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Home , Chacachacare, Gaspar Grande, Paria Peninsula, Tobago

UNDERSEA FIND OF A LARGE BOTTLE, , WEST INDffiS

Peter O'B. Harris

ABSTRACT My aims are to report the underwater find of a large Saladoid bottle off Island, northwest Trinidad and to research its probable date, use, and method of deposition. Analysis of its attributes suggests a use-design of filling by immersion, transport, and pouring. Its archeological style and comparison with a regional typology of Saladoid bottles (to be published elsewhere) suggest a date of B.C. 200-A.D. 100. Comparison with an array of ethnological liquids suggests the most likely content is beer, or beer with a hallucinogenic additive. A review of the environmental context and associated archeological and ethnohistorical data, suggests three deposition scenarios: offering to a spirit resident in dangerous waters; a cave locality; when traveling by canoe between Trinidad and , with offerings for the village being host to the fiesta. Finally I note the lack of a national heritage management structure in Trinidad, and make some recommendations.

RESUMEN En este informe mis fines son documentar el hallazgo submarino de una gran potiza Saladoide cerca de la isla Gaspar Grande en la parte noroeste de Trinidad; y investigar su época, uso, y modo de depósito. Un análisis de sus atributos sugere un diseño de llenar para sumersión, de trasportar, y de verter. Su estilo arqueológico y la comparación con una tipología regional de potizas Saladoides (la cual se publica en otra parte) sugeren una fecha de A.C. 200-D.C. 100. La comparación con una serie de líquidos etnológicos sugere que el contenido más probable sea la cerveza, o la cerveza más algo de narcótico. Una revista de su contexto ecológico, más unos datos arqueológicos y etno-historicos, sugere tres escenarios: una ofrenda a 1'espiritu que habita un rincón de mar peligroso; o una caverna cercana; o las canoas que viajan entre Trinidad y Venezuela, y que portan las ofrendas al pueblo que patrocine la fiesta. Finalmente, observo carencia en Trinidad de una structura administrativa de herencia nacional, y hago algunas recomendaciones.

RESUME Dans cette présentation, mes buts sont d'enregistrer la trouvaille sous-marine d'une grande bouteille Saladoide pres de l'île de Gaspar Grande dans la partie nord-ouest de la Trinidad; et d'en rechercher la date, l'utilisation, et la maniere de déposition. L'analyse des attributs suggère une dessein qui inclut le remplir par immersion, le transport, et le verser. Le style archéologique et le comparaison avec une typologie régionale des bouteilles Saladoides (qui se publiera ailleurs) suggèrent une datation de 200 av J-C a 100 ap J-C. Le comparaison avec une série de liquides ethnologiques suggère la biere comme le contenu le plus probable, ou bien la biere plus un additif hallucinogène. Je passe en revue le contexte écologique, plus les données archéologiques et ethnohistoriques, et je propose trois scénarios de déposition: une offrande a l'esprit qui habite un coin de mer dangereux; ou une caverne voisinante; ou bien les canots qui voyagent entre la Trinidad et la Venezuela, et qui portent des offrandes au village qui patronne la fiesta. Enfin j'indique le manque en Trinidad d'une structure administrative d'héritage national, et j ' avance trois recommandations.

KEYWORDS: Ethnie Drinks, Heritage Mana, Vessel Use-Design.

248 Harris

INTRODUCTION

In December 1990 an amateur scuba diver, Trystram Alley, found a large virtually complete Amerindian bottle in 5 m of water off the coast of Gaspar Grande Island, northwest Trinidad (Figures 1 and 2). The site is registered as SGE-37 Scorpion's Ledge.1 This paper reports the attributes and find context of the bottle, and researches its date, use, and deposition.2

ATTRIBUTE ANALYSIS AND USE-DESIGN

The vessel has a small mouth, two-stage neck, tall enclosed body, and three strap-handles affixed to the body (Figures 3 and 4). Main dimensions are height 40 cm, maximum diameter 24.2 cm, mouth inner diameter 3.6 cm, and estimated body capacity around 8.6 liters. A thin section from the neck shows a sedimentary clay matrix, with sedimentary silt inclusions ca 1 mm of irregular angularity and grain size, in which clay minerals, quartz and feldspar sand predominate; the sand may have been added (Tony Senior personal communication 1998). The temper size ca 1 mm, seemingly even thickness 5 mm at the neck, and polished surface suggest fineware. Analysis of vessel attributes allows one to hypothesize use-design. The exterior thickened rim,3 back-slanted neck (Figure 4), and slight taper of the upper neck all suggest pouring. The globular lower neck may be functional (see strainer below), but is also part of the decoration theme. The large enclosed two-keeled body seems designed to contain a liquid. The taper suggests design both for pouring and stability. I classify the base as flat,althoug h it is slightly concave. Its width 10.5 cm suggests design for stability. The slight concavity may be for strength, or for carrying on the head. Placement of the three body-handles seems designed for filling by horizontal immersion, pouring, and also as part of the decoration theme. A 5-cm wide band of probable use-wear across the back of the upper body between the pair of side-handles suggests use of a woven strap or belt for support during horizontal filling or pouring. The decoration theme is an anthropomorphic effigy, probably male. The globular lower neck, pair of side handles on the upper body, and single frontal handle on the lower body suggest head, arms, and penis. A pellet-incised face and ears on the globular lower neck (Figures 3 and 4) confirm its role as a head. A patchy overall brown patina may be functional (resin finish increasing impermeability), or decoration (worn-red paint), or both. Areas of damage appear to be post-deposition. The worn stumps of the missing frontal handle suggest long-term scouring by undersea currents and sand. Considerable surface spalling on the back of the body suggests scuffing where the vessel rested on the sea bed. Minor damage to the rim, the mouth of the decorated face, and side-handle edges suggest short-term bumping against a rocky sea floor. Attributes and use-wear suggest design as a vertical container for liquids, filling by horizontal immersion, possibly vertical transport on the head, and pouring.

ARCHEOLOGICAL STYLE, VESSEL TYPE, DATE

Style Two attributes (pellet-incision, vertical strap-handles) place the vessel in Rouse's (1992) 250 Proceedings of the 17th Congress for Archaeology

Cedrosan Saladoid subseries. This style lasts a long time in Trinidad: Cedros (. 200 B.C.-AD?), Early Palo Seco (A.D. ?-350), Late Palo Seco (A.D. 350-650) (Harris 1991), plus the poorly researched Blanchisseuse style of north Trinidad (?A.D. 1-350) (Boomert 1984). Sand temper suggests the Cedros style of south Trinidad (Rouse 1953), although I expected the particle size to be finer ca .5 mm. Arie Boomert (personal communication 1999) agrees that the boundary between Cedros and Early Palo Seco is difficult to draw. He sees a similarity in vessel profile with Early El Cuartel (Venezuelan north coast), and favours the Early Palo Seco style.

Vessel type In Nassau, I presented a preliminary regional typology of small-mouthed or spouted vessels for the Early-modified Saladoid period (ca 500 B .C- A.D. 650) representing Venezuela-Puerto Rico. This is too large to include here, but I give an outline. My sample comprizes 46 vessels and 87 recognizable parts. Using attributes of use-design (shape, size, appendage) and decoration-design, I do a primary sort into 22 vessel types, which include probable transition types. Using the same attributes, I do a secondary sort into six vessel groups. I then do a sort of occasional attributes such as mini-handles, stratigraphie association, burial items, and underwater context. I suggest the six groups represent beer (3 groups representing different periods), an unknown hallucinogenic drink, Banisteriopsis, and tobacco-juice. I also track apparent changes of vessel-type over time, and discover that shape often changes separately from, and before, decoration. This creates a recognizable chronological phase characterized by Early Saladoid decoration and modified Saladoid shape. I plan to report these data elsewhere as a separate paper entitled "Saladoid Bottles." The Scorpion's Ledge bottle belongs to a pair of vessel types I call Three-handled and Two- handled Bottle. Shared defining attributes are a small mouth, two-part neck (upper inflected, lower globular), enclosed body, strap-handles, and anthropomorphic silhouette or decoration. THREE-HANDLED BOTTLE (Figure 5a-b). Defining attributes are tall proportions, thickened rim, and three strap-handles on the body (two up, one down).4 Other attributes include a wide size range (large to small/very small), two-keeled or low-keel body, small flat base, and variable decoration (none, pellet-incised). Decorated examples depict the globular lower-neck as a head. Occasional attributes include an internal strainer built into the base of the globular lower neck (1). Internal strainers are an occasional attribute with a wide distribution (Figure 7): (1), Vieques (1), eastern Dominican Republic (3) and a long history without design change: Cedrosan Saladoid (2), Chican, i.e., A.D. 1200-1500 (3). Use-design suggests support for a flexible item, which would be trapped in the globular lower neck during filling or pouring, and which could be removed through the narrow upper neck after use. I hypothesize a permeable woven bag containing a substance (perhaps hallucinogenic) to modify the liquid contents. Thickened rims seem unsuitable for drinking. Three handles seem designed to facilitate filling by immersion (say in a stream, pool, or beer-canoe), lifting on and off the head, and pouring. Use- design suggests decanting and transport. The sample (n =5) has a spatial distribution of Trinidad (1), Vieques (3), Puerto Rico (1) and a style distribution of Huecan (1), Cedrosan Saladoid (4). TWO-HANDLED BOTTLE (Figures 6 and 5c-d). Defining attributes are median proportions, unthickened rims, and two strap-handles either side of the neck or body. Other attributes include wide size range (large to small), a central keel on body and on lower neck, small flat base, and variable decoration (none, simple, polychrome). Decorated examples Harris 251 depict the globular lower neck as a head; side-handles probably depict arms, with a pellet marking the shoulder or elbow articulation. A globular lower neck with central-keel seems restricted to Puerto Rico. Occasional attributes include use as a burial item (2). Unthickened rims seem designed for drinking, and the two side-handles seem designed for grasping by a drinker. The sample (n =6+?3)5 has a spatial distribution of Central Orinoco (?1), Grenada (1+?1), Vieques (1), Puerto Rico (4+?l); and a style distribution of La Grata (?1), Huecan (1), Cedrosan Saladoid (5+?2).

Date Shared attributes suggest these two vessel-types form a contemporary pair, Three-handled Bottle for transporting and decanting, Two-handled Bottle for drinking. The Huecan examples, the uncertain example from La Grata, and minimal use of polychrome decoration favour the early part of the Cedros-Early Palo Seco continuum ( 200 B.C.- A.D. 350), say before A.D. 100.

ETHNOLOGICAL LIQUIDS AND CONTAINERS

Ethnohistoric and ethnographic literature on the Lesser and greater Amazonia report five liquids: water, beer, hallucinogenic drink {Banisteriopsis), perhaps beer with a hallucinogenic snuff additive, and tobacco-juice.

Water This natural (unprocessed) liquid is used in a domestic context. It is collected by women from a nearby stream or pool, stored in the house, and transported on canoe trips. Some ethnic groups use gourd containers, and some use pottery. A gourd water container is reported for a 1503 canoe trip in Jamaica (Keen 1959). Gourd containers are reported for the Macusi of the Guyana- Brazil savanna in the 1840s (Goodall 1977) and 1907-1921 (Roth 1924), and for the Barama River Carib (Gillin 1936). Pottery containers with a pottery stopper are reported for the Carib of the upper Pomeroon (Roth 1924) and lower Mana (Cornette 1991). Im Thurn (1967[1883]) says savanna Indians use gourd containers for liquids, and forest Indians pottery. The material is probably selected to express ethnic difference (cp DeBoer 1990). Nevertheless, I suspect an underlying mental preference of gourd for water (natural), and pottery for beer (processed). Transporting and decanting water conforms with the proposed use-design of Three-handled Bottle. Nevertheless, it is difficult to see any relationship with the probably male anthropomorphic decoration theme, the paired drinking vessel Two-handled Bottle, and the possible additive suggested by use-design of the globular lower neck and occasional internal strainer.

Beer This processed liquid, made from cultivated crops, is used at fiestas and in daily life to cement social relations between spirits, communities, and individuals. It is made by women. The literature documents many uses and containers. Gillin (1936) describes an offering to a spirit in a goglet.6 Castellanos (1962) reports heavy consumption of beer, tobacco, and hallucinogenic snuff before a multi-chief raid against the Spanish within Trinidad in 1533. Lathrap (1970) and others report heavy consumption in greater Amazonia during multi-community fiestas,wher e the containers 252 Proceedings of the 17th Congress for Caribbean Archaeology include 150-200 gallon wooden troughs or canoes (ImThurnl978 [ 1883]) which may be decorated or plain (eg. Goodall 1977), and very large jars (eg. Allaire 1984). Breton (1665, cited in Allaire 1984) reports two sizes of jug for pouring beer at fiestas in the 1640s Windward Islands.7 DeBoer and Lathrap (1979) show a bowl-shaped Shipibo decanter, and Roe (1982) describes the small elaborately decorated dipper/ drinking bowls owned by the women. Stephen Hugh-Jones (personal communication 1996) advises that a Barasana visiting community typically carries a present of beer to the community being host to the fiesta. The anonymous author of Moreau (1987) describes a specific red-painted gourd for transporting beer outside the village in 1619 Martinique. Im Thurn (1967 [1883]) among others, describes hospitality to friendly male visitors from a large jar with a wide bowl-shaped mouth, which suggests a use-design for pouring. Breton ( Petitjean-Roget 1963) reports daily male consumption of hot beer in the central assembly house to start the day in the 1640s Windward Islands. Transporting beer to another community conforms well with the proposed use-design of large Three-handled Bottles, as does circulating beer at a fiesta for small examples. Even the large size could be filled by immersion in a beer canoe. Two-handled Bottle seems acceptable as a paired drinking vessel for ritual events or spirit offerings. Its occasional use as a burial item conforms with both these activities, either as an important personal possession of the dead, or as an offering to his spirit-world host. The anthropomorphic decoration theme may represent the supreme male deity and his This-World representative, the community leader, who sponsor the fiestas and are recipients of the offerings.

Hallucinogenic drinks These are made from wild forest vines (Banisteriopsis sp.), usually prepared without cooking, and used by shamans, headmen, and males to contact the spirits. The vines are collected and prepared by men. These drinks are widespread in western Amazonia, and are called yajé, caapi, ayahuascar, etc. They are taken communally at fiestas, or individually in private (Schultes and Hofmann 1992). The defining attributes of the Vaupés River container are a subglobular medium- mouthed bowl, with a tall cylindrical base to elevate it from the ground, perforated handles and suspension cord for storage in the rafters above the sacred communal house centre when not in use, and polychrome decoration in bright curvilinear fragmented colours (presumably representing the first stage of the hallucinatory process). The drink is consumed in two small calabash cups (Reichel- Dolmatoff 1978). Caribbean ethnohistorical sources do not report a hallucinogenic drink. However, bright polychrome decoration and cylindrical potstands are standard elements of the Saladoid pottery assemblage. This author had hypothesized that hallucinogenic drink vessels are present in Trinidad and pottery assemblages, and that hallucinogenic contents are given a decoration code that changes over time (crosshatch, polychrome, wavy-line incision) (Harris 1989). If the decoration hypothesis is correct, hallucinogenic drink would be incompatible with Three-handled Bottle and unpainted examples of Two-handled Bottle. It would however conform with polychrome examples of the latter (Figure 5c-d)

Beer with a hallucinogenic snuff additive This is a shamanic liquid. There is only one report, from outside the area and time period of this paper. Schultes and Hofmann (1992) cite a 1571 report that Inca priests used to add villca (Anandenanthera snuff imported from northwest Argentina) to chicha to consult their deities. Harris

However a high level of political complexity has been present in the Peruvian , and Amazonia has been a part of Andean political cosmology, since the founding of Chavin ca 900 B.C.(Burger 1992). It is reasonable to assume that in Saladoid times ( 200 B.C.- A.D. 600), downstream shamans (and perhaps shamanic local-group leaders) in Venezuela-Puerto Rico may have used this snuff as an additive. Anandenanthera snuff is an important politico-religious substance in 1490s Hispaniola, where it is called cohoba (Veloz 1971), and is the main medium used by caciques and shamans to consult the supreme male deity and the ancestors ( Bourne 1906; Pané 1988; Las Casas 1967). This liquid conforms with the use-design proposed for the globular lower neck and occasional internal strainer; and with polychrome examples of Two-handled Bottle (Figure 5c-d); but not with unpainted decoration.

Tobacco-juice This is another shamanic liquid. Plants may be wild from a traditional sacred place, or grown on an abandoned house plot watched over by local ancestors. It is made by shamans, and used to contact their spirit-helpers. Wilbert (1987) reports widespread use in Guayana8 and the Peruvian- Ecuadoran montaña. Typical consumption and container involve drinking from a calabash bowl. However, in 23 percent of user societies, consumption by pouring into the nose is also present. Containers for the latter include a very small gourd nose-pourer (Guayana), small calabash cups, special pottery cups, hollow of the hands, an upper bill of a toucan, and sea shells (Peru-Ecuador- Colombia). In Guayana, different tobacco-juice recipes (alone, mixed with pepper-juice, or followed by takini latex) reportedly constitute different branches of shamanism. A gourd nose-pourer is described by Farabee (Wilbert 1987), and illustrated by Roth (1970). Shamans use this liquid for self-administration, and to administer doses to novices and patients. Consumption and containers for takini include drinking two small calabash cups, and inhaling the fumes from a pot. Consumption method and size conform with another long-lived Saladoid and post-Saladoid vessel type Nostril Bowl. They do not conform with Three-handled or Two-handled Bottles. Overall, the most likely contents for Three-handled and Two-handled Bottle appear to be beer, or beer with a hallucinogenic additive. Hallucinogenic drink and water seem unlikely. Tobacco- juice can be ruled out.

CONTEXT OF THE FIND Environment The Gulf of Paria is a wide body of deltaic water between Trinidad and Venezuela (Figure 8). Flow from the Orinoco enters through the Boca del Sierpe in the south, and exits into the Caribbean Sea through the Bocas del Dragón in the north. The Bocas are passages of water between northwest Trinidad and three islands that represent a drowned extension of the northern range (Figure 2). Marine conditions can be rough here, thanks to the junction of Gulf and Caribbean Sea, and a strong local tidal current called the rémou. Gaspar Grande is a small island ca 2.3 x 1 km, in the Gulf, about 1 km south of the Trinidad coast (Figure 2). It is generally steep, rocky, and covered in low thorny scrub. In the southwest point, there is a large cave with a saltwater pool. Today access to the cave is by landing at Baleine Bay on the northwest coast, by track over the ridge, and down into the cavern. Indian knowledge of the cave is suggested as a greenstone axe was found in this bay in 11 m of water (Trystram Alley personal 254 Proceedings of the 17thCongress for Caribbean Archaeology communication 1997).9 South part of the island's east coast is a shallow bay called Bombshell Bay. The bottle was found some 50 m from the shore in the western side of this bay, on a wide rocky shelf called Scorpion's Ledge. The ledge contained frequent pockets of sand 25-100 cm deep, and scattered boulders of dead and limestone rock. The warm shallow water is host to a community of red kelp, sea moss, occasional brown coral, and abundant marine life including until recently large edible gastropods. lo Marine conditions here are dominated by the rdmou, which alternates direction every six hours (east-west during a falling tide, west-east during a rising tide), and reaches a strength of 2 knots during the hour before the tide changes. The wind is predominantly southeast, and can suddenly escalate in strength creating rough water. It is strongest in the dry season (Jan-May, especially April) or during a hurricane-type storm (June-November), and weakest in August- September. Combination of the rdmou at full bore and a sudden full strength southeasterly creates dangerous conditions capable of sinking a boat. The bottle lay on its back in a deep sand pocket roughly in line with the current (neck to the west, base to the east), with only the stubs of the missing front handle visible. It contained ca 10 kg of soft sand, small stones, broken finger coral, and shallow water shells." Its surface was covered with dead coral and sponges, suggesting long periods of exposure as well as burial.12The finder searched the shelf for other Amerindian remains, but found none.

Archeology Seven Saladoid sites are recorded in the northeast Gulf: two settlements and two isolated finds on the coast of northwest Trinidad; one settlement and two isolated finds on Island (Figure 2).13 The Chacachacare sites are on three small adjacent bays, each less than 350 m wide, and probably reflect a single settlement. Boomert (personal communication 1998) points out that the six verified sites have Late Palo Seco pottery (A.D. 350-600), whereas judgmental dates for the Scorpion's Ledge bottle are Cedros (200 B.C.- A.D. 100) and Early Palo Seco (A.D. 100-350). It is reasonable to hypothesize a canoe route between the Trinidad coastal sites and Chacachacare in Late Palo Seco times.

Ethnohistory This canoe route is confirmed in colonial times between the Trinidad coastal site at Mucurapo14 and Chacachacare Island. Castellanos (1962) reports Cumucurapo as the name of the Indian province of north Trinidad in 1532. Ralegh (1928) uses the same name in 1595 for the Indian town replaced by Spanish Port-of-Spain.15.In 1637 Onsiel (nd) writes that the Spanish and Indians proceeding by canoe from Port-of-Spain [Cumucurapo] to Margarita, wait on the westernmost island [Chacachacare] for favourable passage through the currents. The hypothesized Late Palo Seco canoe route (A.D. 350-600) would almost certainly pass Gaspar Grande Island, and make use of the alternating two-way current of the rbmou. We need to widen the geographic context. Boomert (personal communication March 1999) assigns only two Trinidad sites to the Cedros complex, both on the south coast (west half) (Figure 8).16 These expand to thirteen sites in the Early Palo Seco complex: four on the south coast (west half); four on the east coast (three south, one centre); two on the north coast (centre); and three inland in west Trinidad (two south, one north) (Figure 8).17 Sites with Cedros-style pottery on the Harris

Paria peninsula of Venezuela include La Alquer'a (Gulf of Paria) and El Mayal 1 (Caribbean coast). Sites with Early Palo Seco-style pottery include Early Irapa (Gulf of Paria), and Early El Cuartel, Playa Grande, Río Guapo (Caribbean coast) (Figure 8). Dating of the Scorpion's Ledge bottle implies canoe travel between south or western Trinidad and Venezuela.

CONCLUSIONS

I consider three deposition scenarios. (i) Canoes present an offering of beer to a sea spirit resident in an area of occasionally powerful seas south of Gaspar Grande, to promote safe canoe travel in the rémou and/or a good harvest of large shellfish. A lack of contemporary settlements, absence of other Amerindian remains on the sea-floor, and to a lesser degree the broken front handle, makes this scenario unlikely. (ii) Canoes are traveling westwards from Trinidad to make an offering to the spirit resident in Gasparee cave. A sudden squall upsets one canoe, the handle breaks, the full bottle sinks onto the ledge, and the current moves it fairly rapidly into a hollow where it settles. This scenario can only be considered if pottery is found underwater in the cave, preferably in the Cedros or Early Palo Seco style, and including bottle-sherds. An underwater survey of the cave would support or rule out this alternative. (iii) Canoes are traveling between Trinidad and Venezuela, probably via Chacachacare, with offerings to present to the village being host to a fiesta, including a container of beer. A sudden squall produces the results described above. This scenario seems the most likely. Verification of the sherd from Cocos Bay, and a survey of Chacachacare would test the presence of Cedros or Early Palo Seco pottery. Close comparison with the Venezuelan material would test the presence of paste, shape, or decoration similar to the Scorpion's Ledge bottle.

HERITAGE MANAGEMENT

Despite efforts by individuals and non-government organizations, lack a national heritage management structure. In this vacuum, the Scorpion's Ledge bottle has been placed in the British Museum on temporary loan, pending development of a national structure, which is satisfactory to its finder, concerned citizens, and heritage professionals. I do not feel political parties have a clear view of the role and responsibility of government in national heritage management, and should like to make three key points: (i) Voters feel heritage organizations run or dominated by government are inappropriate. In these, heritage has to compete for attention with politically more important matters such as the economy, education, , internal affairs, trade, sports, and will receive the same low priority that it does now. Heritage organizations should be non-political, and dedicated solely to heritage management. They should represent the population. They should be managed by concerned citizens and heritage professionals. (ii) The islands of Trinidad and Tobago have separate cultural traditions, and each population requires its own heritage management organization. (iii) Voters see government's role as one of national responsibility, coordination, and support. A high-level department designed to work with the two heritage organizations should be set up in 256 Proceedings of the 17th Congress for Caribbean Archaeology the appropriate ministry. National responsibility should be vested in this department. National authority for heritage management should be delegated to the two heritage organizations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Trystram Alley for permission to research his find, his data on the undersea context, the conservation report, and registration of the other two undersea finds; Colin McEwan of the British Museum for allowing me to study the vessel and making a thin section of the paste; Hans Rashbrook of the same institution for drawing Figure 3; Tony Senior of Utrecht State University for the thin section report; and Arie Boomert for several important archeological points. I hope I have used their information accurately. Harris

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Rouse, I., and R.E. Alegría 1990 Excavations of Maria de la Cruz Cave and Hacienda Grande Village Site, Loiza, Puerto Rico. Yale University Publications in Anthropology No. 80, New Haven.

Schultes, R. E., and A. Hofmann 1992 Plants of the Gods: Their Sacred, Healing and Hallucinogenic Powers. Healing Arts Press, Rochester.

Vargas Arenas, I. 1981 Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Parmaná: Las Sitios de La Gruta y Ronquín, Estado Guárico, Venezuela. Academia Nacional de la Historia, Caracas.

Veloz Maggiolo, M. 1971 El Rito de la Cohoba entre los Aborígenes Antillanos. Revista Dominicana de Arqueología y Antropología 1(1):201-216.

Wilbert, J. 1987 Tobacco and Shamanism in . Yale University Press, New Haven. Harris 261

ENDNOTES

1 Co-ordinates are N 10° 39' 80" , W 61 ° 39' 10" (Trystram Alley personal communication 1997). Popular name for the island is Gasparee. 2 Conservation details (Trystram Alley personal communication 1997) are reported as an appendix. 3 Experimentation suggests that design for drinking requires an unthickened rim. 4 The lower handle may be vertical or horizontal. 5 The three uncertain examples are missing bodies and handles. 6 Vessel with globular body, tall narrow neck, small mouth, and slightly everted unthickened rim (e.g. Roth 1970: Figure 3). The Cariban term is tukuwari, literally "container [for] beer" (Gillin 1936). In terms of use- design, it is a handleless version of Saladoid Two-handled Bottle. 7 The (Island Carib) names are chamacou (1900-1960 Kalina samaku), and toloua (1661 Galibi toroua; 1930 Barama Caribs tuliwa; Tupi touroua) (Allaire 1984). I do not know the literal meaning of these terms. 81 use Guayana to include Guyane Française, Surinam, Guyana, Brazilian and Venezuelan Guiana. 9 Site is registered as SGE-38 Point Baleine. 10 Strombus gigas, S. costatus, S. raninus, Tonna galea, Melongena melongena (Trystram Alley personal communication 1997). 11 Cerithium sp., Pisania sp., Glycymeris sp., Area sp. (Trystram Alley personal communication 1997). 12 One of the Pointe-a-Pierre divers investigating the Apodaca wrecks near Gasparee in 1961-1962 reported "an Indian offering in the sea" just south of Point Gourde (Malcolm Downie personal communication 1985). I suspect this was an earlier sighting of the Scorpion's Ledge bottle in a more exposed state, and the difference in location (2 km to the east) is due to the 23 years elapsed between sighting and reporting. 13 The Trinidad sites are CAR-1 Blue River, (SGE-2)Chaguaramas destroyed ca 1939 ; plus SGE-4 Mucurapo SGE-3 Bayshore. The Chacachacare sites are SGE-31 Sanders Bay; plus SGE-1 Perruquier Bay (Boomert 1984), and SGE-39 Cocos Bay. The pottery style of SGE-39 is unverified, but reportedly resembles the Scorpion's Ledge bottle (Trystram Alley personal communication 1997). 14 This name of a Port-of-Spain subsection presumably dates back to Indian times. 15 Use of the same name for province and town suggests Cumucurapo was the town of the province-chief. 16 SPA-1 Cedros, SPA-30 Palo Seco (Boomert and Harris 1988). 17 Respectively (south) VIC-7 La Lune 1, SPA-10 Quinam, SPA-30 Palo Seco, SPA-20 Erin; (east) MAY-17 St Catherines 1, MAY-3 Lagon Doux, MAY-4 St Bernard, SAN-1 Manzanilla; (north) SGE-10 Tacarib, SGE-8 Blanchisseuse; (west) VIC-28 Whitelands, VIC-30 Atagual, SGE-14 Tacarigua (ibid). th 262 Proceedings of the 17 Congress for Caribbean Archaeology

-Trinidad

0 km 200

Figure 1. The Caribbean, Orinoco, and northern Amazonia.

NORTHWEST TRINIDAD

Bocas del Dragón I i 1 SGE-; SGE SGE-39 SGE-38- Cave-»-VC3; . ^ Chacachacare SGE-37* Gaspar Grande t Gulf of Paría km 10

Figure 2. Northwest Trinidad, northeast Gulf of Paria: • Saladoid settlements; X Saladoid isolated finds. a (h

IOt» b(h11

Figure 3. Scorpion's Ledge bottle (front view), drawn by Hans Figure 4. a. Scorpion's Ledge bottle (left profile Rashbrook. b. Globular lower neck (front view), drawn by P Proceedings of the 17th Congress for Caribbean Archaeology

Figure 5. Three-handled Bottle: a. Sorce, Vieques (University of Puerto Rico Museum; Roe 1989: Figure 32b), b. Sorce, Vieques (Chanlatte 1983: Lamina 33a). Two-handled Bottle (?): c. La Grata, central Orinoco (Vargas 1981: Lamina 24); d. Hacienda Grande, Puerto Rico (Roe 1989: Figure 12).

Figure 6. Two-handled Bottle: a. Hacienda Grande, Puerto Rico (Rouse and Alegría 1990: Plate 9b): b. Grenada (Florida Museum of Natural History, Wilder Collection). Harris 265

c (d est 7.1 cm)

Figure 7. Built-in Strainers: a. Sorcé, Vieques (Chanlatte 1983: Lamina 33b; this paper: Figure 5a); b. Grenada (Florida Museum of Natural History, Wilder Collection); c. Salado, east Dominican Republic (de Boov 1915: Fiaures 23-25Ï.

Figure 8. Part of Venezuela, Gulf of Paria, Trinidad: • Cedros-style settlements (BC 200-?); A Early Palo Seco-style settlements (?-AD 350).