. I thought the first moment, “I just stood there – kind appraisals as to the novelty of the event, building was going to collapse. of froze”. Teacher 16’s first recollection as distinguished from the personal and I was trying to work out what I was more summative as she explained, social impacts of the event, may be would do and I knew there was a “we realised it was severe, and decided relevant in the creation of a flashbulb student right behind me” (Teacher it was sensible to get under the table, memory (Curci, Luninet, Finkenauer & 15). so the children all got under the table.” Gisle, 2001). Even allowing for decay, Other examples of what was these findings suggest that the present Due to the majority of the teachers’ heard included, the sounds of children teachers’ earthquake memories may be recollections including descriptions screaming, and the sonic boom of the “well-retained” (Koss e al., 1995, p. of what they had seen, their memories earthquake itself (GNS, 2011b), and “the 124), with such “longevity [having been] contained a high degree of visual imagery. incredible noise” (Teacher 11), “intense created at encoding” (p. 125). This is a feature of vivid memory defined noise, like a train” (Teacher 20). What as “a memory with a clear, vivid, almost teachers recalled seeing included the lifelike property” (Rubin & Kozin, Assessing the situation children running towards them, children 1984, cited in Koss, Tromp & Tharan, Having described these first taking the “turtle position” and other 1995, p. 119). Vivid memories tend to moments, confirming the whereabouts trauma, such as “I saw [my colleague] be created from personally significant and ensuring the safety of the children being thrown against the wall” (Teacher autobiographical events and according to or colleagues nearby were stated as the 19). Teacher 1 was in a school that was Koss et al., may include many extraneous next behavioural priorities (O’Toole close to cliffs that had collapsed. They details of the context at the time, similar & Friesen, 2016). Their recollected rushed to the area. to Brown and Kulik’s “flashbulb cognitive appraisals also revealed their “We could see lunch boxes memories” (1977, p. 73). Flashbulb rapid summation of the situation and everywhere. We could barely see memory refers to an individual’s memory assessment of what was needed to be anyone, but we were looking for of a shocking public event such as the done. As one teacher explained, “Well, little bodies or if somebody had assassination of President Kennedy, at if you were being a professional, this been pinned by rock. Fortunately, which one was not directly present yet is the time to have your act together nobody had been. We couldn’t see recalls vividly, due to remembering what and make it all about all of these anyone and we did double checks one was seeing, doing and generally children in your care.” Another teacher and triple checks ‘cos I thought, experiencing at the time of hearing the explained, “You just had to. You were they’re the youngest, the most news. In the case of the earthquake, this now…you became now not only the vulnerable” (Teacher 1). was both a shocking public event and a teacher but you became the caregiver Examples of what teachers recalled significant autobiographical event for of these children.” These cognitive feeling included being, “under the table, the teachers with personal ramifications appraisals are indicative of secondary and my back was hitting the top of the and individual responsibility for other appraisals (Lazarus, 2006; Keltner et table” (Teacher 5), “the whole building peoples’ children, likely to elicit strong al., 2014), confirming their agency and just rocked and swayed and did this emotions. For public and personal responsibility for these children in their judder-type thing” (Teacher 7), “these autobiographical events, vivid recall is care, with the motivational relevance two steel girders and I could feel them, generally attributed to the intensity of being the children’s/students’ safety, hear them graunching and moving” the surprise/shock and emotions (usually which tended to be expressed by the (Teacher 6). Teacher 9 explained, “I was negative but not solely) experienced majority of the teachers (O’Toole & knocked under the table. I found myself at the time, and the personal impacts Friesen, 2016). there.” Having come to that realization, and consequences for the individual Teacher 9 then thought, “What am I creating the memory (Koss et al., 1995). doing here? I need to see where the Even when the event is not entirely children were.” Almost half of the unexpected such as the earthquake being

• 76 • New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 46, No. 2, July 2017 Teachers' reflections and cognitive appraisals in response to the Christchurch earthquake

Discrete emotions and core events that suggested imminent danger partly collapsed or who were near or on relational themes and causal attributions for fright such as hillsides that collapsed, for whom the the teacher being hit by the clock. Unless danger was immediately obvious and the The transcripts were imported the teachers followed up their antecedent fear more visceral (O’Toole & Friesen, into NVIVO 11, and 120 nodes were description with a statement about how 2016). created for the various emotion and they felt, having actually experienced emotion-related words that were uttered Consistent with Lazarus’s core the emotion may not be confirmed. by the participants during the narratives relational themes, were the high perceived They have made the causal attribution and interviews. The nodes provided the relevance and goal incongruence (Table and then described their behavioural summary of frequencies of utterances, 1), meaning that the present situation response, and may or may not have expanded sections of the transcripts was incongruent for the children’s and actually experienced the fright/fear. and the sources of these. This enabled students’ safety, and had to be escaped. Therefore this may indicate an objective accurate and readily available data on Where the action tendencies could be approach in order to not feel frightened. the frequencies and grouping of the followed, this enabled problem focused One teacher stated very clearly having texts (transcript excerpts) to compare the coping (Smith & Kirby, 2009) through been “frightened”, and in order to cope examples. The emotion data presented facilitating the children’s escape to with the experience of this fear, this here are confined to the terms that relate safety. When action was not immediately teacher took a deep breath and “put on the to Lazarus’s basic emotions and core possible there was evidence of emotion teacher’s hat” in order to get on with what relational themes, for the emotions that focused coping (Smith & Kirby, 2009). was needed next. Similar appraisals of were most commonly referred to in the For example, the teacher who was trapped imminent of death were stated by several teachers’ narratives and interviews as in a stairwell (Table 1), was immobilised teachers, mainly those in buildings that having occurred early in the disaster. in that one spot until the shaking stopped, These emotions were fear/fright, anxiety, Table 1 and relief. Any exceptions to this are due Teachers’ terms, contexts and appraisals for fright/fear at 12.51pm on 22.02.11 to the same emotion being expressed in Emotion Context Antecedent/Attribution/Appraisal Relevance & Goal Congruence the present day context with similar core Fright Standing in “It was the classroom that gave me … and I remember the windows and classroom the fright the most, with everything I was like, ‘Are they going to break?’ relational themes, and will be indicated. spinning around it.. And the kids were right beside them Briefer results for stress, sadness and and I was like, ‘Oh no. What’s going to happen?’ As soon as it stopped, we gratitude will then be summarised. grabbed the kids as you could – it didn’t matter how you could grab Fright and fear them, and exited the building” Frightening In the resource “One thing that was actually ….and then of course, I didn’t leave. The most frequently recalled room frightening was that I got hit by a I just kind of stepped over the glass emotion reported by the teachers 18 clock and all the glass like smashed and went and my grabbed two kids on me. I hadn’t been hit by anything that I was responsible for.” months later, was fright/fear. Lazarus before, so that was new experience… (1991) used the terms fright and fear Frightened Collapsing “I mean I was frightened, yes, but I … you take a deep breath and put on building thought, ‘Ok this is it. The world’s your teacher hat you go and do synonymously to denote the response to going to end and I’m going to die… whatever it is you’ve got to do. You push down anything that you were concrete and sudden threats. He regarded feeling yourself.” fright/fear as a more primitive response Fearful Trapped in “I was just very fearful and I … I shouted, “Is everybody ok in stairwell remember I could hear my heart there?” And as soon as I said that, than anxiety, which is part of the same beating rapidly and I could feel my there were two young international emotion family, and relates to threats breath [demonstrates shallow students who’d been in the kitchen breathing] and I just thought, I really just a little bit further down and they that are less obvious. Both emotions are thought that I was going to die. My came running out at the speed of a future focused. The core relational theme mind was just blank. I just thinking, cat…they’d been frightened and they “This is the end for me. Please don’t ran down those stairs! for “fright” is “confronting an immediate, let it be the end, you know, but it concrete and overwhelming physical seemed you know, I was getting ready for it…the whole building was danger” (Lazarus, 2006, p. 16), with the just going to go ‘bang!’ you know associated action tendency of avoidance and bury me in rubble and the funny thing was that for [a long time] after or escape. As the teachers recalled their it, every day I was back there in fear/fright emotions as experienced some point during the day…. Fear Running to the “I was just thinking there was so …we have to get away from the cliff during the earthquake at 12.51pm, they children outside much fear and panic running through you know and they were just covered us, so I remember after that, I just - in dust and it was quite horrific. In used these terms in different ways to as fast as I could move, tried to get my class, I did have two quite needy describe their immediate fear-related round our classroom, around to wee girls and most of my class where the kids were and I only just actually clung to me like in a line – emotions, and included descriptions of got to the end of the room, the end of they clung to a tee-shirt piece each in their antecedents, attributions and/or the classroom and then all the dust a line and held hands. These other 2 was just coming like a massive sea girls just couldn’t walk, so I had to appraisals, as presented in Table 1. and then all the kids were coming pick them up and carry them and round and then I was the first teacher they’d all wet themselves and it was As shown in the examples in Table they saw after the duty teacher was just like once we kind of got them off 1, “fright” was stated in several different scooping them out, I was the first one the ground and we kind of were to greet them and they all just started ushering them in the right direction ways by the teachers as they described dropping at my feet ‘til they made a and I had a girl in each arm, which is the first moments of the earthquake. The turtle on the ground and I was trying just ridiculous – there’s no way I can tell to them that this was not a good usually carry them. My class like terms “fright” and “frightening” were place to make a turtle… were behind me like a big line often used to indicate specific antecedent holding on”

New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 46, No. 2, July 2017 • 77 • Veronica M. O’Toole and unable to do anything physical in I’d been supporting all afternoon, were action tendencies of Lazarus (2006; response to the action tendency to escape there supporting me.” 1991). Furthermore they reveal various (Lazarus, 1991). This teacher could only “Horrible” was used by a discriminations, reflecting the teachers’ resort to emotion-focused coping through number of teachers as an antecedent individual differences in their physical praying for this to not be the end of his to feeling possibly horror or fear. The context at the time of the earthquake life, until the shaking stopped, before horror inducing premonition that the and the differences in their recollected then checking on others. This teacher has bridge might collapse as this teacher experiences and responses to their fears revisited this fear at least once per day was driving home that day was a elicited by the disaster. As noted by over an extended period of time since. logical fear, given the number of bridge Lazarus, the various other terms used “carry multiple connotation having to Other derivatives of fright approaches that did collapse. Similar to the variations on “fright”, “scared” do with the intensity of the reaction, its Lazarus (1991) has indicated described the emotional state. In Table source, ambiguity, action tendency and that fear/fright may be expressed in 2, the teacher was scared that she might mixtures of other meanings, as in panic, other terms, which may indicate different not be able to control herself in front and horror” (1991, p. 239). These various intensities of the emotion experience, of the children, if there were severe discriminations may also be an indicator similar to the “gradations” noted by aftershocks upon returning to work. of their emotion perception ability Grimm and colleagues (2012, p. 117). Similar to “frightening”, scary described previously identified in this sample as Other terms that fall within the category antecedents to being scared, such as the related to their teaching self-efficacy of fright/fear, include horror, terror and rippling ground, fire and smoke making beliefs (O’Toole & Friesen, 2016). fear. A further group of terms including the school grounds a “scary place” Emotion perception refers to the ability to dread, alarm and panic, may be regarded expressed as causal attributions yet not accurately perceive or identify emotions as more “ambiguous” (p.238) and confirming whether the teacher actually in the self or in others, and requires us applicable to either fright or anxiety. experienced being scared. The teacher’s to pay attention to and decode emotional Five of these other terms were used by use of “terrified” indicates her then signals (Papadogiannis, Logan & the teachers, to describe their fear-related current emotion in anticipation of the Sitarenios, 2009). This includes labeling emotions, as presented in Table 2. possibility of another earthquake. and discriminating between specific Table 2 negative emotions, and their intensities Examples of teachers’ contexts and appraisals for other fright/fear related emotions (Mayer & Salovey, 2004). Previous research has shown that the better people Emotion Context Antecedent/Attribution/Appraisal are at discriminating between their Panic 22.02.11 Same day, several hours “There was a vicious aftershock. I saw a building collapse negative emotions, the better they are later at the evacuation & triage and I had a complete panic attack. I was on my hands and at regulating these (Feldman-Barrett, point. knees on the ground vomiting into the grass. It hadn’t been Gross, Christensen & Benvenuto, 2001). the building. It was actually a devastating feeling that I had to get myself out of this.” Anxiety related emotions Horrible 22.02.11 Same day later, teacher “I had this horrible premonition that the bridge would travelling home collapse underneath us.” The core relational theme for anxiety is “facing uncertain, existential threat” 22.02.11 Same day later, teacher and I thought ‘what if there’s an after-shock while I’m in collecting her son from camp, there?’ It’s like going down, it’s built into the hillside and (Lazarus, 2006, p. 16). It is similar to you’re going down 3 levels. And there was no electricity, so fear, except that the antecedents are I had to go with my son to get his it was really dark. And going down to get his bag out! I bag out…. thought, ‘Thank goodness, they didn’t bring the kids back in less clear, the appraisals less directive here to get their gear out.’ It was horrible. I’ll never forget” and the future focus less specific. To Scary 22.02.11 “Our front field felt like a metre ripple. It was really full on. feel anxious is to feel a sense of unease It wasn’t a calm place to be. There was fire all around us and due to an uncertain threat, which may During first minutes, outside at black smoke, so it was a scary spot”. school be experienced as a current or future Scared Three weeks later, returning to “I was really scared when we went back to school that I oriented appraisal. The action tendency school wouldn’t be able to hold it together.” for anxiety is also avoidance or escape, but the problem is that it is not clear Terrified 18 months later, current feeling “I’m terrified of another quake.” what one needs to escape from. Other terms that Lazarus regarded as associated with anxiety include unease, concern, apprehension and worry. Lazarus (1991) In summary, the causal attributions or In addition to derivatives of “horror”, regarded worry as an attempt to make the antecedents and the cognitive appraisals “terror”, “fear” and “panic”, that Lazarus existential component of anxiety more that were expressed during the teachers’ (1991, p. 238) has noted, teachers also tangible and argued against separating informal retrospective narratives used “scared” and “scary” (Table 2). The these two. David et al. (2005) noted using their everyday terminologies to teacher who experienced a panic attack that there was a qualitative experiential describe their fright and fear related did not follow the action tendency to difference between concern and anxiety. emotions in response to the February leave this environment and stayed with In line with Lazarus’s (1991) theory, the earthquake, align with the core relational her students until their parents came. teachers’ experiences of anxiety and themes, antecedents, appraisals and She explained that “the poor kids that worry are presented in Table 3.

• 78 • New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 46, No. 2, July 2017 Teachers' reflections and cognitive appraisals in response to the Christchurch earthquake

Table 3 (p. 238), the teachers’ appraisals appear Teachers’ terms, contexts and appraisals for anxiety and worry to confirm this. Emotion Context Antecedent/Attribution/Appraisal Anxiety June 2011: Just when things seem “June. It was a bit like ‘Groundhog Other derivatives for anxiety to be getting back to normal. Day’ in some ways, except that at least, that there wasn’t the same Similar to the various situation in the central city because of connotations in the different terms used Uncertainty & existential issues: course, that had already happened. We had time off work again and then just for fear, other various terms were used for went back into it, so it was just ‘carry anxiety and related emotions, as presented on’, but I think in terms of my own I guess anxiety, that was by far the in Table 4. These were consistent with worst day for me, much worse than February”. Lazarus’s (1991) alternative terms. Anxious June 2011: Just when things seem “After the June one – I was actually These various other terms shown in to be getting back to normal. really affected by that one because I just thought it wasn’t fair and it was Table 4, used in relation to anxiety are just starting to get back into normal consistent with Lazarus’s “associated Uncertainty & existential issues: and I got really tearful after that one and I ended up going to the doctor terms” including apprehension, nervous because I couldn’t sleep and I was just like, ‘Ah, the world’s going to end’, so and concern. Feeling apprehensive and I ended up going on anti-depressants nervous appeared to be more aligned with after that because I was quite anxious” the core relational theme for anxiety, as Worried February 2011: Returning to “A wee bit tentative and worried. school three weeks later When we walked back into our “facing an uncertain, existential threat” classrooms, there were plenty of things (2006, p. 16), and they were beyond the that had fallen down and things that Uncertainty: needed cleaning up, which didn't give original event and related to previous long to do that before the children came back”. fear. Having a “concern” expressed Worry February 2011: "It wasn’t until a wee bit later until you appeared to be stating a priority at the get the chance to get a breather that time, and may be regarded as a causal you start to worry about your own Uncertainty & existential issues: family a little bit, but then, I remember attribution. Feeling “concerned” about thinking my son would be at school what the children were thinking, was and it would be exactly the same thing there as it was here. I knew that there less certain and existential, and occurred would be people taking care of him and likewise my daughter at day-care”; early in the event. The context for this Worrying Eighteen months on: “I think she’s been working really hard concern was that the principal had been and it’s taken a little bit of a toll on her standing talking to the whole school Uncertainty & existential issues: health a little, which is a little bit worrying”. outside after the first earthquake, when a big aftershock hit, and “then he dropped”. She explained that:

As shown in Table 3, five terms Table 4 were used to categorize anxiety and Teachers’ terms, contexts and appraisals for other anxiety related emotions worry. For example, having survived Emotion Context Antecedent/Attribution/Appraisal the September and February earthquakes, Apprehensive Three weeks post February “But just getting back to work – and 2011: yeah, I was really apprehensive about the 6.3 magnitude June earthquake was getting back into the classroom, ‘cos it the ‘final straw’ for a number of the Returning to work had frightened me so much and the teachers, because this also occurred on Uncertainty & existential issues children.” a school day, so quickly after an earlier Nervous Three weeks post February “I think we were nervous, thinking 2011: what if there’s more (big earthquakes) 5.6 magnitude earthquake that same day. and because at that time, they were This event brought into question a new Returning to work constantly in the news – statistics about the percentage of risk” existential threat and the unanswerable Uncertainty & existential issues question of how much more do we have Concern 22.02.11 at the time of the “My first concern was their safety” earthquake to deal with in the future. The June earthquake was also a strong reminder of Concern 22.02.11 “There was the concern that those parents might not be alive to come and 22nd February, especially due to teachers Later in the day waiting for get their children.” parents to come and collect and children being back in school. Worry children from school was expressed about family members Concerned 22.02.11: “And when a strong person falls [..] I at the time of the February earthquake was concerned about what the kids Shortly after 12.51pm, outside were thinking because I know how I until the uncertainties could be resolved, the principal dropped to the was thinking. If he’s dropping to the ground when a large aftershock ground, what are my kids thinking?” similar to fear in the previous section. struck This worry tended not to intrude until there was time to focus on it. As also children. Several teachers said the same. shown in Table 3, the worry that one As regards Lazarus’s (1991) argument “It scared the living daylights teacher expressed about his children that worry represents an attempt to out of me to see him do that. That’s was reduced based on his trust in their “make existential anxiety concrete and how we knew how bad it was.. teachers to be looking after his children external in order to better deal with it” [seeing him do that] it felt like in the same way he was doing for others’

New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 46, No. 2, July 2017 • 79 • Veronica M. O’Toole

the ground was going to open up day of the earthquake and in line with moments of the earthquake, descriptions and to see him go from standing Lazarus’s (2006) core relational theme. of “feeling stressed” and similar (e.g. talking to us to [snaps fingers] .. For example one teacher expressed her overwhelmed) tended to be reported in it was panic.” “utter relief” that they had avoided any the later aftermath and associated with fatalities by staying put in their classroom ongoing recovery issues. This was also as practised in their drills. Relief that similar for anger and guilt. A minority These descriptions show the the children in their charge were finally of teachers, including those who had teacher’s strong fear, which preceded reunited with families was the recurring witnessed death and major destruction her feeling concerned about what the theme for the teachers. One teacher who considered the possibility that they children would think, based on her was in a worst hit area was relieved may have been in shock at times due appraisal. Consistent with previous when her daughter’s text indicated that to not remembering some details, as research, anxiety and related emotions her daughter was in a safer situation they reflected back eighteen months on were generally latter emotions, that than herself. The action tendency for (O’Toole & Friesen, 2016). Peritraumatic originated in the fear of the previous relief is difficult to identify, except that dissociation was also evident for some trauma and the reminders of these (e.g. relief removes the action tendencies teachers. This will be explored in a Rowney, Farvid & Sibley, 2014). associated with the distressing emotion further article. that it has actually relieved (Lazarus, Relief Sadness 1991). Physiologically this might be Positive emotions were also seen through bodily relaxation, such as The core relational theme evident at the time of the earthquake. shoulders slumping forwards or a deeply of sadness is “ having experienced One of the more prevalent emotions exhaled breath out, as the bodily tension irrevocable loss” (Lazarus, 2006, p. 16). was relief, for which the core relational is released. This sense of sadness tended to occur theme is “a distressing goal-incongruent for teachers once the loss was later condition that has changed for the better Other Emotions realised. For some it was immediate, or gone away” (Lazarus, 2006, p. 16). having lost friends and/or loved ones Relief is “unique” (Lazarus, 1991, p. Stress who were killed at the time. There is 281) because it occurs only if some goal Stress and related states such no action tendency for sadness, rather incongruent course has been eliminated, as “overdrive and adrenaline” (O’Toole there is “inaction” which is defined as thereby reducing emotional distress. In & Friesen, 2016, p. 62) were excluded “withdrawal into oneself, that seems that regard, it is not surprising that relief from this detailed analysis as they do consistent with the concept of a mood” was one of the most frequent positive not occur in Lazarus’s list of basic (Lazarus, 1991, p. 251). The losses that emotional states experienced on 22nd emotions, although Lazarus’s (1993) teachers experienced since the September February, 2011. Examples of the types theory of stress is closely aligned with earthquake were similar to those of all of improvements to distressing situations his theory of emotion, for which stress Cantabrians affected (Rowney at al., that resulted in the sense of relief for the may be an antecedent, correlate or 2014), and their sadness was similarly teachers are presented in Table 5. consequence. Whereas a number of the expressed. As Lazarus (1991) explained, if a loss is irrevocable there is nothing Table 5 Teachers’ contexts and appraisals for relief and relieved that one can take action against. Sadness is most likely to be experienced when Emotion Context Antecedent/Attribution/Appraisal there is no-one else to blame for this. Relief 22.02.11: “My very first sense was utter relief However if blame can be apportioned, Realization of what could have that it had come at 12.51pm and not 9 happened but did not minutes later because we would have then it is likely that anger - if someone been in the street or under the else is perceived to be to blame, or guilt buildings that collapsed”. - if the self is perceived to be to blame, Relief 22.02.11: “It was a relief when the last child will be experienced. At the time of Improvement of the situation went home”. Relief 22.02.11: “That was such a relief because I data collection, the teachers expressed News that parents who had not thought, ‘What am I going to say to a mix of anger and sadness about the arrived yet, were on their way these children if their parents don’t personal and professional impacts of turn up?’” the school closures. While closures Relieved 22.02.11: “I was just so relieved that my Later in the day, received a reply daughter texted back and said, ‘You’re were understandable, some anger was from her daughter to a text sent in the centre of it’”. I don’t know how expressed. The teachers also expressed asking how she was she knew so quickly that XX was in grief and sadness at the loss of the city the epicentre. But she said, “You’re at and the loss of communities in areas that the centre and we’re alright here.” So that I thought, ‘Well, if she’s alright, H had been rendered uninhabitable. One (boy) should be alright.’ type of relief expressed at the interview time was stated by a minority of teachers who for various reasons would not Table 5 shows the antecedents and teachers described their physiological have to deal with the school renewal/ appraisals related to teachers’ feelings responses that were consistent with restructuring programme. of relief, most of which occurred on the Seyle’s (1974) stress response in the early

• 80 • New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 46, No. 2, July 2017 Teachers' reflections and cognitive appraisals in response to the Christchurch earthquake

Other positive emotions physiological changes. The teachers’ teachers’ fear/fright and anxiety reports Teachers reported feeling pride descriptions revealed similar core also align with previous retrospective in their students and/or colleagues relational themes to those of Lazarus findings on fear and/or anxiety of for the ways that they coped with (2006) and as found in other research Rowney and colleagues (2015), the the immediate earthquake response. with different samples (e.g. Nezlek et Christchurch police (Snell et al., 2014), “Happy” or “happiness” tended to be al., 2008). The teachers’ immediate and Christchurch nurses (Johal et al, similar to “relief” at the time of the fear/fright emotions retrospectively 2015). These latter two similarities should earthquake and earlier aftermaths. reported in response to the earthquake not be surprising as like teachers, police “Compassion” and “empathy” were were consistent with expectations as and nurses are also caring professionals. mentioned infrequently, the latter more to trauma elicited emotions (Bovin & Furthermore, all three groups were first in the context of feeling unappreciated Marx, 2011; Gordon, 2013), and with responders in this natural disaster, which and the lack of empathy for the teachers previous disaster research both generally puts all three groups at similar higher from some of the authorities. Love was (Grimm et al, 2012) and with teachers risk of adverse psychological outcomes often expressed for the children, and (e.g. Long & Wong, 2012; Carlson et than the general population (Snell et al., was the antecedent for some teachers’ al, 2010). This article provides a more 2013). Other psychological outcomes prioritising of their safety. All twenty naturally-occurring, ecologically valid in the community reported by Rowney teachers expressed love or related terms set of examples of core relational themes and colleagues (2014) also resonated for teaching as a profession, which was for fear, albeit retrospectively reported, with the emotion data from this study. a separate issue from their anger at the which appear to follow the same patterns For example, Rowney found that faith/ changes. Gratitude, and thankfulness as found in Lazarus’s (1991) theory. religion was “an asset for getting them were experienced both at the time of the The second aim was to improve through” (p. 9). In the present study, the earthquakes and latterly. Consistent with our understandings of the relationships teacher trapped in the stairwell without Lazarus’s (2006) core relational theme between these emotions and their the ability to take physical action, the teachers expressed their gratitude for cognitive appraisals in a real life post- prayed for his safety. Other emotions ‘gifts’ that resulted from events beyond disaster context. The teachers’ reported discussed more briefly in this report their control. For example, in hindsight, antecedents, attributions and appraisals such as sadness, relief and gratitude, as the September earthquake was perceived revealed some consistencies across the occurring over time, were also echoed in as a gift in that - had it not occurred, we emotion families of fear/fright, anxiety, the wider Canterbury sample. Finally, the would have not been as well prepared. and relief specific to the disaster context, wider community entrusts their children The same teacher who had expressed her while also revealing individual variations to the teaching profession, which then “utter relief” in Table 5, expressed her in their expression of these. Similar to the brings these ongoing community impacts gratitude “to this building in that it had point made by Bennett et al. (2003) the into the classroom, with the potential done a brilliant job of staying intact”. consistency is confirmatory, even if the to increase the emotional workload for Having survived these earthquakes there veracity cannot be fully confirmed. From Christchurch teachers. was an overall sense of gratitude for the the total set of examples, ranging from simple things in life, and for life itself. fright to relief, the range of appraisals Teachers and their caring provides a series of retrospective One of the striking features windows to the disaster, providing a of the teachers’ retrospective data was Discussion rich description of the earthquake and their prime focus on the safety of the The results of this qualitative its effects on teachers across the city, children in their care, on this very analysis provide insight into the as they reflected back 18 months later. significant day of disaster. As noted above retrospectively recalled emotional In his posthumous publication, Lazarus approximately 150,000 students were in responses of the Christchurch teachers described his lattermost perspective that school when the February earthquake that they remembered when they thought emotions could be “best regarded and struck. This event was an extreme threat back to the moment that the February studied as dramatic stories or narratives” to environmental and personal safety. 2011 earthquake struck. Having identified (2006, p.28) which he proceeded to Like all workplaces in New Zealand, the most frequently reported emotions of explain commence with the emotion and schools are bound by health and safety fear/fright, anxiety and relief that were its background proceeding “continuously legislation to provide a safe physical identified during the teachers’ narratives, over time” (p. 28). This description and emotional environment for students the first aim of this study was to examine aptly describes the emotion provocation and employees (Ministry of Education their core relational themes, as evidenced of the earthquake experiences in the [MoE], 2017). Part of this requirement in their naturally recounted narratives teachers’ evolving interpersonal and includes disaster preparedness such and semi-structured interviews. The environmental interactions. as the earthquake safety protocols and qualitative data revealed their individual The third aim was to gain further ongoing drills, which were led mainly by variations in describing their emotions, insights into the teachers’ experiences the teachers. Other ethical commitments antecedents and appraisals in line with of this disaster and to contribute their include teachers’ primary professional Bovin and Marx’s (2011) perspective perspectives and voices to the growing obligation “to those they teach” that naturally occurring emotions are body of research on the Christchurch (Education Council of New Zealand, a combination of richly integrated earthquakes As Cantabrians, these 2017, p.1). They must strive to nurture appraisals, action tendencies and

• 81 • New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 46, No. 2, July 2017 Veronica M. O’Toole their students’ capacities for thinking 132), yet caring as emotional labour, an interest in the teachers’ retrospective and developing their independence, and has received little research attention reports. Potential for bias in selecting the promote their physical, emotional, social, to date. In general, caring may be examples to include in this article is also intellectual and spiritual wellbeing, in regarded as both an approach and an acknowledged. These limitations may be line with the Maori concept of hospitality emotion, requiring both labour and love countered by the similarity of the findings known as Manaakitanga, (Macfarlane, (Isenbarger & Zembylas, 2006) consistent to previous research on the Christchurch 2010). In education, this is achieved with previous descriptions of teaching as earthquake (Kannis-Dymand et al., 2015; through teachers’ kindness and caring “a labour of love” (Hargreaves, 1998, p. Snell et al., 2014), and other appraisal (Macfarlane, 2010). The teachers’ 840). research with teachers (Chang, 2009; emotions and appraisals as recalled 18 Sutton, 2004) and post-disaster (Bovin & months later, reflect their ongoing care Strengths and limitations Marx, 2011; Grimm et al., 2012). and concern for their children/students. This study provides a first in-depth Not only does their care demonstrate qualitative insight into the specific Implications and future research the ethical requirements of their emotions that a small sample of teachers The findings have implications profession, they are also in alignment has retrospectively reported in response for future research. First the findings with international perspectives as to what to a destructive earthquake that struck confirm the teachers’ ability to constitutes ‘care’ and the role of teachers while they were on teaching duty. Fear retrospectively reflect upon their in providing such care. Examples include: and fright related emotions were the emotions in order to understand them, the “caring orientation” (Hargreaves, most frequently recalled emotions 18 which is an indicator also of their emotion 1998, p. 836) articulated by feminist months later. Fear related emotions perception ability (Mayer & Salovey, authors denoting the interpersonal have received little research attention in 2004). Emotion perception precedes relationships with students (Noddings, teachers to date , perhaps reflecting the emotion regulation ability (Gross, 2013), 1992), and sensitivity to students’ needs relative uniqueness of the timing of such which was a feature of Christchurch (Bieg, Rickelman, Jones & Mittag, 2013; a disaster, and yet the emotions reported teachers’ emotional management in Oplatka, 2007); the basic human need were in line with those of teachers who their role as first responders (O’Toole for relatedness through feeling cared for were on duty during the 2008 Wenchuan & Friesen, 2016). Future research and cared by others (Deci & Ryan, 2014), earthquake (Long & Wong, 2012). should focus more on how teachers and Paolo Freire’s “pedagogy grounded However, there are several limitations specifically achieved this regulation, for in love” (O’Connor & Takahashi, 2014, that must be acknowledged, which may which this report provides an important p. 52) to denote the type of care that have relevance for future research. The first step. Future research could also should facilitate post-disaster recovery. first concerns the validity and reliability investigate the cognitive appraisals of Teachers themselves have also identified of self-report as a methodology. The other professionals as to whether their caring as a characteristic of effective teachers’ recollections may not be core relational themes follow the patterns teachers, with the converse description accurate reflections of their peritraumatic of Lazarus (2006) in a comparative study. of ineffective teachers as “uncaring” cognitions (Kannis-Dymand et al., 2015). In line with the recommendations (Walls, Nardi, von Minden & Hoffman, People’s cognitions and emotions may of Rowney et al. (2014), future research 2002, p. 45). Caring is a “nonprescribed be influenced by factors that cannot be could investigate interventions for role element in teaching” (Oplatka, 2007, recalled through reflection (Oatley & preparedness. New Zealand will continue p. 1390). Rather than being dictated by Duncan, 1992). However, emotions as to experience earthquakes and the regulations, the professional culture and self-reports are “subjective phenomena findings from Christchurch studies could ethical responsibilities of teaching foster and have an objective existence” (p. be applied to preparedness research and the expectation that teachers should 282), and self-reports of emotions and ongoing interventional research. Rimé “express love, sympathy, compassion, emotion-related cognitions are necessary (2009) has indicated a purpose for people concern and dedication to others, not when seeking personal perspectives sharing their emotion experiences. Rimé merely because they are paid to do so” (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1992; argues that social sharing demonstrates (Oplatka, 2007, p. 1379). Thus, caring Lazarus, 1991). Second, self-report that emotions do not disappear, as soon is an important component of teachers’ data may be susceptible to social as the event is over. In collectively emotion work (Oplatka, 2007). From desirability bias (Parayitam & Dooley, experienced public events, social sharing the emotional labour perspective, caring 2007). Social sharing of emotions may of the emotions contributes to the may be an example of positive emotional be also biased towards the response construction of the collective memory labour. For example, when enjoyment is of the listener (Pasupathi, 2003). As (Rimé, 2009), similar to the creation of a experienced in the role of nurturing and in noted by Bennett et al.(2003), although “social memory” (Wilson, 2014, p. 214). the challenges of teaching, this is positive retrospective appraisals may be “post Finally, based on the potential labour and may reflect why people hoc reinterpretations” (p. 519), in the for peritraumatic fear and anxiety to choose certain occupations that “require absence of contextual contradictions, contribute to clinical psychological particular kinds of emotional labour” retrospective appraisals may be a outcomes such as anxiety, depression and (Isenbarger & Zembulas, 2006, p. 132). useful contribution. The successful PTSD, future research might consider Isenbarger and Zembylas also observed safe-keeping of the city’s children including teachers in any broader clinical that “emotional labour seems just an provides contextual support for taking inextricable part of caring teaching” (p. investigation and support that might

• 82 • New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 46, No. 2, July 2017 Teachers' reflections and cognitive appraisals in response to the Christchurch earthquake be considered for the community as Earthquakes Digital Archive, University coping. Motivation & Emotion, 37(4), whole, as recommended by Rowney of Canterbury (ceismic.org.nz) (Grant 799-817. and colleagues (2014). Considering No. 210). I thank Myron Friesen, Peter Clore, G. L., & Ortony, A. (2000). Cognition the similarity of the present findings to Roberts, Daniel O’Toole, and Research in emotion: Always, sometimes, or never?. those of Cantabrians in general, the work Assistants Alexandra McDonald and In R. D. Lane, L. Nadel, R. D. Lane, L. of teaching is an “emotional practice” Christine Rietveld. Thank you also to the Nadel (Eds.), Cognitive neuroscience of (Hargreaves, 1998, p. 835), with anonymous reviewers for their feedback. emotion (pp. 24-61). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press. significant emotional labour (Hochschild, Most of all, I thank the teachers who 1983) at the best of times. Add to this, shared their stories. Cristea I, Legge E, Prosperi M, Guazzelli M, David D, Gentili C. Moderating effects of teachers’ caring orientation (Hargreaves, References empathic concern and personal distress 1998) and tendency to put the children’s on the emotional reactions of disaster needs first, and teachers may be at risk Akbaba-Altun, S. (2005). Turkish school principals' earthquake experiences and volunteers. Disasters [serial online]. of undetected PTSD or other adverse October 2014;38(4):740-752. Available reactions. International Journal of psychological conditions. For example from: Academic Search Complete, Educational Management, 19(4), there is already an indication of post- Ipswich, MA. Accessed September 19, 307-317. earthquake burnout in Christchurch 2016. Bennett, P., Lowe, R., & Honey, K. L. (2003). teachers (Kuntz et al., 2013; O’Toole & Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Larson, R. (1992). Appraisals, core relational themes, and Validity and reliability of the Experience Friesen, 2016). International research emotions: A test of the consistency Sampling Method. In M. W. deVries, has shown that teachers can benefit of reporting and their associations. M. W. deVries (Eds.), The experience of from interventions even several years Cognition and Emotion, 17(3), 511-520. psychopathology: Investigating mental post-earthquake (Seyle, Widyatmoko doi:10.1080/02699930244000093 disorders in their natural settings (pp. & Silver, 2013). Looking ahead, the Bieg, S., Rickelman, R., Jones, J. & Mittag, 43-57). New York, NY, US: Cambridge school renewal programme has a ten- W. M. (2013). The role of teachers’ University Press. doi:10.1017/ year forecast (MoE, 2012) and the city’s care and self-determined motivation CBO9780511663246.006 in working with students in Germany recovery horizon has been estimated as Curci, A., Luminet, O., Finkenauer, C., & and the United States. International a 10+ year plan (Canterbury Earthquake Gisle, L. (2001). Flashbulb memories in Journal of Educational Research, 6027- Recovery Authority [Cera], 2012, cited social groups: A comparative test–retest 37. doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2013.04.002 in Regional Institute of Australia, 2013). study of the memory of French President Therefore there are continued recovery Bovin, M. J., & Marx, B. P. (2011). Mitterrand's death in a French and a related stressors yet to be encountered, The Importance of the Peritraumatic Belgian group. Memory, 9(2), 81-101. Experience in Defining Traumatic Stress. for the forseeable future and beyond. doi:10.1080/09658210042000120 Psychological Bulletin, 137(1), 47-67. David, D., David, A., Cristina, G., Macavel, doi:10.1037/a0021353 B. & Kallay, E. (2006). A Search for the Conclusion Becker, E. S., Keller, M. M., Goetz, T., 'Hot' Cognitions in a Clinical and a Non- The Christchurch teachers have Frenzel, A. C., & Taxer, J. L. (2015). Clinical Context: Appraisal, Attributions, shared their personal emotional responses Antecedents of teachers' emotions Core Relation Theme, Irrational Beliefs, in the classroom: an intraindividual to one of the most significant disasters in and Their Relation to Emotion. In A. approach. Frontiers in Psychology, 61-12. Columbus, A. Columbus (Eds.), Advances New Zealand’s history. Lazarus (1991) doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00635 in psychology research, Vol. 40 (pp. 1-37). has said that emotions tell us how well Brown, R., & Kulik, J. (1977). Flashbulb Hauppauge, NY, US: Nova Science we are getting along in our world. The memories. Cognition, 5(1), 73-99. Publishers. teachers’ earthquake emotions as recalled doi:10.1016/0010-0277(77)90018-X Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2014). Autonomy provide a retrospective insight into how Campbell, L. (2007). Utilizing Compassion and need satisfaction in close relationships: they remember getting along on 22nd Fatigue Education in Hurricanes Ivan and Relationships motivation theory. In February 2011 and during the early Katrina. Clinical Social Work Journal, N. Weinstein, N. Weinstein (Eds.) , aftermath. By focusing on their recalled 35(3), 165-171. doi:10.1007/s10615- Human motivation and interpersonal emotions and then investigating the 007-0088-2 relationships: Theory, research, and associated appraisals, we have shown Carlson, N.L., Monk, P.E., Irons, E. & applications (pp. 53-73). New York, NY, the wide array of experiences of this Walker, C.P. (2010). First responders in US: Springer Science + Business Media. disaster that the Christchurch teachers the classroom: Triage training for teachers doi:10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6_3 remember. That they were able to attend to respond to students after a natural DeVaney, T. A., Carr, S. C., & Allen, D. to our children safely, and continue back disaster. National Social Science Journal, D. (2009). Impact of Hurricane Katrina on the Educational System in Southeast at work so soon after the earthquakes 35(1), 38-45 Clark, L., MacGougan, H., Hay, J. & Louisiana: One-Year Follow-Up. Research is testimony to their competence, their in The Schools, 16(1), 32-44. caring and commitment and their Walsh, L (2016). “Kia ora. This is my earthquake story. Multiple applications Education Council of New Zealand (2017). willingness to continue their role despite of a sociolinguistic corpus. Ampersand, Code of ethics. Retrieved from the their intense experiences. 3, 13-20 Education Council of New Zealand Acknowledgements Chang, M. (2013). Toward a theoretical website: https://educationcouncil.org.nz/ content/about-code-of-ethics This research was supported with model to understand teacher emotions and teacher burnout in the context of student Education Review Office (2016). Wellbeing funding from CEISMIC Canterbury misbehavior: Appraisal, regulation and for success: A resource for schools. Stories

• 83 • New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 46, No. 2, July 2017 Veronica M. O’Toole

of resilience and innovation in schools and of Psychology, 8(1), 112-138. doi:10.5964/ Kuriansky, J. (2013). Thoughts on Katrina vs. early childhood services, Retrieved from: ejop.v8i1.303 Sandy: Judy Kuriansky. Ecopsychology, http://www.ero.govt.nz/publications/ Gross, J. J. (2013). Emotion regulation: 5(Suppl 1), S20-S26. wellbeing-for-success-a-resource-for- Taking stock and moving forward. Lazarus, R. S. (2006). Emotions and schools/ Emotion, 13(3), 359-365. doi:10.1037/ Interpersonal Relationships: Toward Education Review Office (2013), Stories of a0032135 a Person-Centered Conceptualization resilience and innovation in schools and Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of of Emotions and Coping. Journal of early childhood services, Retrieved from: emotion regulation: An integrative review. Personality, 74(1), 9-46. doi:10.1111/ http://www.ero.govt.nz/National-Reports/ Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271- j.1467-6494.2005.00368.x Feldman-Barrett, L. F., Gross, J., 299. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Lazarus, R. S. (1993). From psychological Christensen, T. C., & Benvenuto, M. Hargreaves, A. (1998). The emotional stress to the emotions: A history of (2001). Knowing what you're feeling practice of teaching. Teaching and Teacher changing outlooks. Annual Review of and knowing what to do about it: Education, 14(8), 835-854. doi:10.1016/ Psychology, 441-21. doi:10.1146/annurev. Mapping the relation between emotion S0742-051X(98)00025-0 ps.44.020193.000245 differentiation and emotion regulation. Hirst, W., & Phelps, E. A. (2016). Flashbulb Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and Cognition and Emotion, 15(6), 713-724. memories. Current Directions in adaptation. New York: Oxford University doi:10.1080/02699930143000239 Psychological Science, 25(1), 36-41. Press. Freitag, S., Grimm, A., & Schmidt, S. (2011). doi:10.1177/0963721415622487 Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Talking about traumatic events: A cross- Hochschild, A. R. (1983). The managed Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: cultural investigation. Europe's Journal of heart: Commercialisation of human Springer. Psychology, 40-61. feeling. Berkley: University of California LeDoux, J. E. (1993). Emotional networks in GeoNet Science (The Institute of Geological Press. the brain. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland, M. and Nuclear Sciences Ltd.) (2011a). 6.3 Isenbarger, L., & Zembylas, M. (2006). The Lewis, J. M. Haviland (Eds.), Handbook Magnitude earthquake part of aftershock emotional labour of caring in teaching. of emotions (pp. 109-118). New York, NY, sequence. Retrieved from http://www.gns. Teaching & Teacher Education, 22(1), US: Guilford Press. cri.nz/Home/News-and-Events/Media- 120-134. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2005.07.002 Lee, M., Pekrun, R., Taxer, J. L., Schutz, P. Releases/earthquake-part-of-aftershock- A., Vogl, E., & Xie, X. (2016). Teachers’ sequence Jiang, J., Vauras, M., Volet, S., & Wang, Y. (2016). Teachers' emotions and emotion emotions and emotion management: GeoNet Science (The Institute of Geological regulation strategies: Self- and students' Integrating emotion regulation theory and Nuclear Sciences Ltd.) (2011b) perceptions. Teaching and Teacher with emotional labor research. Social March 16 Scientists find rare mix of Education, 5422-31. doi:10.1016/j. Psychology of Education, 19(4), 843-863. factors exacerbated the Christchurch tate.2015.11.008 doi:10.1007/s11218-016-9359-5 quake - 17/03/2011. Retrieved from http:// Lincoln, Y. S. & Guba, E. G. (1985). www.gns.cri.nz/Home/News-and-Events/ Johal, S. S., Mounsey, Z., Brannelly, Naturalistic Inquiry. Newbury Park CA: Media-Releases/Multiple-factors P., & Johnston, D. M. (2015). Nurse Perspectives on the Practical, Emotional, Sage Publications. GeoNet Science (The Institute of Geological and Professional Impacts of Living and Long, D., & Wong, Y. R. (2012). Time and Nuclear Sciences Ltd.) (2011c) Working in Post-earthquake Canterbury, bound: The timescape of secondary Jun 13 2011 - Large earthquakes strike New Zealand. Prehospital and Disaster trauma of the surviving teachers of the south-east of Christchurch. Retrieved Medicine, 31(1), 10-16. doi:10.1017/ Wenchuan Earthquake. American Journal from http://info.geonet.org.nz/display/ S1049023X15005439 of Orthopsychiatry, 82(2), 241-250. quake/2011/06/13/Jun+13+2011+- doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.2012.01144.x +Large+earthquakes+strike+south- Kannis-Dymand, L., Dorahy, M. J., Crake, east+of+Christchurch R., Gibbon, P., & Luckey, R. (2015). Lowery, E., & Burts, D. C. (2007). Survivors An exploration of reported cognitions of the storm: Teaching in a post-Katrina Gordon, R. (2013). Surviving the third during an earthquake and its aftershocks: world. Journal of Early Childhood year after disaster – support for greater differences across affected communities Teacher Education, 28(1), 69-75. Christchurch. Greater Christchurch and associations with psychological Recovery Update Special Edition, distress. Journal of Nervous & Mental 23. p.4. New Zealand Government: Macfarlane, A. (2010). An educultural Disease, 203(4), 279-286. doi:10.1097/ Canterbury Earthquake Recovery approach to classroom management: NMD.0000000000000282 Authority. Retrieved from: https://www. Integrating body, mind and heart. Physical google.co.nz/search?q=Greater+Chri Keltner, D., Oatley, K. & Jenkins, J. M. Educator - Journal of Physical Education stchurch+Recovery+Update+Special (2014). Understanding emotions (3nd New Zealand, 43(1), 7-11. ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc +Edition%2C+23&ie=utf-8&oe=utf- Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (2004). What is 8&client=firefox-b-ab&gfe_rd=cr&ei=- Koss, M. P., Tromp, S., & Tharan, M. emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey, M. NK3V-G7OKLM8geHkZfACQ (1995). Traumatic memories: Empirical A. Brackett, J. D. Mayer, P. Salovey, M. Grandey, A. A. (2015). Smiling for a Wage: foundations, forensic and clinical A. Brackett, J. D. Mayer (Eds.), Emotional What Emotional Labor Teaches Us About implications. Clinical Psychology: intelligence: Key readings on the Mayer Emotion Regulation. Psychological Science and Practice, 2(2), 111-132. and Salovey model (pp. 29-59). Port Inquiry, 26(1), 54-60. doi:10.1080/10478 doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.1995.tb00034.x Chester, NY, US: Dude Publishing. 40X.2015.962444 Kuntz, J., Näswall, K., & Bockett, A. McCuaig Edge, H. J., & Ivey, G. W. (2012). Grimm, A., Hulse, L., & Schmidt, S. (2012). (2013). Keep calm and carry on? An Mediation of Cognitive Appraisal on Human Responses to Disasters: A Pilot investigation of teacher burnout in a post- Combat Exposure and Psychological Study on Peritraumatic Emotional and disaster context. New Zealand Journal of Distress. Military Psychology (Taylor & Cognitive Processing. Europe's Journal Psychology, 42(2), 57-67. Francis Ltd), 24(1), 71-85. doi:10.1080/

• 84 • New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 46, No. 2, July 2017 Teachers' reflections and cognitive appraisals in response to the Christchurch earthquake

08995605.2012.642292 O’Toole, V. M., & Friesen, M. D. (2016). doi:10.1177/014303431244688 Ministry of Education (2017). Health and Teachers as first responders in tragedy: Sheehan, D., Thwaites, J., York, B., & Lee, safety at work act 2015: A practical guide The role of emotion in teacher adjustment J. (2014). The emotional impact of the for boards of trustees and school leaders. eighteen months post-earthquake. February 2011 Christchurch earthquake on Retrieved from the Ministry of Education Teaching and Teacher Education, 5957- the junior doctor workforce. Australasian Health and Safety website: http://www. 67. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2016.05.012 Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies, education.govt.nz/ministry-of-education/ Papadogiannis, P. K., Logan, D., & Sitarenios, 18(2), 57-63. specific-initiatives/health-and-safety/ G. (2009). An ability model of emotional Smith, C. A., Haynes, K. N., Pope, L. K., Ministry of Education. (2012). Shaping intelligence: A rationale, description, and & Lazarus, R. S. (1993). In Search education: Directions for educational application of the Mayer Salovey Caruso of the "Hot" Cognitions: Attributions, renewal in greater Christchurch. Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). In Appraisals, and Their Relation to Retrieved from: https://www.google. C. Stough, D. H. Saklofske, J. A. Parker, Emotion. Journal Of Personality & Social co.nz/search?q=Shaping+education% C. Stough, D. H. Saklofske, J. A. Parker Psychology, 65(5), 916-929. (Eds.), Assessing emotional intelligence: 3A+Directions+for+educational+ren Smith, C. A., & Kirby, L. D. (2009). Theory, research, and applications (pp. 43- ewal+in+greater+Christchurch&ie=u Relational antecedents of appraised 65). New York, NY, US: Springer Science tf-8&oe=utf-8&client=firefox-b-ab&gfe_ problem-focused coping potential and + Business Media. doi:10.1007/978-0- rd=cr&ei=aNW3V8SNK6bu8wfJ1peICQ its associated emotions. Cognition and 387-88370-0_3 Moors, A., Ellsworth, P. C., Scherer, K. R., Emotion, 23(3), 481-503. Parayitam, S., & Dooley, R. S. (2007). The & Frijda, N. H. (2013). Appraisal theories Smith, C. A., & Lazarus, R. S. (1993). relationship between conflict and decision of emotion: State of the art and future Appraisal components, core relational outcomes: Moderating effects of cognitive- development. Emotion Review, 5(2), 119- themes, and the emotions. Cognition and affect-based trust in strategic decision- 124. doi:10.1177/1754073912468165 and Emotion, 7(3-4), 233-269. making teams. International Journal Murray, M. (2015). Narrative psychology. In doi:10.1080/02699939308409189 of Conflict Management, 18(1), 42-73. J. A. Smith (Ed.), Qualitative psychology: doi:10.1108/10444060710759318 Snell, D. L., Surgenor, L. J., Dorahy, M. A practical guide to research methods, 3rd J., & Hay-Smith, E. C. (2014). Coping Pasupathi, M. (2003). Emotion regulation ed. (pp. 85-107). Thousand Oaks, CA, US: and adjustment in New Zealand Police during social remembering: Differences Sage Publications, Inc. staff 12-18 months after the Canterbury between emotions elicited during an event Mutch, C. (2015). Quiet heroes: Teachers and earthquakes: A directed qualitative and emotions elicited when talking about the Canterbury, New Zealand, earthquakes. content analysis. New Zealand Journal of it. Memory, 11(2), 151. Australasian Journal of Disaster And Psychology, 43(3), 5-13. Richardson, S., & Ardagh, M. (2013). Trauma Studies, 19(2), 77-85. Strongman, K. T. (2003). The psychology of Innovations and lessons learned from Mutch, C., & Gawith, E. (2014). The New emotion; From everyday life to theory (5th the Canterbury earthquakes Emergency Zealand earthquakes and the role of ed.). Oxford, England: Wiley. department staff narratives. Disaster schools in engaging children in emotional Prevention and Management, 22(5), 405- Sutton, R. E. (2007). Teachers' anger, processing of disaster experiences. 414. doi:10.1108/DPM-09-2013-0167 frustration, and self-regulation. In P. Pastoral Care in Education, 32(1), 54-67 A. Schutz, R. Pekrun, P. A. Schutz, R. Regional Institute of Australia (2013). From Nezlek, J. B., Vansteelandt, K., Van Pekrun (Eds.), Emotion in education (pp. Disaster to Renewal: The Centrality Mechelen, I., & Kuppens, P. (2008). 259-274). San Diego, CA, US: Elsevier of Business Recovery To Community Appraisal-emotion relationships in Academic Press. Resilience. Final Report. http://www. daily life. Emotion, 8(1), 145-150. regionalaustralia.org.au/home/2013/08/ Sutton, R. E. (2004). Emotional regulation doi:10.1037/1528-3542.8.1.145 research-natural-disaster-recovery-in- goals and strategies of teachers. Social Noddings, N. (1995). A morally defensible australia/ Psychology of Education, 7(4), 379-398. mission for schools in the 21st century. doi:10.1007/s11218-004-4229-y Rimé, B. (2009). Emotion elicits the social Phi Delta Kappan, 76365-368. sharing of emotion: Theory and empirical Taxer, J. L., & Frenzel, A. C. (2015). Oatley, K., & Duncan, E. (1994). The review. Emotion Review, 1(1), 60-85. Facets of teachers' emotional lives: A experience of emotions in everyday life. doi:10.1177/1754073908097189 quantitative investigation of teachers' Cognition and Emotion, 8(4), 369-381. genuine, faked, and hidden emotions. Rowney, C., Farvid, P., & Sibley, C. G. (2014). doi:10.1080/02699939408408947 Teaching & Teacher Education, 4978-88. 'I laugh and say I have ‘earthquake brain!’': doi:10.1016/j.tate.2015.03.003 O'Connor, P. (2013). Pedagogy of love and Resident responses to the September 2010 care: shaken schools respond. Disaster Christchurch earthquake. New Zealand Teddlie, C. & Tashakkori, A. (2009). Prevention & Management, 22(5), 425- Journal of Psychology, 43(2), 4-13. Foundations of mixed methods research: 433. doi:10.1108/DPM-10-2013-0176 Integrating quantitative and qualitative Schauer, M., & Elbert, T. (2010). Dissociation approaches in the social and behavioral O'Connor, P., & Takahashi, N. (2014). From following traumatic stress: Etiology and sciences. Los Angeles: Sage. caring about to caring for: case studies of treatment. Zeitschrift Für Psychologie/ New Zealand and Japanese schools post Journal of Psychology, 218(2), 109-127. Thomas, D. R. (2006). A general inductive disaster. Pastoral Care in Education, doi:10.1027/0044-3409/a000018 approach for analyzing qualitative 32(1), 42-53. doi:10.1080/02643944.20 evaluation data. American Journal Selye, H. (1974). Stress Without Distress. 13.875584 of Evaluation, 27(2), 237-246. Philadelphia: Lippincott. Oplatka, I. (2007). Managing Emotions in doi:10.1177/1098214005283748 Seyle, D. C., Widyatmoko, C., & Silver, R. Teaching: Toward an Understanding Tong, E. W. (2015). Differentiation of 13 C. (2013). Coping with natural disasters of Emotion Displays and Caring as positive emotions by appraisals. Cognition in Yogyakarta, Indonesia: A study of Nonprescribed Role Elements. Teachers and Emotion, 29(3), 484-503. doi:10.108 elementary school teachers. School College Record, 109(6), 1374-1400. 0/02699931.2014.922056 Psychology International, 34(4), 387-404.

New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 46, No. 2, July 2017 • 85 • Veronica M. O'Toole

Tong, E. W., Bishop, G. D., Enkelmann, H. C., Why, Y. P., Diong, S. M., Khader, M., & Ang, J. (2005). The Use of Ecological Momentary Assessment to Test Appraisal Theories of Emotion. Emotion, 5(4), 508- 512. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.5.4.508 Walls, R. T., Nardi, A. H., & Von Minden, A. M. (2002). The characteristics of effective and ineffective teachers. Teacher Education Quarterly, 29(1), 39-48. Weiner, B. (2010). The Development of an Attribution-Based Theory of Motivation: A History of Ideas. Educational Psychologist, 45(1), 28-36. Wilson, G. A. (2013). Community resilience, social memory and the post-20 10 Christchurch (New Zealand) earthquakes. Area, 45(2), 207-215 Wong, L. Y., & Tong, E. M. (2012). We boil at different degrees: The role of need for structure on the effect of other-blame core- relational theme on anger. Personality and Individual Differences, 53(5), 716-719. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.05.013

Corresponding author Veronica M. O’Toole School of Educational Studies and Leadership College of Education, Health and Human Development University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand Email: [email protected]

• 86 • New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 46, No. 2, July 2017