McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009

1 Assistant Vice President for Academic Affairs Message from Nancy M. Giardina Nancy M. Giardina, Ed.D. Assistant Vice President for Academic Affairs Director Arnie Smith-Alexander e are proud to present the thirteenth volume of the Grand Valley State Uni- Associate Director Wversity McNair Scholars Journal. It is the culmination of intensive research Dolli Lutes conducted by our student scholars and their faculty mentors through our Ronald E. Project Manager McNair Scholars Program. Dolli Lutes The Ronald E. McNair Scholars Program, now in its 15th year here at Grand Valley Editor State University, provides an opportunity for students and faculty to apply much of Heather E. Gemmen what is learned within the classroom by engaging, outside the classroom, in research activities in a particular area of scholarly interest. These research activities provide Cover Design a journey through the challenges and affirmations of scholarly work and better University Promotions prepare students for graduate study and the pursuit of a doctoral degree. Photography John Corriveau/cover Thank you to the faculty mentors who have worked so closely with our Bernadine Carey-Tucker McNair Scholars to propel their research skills towards the next level of educational challenges. Graphic Design and Production University Promotions Congratulations to the nine McNair Scholars whose research is presented here. Grand Valley State University Your journey and the challenges you have met during this scholarly activity speak to Faculty Mentors and Research Editors your talents and persistence in pursuing both your educational and life goals. Thank Matt Boelkins, Ph.D. you for sharing your talents with the university community and continuing the Associate Professor of Mathematics spirit of this program. Martin Burg, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Biomedical Sciences Finally, thank you to all the people behind the scenes that work to sustain this program and produce this journal. Your work is valued as well. Roger Ferguson, Ph.D. Professor of Computing & Information Services

Pablo Llerandi-Román, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Geology

Michael Lombardo, Ph.D. Professor of Biology

George Lundskow, Ph.D. Nancy M. Giardina, Ed.D. Associate Professor of Sociology Assistant Vice President for Academic Affairs Jaideep Motwani, Ph.D. Professor of Management

Amy Russell , Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Biology

David Stark, Ph.D. Associate Professor of History

John Weber, Ph.D. Professor of Geology

Judy Whipps , Ph.D. Professor of Liberal Studies “Before you can make a dream come true, you must first have one.” - Ronald E. McNair, Ph.D. Table of Contents | 2009 McNair Scholars

onald Erwin McNair was born October 21, 1950, in Lake City, South Carolina, to Carl and R Pearl McNair. He attended North Carolina A&T State University where he gradated Magna Cum Laude with a B.S. degree in physics in 1971. McNair then enrolled in the Marcus Bell...... 6 prestigious Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1976, at the age of 26, he earned his Reflections of Whiteness: The Origins, Progression, and Maintenance of White Supremacy as a Cultural, Political, and Economic Force in American Institutions Ph.D. in physics. Faculty Mentor: George Lundskow Ph.D. Neil Biegalle...... 20 McNair soon became a recognized expert in laser physics while Investigations in the Geometry of Polynomials working as a staff physicist with Hughes Research Laboratory. He was selected by Faculty Mentor: Matthew Boelkins Ph.D. Mary J. Brown...... 40 NASA for the space shuttle program in 1978 and was a mission specialist aboard the Campus Triple Bottom Line – College Sustainability and Grand Valley State University 1984 flight of the USS Challenger space shuttle. Faculty Mentor: Jaideep Motwani, Ph.D. After his death in the USS Challenger space shuttle accident in January Wendi-Jo L. Ervin...... 48 Co-localization of histamine and eGFP in the 1986, members of Congress provided funding for the Ronald E. McNair Post- central nervous system of Drosophila melanogaster Faculty Mentor: Martin G. Burg, Ph.D. Baccalaureate Achievement Program. The goal is to encourage low-income, first genera- Delia Fernández...... 53 tion students, as well as students who are traditionally underrepresented in graduate schools, From Soldadera to Adelita: The Depiction of Women During the Mexican Revolution to expand their opportunities by pursuing graduate studies. Faculty Mentor: David Stark Ph.D. Alfredo Hernandez Corsen...... 63 An Exploration of Language, Culture and Limited Perspectives Faculty Mentor: Judy Whipps Ph.D. Anne K. McNeely...... 72 Assessing the Utility of Genetic Data as a Monitoring Tool: Ronald E. McNair Post-Baccalaureate Achievement Program A Case Study of Eastern Red Bats (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae: Lasiurus borealis) Faculty Mentor: Amy Russell, Ph.D. Mallory Morell...... 83 The Purpose Program Services Funding Quaternary Geology, Toco, Trinidad, West Indies The McNair Scholars Program is The McNair Scholars are matched with The Ronald E. McNair Post- Faculty Mentors: John Weber, Ph.D. and Pablo Llerandi-Román, Ph.D. designed to prepare highly talented un- faculty research mentors. They receive Baccalaureate Achievement Program is a Kurt O'Hearn...... 104 dergraduates to pursue doctoral degrees academic counseling, mentoring, advising, TRiO Program funded through the United Computer-Aided Student Study Group Formation and to increase the number and GRE preparation. In addition to the States Department of Education and Grand Faculty Mentor: Roger Ferguson Ph.D. of individuals (from the target groups) above services, the McNair Scholars have Valley State University. T. R. Stambaugh...... 135 on college and university faculties. opportunities to attend research seminars, Development of the Innate Immune Response conduct research, and present their finding in NestlingTree Swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) orally or written via poster presentations. Faculty Mentor: Michael Lombardo, Ph.D. Who are McNair Scholars? In the first semester of their senior year, the About the TRiO Programs...... 142 The McNair Scholars are highly scholars receive assistance with the graduate talented undergraduate students who school application process. are from families with no previous col- lege graduate, low-income background or groups underrepresented at the graduate level for doctoral studies. The program accepts students from all disciplines.

4 Ronald E. McNair, Ph.D. GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 5 Reflections of Whiteness: The Origins, Progression, and Maintenance of White turned a critical eye towards the white major- means which are also approved. Cor- ity in the early 19th century with the works respondingly, an increase of the pro- Low income, predominantly black Supremacy as a Cultural, Political, and Economic Force in American Institutions of Frederick Douglas and David Walker. Just portion of Negroes in the American communities especially need stable in- as in the 1800s, scholars of the 20th century population is commonly looked upon stitutions, and for many urban commu- such as W.E.B Du Bois, James Baldwin, and as undesirable. (p. 47) nities, schools can serve this function. Abstract Introduction later in the century Thandeka, Malcolm X, This has to be taken into consideration Toni Morrison, and Ralph Ellison, due to Concluding his accusation of white when policy makers conceptualize Despite the prevailing national discourse In contemporary America, to be white is their marginalized status, were generally supremacy, Myrdal noted, “White prejudice choice models that transfer African that implicates race as an outdated phenom- to be considered American. The normalcy overlooked and disregarded as nothing more and discrimination keep the negro in low American students away from their enon, ongoing social science data identifies race of whiteness, the category that all others than fodder from “the African American standards in living, health, education, communities. Although it is impor- as very predictive in determining life outcomes. are compared to, is accompanied by a set of left” (Roediger, 2007, p. xvi). For example, manners and morals. This, in its turn, gives tant to increase choices for parents Over the last 40 years the emergence of “white- systematic privileges that advantages those powerful insights by Du Bois (1903), such support to white prejudice. White prejudice who do not want their kids to attend ness studies” has sought to redefine racism from of the dominant race at the disadvantage of as “The opposition to negro education was and Negro standards thus virtually ‘cause’ the city’s school, if city schools are not individual actions of bigoted persons to insti- all others (Bonilla-Silva, 2006). From educa- at first bitter, and showed itself in ashes, in- each other” (p. 193). While initially accepted viewed as viable choices for African tutional systems of privilege and disadvantage. tion to life expectancy, from criminal justice sult, and blood; for the south believed an and at first considered a classic,An American American students, it could have dire While there have been a number of studies de- to political representation, white hegemony educated negro to be a dangerous negro” Dilemma was eventually overshadowed by effects on the roles that schools play in tailing the failures of reconstruction to embrace permeates every institution in American so- (p. 29), or perhaps even more profound: “to World War II and the more militant offerings predominantly black communities. (p. an equal citizenry fully, and also a number ciety, and African Americans are typically at be a poor man is hard, but to be a poor race of the civil rights movement. However, in the 147) Marcus Bell of studies detailing the eventual assimilation the opposite end of the spectrum (Brown, in the land of dollars is the very bottom of late 20th century, Myrdal’s work once again McNair Scholar of European immigrants, few studies have 2003). While white hegemony is the life hardships" (p. 12), were dismissed as unim- found its way to prominence in the new wave Whiteness allows school reform to treat a sought to connect both into one simultaneous force of America’s institutions, white su- portant complaints from an inferior being. of studies aimed at identifying institutional gunshot wound with a Band-Aid. Legisla- entity. Using historiography and historical premacy or white domination is what allows When Malcolm X (1965), a man considered discrimination, a new wave that would come tion that provides choice for relatively few of comparison methodologies, this research ex- it to go unchallenged (Leonardo, 2009). to be a “black radical,” spoke to crowds of to be known as “whiteness studies.” the students who are forced to attend con- amines primary and secondary data sources Despite the continuing levels of residen- thousands of black folk, proclaiming things demned schools does nothing to solve the in order to illustrate how racism, factionalism, tial and school segregation, the vastly un- such as “Brothers and sisters, the white man Contemporary Inequalitwies problem of the condemned school. With the and violence doomed radical reconstruction equal levels of school funding, the increasing has brainwashed us black people to fasten penalties of failure associated with NCLB, and cemented white hegemony into Ameri- achievement gap between black and white our gaze upon a blond haired, blue eyed Je- Of course, times change, and the Ameri- poorer schools that serve predominantly stu- can culture through its various institutions. students at all levels of education, the dif- sus! We’re worshiping a Jesus who doesn’t can Civil Rights movement achieved signifi- dents of color are only getting poorer. It also examines the bloody decades follow- ferences of accumulated wealth, the higher even look like us!” (p. 263), he was consid- cant progress towards racial quality. Conse- In terms of wealth accumulation, Thomas ing reconstruction and the early 20th century rates of black incarceration, the higher rates ered dangerous, and his words of truth were quently, a plethora of erudite professionals, M. Shapiro (2004) found that in 1999, 26% transformation of the category “white” from an of blacks living in poverty, and the ongoing considered to be that of a raving lunatic. including sociologists to historians to politi- of all white children grow up in asset-poor ethnicity to a race, thus creating the badge of discrimination in healthcare, medicine, and The first work on race relations that de- cal scientists, have come to the forefront in households, compared to 52% of black chil- whiteness and securing its privileges for genera- employment, racism is largely seen as a thing tailed the haunting, often violent opposition an attempt to tackle racial discrimination in dren who share the same fate. For every white tions to come. of the past, only relevant on the periphery to full black inclusion in American society, its now mostly covert, post-civil rights mani- kid growing up in an asset-poor household, George Lundskow, Ph.D. of American society. In fact, the most com- and was actually taken seriously was An festation. Studies examining white privilege there are two black kids doing the same—a Faculty Mentor mon form of racism accepted by the general American Dilemma by Gunnar Myrdal in and the various mechanisms of maintaining statistic that is even more disturbing when public is “reverse racism,” the notion that be- 1944. Myrdal was a Swedish sociologist who it have illuminated new ways of not only we consider the fact that African Americans ing white in America is to be disadvantaged, was funded by the Carnegie Foundation be- looking at racism today, but also new ways of only make up 13% of the population, while while being a member of a minority group cause of his intellectual ability and moral ob- looking at history in general. In its path of whites comprise upwards to 70%. Shapiro comes with its advantages. Author Tim Wise jectivity. In a sweeping indictment of Ameri- analysis, whiteness studies leaves no Ameri- also noted that the average African Ameri- (2008) writes, “Interestingly, whites often can injustice and racial inequality, Myrdal can institution uncovered. For example, in can family has only 10 cents of accumulated deny the importance of racism in determin- concluded that the “dilemma” of which he his 2009 book titled Race, Whiteness, and wealth for every one dollar the average white ing the life chances of blacks, even as they spoke was not that of black inferiority, but Education, Zeus Leonardo, speaking of the family has, a ratio that holds constant even give voice to beliefs that are themselves evi- that of white superiority: A superiority that bipartisan legislation and political acceptance when the comparison controls for educa- dence of the very racial prejudice they deny” was founded on a social, not biological basis, of No Child Left Behind (NCLB), wrote: tional attainment, size of family, and an- (p. 40). He continues: “In one of the more and was perpetuated by continuing levels of “Insofar as NCLB is guided by an ideology nual income. These findings are consistent respected opinion surveys from the 1990s, racism, both overt and ingrained in institu- of whiteness, it depends on the continua- with U.S. Census data that showed in 1991 six in ten whites said that discrimination tions. He wrote: tion of racial differences as part of a logical, the median net worth of white households was less important in determining the posi- rather than social, outcome. In other words, was $44,408, compared to $4,604 for black tion of blacks in society than the ‘fact’ that There is no doubt that the overwhelm- ostensibly giving public schools a chance to households. In 2004 the U.S. Census showed blacks ‘just don’t have the have the motiva- ing majority of white Americans desire show progress, NCLB gives whiteness the the median net worth of white households tion or willpower to pull themselves up out that there be as few Negroes as pos- right to declare students of color failures un- was $121,000, compared to $19,000 for of poverty.’” In other words, whites could ex- sible in America. If the Negroes could der a presumed to be fair system” (p. 136). black households (U.S. Bureau of the Cen- tol their belief in negative stereotypes while be eliminated from America or greatly Commenting on the roles that schools play sus 1991, 2004). The two primary reasons simultaneously denying any salience of racial decreased in numbers, this would in African American communities, and the for these gross inequities in wealth between discrimination. meet the whites' approval—provided conservative “free market, competition solu- black and white households are equity aris- Social scientists and historians of color that it could be accomplished by tion,” Jerome E. Morris noted: ing from home property values and intergen-

6 Reflections of Whiteness: The Origins, Progression, and Maintenance of White Supremacy as a Cultural, Political, and Economic Force in American Institutions. GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 7 erational transfers. “among the variables that might plausibly street crime neglects the far larger losses in- manufacturing jobs, and regardless of the tion to identify American citizens easily in with privilege” (p. XVI). This is the essence While technically applicable to whites influence capital sentencing—age, level of curred through corporate crime and willful exponential increase in educational attain- dichotomous white and nonwhite terms. In of white supremacy: the existence of racial and free blacks (over 90% benefited whites), education, criminal record, military record, mismanagement for personal gain, all perpe- ment by black men and women, the national a country that places privilege on white skin, privilege within a democracy, the existence the Homestead Act of 1862 made over 270 method of killing, motive for killing, rela- trated by white executives. From 2001-2009, unemployment rate has for blacks remained easily identifying who is white and who is of unearned rewards accrued through race million acres of land available for virtually tionship of defendant to the victim, strength Enron, Arthur Andersen, Tyco, WorldCom, stable at two to two and a half times higher not has a powerful effect on where one can within a meritocracy, the existence of racial nothing. Today, over 40 million whites are of evidence, and so forth—the race of the Global Crossings, AIG, Lehman Brothers, than the national unemployment rate for live, go to school, gain employment, watch a advantage in a country that alleges equal op- direct descendents of those benefiting from victim emerged as the most consistent and Bear-Stearns, and numerous smaller players whites (U.S. Bureau of the Census, Bureau of movie, or even receive medical treatment. portunity for all. the Homestead Act, and over 15 million still powerful factor” (p. 329). Coming under accounted for nearly two trillion dollars in Labor Statistics 2004). These findings illus- This is what I wish to examine. The fail- After the end of Civil War, and the offi- live on the land in question. Furthermore, criticism, Baldus subjected the data to 230 criminal and negligent losses, compared to trate the employment hegemony that whites ure of reconstruction not only meant the cial emancipation of all African slaves, white the Federal Housing Administration (FHA), non-racial variables in order to control for about 108 billion dollars in street crime loss- enjoy and are indicative of the inequalities re-enslavement of African Americans in all supremacy was implemented through four part of the National Housing Act of 1934, anything that might have influenced the re- es for the same period (FBI Crime Statistics that are present in other institutions as well. but name, but it also opened the door to Jim distinct mechanisms: social and economic lent over 120 billion dollars in government sults, and still concluded that in the state of and Analysis, www.fbi.gov). When the economy is doing well, whites will Crow indoctrination, indefensible acts of apartheid, biological determinism, cultural backed home equity to Americans. What Georgia, the odds of being condemned to The influence of whiteness invades areas of fare better than blacks. When the economy violence against blacks, and the disenfran- apathy, and racial terrorism. Social and is troubling about this is the fact that, for death were 4.3 times higher for defendents contemporary society other than education, is doing poorly, whites will fare better than chisement of blacks, all of which doomed fu- economic apartheid refers to the separate the first 30 years of its existence, the FHA, who were convicted of killing a white victim criminal justice, and wealth accumulation. It blacks. On average, it does not matter if we ture generations of blacks to a disempowered institutions of economy that were reserved through restrictive covenants and district than those who killed a black victim (Baldus, also exacerbates inequalities in healthcare, are comparing Ph.D. holders or high school existence of poverty, segregation, and poor for whites and blacks. This included em- redlining, systematically operated in an all 1979). Findings like these give footing to the employment, and political representation. drop outs, when it comes to employment, educational and occupational opportuni- ployment, schools, criminal justice, politics, white fashion, and almost completely barred pervasive feelings of helplessness and insecu- With regards to disparities in healthcare, whites will fare better than blacks. ties. Coupled with their acceptance as white, and social life. Biological determinism refers blacks from receiving any of these funds rity blacks feel in regards to police and the as Michael Brown (2003) noted, “Dispari- The apparatus that perpetuates these sys- European immigrants who previously faced to the science of racial superiority; the no- (Katznelson, 2005, p. 48). The FHA, along criminal justice system in general. They also ties that often mean life itself,” in 2003 the temic inequalities in the age of individual- discrimination now enjoyed institutional ad- tion that whites were genetically superior with the G.I. Bill and various other parts of suggest a psychological and material defense National Cancer Institute (NCI) reported ism is as complex as it is profound. First, any vantages that set in motion the rise of white to blacks and that it could be proven scien- The New Deal, is credited with creating the of whiteness: psychologically in the sense of that cancer deaths are increasing much faster analysis of the persistence of racial inequality supremacy along readily determined racial tifically. Cultural apathy refers to the north American middle class. Millions of middle security and confidence whites may have in among blacks than whites, sometimes 20 to has to discuss the re-segregating of America’s lines that encoded racism in institutional and its own vices as they pertained to race class whites owe their lives to these programs the neutrality and application of the criminal 100 times faster (p. 25). The NCI also noted neighborhoods and schools. In 1966 Thom- processes and cultural standards. While following the Compromise of 1877. These that in retrospect constitute “affirmative ac- justice system, and physically, in the literal that even though breast cancer is more preva- as Pettigrew, an African American historian, overt racism would continue, the new white vices included their own social policies and tion for whites.” increased likelihood of being put to death lent among white women, black women are noted, “Residential segregation has proved supremacy established a new racism in the behaviors that discriminated against blacks A recent study found that the “baby for having a white victim. more likely to die from the disease. Further- to be the most resistant to change of all subtleties of standardized forms, procedures, and an indifference to the racial terror that boomer” generation is in the process of in- Furthermore, Kennedy (1997) asserts that more, infant mortality, a condition that the realms—perhaps because it is so critical to alleged objective assessment, and the intrica- blacks experienced in the south. Finally, ra- heriting over seven trillion dollars in assets “Alongside racially biased police brutality, medical profession agrees could easily be re- racial change in general” (pp. 112-113). cies of individual perception. cial terrorism refers to the unprecedented from their parents and grandparents (Wise, the specter of wrongful convictions at tri- duced with better medical care for the moth- While these studies empirically demon- and largely unpunished violence aimed at 2008, p. 240). Considering the baby boomer als tainted by bigotry has long haunted the er and child, is over twice as high for blacks strate salient racial inequality, it is important Conceptualization of the Current blacks at the hands of whites in the south. generation started in the late 1940s and collective conscious of African Americans. than it is for whites (U.S. Department of to note that contemporary inequalities in Problem This violence, coupled with political, cultur- early 1950s, the assets that their parents and In addition, racially biased miscarriages of Health and Human Services, 2003). In this housing, education, employment, healthcare, al, and economic inequality, was intended to grandparents accumulated were done so in a justice have strongly influenced American sense, racial inequality not only has a pow- wealth, and politics have historical roots and The institutionalization of white suprem- relegate African Americans to second class time of American history in which racism in culture, particularly African American cul- erful impact on the quality of life one lives, can all be traced backed to a missed oppor- acy into American society was synonymous citizens, but citizens nonetheless. all of its manifestations was generally accept- ture” (p. 24). It is also hard to ignore the but on life itself. On average, whites not only tunity for full racial inclusion following the with an intertwining of otherwise contradic- Social and economic apartheid, cultural ed, and blacks faced open discrimination. positive correlation between the increase in enjoy a higher quality of life than blacks, but Civil War. tive notions. That is, white supremacy not apathy, biological determinism, and racial Looking back, sociologists and historians black incarceration and the national war on they are also more likely to live, as indicated only originated in but was strengthened by terrorism all occurred in a dialectical matrix. agree that America at the close of the 19th drugs. In Whitewashing Race: The Myth of a by lower infant mortality rate and longer life The Present through the Past the American ideals of democracy and inde- There was no chronological or linear process, century and the start of the 20th century op- Colorblind Society, Michael Brown (2003) expectancies. pendence. Democracy and discrimination one did not cause the other, and they often erated in a racial caste system, and the consti- found that “between the mid 1980’s and the With regards to employment, from less In the four decades following the war that are polar opposites, yet the existence of slav- happened in conjunction with one another. tutional rights of blacks were violated in all mid 1990’s, the number of black men sen- than high school to advanced degree, whites emancipated the slaves, newly freedmen and ery within a country that fancies itself the The amalgamation of all four, however, ef- of America’s institutions. While much of this tenced to prison for drug offenses increased earn more than blacks annually. What is more northern blacks saw the United States Gov- land of opportunity, a country that prom- fectively created a racial hierarchy within took place 50-150 years ago, the opportuni- by more than 700%, and the fastest growing telling, however, is that the white-black an- ernment act on their behalf for racial equality ises the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit the walls of a democracy and laid the ground ties provided and the wealth passed down segment of the prison population was black nual income gap increases with educational for a brief moment in history during radical of happiness, indicates who is entitled to work for white supremacy for generations to have had an impact on every subsequent gen- women, incarcerated mainly for nonviolent attainment. The gap is the smallest for whites reconstruction, only to have any social, eco- said opportunities, and who is not. As Joel come. eration, and they still impact the economic crimes” (p. 135). It would be reckless and ir- and blacks who do not possess a high school nomic, and political gains taken away from Olson (2004) notes, “Reflecting American My use of the term “white supremacy” landscape today. Coupled with the benefits responsible to deny the high prevalence of diploma, and highest for whites and blacks them in the form of race riots, black codes, society at large, the discipline has generally also warrants a little clarification. In Amer- accrued from the Homestead Act and FHA street crime perpetrated by African Ameri- who possess an advanced education degree poll taxes, lynchings, and eventually Jim treated race prior to, or outside the politi- ica, largely because of its openly racist past, discrimination, there are substantial levels of cans (indeed most critiques of whiteness to (U.S. Bureau of the Census, Educational At- Crow laws. The early 20th century saw the cal realm. This pre-political conception of white supremacy is generally accepted as wealth inequality between white and black date make this claim), but it is equally reck- tainment in the United States, 2003). In ad- assimilation of European immigrants such race tends to separate racial inequality out overt, public displays of racial discrimina- families. less, and perhaps even more irresponsible, dition to these numbers, according to the Sta- as Greeks, Irish, Jews, Poles, and Italians into from democratic ideals, which makes it dif- tion. White supremacy is equated with the In terms of crime, referencing the now to turn a blind eye to the salience of racial tistical Abstracts of the United States, a table the category of white, a designation that was ficult to recognize the ways in which race Ku Klux Klan, Neo-Nazis, and hate groups infamous Baldus study, a study examining discrimination in all facets of the criminal provided by the U.S. Census that measured previously out of reach to those considered and democracy are interconnected” (p. XII). who openly tout the legitimacy of white over 2000 murder cases between 1973 and justice system, from racial profiling to jury unemployment rates from 1980 to 2004, higher than blacks, but lower than whites. He continues, “Logically, absolute equal- superiority and the inferiority of all other 1979 that resulted in death penalty sentenc- nullification to the application of the death regardless of economic stability or instabil- This was a watershed moment in American ity and privilege conflict. When equality is races. With this conceptualization in mind, es, Randal Kennedy (1997) observed that penalty. For that matter, preoccupation with ity, regardless of the decline in low skilled history because it enabled racial discrimina- reserved for some, however, it can coexist it would be easy to interpret my use of the

8 Reflections of Whiteness: The Origins, Progression, and Maintenance of White Supremacy as a Cultural, Political, and Economic Force in American Institutions. GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 9 term “white supremacy” as outdated, or from prominent political figures throughout The Confederate Army had been defeated, are contradictory to one another, so for them colonels and cavalry captains found oppor- something that Eric Foner described as a “se- an indictment of America as a nation that American history. This review incorporates and the shackles and chains that had held the both to exist in the same country at the same tunities for service as members of the legis- vere blow to the free black community of the openly discriminates against blacks in a hos- all types of sources: journal articles, census slave in bondage for so long were finally to be time, subordinated groups had to be seen as latures, as sheriffs, local judges, and the like. south, and to former slave artisans” (p. 93). tile manner reminiscent of the antebellum data, primary historical documents, and removed. The whips and lashes that had for less than human. Prejudice allowed whites to Whatever their views regarding reconstruc- Apprenticeship laws also surfaced, which slave state or the Jim Crow south. My con- secondary studies. I will conclude my analy- centuries penetrated the skin and spilled the see African slaves as the product of an inferi- tion, the former confederates could look for- arguably caused the biggest uproar amongst ceptualization, however, for the purposes of sis by bridging connections between past blood of servants were finally to be put away. or race, therefore not afforded the rights and ward to an important role in the formulation newly freed slaves because they most resem- this project, treats white supremacy as the and present, illustrating various ways which With the Union persevering, newly freed protections guaranteed by the United States and execution of postwar policies” (p. 45). It bled slavery. Apprenticeship laws required systemic advantages conferred to whites on historical inequalities and racial oppression slaves and northern blacks alike saw a genu- Constitution. America was never meant to was simple; the rebuilding and restoration of blacks under the age of 18 to work for plant- the basis of their skin color. These privileges benefits whites today in the realm of educa- ine opportunity for America finally to live be a nation for anyone other than whites, the south after the Civil War was going to be ers without pay. “These laws allowed judges come in many forms and impact many insti- tion, employment, housing, and wealth ac- up to its ideals and truly become the land of therefore democracy and the subordina- in the hands of those who fought under the to bind to white employers black orphans and tutions. They are often times subtle in their cumulation. These bridges, in conjunction equality and opportunity, where blacks and tion of the slave was not contradictory, but Confederate banner. These men were seen as those whose parents were deemed unable to practice, but their consequences are no less with contemporary forms of white racial whites could lift their heads as brothers and rather the natural order of things. Joel Ol- the best chance of preserving the southern support them. The former owner usually had destructive than the racial oppression faced privilege, combine to maintain a constant sisters of a dignified and unified land. Sadly, son (2004) writes, “Notwithstanding some way of life, especially as it pertained to the preference, and consent of the owner was not by African Americans throughout America’s and even strengthening presence of white it was not to be. soul searching by a few genteel slave hold- Negro; they did not disappoint. required” (Foner, 1984, p. 94). As one could ugly racial history. It is precisely because of supremacy in the American landscape. ing intellectuals like Jefferson and Madison A number of southern states, including imagine, after the abolition of slavery, there its subtlety that contemporary white racial The components of legitimizing white Social and Economic Apartheid in the late eighteenth and early 19th centu- Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, were a lot of what the powers could consider privilege is largely considered a thing of supremacy—social and economic apartheid, ries, there is little evidence of an American Texas, and Georgia, within a year of the end “orphans.” Many children were torn apart the past, and America is now in a so-called biological determinism, cultural apathy, and Initially, the promise of reconstruc- dilemma…. The democratic, egalitarian, and to the Civil War, enacted their own vari- from their families during slavery, and after post-racial era. Overt and public racial dis- racial terrorism—all happened within the tion and the possibility of racial equality libertarian ideals were reconciled with slav- ous versions of policies, official and unoffi- the war ended, this fact was used to declare crimination of America’s past created white context of radical reconstruction and the seemed not only attainable, but inevitable. ery and genocide by restricting the definition cial, that have come to be known as “black African American minors as orphans and privilege, and the general indifference to its 40-50 years following the end of radical re- The Freedmen’s Bureau was created in 1865 of humanity to whites” (p. xvi). Examples of codes.” “They recognized the right of Negros essentially keep them as slaves. Even when salient manifestation allows white privilege construction in 1877. This context is marked and was established to help the newly freed this sentiment are expressed in statements to hold property, to sue and be sued (as long families were reunited, whites could for any to continue today. by four watershed moments: The creation of slaves, previous freedmen, and even poor made by elected officials such as Governor as both parties were black), and to have legal number of reasons declare the parents unfit, To be clear, white supremacy is the in- the Freedmen’s Bureau in 1865, the Com- whites. Through the various policies of the B.F. Perry of South Carolina, who stated, marriages and offspring” (Franklin, 1961, p. thus rendering their children orphans and stitutional practices that advantage whites promise of 1877, the 1896 United States Su- Freedman’s Bureau, blacks were able to “the government of my state is a white man’s 48). Freedman could handle no firearms or confining them to forced, unpaid servitude. at the disadvantage of other races. White preme Court decision in Plessey v. Ferguson, build schools, participate in politics, and government and intended for white men other weapons, and they were not allowed These “codes” or laws, as they were seen by supremacy is privilege within a democracy. and the 1923 United States Supreme Court get elected to office. The benefits and rights only,” and Governor R. M. Patton of Ala- to possess or drink alcohol. Any Negros who the white majority of the south, were not a White supremacy is the legacy of accumu- Decision in The United States v. Bhagat conferred to blacks were relatively small, but bama, who proclaimed, “In the future, as had intermarried with whites were guilty of a fel- return to slavery per se, but a way to main- lated wealth and the ability to be considered Singh Thind. While other moments during given the previous status of slaves, blacks had been the case in the past, the state affairs of ony, punishable by a fine, long prison term, tain the southern way of life by ensuring the the norm to which all other colors are com- this time period, including the passing of the at least some reason to believe that things Alabama must be guided and controlled by or long assignment to servitude. In some cit- newly freed slaves devotion to their country. pared. White supremacy allows whites to be 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the were changing for the better. The south had the superior intelligence of the white man” ies, blacks were not allowed to come within As one reporter at the time observed, “we taken as individuals, and not be a representa- Constitution, southern elections, Supreme other plans, however. (Franklin, 1961, p. 51). An ex-Confederate the limits of particular cities without ex- acknowledge the overthrow of the special tive of their race. Court decisions, passed legislations, race ri- First, with the election of ex-Confederate officer elected to the Louisiana legislature pressed permission from an elected official. servitude of man to man, but seek to estab- ots, and northern resistance, were very influ- soldiers and former slave holders, policies agreed. In reference to newly freed slaves and Blacks were allowed to sign contracts as la- lish the general servitude of man to com- Methods ential in the institutionalization of white su- signed into law upheld the institution of education, he cautioned, “I am not in favor borers for whites who owned land; however, monwealth” (Foner, 1984, p. 94). The south premacy, the four aforementioned moments slavery in all but name. A series of laws re- of positively imposing upon any legislature if the contract was deemed to be broken or saw a massive increase in the punishment of To illustrate how white supremacy came warrant additional explanation because of ferred to as “black codes” kept the freedmen the unqualified and imperative duty of edu- unfulfilled by the Negro (which was mostly petty crimes, crimes that almost exclusively to be, I analyze a 60 year period from the end their lasting legacy in solidifying racial privi- disenfranchised, subjected them to violence cating any but the superior race of man—the determined by the subjectivity of the white applied to blacks. For example, laws in Geor- of the Civil War in 1865 to the early 20th lege. with little to no protection under the law, white race” (p. 46). land owner), then a fine was to be paid, and/ gia and Mississippi made the theft of a horse century case of United States v. Bhagat Singh and punished them for rudimentary infrac- The ideology of white supremacy and or prison or servitude was enforced. Many or mule a capital crime. South Carolina re- Thind, which essentially led to the assimila- Reconstruction tions or “vagrancy laws,” by which the only black subordination did not begin with slav- communities required the Negro to be off quired blacks working in agriculture to pres- tion of all European immigrants. The over- way the penalty could be mitigated was by ery, and abolishment of slavery as an institu- the street by a specified hour, while others ent written authorization from their “mas- all method is historical-comparative with While the Emancipation Proclamation paying a hefty fine (which the vast majority tion did little to change this. Throughout had laws against the Negro using insulting ters” before selling produce. Laws emerged statistical augmentation, all from secondary (occurring in two parts) was issued in late of ex-slaves could not afford) or becoming the south following the war, ex-Confederate gestures or exercising the function of min- that prohibited blacks from hunting, fishing, sources. I intend to reconstruct the econom- 1962 and early 1963, perhaps a more sym- indentured servants for a specified amount officers and even soldiers were being elected ister of the Gospel without a license. Some and free grazing of livestock. As one Florid- ic and cultural origins and development of bolic day for the hundreds of thousands of of time (Foner, 1984). These “codes” were in mass numbers. As one historian put it, “In states required blacks to possess papers at all ian legislature put it, “opposing the rights white supremacy in the United States and “technically” freed slaves was April 9, 1965. designed to preserve the southern way of life; the south, some connection with the rebel times that demonstrated or proved that they of blacks to hunt and fish was necessary be- its impact on the present. My literature re- On this day, the much heralded General to maintain a physical and a status distance service seemed to be the best endorsement were “lawfully employed,” while other states cause hunting and fishing allowed blacks to view includes studies conducted on family Robert E. Lee surrendered the Confederate between the nearly four million newly freed in the eyes of the people” (Franklin, 1961, prevented slaves from renting land in urban subsist while avoiding plantation labor” (p. wealth, whiteness, meritocracy, education, Army of Northern Virginia to Lieutenant slaves who resided in the south, a system of p. 44). Seen as dedicating themselves to an areas purposely in order to limit their eco- 95). North Carolina made the intent to steal residential segregation, and employment, General Ulysses S. Grant, marking the of- social and economic apartheid was put into honorable cause throughout the war, south- nomic opportunities (Foner, 1984). Blacks a capital crime, and “intent” was decided by as well as historical studies of salient time ficial end of the bloodiest war ever to take practice. ern populations not only sought to reward who desired to pursue a profession other white sheriffs, white judges, and even white periods: the pre-and post Civil War period place on American soil. It was one thing To understand how an institution as vi- ex-members of the Confederate army, but than farmer or servant (which mirrored the citizens. Some states even made it illegal to and the first 25 years of the 20th century. for the slaves to be told that they were now cious and inherently unequal as slavery could also elect those who were more inclined to responsibilities of plantation slavery) were own a dog; while some states allowed blacks I also will be looking at primary historical free by President Lincoln, but it was another exist in a land that espoused equality, one preserve “home rule,” a euphemism for black required to pay an annual tax of 10 to 100 to own dogs, they assessed taxes in order documents such as the U.S. Constitution, thing altogether to see the fight to preserve must understand the origins of prejudice. subjugation. In reference to these Confed- dollars depending on the state. Whites were to do so. “Most of the laws employed such Supreme Court legislation, and quotations the institution of slavery come to an end. Ideally, democracy and racial subordination erate politicians, Franklin noted, “Militia not subjected to these kinds of taxes. This is terms as ‘master’ and ‘servant’ and clearly

10 Reflections of Whiteness: The Origins, Progression, and Maintenance of White Supremacy as a Cultural, Political, and Economic Force in American Institutions. GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 11 implied a distinction that consigned the the doctrine of negro equality in all things, the new era…. Blacks found countless ways Klux Klan rose to prominence, and the racial in a strictly partisan eight to seven vote, so ed racism as a matter of individual choice or Negro to a hopelessly inferior status” (Frank- but simply before the law” (Benedict, 1991, of pursuing aspirations for autonomy and terrorism of blacks increased exponentially, angered Democrats that many of them open- prejudice, that particular individuals perpe- lin, 1961, p. 49). John W. Burgess (1906) p. 55). Michael Benedict asserts, “Few Re- equality, and seizing the opportunity to press leaving southern blacks in a state of constant ly threatened revolution, while others in the trated discrimination or aggression against summed it up best when he observed that publicans during the war or reconstruction for further change” (Foner, 1984, p. 124). fear for their lives. House of Representatives began a filibuster other individuals with the justification of “Almost every act, word or gesture of the Ne- believed blacks to be the equal of whites. Re- Perhaps the institution most affected by While radical reconstruction was by no to prevent Hayes’ inauguration.” racial superiority. The feelings underlying gro, not consonant with good taste and good publicans had insisted only that freedmen be the newly found aspiration and confidence means successful in leveling the playing field Hayes sought a compromise. In order to these actions, whether biological and/or manners as well as good morals, was made a secured equality in basic civil and (after some championed by freedmen was politics. Not between whites and newly freed slaves, it did prevent the impending filibuster and be rec- cultural superiority, and the slurs that re- crime or misdemeanor, for which he could hesitation) political rights, not that they be only did blacks turn out to vote in incredible make many strides. As Theresa Richardson ognized as President of the United States, sult from such attitudes, whether the more be first fined, and consigned to a condition conceded what was called at the time social numbers, but they also sought to be elected (2000) writes: Hayes withdrew the military from southern overtly malicious “nigger,” and “coon,” or the of almost slavery for an indefinite time, if he equality.” Most radical Republicans shared to office themselves. “One plantation man- states, thus officially ending reconstruction. coded “Urban,” and “ghetto,” the notion of could not pay the bill” (p. 46). the similar sentiment that because blacks did ager summed up the situation: You never saw The 13th Amendment assured the Hayes also sought to establish a southern superiority and inferiority still remains. In The south quickly established a racial indeed belong to an inferior race, it was all a people more excited on the subject of poli- right of all African American to free- constituency that was not dependent on the terms of economics and politics, racism was pecking order. By electing ex-Confederate the more reason they should be protected by tics than are the Negros of the south. They dom from involuntary servitude. The Negro vote, and the only effective way to viewed as an institution, both as slavery and soldiers and officers to office, southern states equal laws (Anderson & Moss Jr., 1991). are perfectly wild” (Foner, 1984, p. 125). 14th Amendment assured the right sway the majority of southern whites was to later as enforced apartheid in the form of de were able to ensure separate institutions of With this in mind, the proposals and ac- Blacks voted in overwhelming numbers, ex- to citizenship; and the 15th Amend- give them patronage to protect their “home jure segregation. work for blacks and whites, separate laws tual policies that were enacted during radi- ercising their newly gained suffrage, and as a ment provided self-determination rule.” With slavery abolished and mandated that were applicable to blacks and whites, cal reconstruction were designed to promote result many black politicians were voted into with right to vote. The dogma of race segregation legally invalidated by the Su- and separate modes of punishment for laws equal protection in the eyes of the Constitu- office. Former slaves and previously freed once unleashed, however, was not to Discussion preme Court, the purely overt understand- that were broken. Socially, there was little tion, not to espouse the equal status of the blacks still living in the south finally felt as be reined in easily. The purpose of re- ing of racism leads people to believe that rac- interaction between blacks and whites, and white and black race. The inferior status of though they had political representation. construction between 1865 and 1877, This study addresses an apparent paradox. ism is no longer relevant because it no longer many types of physical or spatial interaction former African slaves was not challenged, not Even though the radical Republicans were in the years of radical republicans, If racism is still prevalent in contemporary exists. What mainstream America and even were illegal for blacks and could land them even by the radicals. So by contrast, white su- legislatively fighting on behalf of blacks, they was to dis-empower the planter class America, and America as a nation believes scholars of race and ethnicity often fail to re- in jail, or into a condition resembling slav- periority or white supremacy was espoused only were willing to fight for so much, and aristocracy of the south. Slavery was that racism is unjust, then where is the na- alize is that segregation was not challenged ery. The expedience to which this racial hi- by the very people who would be charged they could never understand the physical abolished, schools were set up, former tional outcry? Why is there no movement to for the sole purpose of integration; it was an erarchy was established troubled the north. with reconstruction and the assimilation of and psychological existence in legalized ra- slaves acquired land, and the right to secure the equal distribution of opportunity attempt to undermine the contextual struc- The Civil War was still fresh in the minds of nearly four million newly freed slaves. Even cial servitude. vote was briefly acquired along with and fairness in the realms of education, em- ture that made legal segregation possible many northerners, so the southern attempt though the radicals were the best chance that the experience of holding an elected ployment, housing, politics, and healthcare? and morally acceptable: white supremacy. to maintain a form a racial slavery led to a former slaves had at receiving any sense of Racial Terrorism position. The aristocracy was tempo- Why is it that politicians do not stress the In contrast to overt racism, the concept and backlash from the north, and southerners equality, it was never their intention to deny rarily displaced and the plantation need to eradicate racial privilege, and why is practice of white supremacy, however, legiti- elected to Congress were not recognized white superiority. White was superior, black Some important forms of racial domina- economy destroyed. (p. 316) there not an abundance of congressional leg- mate a perception of white superiority and when the 39th Congress convened in De- was inferior, and thus white supremacy as an tion occurred overtly. “At least two motifs islation being proposed to secure a fair and non-white, especially black, inferiority as an cember 1865. Republicans, the progressive ideology saturated any recommendations, would run through any biography of the The key word here is “temporarily.” The just playing field for all Americans? essential truth—a truth that is self-evident party of the time, outnumbered the Demo- proposals, laws, policies, or Supreme Court United States: an enduring democratic heri- presidential election in 1876 ended with a Furthermore, are young people really more and requires no rational proof. It is both crats 3 to 1, and with little to no resistance decisions. tage and a legacy of social domination along lot of ambiguity and controversy. The Dem- tolerant when it comes to matters pertaining an assumption and a feeling that can be en- from President Johnson, the Republican From the end of 1865 to the beginning of ethno-racial lines” (Hiers, 2007, p. 2). The ocratic candidate, Samuel J. Tildan, won the to race? Is reverse racism the only type of dis- coded into individual perception, cultural members of Congress took over the respon- 1877, southern blacks saw their lives begin to social domination mentioned by Wes Hiers popular vote and accumulated 184 Electoral crimination that really matters today? The values, and institutional function. Failing sibilities of reconstruction. This time period change. Schools were built for colored chil- was the result of various policies, institutions, College votes (at the time 185 votes were answers to all of these questions are complex to understand, or refusing to recognize this has come to be known as radical reconstruc- dren, and although these schools were often laws, and coercion that regarded African needed to win the Electoral College). Three and contradictory depending upon whom distinction—that white supremacy can exist tion. dilapidated and overcrowded, it was signifi- slaves as sub-human. The most visceral and southern states that were under Republican is asked. No realistic party will dispute the without significant malicious racism and can cant that the United States government was visual aspect of these practices was the unbri- control during radical reconstruction, Flor- concrete and malicious nature of racial op- nevertheless contribute to inequality and op- Radical Reconstruction making an effort to educate Negro children. dled and largely unpunished violence aimed ida, Louisiana, and South Carolina, all had pression in the past, nor will they dispute the pression—confounds our collective ability In the south, blacks were able to own land at people of African descent at the hands of their results disputed by both candidates. negative impact that past racial discrimina- to understand properly the persistence of ra- The term “radical reconstruction” was for the first time, and they were even able to whites. Public whippings, beatings, rapes, The campaign managers for Rutherford B. tion had on disadvantaging people of color cial inequality and subsequently to develop coined by the faction of Republicans who rent it out, provided the people they rented race riots, and most of all lynchings were the Hayes claimed victory in all three of these following social change and reform. What is solutions. wanted equal rights and protection under to were also black. Southern blacks were able different forms of violence used to ensure states, which led to a stalemate between the not so acknowledged are the advantages this the law for all previous freedmen and newly to work for wages for the first time, and even black subjugation. “Thousands of lynchings two candidates, as well as their supporters. very same oppression conferred to whites Dual Legacies freed slaves. The notion of blacks being equal though their wages were far less than those of in the decades before World War I gave men- “The ensuing deadlock proved irresolvable and its significance not only to contempo- to whites in the eyes of the law was indeed whites, they saw opportunity to create a life acing force to everyday reminders of white by traditional means and in one of the wis- rary inequality, but also to the way in which The continuing salience of the narrow a radical ideology to have at the time, but it in their own image, to do things as they saw supremacy” (Sharfstein, 2003, p. 1486). est pieces of statecraft ever evolved by an mainstream America interprets racism. No conception of racism that limits understand- should be noted that even those who sub- fit. Although white resistance was fierce and The initial racial backlash against blacks fol- American Congress, an extraordinary elec- realistic observer can dispute the contem- ing to overt and malicious attitudes and scribed to this “radical” ideology never main- often times violent, the presence of Union lowing the end of the Civil War was at least toral commission was created, composed of porary racial disparities between whites and practices results from what I call the dual tained that blacks were equal to whites, but troops helped to curtail the rise of southern partially blunted by the passing of civil rights members of the Senate, House of Represen- people of color in areas like educational at- legacies of racial oppression. The first legacy rather in order for America to live up to its violence and ensure the promise of radi- legislation and the presence of Union troops. tatives, and Supreme Court” (Peskin, 1973, tainment, employment, income, healthcare, is institutional advantage. This refers to in- promise, blacks should have equal rights un- cal reconstruction. Blacks understood this, With election of Rutherford B. Hayes to the p. 63). Hayes was declared the winner of the and national crime rates; what is not so clear stitutions of family, education, government, der the law. One of the leading campaigners and they took action. “Like emancipation, White House in 1876 and the Compromise election, and immediately the cacophony of is the cause of all these inequalities. and business that function to serve the inter- for black suffrage, Thaddeus Stevens, once radical reconstruction inspired blacks with of 1877, all Union troops were removed from outrage was direct and demanding. “The de- Conceptually, we have typically under- ests of some dominant group in order to per- openly announced, “I have never held to a millennial sense of living at the dawn of southern states, hate groups such as the Ku cision of the commission in favor of Hayes, stood racism too narrowly. Some views treat- petuate their dominance and simultaneous

12 Reflections of Whiteness: The Origins, Progression, and Maintenance of White Supremacy as a Cultural, Political, and Economic Force in American Institutions. GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 13 inequality. This includes multiple forms of for whites only, with the lower, menial jobs Similar realities exist in education. Educa- white supremacy in the American educa- rights before the law. Racism was a black fined to the periphery of modern day soci- dominance, such as gender and class, as well reserved for people of color. As the number tional attainment dramatically rose through- tional system, and students of color will dis- body hanging from a tree while whites com- ety. Racism, once a pathology that caused a as race. These and other forms also tend to of jobs grew, people of color were suddenly out the 20th century, and for over 60 years parately continue to inherent disadvantage memorated the occasion with food and broad coalition of whites and blacks to band intersect. The focus of this paper, however, is deemed qualified for jobs that were previ- racial segregation was legally enforced. The in the land of equal opportunity. drinks. Racism was men dressed in hooded together, is now seen as an excuse for laziness race. ously considered too sophisticated for them; remaining forty years of the 20th century While America pretends to be past its ra- sheets brandishing shotguns and burning and lack of personal responsibility. Blacks The second of the dual legacies, and per- jobs that were now vacated by whites who have been marred by de facto segregation, cial apex, survey data indicate that a sizeable down black schools and churches. Racism who speak against racism today are “looking haps the more damaging of the two, is the moved up the employment ladder. When unequal school funding, unequal distribu- percentage of whites still believe in negative was schools, movie theatres, neighborhoods, for handouts,” and whites who speak against outdated interpretation of racism. Scholars, the number of jobs fell, credentialing, or col- tion of resources, and disparate levels of racial stereotypes about blacks. Tim Wise drinking fountains, jails, beaches, and hospi- racism are doing nothing but “encouraging politicians, law makers, police officers, con- lege degree requirements set in, and higher quality instruction. Preceding the landmark (2008) writes, “In one of the more respect- tals that all held the moniker “Whites Only.” indolence” or “haven’t seen the way blacks servatives, liberals, blacks, whites, indeed, educational attainment became essential for Brown v. The Board of Education Supreme ed opinion surveys from the 1990’s, six in Many believe that civil rights legislation live.” It is true that America has come a long the greater part of mainstream America, all quality employment. These forces combined Court ruling in 1954 that invalidated the ten whites said that discrimination was less washed away these aggressive and repulsive way in living up to its ideals of equality and tend to understand racism as a historical to create a “last hired-first fired” reality for separate but equal doctrine, schools in the important in determining the position of symbols in the decades since the civil rights inclusion. It is also true that younger genera- manifestation, started and completed in the people of color; a reality that can still be felt south were forcibly segregated by race under blacks in society than the ‘fact’ that blacks struggles of the 1960s. tions are more tolerant than ever in terms past, that is no longer relevant. In this misun- in contemporary America. the ruse that as long as the school systems ‘just don’t have the have the motivation or This narrow interpretation, combined of openness to people of different races. derstanding, racism is a thing of the past. Soldiers returning home from World War were equal in the education they provided willpower to pull themselves up out of pov- with actual progress in reducing racial dis- However, due to the narrow interpretation II were able to take advantage of the G.I. Bill to children, it was perfectly democratic to erty’” (p. 40). How many of the white re- crimination and a burgeoning black middle of what constitutes racism, even those who Institutional Advantage and other forms of veterans assistance, allow- separate them by race. In reality schools were spondents who openly admit to at least some class, can be directly attributed to the almost championed racial equity during the civil ing them to go college almost for free. The anything but equal, as children of color were negative stereotypes are in a position to hire, universally accepted notion among whites, rights movement and even the most progres- The legacy of white supremacy perme- Federal Housing Administration provided forced to attend schools that were lacking in fire, or lend money to people of color? How including white progressives, that racial dis- sive of younger generations will still be apt to ates all facets of American society. Racial hundreds of millions of dollars in home eq- every conceivable category that was condu- can institutions be considered race-neutral crimination is simply not a major problem conclude that racism has for the most part discrimination of the past cannot be sepa- uity, and in concurrence with the GI. Bill, it cive to a quality education. At the same time, when there is a strong likelihood that people in contemporary America. Taking it one been eradicated. Again, this can be evidenced rated from racial inequality today, because is credited with creating the American mid- the north was marred with de facto segre- operating within those institutions may hold step further, because racism is considered to by the growing backlash against affirmative institutions that allow racial oppression to dle class. For the first 25-30 years of their ex- gation, the type of segregation that is very a personal bias against others based on skin be so inconsequential, progressive policies action programs and the increasing rhetoric exist cannot be separated from the people istence, these programs essentially operated prevalent today. Although not as direct or color? Furthermore, with the persistence of aimed at leveling the playing field, programs of reverse discrimination. who practice discrimination. People look at in an all white fashion, virtually excluding as obvious as Jim Crow segregation, “volun- negative racial stereotypes, the changes that like affirmative action, are experiencing se- Confusing everyday racism or overt acts various institutions as being objective and all people of color. Urban renewal projects, tary,” or “natural” segregation is almost just are needed at the institutional level will be vere backlash and have been overturned in a of bigotry, which can be perpetrated by any neutral, therefore past racial inequality was district redlining, and restrictive covenants as destructive as legal apartheid. For the bet- considered reverse discrimination or welfare number of states. “Reverse discrimination,” member of any race, with white supremacy a result of the actions of people living at the barred people of color from living in afflu- ter part of the century, Jim Crow provided handouts to undeserving poor. The histori- that is, racism that advantages minorities at or inherent institutional advantage, which time. In this regard, America in the eyes of ent, suburban neighborhoods, which in turn white students with opportunities that were cal legacy of racial oppression essentially cre- the disadvantage of whites, is largely consid- racially speaking, can only be enjoyed by many people today is past its racial hierarchy barred them from attending better funded simply not available to black students. These ated the socioeconomic position of African ered to be the only real illustration of racial whites, is what allows fallacious notions of because its contemporary citizenry openly schools with better trained faculty. For the opportunities, bolstered by racial discrimi- Americans as a whole, and the ongoing discrimination today. whites being disadvantaged in America to extols the ideology of equality and inclusion. first three decade following the end of World nation in federal initiatives such as the G.I. struggles of African Americans in the areas To be clear, slavery, lynching, the KKK, persist. This confusion also undermines on- This paradigm allows for the institution that War II, the American middle class was not Bill, extended to college and provided many of educational attainment, unemployment, and American Apartheid were indeed ex- going attempts to remedy the racial hierarchy provided the contextual framework for racial only created, but also flourished under the options for upward social mobility. This so- crime rates, poverty, isolation, and general amples of racism; however, the society that that currently exists in society. The progress oppression essentially to go un-scrutinized welfare state. Alongside the FHA preceding cial mobility comes in handy today when it deprivation are used to justify having racial allows these atrocities to take place is just that America has made on achieving racial and evade its own culpability in the very the Second World War, federal initiatives comes to positioning young children for bet- stereotypes. Surely problems within the black as racist, and it bears equal responsibility equality must be acknowledged and even racial oppression being characterized as no following the war, such as veterans’ assistance ter educational opportunity. Parents can rely community cannot be fully attributed to past when addressing issues pertaining to race. celebrated, but it cannot be mistaken for a longer relevant. programs and the G.I. Bill, provided literally on family wealth, wealth that was accumu- and present racial discrimination. Personal It is not enough to look at black men be- completed objective. The proposed “neutrality” of America millions of Americans, the vast majority of lated in the era of open racial hostilities, to choices and decisions made by blacks them- ing lynched or the KKK burning crosses on at the institutional level was the breeding them white, with the opportunity to go to buy houses in better, more expensive neigh- selves have to bear the brunt of the bleak re- people’s front lawns; we also have to look at The Continuing Salience of White ground for genocide, slavery, imperialism, college, start businesses, relocate to better borhoods, thus affording their children the ality many blacks find themselves in. With the justice, or lack thereof, that was afforded Supremacy terrorism, and legal apartheid for almost 400 neighborhoods, and elevate their socioeco- chance to attend better schools. Some par- that being said, the contexts in which these to these victims through the nonexistent ar- years. As these practices took place, time did nomic status. Ira Katznelson (2005) writes, ents even can use family wealth to send their personal choices are made are a consequence rest and prosecution of their assailants. It is A latent consequence of understanding not stand still, and neither did policy, legis- “No other New Deal initiative had as great kids to expensive private schools; schools of institutional forces that advantage whites not enough to look at slavery and the Jim racism as overt actions by individual actors is lation, opportunity, precedent, and wealth an impact on changing the country as the they otherwise would not have been able to in the land of equal opportunity. With the Crow south; scrutiny also must be given to the perplexity of intentionality. The necessi- accumulation. Fortunes were made, wealth Selective Service Readjustment Act…. Even afford (Johnson, 2006, p. 157). These prac- acceptance of the United States as an actual the presence of a racial caste system within ty of psychological bigotry as a precursor for was accumulated, legends were born, and today, this legislation, which quickly came to tices do not mention race and are essentially meritocracy, systemic inequality and white the borders of a country that champions any action or policy to be considered racist traditions were established all in a time when be called the G.I. Bill of Rights, qualifies as uninfluenced by any government policy to hegemony will not be vilified for the role equality, opportunity, and freedom. Until blinds people to the reality of subconscious the great American spirit of competition the most wide-ranging set of social benefits date. Therefore they are not considered racist they play in the urban pathologies that are the conceptualization of racism is made to stereotypes that lead well meaning people to was restricted to whites only. America grew ever offered by the federal government in a or contradictory in any way to the American condemned so much and attributed to per- include structural and systemic inequalities, act in ways that discriminate against blacks, to become the most powerful nation on single, comprehensive initiative” (p. 113). promise of meritocracy, even though advan- sonal responsibility. rather than simply overt individual actions, and seemingly race neutral practices that earth, and its ideological scaffold was white Comprehensive, wide-ranging social ben- tage and disadvantage are routinely inherited any analysis of the impact of contemporary advantage whites at the expense of blacks, supremacy. American industry skyrocketed, efits that were provided by the government, along racial lines. When taken together with Racism as a Thing of the Past racial inequality will be highly ambiguous at poor people, and other people of color. its economy flourished, and it did so under and without specific barriers mandated by the unequal allocution of schools funds, re- best. This is a phenomenon which Barbara Tre- the veil of inherent white superiority. Em- race, were in practice able to operate in a pre- sources, and quality instruction, advantages To be sure, racism was slavery, and after- Today, because of the absence of racial pagnier (2006) refers to as “silent racism” ployment opportunities were color coded, dominantly all white fashion for the first 30 made possible by past racial discrimination ward, racism was enforced subjugation that enslavement and formal apartheid, racism (p.1). She writes that “Silent racism—the with the higher paying jobs being reserved years of their existence. only serve to strengthen the influence of left African Americans with no guaranteed is looked upon as a relic of history and con- racist thoughts, images, and assumptions in

14 Reflections of Whiteness: The Origins, Progression, and Maintenance of White Supremacy as a Cultural, Political, and Economic Force in American Institutions. GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 15 the minds of white people, including those ers are not only looking for employment that it across generations. underprivileged completely disregards the After hundreds of years of racial bond- blacks were biologically inferior to whites, that by most accounts are ‘not racist’—is provides more autonomy and better resourc- Today there is a term used to describe relative nature of the word under” (p. 64). age and oppression, following the Civil War, but it was precisely because of this inherent dangerous precisely because it is perceived es, but they also are looking for job security. people who are at the bottom of the socio- This statement is as profound as it is suc- America had the opportunity to live up to inferiority why they needed to be afforded as harmless.” She continues, “The silent rac- This is not to say that all suburban schools are economic spectrum. The term is “underprivi- cinct. People of all walks of life, conserva- its ideals. Equal opportunity, freedom, and equal protection under the law. In either ism in people’s thoughts, images, and as- all white or all good, nor is it to say that all leged.” This can be applied to poor people, tive, liberal, poor, wealthy, white, black, etc., justice for all were for the first time in Ameri- case, blacks were considered inferior, and sumptions shapes their perspective of reality. urban schools are all color and all bad; what minorities, women, or any group of people acknowledge the existence of people who can history something that was plausible in white supremacy continued to be the domi- And a perspective that is shaped by racist it does say is that there is a strong correlation who are now, and have historically been ex- are underprivileged, yet it is rarely if ever practice, rather than just rhetoric. Slavery was nant ideology, even after emancipation, and thoughts, images, and assumptions—no mat- among race, class, and quality of educational ploited or discriminated against. Paraphras- mentioned just who the underprivileged lawfully abolished, and the vicious war being even during radical reconstruction. ter how subtle they are—will produce behav- opportunity. Current practices by individu- ing Tim Wise (2004), the passive voice of are “under” in comparison to. That is, there waged that would ultimately determine the The end of radical reconstruction saw all ior that reflects racist thoughts, images, and als and current policies by institutions com- the term underprivileged implies that no one is no mention or analysis of anyone being fate of millions of southern slaves and count- of the progress that was made on behalf of assumptions.” A brief overview of how de bine to create a disparate effect on white did anything. “It’s as if one day someone said over-privileged. Without any regard for ide- less freedmen living in America had seemingly blacks in America virtually wiped out. The facto segregation is perpetuated in our new children and children of color. However, due ‘here is privilege and I’ll be damned, there ologies, theories, and paradigms, it is inargu- ended on the side of equality. White suprem- rights bestowed upon newly freed slaves in “colorblind,” so called “post-racial” America to the lack of obvious prejudicial intent, the you are under it’” (p. 36). This addresses able that if something is considered “under,” acy, however, was too strong to overcome. the south were relatively small in compari- illustrates this point. At the individual level, absence of legally enforced separation, and the overall structure of American society as then by definition there has to be an “over.” Immediately following the official surrender son to full inclusion in a free society; never- well meaning white parents who want better no overt mention of race, these practices are it pertains to race. Speaking socially, cultur- Whether the topic is race, class, gender, of the Confederate army, hoards of ex-Con- theless, they were important to the former educational opportunities for their children not considered racist, even though they over- ally, politically, and economically, America or sexuality, if one segment or portion of a federate officers, commanders, and supporters slaves who saw them as a form of liberation. migrate to “better” neighborhoods with whelmingly advantage whites and disadvan- was initially shaped and flourished under particular demographic is underprivileged, were voted into office throughout the south. These relatively small gains were also big “better” schools. Although “better” can be tages minorities. This example illustrates the the banner of white supremacy. As a result, then one part must be over-privileged. In the They were elected into powerful positions of enough in that they frightened the whites to composed of many attributes, perhaps the covert nature of white supremacy and how America has established generally accepted specific category of race, minorities, typically far reaching authority, such as mayor or gov- the point that they considered them a threat. most powerful indicator of a “better” neigh- limited understandings of what constitutes “race neutral” policies that inherently ad- blacks and Hispanics, are considered to be ernor, and they also were elected into more in- Many blacks who were elected to office were borhood is a white neighborhood (Johnson, racism hinder the possibility of remedying vantage whites but are not considered rac- under-privileged in the areas of educational timate, but no less powerful positions, such as immediately thrown out of office, and black 2006). There is no doubt that many parents new forms of racial inequality. ist because these policies do not specifically opportunities, accumulated wealth, job op- sheriff or prosecutor. For former slaves living citizens were ceremoniously disenfran- are indeed racially conscious when choosing mention race. Exacerbating the almost non- portunities, housing, political representa- in the south, life in the post slavery era was ee- chised. White supremacist hate groups such which neighborhoods to live in and which Conclusion existent national outcry about institutional tion, and quality healthcare coverage. Their rily similar to life under institutional bondage. as the Ku Klux Klan sprang up all across schools to send their kids to. Other parents racism is the covert way in which it operates existence as members of an underprivileged Emancipation brought freedom in name only, the south, and violence against blacks, even though, parents who by all conceivable mea- Racial oppression is not a static phenom- and the contemporary interpretation of what class is almost universally accepted, even and for the first several years following the in the north, increased by considerable sures would consider themselves anti-racist, enon. Racism today is not the racism of the actually constitutes racism. This interpreta- when the reasons for their membership are end of the Civil War, blacks living in the south margins. Black churches and schools were simply want what is best for their children. antebellum south. Racism of the 1890s was tion can be directly attributed to the overt ferociously disputed. Conversely, since there were slaves in everything but name. White burned down, and mass lynchings exploded Combined with the inability of many black not the same racism of the 1990s. At one history of racial discrimination in America, is little mention of the over-privileged, pos- supremacy, already established by the very ex- with the brutal murders of hundreds, per- parents to afford to live in more affluent point in history, racism was the enslavement and it is an interpretation that is faulty on sible reasons that bolster their life chances via istence of racial slavery, continued to pervade haps thousands of blacks that took place in neighborhoods, thus hindering their ability of the majority of all blacks living in America. the basis that it was never complete to begin the non-merit based availability of resources American society at the individual and insti- broad daylight without any chance to pose a to send their children to better schools, resi- While at a different point in American histo- with. Assessing racism solely focused on indi- and opportunities not only go unexamined, tutional level. White supremacy was not slav- defense for the crime they had been accused dential and school segregation are steadily in- ry blacks were free from servitude, they were viduals, not institutions, it failed to account but they are also taken as earned by the indi- ery, but it allowed slavery to exist. Therefore, of committing. The level of unequal treat- creasing, and in many geographical locations officially and unofficially separated from for people who made decisions based on fac- viduals who benefit from them. This not to the eradication of the American slave state did ment experienced by blacks at the hands of are near or have exceeded Jim Crow levels. whites through its various institutions. Al- tors not relating to race. say that all members of the over-privileged not mean the eradication of white supremacy; whites was a more violent rendition of the At the institutional level, residential and though the manifestations were different, the In our culture today, I argue that any ac- class do not work hard or do not take advan- it only meant that it had to change forms. treatment they experienced immediately school segregation is just as destructive as aura of white supremacy was the cornerstone tions that are made without cognitive animos- tage of the opportunities available to them; Radical reconstruction was considered a following the end of the Civil War with the they were when America stood against it as of both slavery and apartheid, and America ity towards blacks or other people of color are it simply states that they are presented with coup for progressives who fought and died for black codes. Only this time, there were no undemocratic and unconstitutional. With gave solace to a racial hierarchy that for cen- not considered racist, no matter the impact it unearned opportunities that are not readily racial equality. Blacks in the south, as well as radical Republicans who would speak on schools being funded primarily by property turies was considered a natural right. In place has on promoting racial inequality. We are available to members who are considered to the north, saw their rights increase exponen- behalf of the newly re-disenfranchised. This taxes, schools located in more affluent neigh- of the aforementioned biological determin- biased to focus primarily on intent, and in be underprivileged. In the area of race, the tially. They were allowed to attend school, to was largely due to the perception that re- borhoods receive considerably more funding ism, cultural superiority and work ethic are particular, individual intent, and less on so- over-privileged class refers to whites. The in- vote, to own land, to be elected to office, and construction had progressed too slowly and and resources than schools located in poorer now given credit for the gulf of racial dis- cial forces and outcome. This reduces racism tersection of different forms of privilege, such actually to earn a wage. Although the gains been somewhat of a failure. neighborhoods. The schools with better re- parities between blacks and whites. Whether to willful expression of racist sentiments, re- as class, age, religion, and so on, all combine were significant, considering any form of free- At the dawn of the 20th century, science sources tend to be located in suburban school discussing the “natural birth right” of whites garded as particular to racist individuals who to create a segment of the population that is dom is better than no freedom at all, they were and intellectuals joined the side of white su- districts. The suburban school districts are lo- historically, or the perception of “superior are dismissed as ignorant or fringe members inherently advantaged by American democ- relatively small in comparison to the rights premacy. In the form of eugenics, notables cated in suburban neighborhoods, and these values and work ethic” among whites today, of an otherwise progressive society. Such in- racy. However, in each subsection, whites are and opportunities enjoyed by whites (even such as Francis Galton, Karl Pearson (who neighborhoods tend to be predominantly or with the exception of emancipation and the ept understandings of racism place a formi- advantaged over blacks. In America, a poor poor whites), and the rights guaranteed to introduced linear regression and correla- sometimes all white. Additionally, with the eradication of de jure segregation (de facto dable hurdle in the quest for racial equality in white woman will surely be predisposed for them by the Constitution. Even many of the tion to the social sciences), Margaret Sanger, federal mandate of annual school progress segregation is still prevalent and even increas- America today. In order to perfect our “more worse life chances than middle or upper class most ardent supporters of racial equality, the George Bernard Shaw, and Konrad Lorenz as outlined in the national school initiative ing), America has not been held responsible perfect union,” any research aimed at analyz- white women, yet in all likelihood that same radical Republicans, did not consider blacks supported the notion of biological racial No Child Left Behind, schools are being for the role it played in establishing white ing racial inequality or even racial disparities poor white woman will be predisposed for to be equal to whites in an existential sense. hierarchy, with “negroids” at the bottom. shut down, and teachers are losing their jobs. supremacy and promoting racial inequality. must start with history. Racial discrimination better life chances than a poor black woman. On the one hand, there were people who out- Proponents hoped to use science to breed What this means for schools with limited The transformative quality of white suprem- is not some archaic, insignificant blemish on In a country that continually espouses race right considered blacks to be biologically in- a superior population. The rise of eugenics resources that are more at risk of being shut acy hides its salience and almost completely America’s resume of equal opportunity, and neutrality and equal opportunity, inherent ferior to whites, and who thought American and the assertion of biological determinism down is that better trained and higher quality exonerates America for the role it plays in it should not be treated as such. advantages of any kind render these asser- society should reflect as much. On the other rendered moot any notions of social equal- teachers are not willing to teach there. Teach- permitting it to take place and perpetuating Tim Wise (2004) also writes, “the term tions obsolete. hand, there were people who also thought ity. Separate standards of living, individu-

16 Reflections of Whiteness: The Origins, Progression, and Maintenance of White Supremacy as a Cultural, Political, and Economic Force in American Institutions. GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 17 ally and institutionally, while already in ex- References istence, became indoctrinated into law at the close of the 19th century with “Separate but Attaway, W. (1941). Blood in the Forge. New York: The New York Review of Books. Equal Doctrine” set forth in Plessey v Fergu- son. Blackmon, D, A. (2008). Slavery by another Name: The re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II. New York: The The first two decades of the 20th century Doubleday Broadway Publishing Group. saw the assimilation of southern and eastern European immigrants, people who had pre- Brown, M, K. (2003). White-Washing Race: The Myth of a Color-Blind Society. London England: The University of California Press. viously been considered less than white, into the dominant culture. This created a united Denton, N, A. (1993). American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. racial category of “white” and secured privi- leges by virtue of their “whiteness.” With the Doane, A, W. (2003). White Out: The Continuing Significance of Racism. New York: Routledge New York. ambiguity of who was to be considered white put to rest, white supremacy corresponded Haley, A. (1965). The Autobiography of Malcolm X As told to Alex Haley. New York: Randomhouse Publishing Group. with the prosperity and growth of America as a country, a correspondence that indelibly Johnson, H,B. (2006). The American Dream and the Power of Wealth: Choosing Schools and Inheriting Inequality in the Land of Opportunity. infused white supremacy socially, politically, New York: Routledge. and economically into American culture and institutions. By the time America (forcibly) Katznelson, I. (2005). When Affirmative Action was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth Century America. New York: owned up to the obvious hypocrisy of a ra- W.W. Norton & Company. cial caste within a democracy, generations of whites had benefited from the overt white Kennedy, R. (1997). Race, Crime, and the Law. New York: Vintage Books, A Division of Random House Inc. superiority that was ingrained in American institutions, while generations of people of Leonardo, Z. (2005). Critical Pedagogy and Race. Australia: Blackwell Publishing. color had been denied all that was promised to them by a Constitution that promised Leonardo, Z. (2009). Race, Whiteness, and Education. New York: Routledge. “Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happi- ness.” Even still, a truly inclusive democracy Olson, J. (2004). The Abolition of White Democracy. Minnesota: The Minneapolis Press. has not been realized. While overt racial discrimination has Roediger, D, R. (2005). Working Toward Whiteness: How America’s Immigrants became White: The Strange Journey from Ellis Island to the been marginalized, the covert destructive- Suburbs. New York: Basic Books. ness of white supremacy still pervades so- ciety in every conceivable way. The people, Shapiro, T, M. (2004). The Hidden Cost of Being African American: How wealth Perpetuates Inequality. New York: Oxford University Press. albeit slowly, are becoming more tolerant, or at least confining their racist beliefs to private Rothenberg, P. (2008). White Privilege: Essential Readings on the Other Side of Racism. New York: Worth Publishers. quarters, but the institutions that have always been infected with the disease of white su- Thandeka. (2006).Learning to be White: Money, Race, and God in America. New York: The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc. premacy still suffer from this malady. White supremacy was born with the founding of Trepagnier, B. (2006). Silent Racism: How Well Meaning White People Perpetuate the Racial Divide. Colorado: Paradigm Publishers. this country—it grew with the prosperity of this country—and if left unchecked, will Wilson, W, J. (1978). The declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. continue to undermine all that is just within this country, and its citizens, both white and Wise, T. (2008). Speaking Treason Fluently: Anti-Racist Reflections From An Angry White Male. New York: Soft Skull Publishing. black alike, will suffer the consequences.

18 Reflections of Whiteness: The Origins, Progression, and Maintenance of White Supremacy as a Cultural, Political, and Economic Force in American Institutions. GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 19 Investigations in the Geometry of Polynomials

Neil Biegalle, student Matt Boelkins, mentor

Aug 31, 2009

Abstract where n is the degree of the polynomial, and the ri’s are real numbers in [ 1, 1] that represent the roots. This provides − Because polynomial functions are completely determined by us with some consistency and makes it sensible to compare their roots, every property of a polynomial is affected when properties from one polynomial to another. these roots change. Our research aims to further our under- Once we are able to compare polynomials and the proper- standing of how the distribution of a polynomial’s roots af- ties that they possess, we may then ask a very natural ques- fects specific characteristics of the function. We are especially tion that is so common in mathematics: “What root location interested in classifying which root distributions maximize or will make property X the most extreme?" This question of minimize certain properties.Investigations We employ recent results in the on extremality Geometry has been of the Polynomials primary focus of our research, and polynomial root dragging and root motion to explore these it is in this spirit that we write this paper. There has been issues further, including the attempt to explain why many much work done in this field in recent years, and the results properties are maximized by Bernstein polynomials. ThisNeil pa- Biegalle,developed student provide crucial perspectives and tools for our in- per will survey some important results and present ourMatt inves- Boelkins,vestigations. mentor The Polynomial Root Dragging Theorem [1, 2] tigations into new problems and approaches. is one of the most influential theorems in our research, and Augwe 31, will 2009 illustrate how extremal problems in the geometry of polynomials may be thought of more intuitively from this perspective. One intriguing question that has been given little attention Investigations in the Geometry of Polynomials 1 IntroductionAbstract where n is the degree of the polynomial, and the ri’s are real arisesnumbers when we in notice[ 1, the1] that pronounced represent patterns the roots. found This when provides analyzing problems− dealing with maximality. A large por- How doBecause changes polynomial in the roots functions of a monic are completely polynomial determined with all by us with some consistency and makes it sensible to compare tion of this paper will be dedicated to surveying some of the real zerostheir affect roots, the every other property characteristics of a polynomial of the function? is affected This when properties from one polynomial to another. results that are available pertaining to these maximal prob- is the questionthese roots that change. drives Ourour investigations research aims in to the further geometry our under- Once we are able to compare polynomials and the proper- lems. While the individual problems that we will outline of polynomials.standing of It how is well the distributionknown that ofa monic a polynomial’s polynomial roots af- ties that they possess, we may then ask a very natural ques- have well-established proofs, we strive to offer what we be- Abstract with allfects real specific zeros characteristicsis uniquely determined of the function. by the We placement are especially tion that is so common in mathematics: “What root location lieve to be a promising, yet undeveloped, general explanation of theseinterested zeros. in That classifying is, given which any n rootroots, distributions there is exactly maximize or will make property X the most extreme?" This question of Because polynomial functions are completely for the “maximal polynomial" phenomenon. Along the way, one monicminimize polynomial certain with properties. all real zeros We employ that passes recent through results on extremality has been the primary focus of our research, and determined by their roots, every property of a we make some additional observations that are either new or these roots.polynomial Therefore, root dragging every characteristic and root motion of a polynomial to explore these it is in this spirit that we write this paper. There has been polynomial is affected when these roots change. underreported. dependsissues on thefurther, location including of its theroots, attempt and even to explain the slightest why many much work done in this field in recent years, and the results Our research aims to further our understand- changeproperties in the root are distribution maximized willby Bernstein produce polynomials.an entirely new This pa- developed provide crucial perspectives and tools for our in- ing of how the distribution of a polynomial's polynomial.per will Many survey questions some important in this same results field and of present study have our inves- vestigations. The Polynomial Root Dragging Theorem [1, 2] roots affects specjfic characteristics of the func- 2 Fundamental Results been answered,tigations into and new the beginningproblems and section approaches. of this paper will is one of the most influential theorems in our research, and tion. We are especially interested in classify- we will illustrate how extremal problems in the geometry of be focused on introducing some of these important results, First and foremost, it is important to survey some fundamen- ing which root distributions maximize or polynomials may be thought of more intuitively from this along with the key concepts that were necessary for proving tal theorems and concepts in the geometry of polynomials. minimize certain properties. We employ recent perspective. them. The goal of this paper is to contribute to the overall This section is meant to clarify the sort of problems that this results on polynomial root dragging and root understanding that we possess of this relationship between a One intriguing question that has been given little attention motion to explore these issues further, includ- 1 Introduction research is interested in answering, as well as give the reader Neil Biegalle polynomial’s roots and its other characteristics. a flavorarises for whenthe different we notice kinds the of pronounced mathematics patterns that are found em- when ing the attempt to explain why many proper- analyzing problems dealing with maximality. A large por- McNair Scholar ForHow the sake do ofchanges convenience, in the roots and since of a monicany polynomial polynomial with withployed all when investigating this kind of problem. Here, we ties are maximized by Bernstein polynomials. tion of this paper will be dedicated to surveying some of the all realreal zeros zeros may affect be the scaled other to characteristics be monic with of the all function? roots in Thisoutline some of these important theorems and extend a cou- This paper will survey some important results , results that are available pertaining to these maximal prob- [ 1 1]is, thewe havequestion narrowed that drives the focus our investigations of this paper in to the monic geometryple of them to prove new results. The results themselves, as and present our investigations into new prob- − , lems. While the individual problems that we will outline polynomialsof polynomials. with all real It zeros is well that known live in that the interval a monic[ polynomial1 1]. well as the analytic approach used, will be highlighted, and lems and approaches. − have well-established proofs, we strive to offer what we be- That is,with we all are real interested zeros is in uniquely polynomials determined that can by be the written placementimportant concepts will be defined appropriately. lieve to be a promising, yet undeveloped, general explanation in theof form these zeros. That is, given any n roots, there is exactly n for the “maximal polynomial" phenomenon. Along the way, one monic polynomial with all real zeros that passes throughAs mentioned earlier, one of the most important results in p(x)= (x ri), we make some additional observations that are either new or these roots. Therefore, every− characteristic of a polynomialthis field is the Polynomial Root Dragging Theorem [1, 2], i=1 underreported. depends on the location of its roots, and even the slightest change in the root distribution will produce an entirely new 1 polynomial. Many questions in this same field of study have 2 Fundamental Results been answered, and the beginning section of this paper will be focused on introducing some of these important results, First and foremost, it is important to survey some fundamen- along with the key concepts that were necessary for proving tal theorems and concepts in the geometry of polynomials. Matt Boelkins, Ph.D. them. The goal of this paper is to contribute to the overall This section is meant to clarify the sort of problems that this understanding that we possess of this relationship between a Faculty Mentor research is interested in answering, as well as give the reader polynomial’s roots and its other characteristics. a flavor for the different kinds of mathematics that are em- For the sake of convenience, and since any polynomial with ployed when investigating this kind of problem. Here, we all real zeros may be scaled to be monic with all roots in outline some of these important theorems and extend a cou- [ 1, 1], we have narrowed the focus of this paper to monic − ple of them to prove new results. The results themselves, as polynomials with all real zeros that live in the interval [ 1, 1]. − well as the analytic approach used, will be highlighted, and That is, we are interested in polynomials that can be written important concepts will be defined appropriately. in the form n p(x)= (x r ), As mentioned earlier, one of the most important results in − i i this field is the Polynomial Root Dragging Theorem [1, 2], =1

1

20 Investigations in the Geometry of Polynomials GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 21 as proven by Bruce Anderson. This theorem illustrates the So equation (1) shows that c is an implicit function of the 1, f (t) < max(εi), we can then conclude that Since the centroid is differentiation invariant, we have effect that “dragging" any number of roots of a polynomial in roots of p(x). Implicit differentiation with respect to ri gives f(1) f(0) < max(εi). Therefore, c will move to the − ε a given direction has on the location of the critical numbers Ap = Ap + . right strictly less than the root that moves the most. ε n of the polynomial. The proof uses a concept known as the logarithmic derivative. As this concept appears frequently in ∂ 1 ∂ 1 Therefore, moving ri to the right ε units has caused the aver- + + ε the geometry of polynomials, and specifically in the proofs ∂ri r1 c ∂ri r2 c ··· age critical number of p to move to the right n units.  −   −  we outline in this paper, it is worth discussing in some detail ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ + + + = (0). (2) This result has been especially influential in our research, before we present the theorem. ∂ri ri c ··· ∂ri rn c ∂ri Since there are n 1 critical numbers for a degree n poly-  −   −  primarily because it offers such a unique and valuable ap- − nomial, it may also be noted that the total sum of the dis- Definition 1. The logarithmic derivative of a function p(x) is proach to analyzing the effects that changing roots has on a This yields tance travelled by the critical numbers in response to a sin- the quantity polynomial. This approach is an important tool that will help (n 1) ε − ε us in furthering our understanding of how roots and other gle root being dragged units is n . So when dragging p (x) 2 2 a single root, not only does each critical number move less . 1 ∂c 1 ∂c characteristics of a polynomial interact. p(x) + + When this theorem is first encountered, it is very natural than the root that is dragged, but all of the critical numbers r1 c ∂ri ··· ri 1 c ∂ri  −   − −  combined move less than the root that is dragged. We may This is called the logarithmic derivative because it is obtained 2 2 to wonder exactly how far the critical numbers are moving. 1 ∂c 1 further consider what happens if we allow for the dragging by taking the derivative of the logarithm of a given polyno- + Following, we address the question of how far the average r c ∂r − r c of m roots, where m n, and the m roots move distances d p (x)  i  i  i   critical number travels in response to dragging a root ε units. ≤ mial p: dx [ln(p(x))] = p(x) . For a given degree n monic − − of ε1,ε2,...,εm, respectively. It is simple to show that the n 2 However, to do so, we must first introduce the concept of the polynomial p(x)= (x ri), with roots r1,r2,...,rn, 1 ∂c average critical number of the polynomial would then move i=1 − + + centroid of a polynomial p(x), which is denoted by Ap. the logarithmic derivative is ri+1 c ∂ri ···  −  ε1 + ε2 + + εm 2 ··· . n 1 ∂c n p (x) 1 + =0. (3) Definition 2. Given a polynomial p(x), the centroid of p, or = . rn c ∂ri p(x) (x ri)  −  Ap is the average of the roots of p(x). That is, if p(x) has roots Note that this last result is true regardless of the sign of the i=1 −  ∂c r ,r ,...,r ε s. From here, solving for leads us to see that 1 2 n, then i This is a strictly decreasing, rational function with n 1 zeros, ∂ri − r1 + r2 + + rn and it proves to be a very useful tool in multiple theorems 2 Ap = ··· . This idea of allowing roots to be dragged in opposite di- throughout this paper. 1 n ∂c ri c rections creates another question that the Polynomial Root − = 2 2 2 . Dragging Theorem does not answer. What happens to criti- ∂ri 1 1  1 Now we may introduce the Polynomial Root Dragging r c + r c + + r c cal numbers of a polynomial in reaction to dragging roots in 1− 2− ··· n− In 1998, Piotr Pawlowki [11] noted that the centroid of a Theorem. As we will show, in response to dragging a poly-       polynomial is differentiation invariant. In other words, for opposite directions? There is a theorem that is closely related nomial’s root(s) in a given direction, its critical numbers will Clearly, ∂c is positive. Further, if we let A 1, 2,...,n to the Polynomial Root Dragging Theorem, called the Poly- ∂ri ⊂{ } any given polynomial, the average root is the same as the av- move in the same direction as the roots that are dragged, or with A

22 Investigations in the Geometry of Polynomials GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 23 Denote the critical points of p˜ by c˜1 c˜2 c˜n 1. Then exactly once, namely at c˜i, in this interval. We have shown a. If xrd+1, then pε(x) p(x) , with equality only at +(x rj d)(x rk + d)q(x)] This argument is similar if we assume that p(x) is positive | |≤| | − − − the common roots. [(x r + x r )q(x) for ri 0 p (x) >p(x) +(x rj)(x rk)q(x)] c. If d 1 d+1 and d 1 , then ε . p n − − for k i n 1 we have c˜i ci. This completes our proof. − − Proof. Let be a monic, degree polynomial with all real ≤ ≤ − ≤ The reverse inequality is true if p (rd 1) < 0. =(x rj d)(x rk + d)q(x) − roots r r rn such that r = b and rn = b for 1 ≤ 2 ≤···≤ 1 − − − − some positive real number b. Let rj and rk be interior roots (x rj)(x rk)q(x) − − − p r ci. This is what we desired to  make a given critical point land on the origin, this theorem show, as the fact that ri is moving to the right implies that 0=(ci rj + ci rk)q(ci)+(ci rj)(ci rk)q(ci). (8) +1 − − − − can be used to show how any given critical point is moving at p (ri)=(ri rd) (ri rj), 1 id, ri rd > ri rd ε , making p (ri) > d)(x rk + d)q(x). Differentiating p(x) yields | − | | − − | | Evaluating equation (9) at x = ci, the left hand side of the are trying to analyze. It appeared in a paper by Matt Boelkins, p (ri) and p(x) pε(x) for all x>rd . This completes − ε | | |≥| | +1 equation becomes negative based on what we have shown so Jennifer Miller, and Benjamin Vugteveen in 2006 [5]. It uses a parts (a.) and (b.) of the proof. p(x)=(x rj + x rk)q(x)+(x rj)(x rk)q(x). (5) − − − − far. Therefore, p˜(ci) must be negative to make the equation similar analysis as the Polynomial Root Dragging Theorem to To prove part (c.) we must consider the fact that p (rd 1) − true. illustrate the effect that dragging roots has on the curve’s de- can be negative or positive. Clearly, (d 1)

24 Investigations in the Geometry of Polynomials GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 25 The Polynomial Root Dragging Theorem was proven in p(x) will be either strictly positive or strictly negative. With- a product of positive terms, and thus, is positive. Hence, Thus, we have proven that the unique root ck of p (x) be- 1993, while the Polynomial Root Squeezing Theorem was out loss of generality, we may assume that p(x) > 0 on this s (cn 1) < 0. Again, as in the proof of Lemma (1), since s (x) tween ak and ak+1 satisfies the inequality − proven in 2008. However, in 1967 Gideon Peyser [12] proved interval. Since (x an) < 0, we can see that q(x) < 0 changes sign from negative to positive values exactly one time − ak+1 ak ak+1 ak something with striking similarities to the Root Dragging ak k jk To prove this theorem, it will be helpful to prove four lem- =(x ak) − [k(x ak+1)+(x ak)] . Then for every , and for every , − − − c >h − mas concerning the roots of p(x) and p (x). We first consider k 1 j j 1. Proof of Lemma 3. Let s(x)=(x (a1 +ε))(x a2) (x =(x ak) − (kx kak+1 + x ak) − what happens when we omit the extreme left or right roots − − ··· − − − − an) where ε 0 is such that a1 + ε an 1 and let s (x)= k 1 of p(x): ≥ ≤ − =(x ak) − (x(k + 1) kak+1 ak). n(x f1) (x fn 1). We will assume that an 1 0 on this by applying Lemmas (1) and (3), we can conclude hi ai+1 for ik. − − ≤ − ≤ − ≤ interval, we know that r(x) < 0, and thus, s(x) < 0 for all x Then we have p(x)=v(x)(x ak). Differentiating p(x) gives ak+1 ak − Proof of Lemma 1. Let q(x)=(x a1) (x an 1) values within this interval. Differentiating s(x), we obtain ck c = ak+1 − . − ··· − − ≤ − k +1 and q (x)=(n 1)(x d1) (x dn 2). Then we have p (x)=v (x)(x ak)+v(x). − − ··· − − − p(x)=q(x)(x a ) s (x)=p (x) εr (x). (11) n . Differentiating this yields − Similarly, by considering the polynomial y(x)=(x ak)(x − n k − − We know that for any value of x such that aj 0. − − − − Now consider the two consecutive roots ak and ak+1. We r (x), we may apply Lemma (2) to see that cn 1 is greater Then, since (x ak) < 0, we can see that v(x) must be nega- − ak+1 ak ck ak + − . − know that for any value of x such that ak

26 Investigations in the Geometry of Polynomials GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 27 negative to positive exactly once over this interval. We know rk+1 be distinct roots with multiplicities mk and mk+1, re- With a little algebra we then obtain order to prove the theorem, we must make a few assumptions. n p (cj)=0,sowehave spectively. We will prove that the unique root ck of p (x) be- For a polynomial f(x)= (x xi), with distinct real k i=1 − tween rk and rk+1 satisfies the above inequalities. We know ∆ ∆ roots x1 0, n k − p (ck) 1 ∆ ∆k+1 +∆k+1 we know that v(x) must be positive on the interval. Further, = =0. ≤ mk+1 p(ck) ck ri Proof. Let j, y0 and y1 satisfy y0 0 and (cm ak) > 0, we can see that v (cm) = + =0. − ≤ − − ck ri ck ri ck ri must be negative. Therefore, since v (hm 1)=0, we can i=1 i=1 i=k+1 − − − − k Multiplying by (-1) yields conclude that hm 1 k ≤ geometry of polynomials endeavors to understand. How can ≤ mk+1 we have rj >ck. Therefore, all terms in equation (12) are ck rk+1 (rk+1 rk) y0 xi y1 xi+1 > 0. we estimate the value of other quantities pertaining to a poly- ≤ − k + mk+1 − − ≥ − positive. Since rk is the largest root less than ck, the greatest nomial’s characteristics in terms of its roots and its degree? value that the left hand side of equation (12) can obtain is and Therefore, we have Peyser’s results are a great example of this. They did, how- k rk mk ck rk . Further, since +1 has multiplicity +1, the first 1 1 ever, go relatively unnoticed for some time. In 1995, Peter − mk mk+1 terms on the right side of equation (12) are identical. ck rk + (rk+1 rk). . (15) Andrews [3] proved the same result of the bounds of a criti- ≥ n k + m − (y0 xi) ≤ (y1 xi+1) Since all of the terms are positive, we then know that the − k − − cal number in a different way, though he seemed unaware of m k+1 Combining these last two inequalities gives us the desired re- smallest value that the right hand side can obtain is r c . Similarly, for j i n 1 we have y1 xi+1 y0 Peyser’s results. Then, in 2008 Aaron Melman [9] made an k+1− k ≤ ≤ − − ≤ − sult that xi < 0, and we still have the same inequality achieved in (15). improvement on both of the previous theorems by a different This yields m m Obviously, the inequality argument through a new perspective. By considering the ef- r k r r c r k+1 r r , k mk+1 k+ ( k+1 k) k k+1 ( k+1 k) . (13) n k + mk − ≤ ≤ −k + mk+1 − fect that the multiplicities of the adjacent, distinct roots have − y xn < 0

28 Investigations in the Geometry of Polynomials GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 29 3 Special Polynomials f1(x)=x

fn+1(x)=2xfn(x) fn 1(x), (n 1). There are two different families of polynomials that will be − − ≥ especially important to be familiar with in order to discuss ex- Therefore, we have proven that fn(x)=Tn(x) for all n. tremal problems. These famous families are known as Cheby- shev polynomials and Bernstein polynomials. Chebyshev polynomials come in four different kinds. There are two that we are interested in discussing: Chebyshev Using this closed form expression makes it easy to see that polynomials of the first kind, and Chebyshev polynomials of Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind are indeed equioscil- latory on the interval [ 1, 1]. the second kind. A degree n Chebyshev polynomial of the − first kind is defined recursively as follows: For Chebyshev polynomials of the second kind, we will n T0(x)=1 T1(x)=x start by introducing the closed form expression. A degree Chebyshev polynomial of the second kind is defined on the Tn+1(x)=2x Tn(x) Tn 1(x)(n 1). interval [ 1, 1] as · − − ≥ − These polynomials are equioscillatory, meaning the devia- sin((n + 1) arccos(x)) Figure 2: Degree 5 monic Bernstein Polynomial tion of the curve from the x-axis at the critical values, and at Un(x)= . √1 x2 the end points of the interval, is equal. These polynomials − also have a closed form expression, which is much more use- These polynomials do follow the same recursive definition as ful in application. The following is a short proof highlighting p(x) = max p(x) . the Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind. That is, || ||∞ x [ 1,1] | | this, and it is found in a Numerical Analysis text by Ward ∈ − Cheney and David Kincaid [6]. 1 Un+1(x)=2xUn(x) Un 1(x), (n 1). The L norm of a function p(x) is defined as − − ≥ 1 Theorem 8. For x in the interval [ 1, 1], the Chebyshev poly- Further, the first two kinds of Chebyshev polynomials have − p(x) 1 = p(x) dx. nomials of the first kind have this closed-form expression the very nice relationship that || || 1 | | Figure 1: Degree 5 monic Chebyshev polynomials of the first − 1 1 Using these norms, and other functions, we will present Tn(x) = cos(n cos− x), (n 0). U (x)= T  (x). and second kind ≥ n n n+1 a few examples of extremal problems in which the answer is either Chebyshev polynomials or Bernstein polynomials. These polynomials arise as minimizers in a couple of our to us, and this will be the focus of much of the rest of the Chebyshev polynomials have been shown to be the mini- Proof. To prove this, we must first recall the addition formula extremal problems, as we will soon explore further. Figure 1 1 paper. mizer of the supremum norm and the L norm, as we will for the cosine: shows an example of each of the two kinds of Chebyshev 5 see. We will also show that Bernstein polynomials are the polynomials that we are interested in. Figure 2 provides an example of a monic degree Bernstein cos(A + B)=cosA cos B sin A sin B. polynomial with four roots at 1 and one root at 1. maximizers of the supremum norm. A remaining question − On the flip side of extremal problems, Bernstein polyno- − regards the maximizer of the L1 norm. In this section we An in depth look at many problems concerning these two mials, as briefly introduced in Section 2, frequently arise as will also explore four other properties that are maximized by From this, we obtain families of polynomials is to follow. Ultimately, we endeavor maximizers. A degree n Bernstein polynomial is defined as Bernstein polynomials. cos((n + 1)θ) = cos(θn + θ) to further understand the phenomena of these families and n i n i their maximal and minimal qualities. = cos θ cos nθ sin θ sin nθ (18) Bi,n(x)= x (1 x) − . To begin, we will provide a proof that the supremum norm − i −  is minimized by Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind. In and This is a family of polynomials. To be a member of this light of Theorem 4, the fact that Chebyshev polynomials are family, a polynomial must have all of its roots at 0 or 1. How- cos((n 1)θ) = cos(θn θ) 4 Extremal Problems equioscillatory makes them a good candidate for the supre- − − ever, since we are interested in monic polynomials with all mum norm minimizer: since dragging roots makes the devia- = cos θ cos nθ + sin θ sin nθ. (19) real zeros in the interval [ 1, 1], we have scaled the Bernstein tion grow in some places and shrink in others, it makes sense − We now begin our discussion of problems concerning poly- polynomials to meet our requirements. That is, for our pur- We may now add (18) and (19) together, and we get nomials that possess maximal and minimal properties. There intuitively that the minimum maximum deviation must oc- poses, we define Bernstein polynomials in the following way: are many important results and concepts that must first be cur for a polynomial where the deviation at the critical points cos((n + 1)θ) + cos((n 1)θ) = 2 cos θ cos nθ introduced. One important concept when dealing with these is equal. As it turns out, the leading coefficient for the degree − i n i n 1 Bi,n(x)=(x + 1) (x 1) − . n Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind is 2 − . Therefore, − extremal problems is the idea of norms. Norms are types which yields 21 nT Notice that neither of the forms provided here match the of functions that measure some aspect of another function. A the monic Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind is − n. The following proof was presented in a Numerical Analysis cos((n + 1)θ) = 2 cos θ cos nθ cos((n 1)θ). (20) forms of the functions w(x) and y(x) from Theorem 5 in Sec- norm is analogous to the absolute value function for real num- − − tion 2. This just shows that Bernstein Polynomials can be bers, as it will return a non-negative real number that may be text by Ward Cheney and David Kincaid [6]. 1 Now, if we let θ = cos− x and x = cos θ, we can see that defined on any interval, and the only real requirement is that thought of as “size." There are other functions that we may equation (20) shows that the functions fn defined by use to measure properties as well, and these different ways to we distribute all of the roots between the endpoints of the Theorem 9. If p is a monic polynomial of degree n, then interval. So we are interested in the monic Bernstein poly- measure properties are the only way we can make sense of f x n 1 x n( ) = cos( cos− ) discussing maximal and minimal polynomials. 1 n nomials formed by placing all of the roots at either 1 or 1. p = max p(x) 2 − . − || ||∞ 1 x 1 | |≥ follow the system of equations: Note that for any given n, there are n +1degree n Bernstein Specifically, we will be focusing on the supremum norm − ≤ ≤ polynomials. Understanding why these polynomials so fre- and the L1 norm. The supremum norm of a function p(x) is f0(x)=1 quently maximize different properties is of particular interest defined by

30 Investigations in the Geometry of Polynomials GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 31 t Proof. Let p be a monic polynomial of degree n. We will We have now illustrated how Chebyshev polynomials arise Therefore, f (t) will only be zero when n t =1. Hence, Intuitively, the Hausdorff deviation of B from A can be 1 n − prove that p = max 1 x 1 p(x) 2 − . To do this, as minimizers of certain properties. Let us now turn our focus the only critical number of f, and consequently that of g, will thought of as finding the point in B that is furthest from the || ||∞ − ≤ ≤ | |≥ n we will argue by contradiction. That is, we will assume that to maximizers. By employing Theorem 4, we see that in order be t = 2 . However, this value produces a minimum of g on nearest point in A, and measuring the distance between the for 1 x 1, to maximize the deviation of the curve from the x-axis near a [1,n 1], and thus, g must be maximized at the endpoints. So two points. It is now necessary to define the convex hull of a − ≤ ≤ 1 n − p(x) < 2 − . specific critical value, we must drag all of the roots as far away the maximum of g and also that of pi(ci) will occur when set A, which is denoted H(A). | | | | 1 n from that point as possible. In our case, since we are interested t =1or t = n 1, and these values will be the same because Let q =2− Tn and xi = cos(iπ/n), where 0 i n. − ≤ ≤ strictly in polynomials with roots that live in [ 1, 1], these of the symmetry of pi(ci) . We may now use properties of Chebyshev polynomials to see − | | Definition 5. Given a set A, the smallest closed and convex maximal polynomials that we construct will turn out to be that q is a monic polynomial of degree n and point set that contains A is called the convex hull of A, denoted members of the Bernstein family. According to the definition H(A). i 1 n i of the supremum norm, we see that one of these Bernstein ( 1) p(xi) p(xi) < 2 − =( 1) q(xi). This paper also establishes the maximum value of the supre- − ≤| | − polynomials must maximize the supremum norm of a monic mum norm for a degree n monic polynomial with all real Finally, we introduce the notation A(p), which represents Therefore, we may use algebra to see that for 0 i n, polynomial with all real zeros in the interval [ 1, 1]. The next ≤ ≤ − zeros. Since the maximum supremum norm of pi will be at- the set of all distinct zeros of a polynomial. We are now ready question, then, is which one? This question is also answered ( 1)i[q(x ) p(x )] > 0. tained when i =1, we can see that to present the theorem. − i − i in the same paper that presented Theorem 4 [5]. n n n 1 Theorem 12. For every polynomial p of degree n with all real 2 n 1 2 n 1 − From this we see that the polynomial q p oscillates in sign p (c ) = (n 1) − = − . − n 1 1 n zeros, the inequality (n + 1) times between 1 and 1. However, as the leading Theorem 11. Given a family of degree Bernstein polynomials, | | n − n n − p x x i x n i p  terms in q p will cancel out, q p cannot have degree higher i( )=( + 1) ( 1) − , the supremum norm of i will be 2 − − i − i n Hence, for any monic degree n polynomial, p, with all real ρ(A(p),H(p )) than n 1. Therefore, q p could not possibly oscillate (n+1) maximized when =1or when = 1. ≤ n − − − zeros in [ 1, 1], times between 1 and 1. Hence, we have reached our contra- − holds. − n 1 diction, and may conclude that if p is a monic polynomial, i n i 2n n 1 − 1 n Proof. Let pi(x)=(x + 1) (x 1) − be the family of degree then p = max 1 x 1 p(x) 2 − , as we desired. − p − . || ||∞ − ≤ ≤ | |≥ n Bernstein polynomials in the interval [ 1, 1]. Since each pi || ||∞ ≤ n n In order to understand fully what this theorem is asking, −  must attain its supremum norm at a critical point, and each a picture may be helpful. Figure 3 illustrates what a possible pi will only have one critical point in ( 1, 1), we need only degree 5 case of this theorem would look like. 1 − Next, we present a conjecture that we have not yet been L look at the value of pi at this critical point, which we will call Now, we present the theorem that proved the norm is able to prove. It concerns the maximal L1 norm. We are ci. To find ci, we must evaluate p (x)=0. Note that minimized by Chebyshev Polynomials of the Second Kind. i convinced that the following conjecture is true, and there is This proof is presented in the book Topics in Polynomials: strong evidence to support this. Although we have tried many Extremal Problems, Inequalities, and Zeros, by G.V. Milo- i 1 n i p (x)=i(x + 1) − (x 1) − approaches to solve this, a formal proof eludes us. vanovic [10]. There was a lemma necessary to prove this, and i − n i 1 i here we present both the lemma and the theorem. We have +(n i)(x 1) − − (x + 1) − − 1 n i 1 i 1 Conjecture 1. The L norm of a degree n monic polynomial omitted the proofs of these, as for our purposes, the results =(x 1) − − (x + 1) − are only being used as an illustration of the minimality of − with all real zeros is maximized by a polynomial having the form (i(x 1)+(n i)(x + 1)) n 1 n 1 Chebyshev polynomials. × − − p(x)=(x + 1)(x 1) − or p(x)=(x + 1) − (x 1). n i 1 i 1 − − =(x 1) − − (x + 1) − (nx + n 2i). − − 2i n Now we offer an alternative proof to a maximal problem Lemma 6. Let Therefore, for pi (x)=0, x must either be 1, 1, or n− . 2i n − proven by Blagovest Sendov [14] in 2001. This is a problem Hence, ci = n− , and the supremum norm of pi is simply sin((n + 1) arccos(x)) related to the Sendov Conjecture, which is a notable unsolved Un(x)= pi(ci) , which is √1 x2 | | problem. − i n i 2i n 2i n − be the n-th Chebyshev polynomial of the second kind. Then pi(ci) = − +1 − 1 | | n n −      Conjecture 2. (Sendov Conjecture) If all the zeros of the poly-  i i n i n i  n 2 i 2 − (i n) −   nomial p(z)= k=1(z zk), (n 2) lie in the unit disk 1 =  i n− i  − ≥ k 0, if 0 k n 1 n n − D(0, 1) = z : z 1 , then for every zk, the disk D(zk, 1) In,k = x sgn Un(x)dx = n ≤ ≤ −    { ||≤ } 1 , k n. n   contains at least one zero of p (z). 1 2 − if = 2 i n i  Figure 3: Degree 5 illustration of Theorem 12 − = i (n i) − . (21) nn  −    In figure 3, the dots represent the roots, the “X’s" represent Before we state the theorem that we are providing an alter- Now, to maximize the supremum norm for all pi, we must the critical numbers, and the line above the x-axis represents nate proof for, we must first introduce some new notation. This lemma is then used to prove the following theorem: find the value of i that makes the value of pi(ci) the greatest. the convex hull of the critical numbers. Note that in reality, | | i The problem we are answering concerns the Hausdorff devia- Since n will remain fixed, we can simply maximize i (n the convex hull will be on the x-axis, but for sake of clarity n i − tion of the set of roots of a polynomial from the convex hull n i i) − . Instead, we may maximize the continuous function it is shown above. The theorem is then saying that the maxi- Theorem 10. Let p(x)= aix , with an =1, be an t n t of the polynomial’s critical numbers. We now present the i=0 g(t)=t (n t) − on t [1,n 1]. Since g(t) and ln(g(t)) mum distance from the set of roots to the convex hull is 2/n. arbitrary monic polynomial of degree n. Then − ∈ − definition of the Hausdorff deviation of a set B from a set A,  have the same critical numbers, we can equivalently find the It is important to note that all of the interior roots will also t n t which is noted ρ(B,A). 1 n critical values of f(t) = ln(t (n t) − ). Using the chain be elements of the convex hull of the critical numbers. There- p(x) 1 Uˆn 1 =2 − , − || || ≥ || || rule, we obtain fore, we are really trying to show that the distance from one with equality only if p(x)=Uˆn(x), where Uˆn is the monic Definition 4. Given two sets A and B, the Hausdorff deviation of the exterior roots to the nearest critical number will never f (t)=ln(t)+1 ln(n t) 1 Chebyshev polynomial of the second kind of degree n. In other − − − of B from A, ρ(B,A), is the supremum of the set ρ(b, A):b exceed 2/n. We will prove this using a root dragging argu- n = ln(t/(n t)). { ∈ words, Uˆn(x)=2− Un(x). B , where ρ(b, A) = inf b a : a A . ment. − } {| − | ∈ }

32 Investigations in the Geometry of Polynomials GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 33 Proof. Let p(x) be a degree n monic polynomial with all real do state the theorem as proved by Pawlowski, which high- Theorem 14. The span of the kth derivative of a polynomial One of the first things we must do in order to use this as zeros in the interval [ 1, 1]. We will prove that the maximum lights the kind of Bernstein polynomial necessary for maxi- with all real zeros, p(k)(x), can be maximized only when all of a tool is develop a method in which we may think of monic − Hausdorff deviation of A(p) from H(p ) is 2/n. The Polyno- mizing J(p). Also, we provide a more intuitive reasoning for the roots of p(x) are at the end points, x = 1. polynomials with all real zeros as a vector space. To have a ± mial Root Dragging Theorem says that if we drag the interior why J(p) can never exceed 2/3 and why n must be a multiple vector space, we need closure under multiplication and addi- roots of p to the right, the critical numbers of p will follow. of 3 to maximize this property. tion. The set of monic polynomials with all zeros, however, Note that this problem is trivial for values of k that are Similarly, if we drag the interior roots to the left, the critical is not closed under normal function addition. It is not hard to greater than n 2, for we want f (k) to have more than one numbers will follow to the left. Therefore, by dragging the − construct a counterexample that shows that we may add two Theorem 13. If p(x) is a polynomial with all real zeros, then root. The problem is also trivial if 2k +2 n, because we rightmost interior root to 1, the convex hull of the critical ≤ monic polynomials with all zeros and obtain a polynomial could then simply place k+1 roots at both endpoints, and the numbers has also moved to the right, and increased the Haus- 2 with complex zeros. For example, consider the polynomials J(p) . span of the k-th derivative would be 2. Therefore, we may nar- 2 2 dorff deviation of A(p) from H(p ). In order to maximize the p(x)=x 1 and q(x)=x +5x +6. The polynomial ≤ 3 row our focus to the nontrivial cases, with k+2 n 2k+1. − Hausdorff deviation of A(p) from H(p ), we may continue in ≤ ≤ p has roots at 1 and 1, while q has roots at 2 and 3. Equality is attained if and only if n is a multi- The proof shows that if we have a polynomial with all but − p q − − this fashion and drag all of the interior roots to 1, creating a 2n n However, when adding and , we obtain a new polynomial 3 3 one of its roots determined, the only way the span of the k-th 2 Bernstein polynomial with one root at 1 and n 1 roots at plicity of 3 and p(x)=(x 1) (x + 1) or r =2x +5x +5, which has two imaginary roots. Therefore, − − n 2n − derivative of the polynomial can be maximized is by placing 1. Note that, due to the symmetry of Bernstein polynomials, p(x)=(x 1) 3 (x + 1) 3 . we must develop a new way to add and multiply polynomials. − the undetermined root at either 1 or 1. Then, by apply- ρ(A(p),H(p )) would be the same if we dragged all of the in- − Here we introduce two new operations, which we will denote ing this argument to each root of the polynomial individu- terior roots to 1. So in order to maximize ρ(A(p),H(p )), and , and we will prove that they make the set of monic − Recall that the centroid of a polynomial is the average of ally, it shows that the span of p(k)(x) can be maximized only ⊕ ⊗ p must have the form of polynomials with all real zeros a vector space. the roots. Therefore, in the case of a Bernstein polynomial, when all of the roots of p(x) are at 1 or 1. In other words, i n i − n 1 Bi,n(x)=(x + 1) (x 1) − , the centroid is p(x)=(x + 1)(x 1) − , this property is only maximized by a Bernstein polynomial. − − However, while the evidence for an evenly distributed Bern- Definition 8. Given two degree n monic polynomials with all or stein polynomial is strong, it has not yet been proven which n n ( 1)i +(n i) real zeros, p(x)= i=1(x ri) and q(x)= i=1(x si), we n 1 AB = − − − − p(x)=(x + 1) − (x 1). n Bernstein polynomial will maximize the property. define the operator by the rule − ⊕ ρ(A(p),H(p )) n 2i So will be the distance from the critical point = − . So there is this obvious pattern in these maximal problems. n in ( 1, 1) and the single non-repeated root. Again, because n − As illustrated with the problems above, the family of Bern- p(x) q(x)= (x (ri + si)). of the symmetry of Bernstein polynomials, this value will be ⊕ − Further, by using the standard method for finding critical stein polynomials frequently provides us with the maximizer i=1 ρ(A(p),H(p ))  the same in either case. Let us then find for Bi,n n 1 numbers, we may see that the interior critical number of of a characteristic. This is the phenomenon to which we p(x)=(x + 1)(x 1) − . We must first find the critical − is (2i n)/n. So the centroid of a Bernstein polynomial is ex- spoke in the opening of this paper, and from here, we may number of p in ( 1, 1), which we will call c. Recall from − − 2 n actly the opposite of the single interior critical number of the begin our discussion of our attempt of a general explanation. Theorem 11 that c = −n . So we have Definition 9. Given any degree n monic polynomials with all polynomial. So the distance from the centroid to the nearest n endpoint will be 1 (n 2i)/n , and the distance from the real zeros, p(x)= i=1(x ri) and any real number, α, we 2 n −| − | − ρ(A(p),H(p )) = − ( 1) centroid to the interior critical number will be 2 (n 2i)/n . define the operator by the rule n − − | − | 5 Convexity ⊗  If we do anything to increase either of these distances, the n 2 other one must decrease. Therefore, since J(B) measures the = 1 +1 The theory of convexity tells us that any convex function over α p(x)= (x αri). n − smallest of these two distances, maximizing J(B) will require ⊗ −  a compact, convex set must attain its maximum at an extreme i=1 2 these values to be equal. We then must have  = . point. This is precisely the idea that we believe will help us n n 2i n 2i explain the Bernstein phenomenon. In order to understand 1 − =2 − , We can think about these somewhat unusual operations in Hence, the Hausdorff deviation of a degree n polynomial’s − n n this fully, there are a couple of key concepts that must be     a very natural way with respect to root-dragging. When we roots from the convex hull of its critical numbers must be     introduced. or     “add" a polynomial q to a polynomial p, we may think of q less than or equal to 2/n, with equality only for these special  n 2i 1  − = . Definition 6. A convex set is a collection of points such that as the polynomial that tells us how much we will drag the Bernstein polynomials. n 3   every line segment formed by connecting points in the set is con- roots of p by. Similarly, when we “multiply" p by a scalar, α,   Hence, in order to maximize  J(B), we must have a cen- tained within the set. In other words, a set A is convex if and only if 0 <α<1, it is as if we are simultaneously dragging all   troid that falls exactly at 1/3 or 1/3, making J(B)=2/3. if given any two elements of A, a and b, and any real number α of the roots of p towards the origin by a certain multiple of − A similar extremal problem, considered by Piotr Now, we can clearly see that (n 2i)/n can only be 1/3 such that 0 α 1, themselves; if α is greater than 1, it is as if we are dragging the | − | ≤ ≤ Pawlowski [11] in 1998, shows how we may maximize the when n is a multiple of 3, which explains why this is neces- roots away from the origin. When defining polynomial addi- α a + (1 α) b X. distance from the centroid, Ap of a polynomial to its nearest sary for maximization of this property. · − · ∈ tion and multiplication in this way, we have the zero element n n p x , which we will denote 0P . We will now show that under critical number. That is, given a degree polynomial , with Once we have a convex set, we may think about what are c these two operations, the set of monic polynomials with all critical numbers k, the theorem shows how we can maximize Finally, we introduce our last example of a maximal prob- known as convex functions. the function lem. This problem, as solved by Raphael Robinson [13] in real zeros is a vector space. 1964, deals with maximizing the span of the k-th derivative of Definition 7. A convex function is a real valued function over J(p) = min Ap ck . a degree n polynomial with all real roots. The proof of this 1 k n 1 | − | a convex set such that the region above the graph of the function ≤ ≤ − result uses the very important concept of convexity, which f Theorem 15. Under the operations and as defined above, is also a convex set. In other words, a function is convex if and ⊕ ⊗ Pawlowski states that J(p) cannot exceed 2/3, and that it may we will explore more thoroughly in the next section. This only if given any two elements of the domain, x and y, and a real the set of monic polynomials with all real zeros forms a vector only reach 2/3 for a very specific kind of Bernstein polyno- approach to solving this problem is very creative, but again, number α such that 0 α 1, space. ≤ ≤ mial. We do not present Pawlowski’s proof of this result here, we will simply highlight the result here. f(α x + (1 α) y) α f(x)+(1 α) f(y). for it requires some very complex mathematics. However, we · − · ≤ · − ·

34 Investigations in the Geometry of Polynomials GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 35 Proof. Let the operations and be given as in definitions 8 (iii.): (vii.): (ix.): ⊕ ⊗ and 9, and let 0P be the zero element of the set of monic poly- n n nomials with all real zeros. We will prove that under these 0 p = (x 0) (x p ) n n P ⊕ − ⊕ − i assumptions, the set of monic polynomials with all real zeros i i (ab) p =(ab) (x pi) (a + b) p =(a + b) (x pi) =1 =1 ⊗ ⊗ − ⊗ ⊗ − is a vector space. To do this, we must show that the follow- n i i=1 =1 ing properties hold true for any degree n monic polynomials = (x (0 + p )) n n − i with all real zeros, p, q, and r, and for any real numbers a and i = (x (ab) pi) = (x (a + b) pi) =1 − · − · b: n i=1 i=1 n n = (x pi)=p p q = q p − i. i = (x a(b pi)) = (x (a pi + b pi)) ⊕ ⊕ =1 − · − · · n i i=1 ii. (p q) r = p (q r) =1 ⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ⊕ = (x (p + 0)) n n n − i 0 p = p = p 0 i=1 = a (x b pi) = (x a pi) (x b pi) iii P P  ⊗ − · − · ⊕ − · ⊕ ⊕ n n i i=1 i=1 =1 iv. ( p) p =0P = p ( p) = (x p ) (x 0) n n n − ⊕ ⊕ − − i ⊕ − i=1 i=1 = a b (x pi) = a (x pi) b (x pi) v. 0P p =0P   ⊗ ⊗ − ⊗ − ⊕ ⊗ −  i=1   i=1 i=1  ⊗ = p 0P , vi. 1 p = p ⊕ = a (b p), =(a p) (b p). ⊗ (iv.): ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊕ ⊗ vii. (ab) p = a (b p) Therefore, all nine properties hold true, and the set of ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ n n (viii.): monic polynomials with all real zeros is a vector space under viii. a (p q)=(a p) (a q) ( p) p = (x ( p)) (x pi) ⊗ ⊕ ⊗ ⊕ ⊗ − ⊕ − − ⊕ − the operations and . i i n n =1 =1 ⊕ ⊗ ix. (a + b) p =(a p) (b p) n a (p q)=a (x p ) (x q ) ⊗ ⊗ ⊕ ⊗ ⊗ ⊕ ⊗ − i ⊕ − i = (x (( p)+p )) i i Let p, q, and r be monic polynomials with all real zeros, − − i  =1 =1  Now we may analyze the relationship i n and let a and b be real numbers. To prove these properties =1 n = a (x (p + q )) n hold true, we will let the roots of p, q, and r be represented as ⊗ − i i n = (x 0)=0P i=1 (r1,r2,...,rn) (x ri) pi, qi, and ri, respectively. Then we have p(x)= (x − i=1 i=1 n → − p q x n x q r x n x r −  i=1 i), ( )= i=1( i), and ( )= i=1( i). We will n = (x a(p + q )) − − − i i prove that each of these holds true one at a time: = (x (pi +( pi))) i=1 by thinking of the set of roots of a polynomial as a vector. − − n (i.): i=1 n Therefore, every point in R is associated with a monic poly- n n n n = (x (api + aqi)) nomial with all real zeros. Since we are interested only in − = (x pi) (x ( pi)) i=1 [ 1, 1] p q = (x pi) (x qi) − ⊕ − − monic polynomials with all real zeros in the interval , ⊕ − ⊕ − i i n n n − i=1 i=1 =1 =1 we may narrow our focus to points in [ 1, 1] . This is a     − n = p ( p), = (x api) (x aqi) compact, convex set. We may now think of norms and other ⊕ − − ⊕ − = (x (pi + qi)) i=1 i=1 functions that measure some property of a monic polynomial − n n i=1 (v.): with all real zeros as functions of the form n = a (x pi) a (x qi) ⊗ − ⊕ ⊗ − n = (x (qi + pi)) n  i=1   i=1  f :[ 1, 1] R. − − → i=1 0p p = (x 0 pi) =(a p) (a q), n n ⊗ − · ⊗ ⊕ ⊗ i=1 Then, according to the theory of convexity, if we can show = (x q ) (x p ) n − i ⊕ − i that any of these functions are convex, they must achieve a i=1 i=1 = (x 0) maximum value at one of the corners of [ 1, 1]n. These cor-   − − = q p, i=1 ners will correspond to Bernstein polynomials. This idea is ⊕  =0p, still relatively undeveloped. However, it offers a new way (ii.): of thinking about polynomials, and it provides us with a po- n n n (vi.): tentially very powerful tool. Further, if we can use this idea (p q) r = (x p ) (x q ) (x r ) ⊕ ⊕ − i ⊕ − i ⊕ − i successfully, then we will have a very beautiful and concise  i=1 i=1  i=1 n explanation of why these Bernstein polynomials possess such n  n  1 p =1 (x pi) maximality. = (x (p + q )) (x r ) ⊗ ⊗ − − i i ⊕ − i i=1 i i  =1 =1 n n = (x 1 p ) − · i 6 Conclusion = (x (pi + qi + ri)) i − =1 i=1 n As we have endeavored to show, the geometry of polynomi- n n = (x pi) als is a dynamic area of mathematics. There remain unsolved = (x p ) (x (q + r )) − − i ⊕ − i i i=1 conjectures and new, interesting questions to be asked. Be- i i  =1 =1 = p, cause polynomials are fundamental building blocks for many = p (q r), ⊕ ⊕ types of functions, continued pursuit of deeper understanding

36 Investigations in the Geometry of Polynomials GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 37 of them is important. Analyzing how root location influences References References a polynomial’s properties is one way to further this under- standing and to continue to expand the field of the geometry [1] B. Anderson, Where the Inflection Points of a Polynomial B. Anderson, Where the Inflection Points of a Polynomial May Lie.Math Mag. 70:1 (1997), 32-39. of polynomials. We have seen how polynomial root dragging May Lie. Math Mag. 70:1 (1997), 32-39. demonstrates intuitive reasons why the Bernstein polynomi- B. Anderson, Polynomial Root Dragging. Am. Math. Monthly. 100:9 (1993), 864-865. als frequently arise as functions that maximize certain proper- [2] B. Anderson, Polynomial Root Dragging. Am. Math. ties of polynomial functions with zeros in the interval [-1,1]: Monthly. 100:9 (1993), 864-865. P. Andrews, Where Not to Find the Critical Points of a Polynomial. Am Math. Monthly. (1995), 155-158. as these functions have their roots in the most extreme loca- [3] P. Andrews, Where Not to Find the Critical Points of a tions possible, it makes sense that these results often follow. Polynomial. Am. Math. Monthly. (1995), 155-158. M. Boelkins, J. From and S. Kolins, Polynomial Root Squeezing. (2008). Further, we have seen some of the wide variations possible among all polynomial functions, whether in measuring their [4] M. Boelkins, J. From and S. Kolins, Polynomial Root M. Boelkins, J. Miller and B. Vugteveen, From Chebyshev to Bernstein: A Tour of Polynomials Small and Large. The College Math. Journal 37:3 supremum norm, L1 norm, span of the roots of derivatives, Squeezing. (2008). (200), 194-204. distance from the centroid to the nearest critical number, and more. [5] M. Boelkins, J. Miller and B. Vugteveen, From Chebyshev W. Cheney and D. Kincaid, Numerical Analysis, 2nd ed., Brooks/Cole, 1996. Our research has also generated new questions for us to to Bernstein: A Tour of Polynomials Small and Large. The continue to pursue. Some of our ideas for the future include College Math. Journal 37:3 (2006), 194-204. C. Frayer and J. Swenson, Continuous Polynomial Root Dragging, Preprint. investigating the sensitivity of critical numbers with respect [6] W. Cheney and D. Kincaid, Numerical Analysis, 2nd ed., to root motion and trying to quantify how the total change Brooks/Cole, 1996. R. Gelca, A Short Proof of a Result on Polynomials Am. Math. Monthly. (1993), 936-937. of the critical numbers’ locations is distributed among them individually. Also, we aspire to develop fully the idea of us- [7] C. Frayer and J. Swenson, Continuous Polynomial Root A. Melman, Bounds on the Zeros of the Derivative of a Polynomial with All Real Zeros. The Math. Assoc. of Am. 115 (2008), 145-147. ing convexity as a tool to provide a more general theory that Dragging. Preprint. explains which properties are maximized by Bernstein poly- G.V. Milovanovic, Topics in Polynomials: Extemal Problems, Inequalities, and Zeros. World Sci. Pub. (1994). nomials. We may also explore other possible benefits that [8] R. Gelca, A Short Proof of a Result on Polynomials. Am. arise from thinking of monic polynomials with all real zeros Math. Monthly. (1993), 936-937. P. Pawlowski, On the Zeros of a Polynomial and its Derivatives. Am. Math. Society. 350:11 (1998), 446 1-4472. as a vector space. [9] A. Melman, Bounds on the Zeros of the Derivative of a The geometry of polynomials is a beautiful and interesting Polynomial with All Real Zeros. The Math. Assoc. of Am. G. Peyser, On the Roots of the Derivative of a Polynomial with Real Roots. Am. Math. Monthly. (1967), 1102-1104. field of mathematics that continues to provide rich problems 115 (2008), 145-147. for study, and it also helps to explain one of the most funda- R. Robinson, On the Spans of Derivatives of Polynomials. Am. Math. Monthly. (1964), 504-508. mental objects in mathematics. [10] G.V. Milovanovic, Topics in Polynomials: Extremal Problems, Inequalities, and Zeros. World Sci. Pub. (1994). Bl. Sendov, Hausdorff Geometry of Polynomials,East J. Approx. 7 (2001), 123-178. [11] P. Pawlowski, On the Zeros of a Polynomial and its Derivatives. Am. Math. Society. 350:11 (1998), 4461-4472. [12] G. Peyser, On the Roots of the Derivative of a Polyno- mial with Real Roots. Am. Math. Monthly. (1967), 1102- 1104. [13] R. Robinson, On the Spans of Derivatives of Polynomi- als. Am. Math. Monthly. (1964), 504-508. [14] Bl. Sendov, Hausdorff Geometry of Polynomials, East J. Approx. 7 (2001), 123-178.

38 Investigations in the Geometry of Polynomials GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 39 Campus Triple Bottom Line: College Sustainability and Grand Valley State University TableTable I.I. SummarySummary ofof Literature Literature on Campuson Campus Sustainability Sustainability Colleges and universities in the United students to see the linkages between other States and globally have mobilized around areas of studies beyond the sciences, such as Stream/Article Methodology Findings sustainability issues and engaged their cam- social science, community development, and Research Stream 1 Strategy and pus community and communities-at-large in political science. Students have been found Environmental Management Systems efforts to recycle, reduce carbon emissions, to be formidable ambassadors for furthering Clarke, Kouri (2009) Discussion/Case Study Discusses various Environmental Management Systems from informal create green space, foster food security, and sustainability both on and off campus. Stu- to formal frameworks and implications of EMSs as related to institutional drivers that led to framework implementation learn about and participate in creating sus- dents have also learned valuable skills that tainable communities. This study provides have led to personal job creation and entre- Fisher (2003) Discussion/Case Study Discusses the use of ISO14001 as a tool for environmental review or a literature review of sustainability pro- preneurship. Research stream No. 4 (R4)— management systems grams within the United States and abroad, local, regional, and global initiatives, looks Price (2005) Overview/Case Study Perception of Environmental Management Systems use in most UK and commonalities across these programs at how colleges and universities have forged universities settings as marginally important. Case study of University of Glamorgan Wales as first to have all operations accredited to ISO were identified, grouped into four research relationships with off-campus stakeholders. 14001 streams, and used as the bases for the theoret- Higher education has brought the movement Spellerberg, Buchan, Discussion/Case Study Discusses the use of environmental policy and policy into practice as Mary J. Brown ical framework. This paper further expands of sustainability beyond the campus to local, Englefield (2004) adequate for progress without the adoption of a formal EMS. Illustrates McNair Scholar on the subject of campus sustainability by regional, and in some cases global initiatives this via case study of Lincoln University, New Zealand presenting a case study of Grand Valley State (sees Table I). Research Stream 2 Organizational Learning and Capacity Building University Sustainable Community Devel- Research stream No.1 (R1) overviews or- Albrecht, Burandt, Theory Building/Case Study Examines the use of transparency as incentive for organizational opment Initiative, whose focus is to bring ganizational learning and capacity building Schaltegger (2007) change, draws on theoretical concepts from organizational learning and sustainable practices not only to the campus and highlights avenues in which the college applications to university context of Grand Valley State University (GVSU), campus can learn together of the importance Downey (2004) Reflective/Case Study Highlights the transformation of the Sheffield Hallam University, UK incorporation of sustainable practices within the formal university but also to wider community stakeholders. and need for sustainable thinking. Organiza- structure and advantages of student engagement tional learning has helped to create a campus Gudz (2004) Discussion/Case Study Analysis of implications for organizational learning in preparing for Review of Literature on Campus culture that looks at ways to reduce waste and creating a sustainable development policy. Embedded case study of Sustainability Programs contribute to the environment, ecology, and University of British Columbia Faculty of Agricultural Sciences socio-community responsibility. Downey learning experience Research Stream 3 Peer reviewed articles on sustainabil- (2004) offers reflections on Sheffeld Hallam Student Education and Involvement ity programs within the United States and University’s learning and capacity building Domask (2007) Case Study Shows interdisciplinary curriculum, student work experiences and abroad were reviewed, and commonalities through its transition from environmental employment opportunities as effective learning approaches to across these programs were identified and focus to sustainability with emphasis towards sustainability Jaideep Motwani, Ph.D. used as the bases for the theoretical frame- corporate social responsibility. Gudz (2004) Bhasin, Bjardotti, Das, Dock, Pullins, Case Study Campus and community engagement in sustainable development Rosales, Savanick, Stricherz, Weller, (2003) through sustainability networks, initiatives and educational programs Faculty Mentor work. The articles that were examined were shares the need for universities’ sustainable Stubbs, Crocklin (2008) Literature Development of a sustainability framework to teach business student to organized into four research streams: Re- development policy to integrate teaching, Review/Case Study use critical and reflective thinking and analysis of sustainability search stream No. 1 (R1)—organizational research, operations and local community beyond the neoclassical economic thinking in which MBA students learning and capacity building, highlights relations and move towards learning orga- engage the campus as a learning organization for nizations that enable relationship-building Owens, Halfacre-Hitchcock (2006) Case Study Sharing of experience of students who implemented a sustainability sustainable thinking and practices. Organi- and the development of learning capacities. initiative and measured its effect on both faculty and student attitudes, information levels and behaviors regarding sustainability zational learning has helped to create a cam- Albrecht, Burandt, & Schalteggar’s (2007) Walker, Seynour (2008) Case Study Investigates the use of the design charrette as a sustainability teaching pus culture that reduces waste, preserves the exploration of sustainability projects as a tool and assessment of charette’s role in promotion of sustainability in ecology, contributes to economic stability, stimulation of organizational learning and higher education and demonstrates socio-community respon- creation of transparency adds to the discus- Research Stream 4 Local, Regional, and Global Initiatives sibility. Research stream No. 2 (R2)—envi- sion of creating legitimacy of universities’ Mochizuki, Fadeeva (2008) Conceptual Paper Provides an overview of the United Nations University’s Regional ronmental management systems and strat- sustainability initiatives through action re- Centres of Expertise on Education for Sustainable Development (RCE) egy development, highlights environmental search. Itoh, Suemoto, Matsuoka, Ito, Yui, Case Study Highlights the Regional Centre of Expertise (RCE) on education and management systems (EMS) as a strategic Research stream No. 2 (R2) looks at en- Matsuda, Ishikawa (2008) the contribution of Kobe University as a RCE tool for implementation and focuses on how vironmental management systems (EMS) as colleges have established structural supports a strategic tool for implementation and fo- Stefanovic (2008) Case Study Highlights the role the University of Toronto has had in establishing a Regional Centre of Expertise (RCE) in Education for Sustainable to implement, measure, and evaluate sus- cuses on how colleges have set up structural Development in Toronto and the RCE’s impact on the larger tainability programs. Research stream No. supports to implement, measure, and evalu- community and its partnerships 3 (R3)—student, education and involve- ate sustainability programs. Price (2005) Keen and Baldwin (2004) Case Study An analysis of student involvement in community-based research and service learning programs ment, is concerned with interdisciplinary asserts that universities need to move from approaches to student learning and sustain- the preception that environmental manage- ability. Interdisciplinary learning has allowed ment systems are marginally important and

40 Campus Triple Bottom Line: College Sustainability and Grand Valley State University GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 41 a “soft control issue” and separate from cam- its sustainability initiative forward (Bhasin, University of Toronto focused on relevant ship (CSP), which was first comprised of streams and the GVSU SCDI model. Thus initiative has created a dynamic website that pus sustainability operations to a more inte- Bjardotti, Das, Dock, Pullins, Rosales, Sa- interdisciplinary action research that helped Grand Valley State University, the City of the focus from this point will be the follow- is rich with information and resources for grated system within university sustainabil- vanick, Stricherz, Weller, 2003). Walker and students and professors bring environmental Grand Rapids, Aquinas College, Grand Rap- ing: Education for Sustainable Development students, faculty, and the community. ity. Clarke & Kouri (2009) highlight many Seymour (2008) share the benefits of using awareness and make an impact on the lo- ids Community College, and Grand Rapids (Research stream No. 1. —Organizational The most notable efforts have been different frameworks of EMSs: ISO14001; interdisciplinary studies as a means for stu- cal and broader communities and represent Public Schools. It has now grown to 189 en- Learning & Capacity Building), Campus through the campus wide sustainability week, Higher Education 21 (UK); the EMS Self- dents to explore sustainability. More specifi- equity and diversity in programming. Keen dorsing partners as of March 2010 (Commu- Dining and Facilities Services (Research RecycleMania (a national competition) Assessment Checklist (USA); the Audit- cally, the focus was on an example of a design and Baldwin’s (2004) research focuses on nity Sustainability Partnership, April 2010). stream No. 2—Strategy and Environmental and interdisciplinary studies. Sustainability ing Instrument for Sustainability in Higher charrette that involved students, faculty, and collaboratively designed research between As a member of CSP, GVSU is also a partici- Management Systems), Student Involvement Week focuses on various topics and activities Education (Netherlands); The Osnabrück professionals from the areas of architectures, institutions of higher education and the pant in the first U.S. designation of Grand and Service Learning (Research stream No. around sustainability. Students and faculty University model (Germany) and the Sus- civil engineering, business, natural sciences, community. Findings included students be- Rapids Regional Center of Expertise (RCE). 3—Student Education and Involvement), are encouraged to participate, and faculty are tainability University Model (Mexico). They landscaping contracting, and management ing influenced on their life choices as it per- The SCDI has received recognition in many and Community Development (Research encouraged to integrate the topic of sustain- argue that colleges and universities require in analyzing the complex issues of the devas- tained to environmental concerns, increased areas, and highlights include national recog- stream No. 4). As previously mentioned, the ability into their lesson plans. RecycleMania EMS frameworks that are specific to their tation of the Mississippi Gulf by Hurricane ability to deal with complexity, and engage- nition for Sustainability Innovation from the research streams form the lens through which is competition over a 10-week period that is sector yet consider individual institution Katrina in order to create a conceptual model ment with others and a valuing of perspec- Sustainable Endowment Institute, 2008 U.S. to explore GVSU SCDI and the formation held between college and university recycling drivers. Fisher (2003) highlights EMS as of sustainable development in the area. tives. Green Building Council recipient, 9 LEED of the theoretical framework that will fol- programs in the United States “to see which a way to bring the business world into the Research stream No. 4 (R4) looks at how The four research streams served as a con- facilities, and President Thomas Haas’s sign- low. institution can collect the largest amount of classroom, which may provide usefulness for colleges and universities have forged relation- text to explore the sustainability practices in ing of the Talloires Declaration and The recyclables per capita, the largest amount of environmental education. Spellerberg, Buch- ships with off-campus stakeholders. Higher each case study and to provide a lens through American College & University Presidents Education for Sustainable Development total recyclables, the least amount of trash an, & Englefield (2004) argue that an envi- education has brought the movement of which to view the sustainability practices of Climate Commitment (GVSU Sustainabil- (Research stream No. 1—Organizational per capita, or have the highest recycling rate” ronmental policy and implementation plan sustainability beyond the campus to local the Grand Valley State University Sustain- ity Recognitions, 2010). Learning & Capacity Building) (RecycleMania is Here! April 10, 2010). can be just as appropriate and effective as an and regional initiatives, and in some cases, ability Initiative. In addition, the research The SCDI’s work is guided by many EMS and illustrates this through a case study participated in global initiatives. The pa- streams and the Grand Valley Case Study al- thought leaders in sustainability but notably Education for Sustainable Development Campus Dining and Facilities Services of Lincoln University in New Zealand. pers reviewed include case studies of various low for the formation of a theoretical frame- the SCDI’s Sustainability Initiative model is (R1) is focused on campus awareness and (Research stream No. 2—Strategy and Research stream No. 3 (R3) is concerned universities’ involvement with the United work and a suggested implementation model based on the work of Dr. Anthony Cortese, learning about sustainable practices. The Environmental Management Systems) with the interdisciplinary approach to in- Nations University Institute for Advanced for institutions of higher education that ScD of Second Nature (figure 1). This model GVSU SCDI model formed the basis for volvement of students in education and Studies (UNU) Regional Centre of Exper- would like to start a sustainability initiative. complements the research streams previously building awareness throughout the campus This area focuses on the administrative practice in the area of sustainability. Students tise (RCE) on Education for Sustainable De- These areas will be further discussed in the discussed and will be interwoven throughout and helped to establish a common frame- strategies and the embedment of sustainable have been found to be formidable ambassa- velopment, which is a “network of existing remainder of this paper. the case study discussion, as it offers examples work from which to work on threading sus- practices in operational areas. It is important dors for furthering sustainability both on formal, non-formal, and informal education of the research stream in practice. This case tainability concepts and practices that were that institutes of higher education leader- and off campus. This engagement has -al organisations, mobilised to deliver educa- Grand Valley State University study will not focus on the linear history of to come. GVSU SCDI has used many ways ship support sustainability by setting the lowed students to see the linkages between tion for sustainable development to local Sustainable Community the GVSU SCDI as much as it will highlight to build awareness and encourage participa- tone and helping to create awareness, inter- other areas of studies beyond the sciences, and regional communities” (United Nations Development Initiative activities that correspond to the research tion from staff, faculty, and students. The est, and involvement (Velazquez et al., 2005, such as social science, community develop- University Institute for Advanced Stud- pg. 384). GVSU leadership began to set this ment, and political science. Students have ies, 2010). Mochizuki and Fadeeva (2008) Grand Valley State University (GVSU) is tone in the creation of sustainability indica- also been able to learn valuable skills that provide an overview of the RCE and how a four-year public university providing fully tors, and President Thomas J. Haas's signing have led to personal job creation and entre- institutions of higher education (IHEs) can accredited liberal undergraduate, graduate of the Talloires Declaration and The Ameri- preneurship. Domask (2007) lauds the ben- create linkages that allow them to break from and PhD programs. GVSU’s main campus can College & University Presidents Climate efits of experiential learning and shows how compartmentalization of knowledge and to is located in Allendale, Michigan, with cam- Commitment (GVSU Sustainability Recog- it can accomplish connecting the academics link campus policies with practices. They fur- puses in downtown Grand Rapids, Holland, nitions, 2010). with real-world practice; foster interdisci- ther highlight that IHEs that are partners in Muskegon, and Traverse City, Michigan. In Each year, since the SCDI’s start, Campus plinary curriculum implementation; link RCEs can use action research as a means to addition, it works in cooperation with other Dining Services have increased sustainable students to practicum and job opportunities; modifying action rather than generating new colleges and universities at two regional cen- practices without compromising the quality and engage and empower students in the aca- knowledge (Mochizuki and Fadeeva, 2008, ters, one in Muskegon and the other in Tra- of food or service. This unit has focused on demic learning process. Stubbs and Cocklin pg. 378). verse City. GVSU has over 24,400 students sustainable procurement from local sources (2008) create a framework in which business Itoh, Suemoto, Matsuoka, Ito, Yui, Mat- supported by 2,890 faculty and staff (Grand (including fair trade sources) and seafood MBA students can look at varied aspects suda, and Ishikawa (2008) reinforce these Valley State University: 2008 Sustainability sources that focus on sustainable practices of sustainability in business (ecocentrism, thoughts by showing how the RCE Hyogo- Indicator Report, pg. 1-2). in farming (Grand Valley State University: ecological modernization and neoclassical Kobe University built on existing education The GVSU Sustainable Community De- 2008 Sustainability Indicator Report, pg. economic paradigm) and use critical think- for sustainable development work that had velopment Initiative (SCDI) officially began 4-10 through 4-11). Campus Dining Ser- ing and reflection to expand their knowledge begun at Kobe University, which created in 2004 with the adoption of guiding prin- vices has also focused on waste management of the “schools of thoughts” around sustain- opportunities for interdisciplinary action ciples that emphasized the triple bottom line and recycling by elimination of trays, which ability and be able to articulate each side research in collaboration with regional stake- of sustainability and led to the formal cre- helped in reduction of energy, water, and of the sustainability debate. The impact of holders and created further opportunity for ation of the Sustainability Initiative within detergent use, saving 1,619,000 gallons of a culturally diverse, student led, nine-part internal coordination within the university. the College of Interdisciplinary Studies water from 2007-2008 (Sustainability and series exploring international sustainable Stefanovic (2008) highlights the work of (GVSU Sustainability Recognitions, 2010). Campus Dining, 2010). development issues formed the basis for the University of Toronto and the establish- The SCDI was one of the founding members Campus Facilities Services has participated University of Minnesota’s efforts in moving ment of a RCE. The work that was done at of the Community Sustainability Partner- in campus recycling efforts and the guidance

42 Campus Triple Bottom Line: College Sustainability and Grand Valley State University GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 43 and coordination of engineering projects, storm water management systems and plan- with West Michigan Symphony, Sustain- nological and environmental pressures could which includes new and existing building ning, which includes the use of rain gardens ability: A West Michigan Journey, which come into play when facilities and Informa- energy efficiencies. Facilities have worked and sustainable landscaping practices (Grand focuses on “a multi-media concert based on tion Technology departments are pressured diligently to bring awareness via information Valley State University: 2008 Sustainability sustainability with supporting education to maximize resources and minimize waste. distribution and energy awareness competi- Indicator Report, pg. 4-8 through 4-10). and community engagements programs” Both facilities and IT personnel are pres- tions within the Housing department. These (Sustainability Community Development sured to build sustainable practices into efforts have benefited GVSU, and overall Student Involvement and Initiative, Internships, 2010). These activities overall operations. Both groups have massive electricity consumption has decreased from Service Learning add variety by allowing the student to engage responsibilities throughout the campus and 55 million kilowatts in FY2006 to less than (Research stream No. 3—Student outside of the classroom and text and create often multiple sites. 53 million kilowatts in FY2008. Energy re- Education and Involvement) mutual understanding and practicality of In the TFS Model, a main driving point duction awareness has created an annual sav- sustainability between the community and is the creation of administrative, governance, ings of $861,000 since 2001 (Grand Valley GVSU wanted to show commitment to the student. and operational systems that support, in- State University: 2008 Sustainability Indica- their work in sustainability by establishing teract and connect with the campus and tor Report, pg. 4-6). interdisciplinary studies and student in- Community Engagement (R4) community. This system has embedded in GVSU Facilities Services continues to volvement in service learning projects. In- it capacity building, waste and energy reduc- evaluate opportunities to incorporate alter- cluded in this area are the aforementioned Since its inception, the GVSU SCDI has tion and sustainability practices around food native energy use in operations. As explained Sustainability Week and RecyclingMania worked to foster connections and learning service and transportation. These systems in the GVSU 2008 Sustainability Indicator programs. The interdisciplinary studies pro- between the various GVSU campuses and the should foster a campus culture that includes Report, some most notable examples are the vided at GVSU offer students and faculty the wider community. These connections have research and interdisciplinary curriculum use of alternative energy sources in the Laker opportunity to engage deeply in the area of created viable partnerships that have added and academic program development. It Turf Building (Allendale Campus), Michi- sustainability. Students have the opportunity to community awareness of sustainable prac- should also insure that it integrates prin- gan Alternative and Renewable Energy Cen- to major or minor in a Liberal Arts degree in tices as well as advancing community and ciples of sustainability into campus living ter (Muskegon) and the John C. Kennedy sustainability. Students and faculty are also economic development. As noted before, and working environments. It should further Hall of Engineering Building (Robert C. afforded the opportunity to gain knowledge GVSU SCDI’s participation in the Commu- velopment and monitoring of city and com- ment of a theoretical framework for sustain- integrate community engagement opportu- Pew Grand Rapids Campus): and build skills in service learning projects nity Sustainability Partnership (CSP), the munity sustainability indicators reports as ability that can be used by institutes of higher nities that focus on partnerships, learning and internship and research opportunities. Grand Rapids Regional Center for Exper- well as assisting with developing sustainable education as they look to incorporate sus- opportunities, and community service and Grand Valley – the Laker Turf Build- Notable activities beyond the classroom in- tise in Education and Sustainable Develop- neighborhoods and communities (GVSU, tainable practices on their campus or develop outreach. Integral to this system is a constant ing and Michigan Alternative and Re- clude the Student Sustainability Partnership, ment (a United Nations University Institute Making it Happen, Applied Sustainability at a campus wide initiative focused in this area. feedback loop of communication. newable Energy Center (MAREC) which focuses on bringing to together SCDI of Advanced Studies program), and GVSU GVSU, 2009). The proposed Theoretical Framework for Campus Administration can begin the – incorporate photovoltaic as a par- students and student organization leaders to President Haas as signatory to the Talloires An additional area that should be noted Sustainability works from the perspective of work of sustainability by putting into place tial energy source to provide power collaborate on sustainability projects (Sus- Declaration and The American College & is the Grand Valley State University Michi- the Triple Bottom Line, as illustrated in Fig- a Proactive Implementation Model for Sus- to building energy controls and some tainability Community Development Ini- University Presidents Climate Commitment gan Alternative and Renewable Energy Cen- ure 2: Definition of Campus Triple Bottom tainability (PIMS). Figure 4 shows a sug- building heat support. Geothermal tiative, Student Sustainability Partnership, all create local, national and international ter (MAREC) housed in a LEED certified Line. The main focus here is on contributing gested PIMS for phasing in sustainability wells also have been added as an al- 2010), and a most recent internship project visibilities. GVSU is participating in the de- (Gold) facility that opened in fall of 2003. to the viability and sustenance of the com- onto the campus. Phase 1 looks at creating a ternative energy option for the Turf Among the collaborators were the Commu- munity via economic prosperity, social re- learning organization and building capacity Building. Geothermal technology nity Foundation for Muskegon, Muskegon sponsibility as demonstrated by community around sustainable practices. In this phase, helps maintain the heating and cooling Area Chamber of Commerce, and Muskegon involvement and support, and being a good an understanding of what sustainability is levels within the building by transfer- First. MAREC’s focus is on creating econom- steward of the environment and ecology. and ways to achieve it is developed. Top ring heat from the wells to the build- ic development opportunities in the area of The Theoretical Framework for Sustain- leadership is crucial to this first phase. In re- ing in the winter, and from the build- renewable and alternative energy providing ability (TFS) model (Figure 3) looks at ex- flecting on the GVSU case study, it can be ing to the cooler wells in the summer space and support for uniquely focused and ternal influencers that impact an institute of seen that the participation of the president of months. Ice block technology was innovative business start-ups and projects higher education’s participation in sustain- GVSU, Thomas J. Haas, was an integral piece added to our John C. Kennedy Hall of in these areas. GVSU SCDI highlights that ability. Administration, Governance, and to leading the charge of creating a campus en- Engineering building on the Robert “MAREC's strategic focus revolves around Operations are all impacted by social, politi- vironment for this change. C. Pew Grand Rapids Campus. This four key initiatives: 1) managing a leading- cal, economic, technological, and environ- The second phase focuses on setting vi- technology, which allows us to freeze edge facility, 2) implementing visionary en- mental external influencers. In general terms, sions and objectives, identifying champions, a large ice block during nighttime ergy projects, 3) providing alternative energy a college or university may decide to engage forming teams and putting into place assess- hours, helps cool refrigerant lines dur- education, and 4) supporting the economic in sustainability initiatives out of pressures or ments and reviews that help to support the ing the daytime hours and helps offset development of Muskegon and the state” encouragement it may receive from the ex- initiative. A system for strategy and environ- peak electrical costs. (Sustainability Community Development ternal environment. Pressures could include mental management, the GVSU Sustainabil- (Grand Valley State University: 2008 Initiative, LEED Buildings, 2010). social, political, or economic student activ- ity Indicators were shown to be important in Sustainability Indicator Report, pg. ism around the procurement of resources or bringing attention to the need for GVSU to 4-7). Theoretical Framework supplies from an unsustainable or inhuman focus on sustainability. This document was

for Sustainability source (for example: boycott of university the catalyst for the campus community to Other areas of focus include the de- pennant shop goods because of the use of become involved in creating a campus envi- crease of water use to 151.5 million gallons The four research streams and the GVSU sweatshops, or factory farming use). Tech- ronment that fosters sustainability. in FY2008, and surface water quality and case study have contributed to the develop- The third phase looks at implementation

44 Campus Triple Bottom Line: College Sustainability and Grand Valley State University GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 45 Resources

Grand Valley State University Sustainability and Campus Dining, 2010 Retrieved from http://www.gvsu.edu/campusdine/index.cfm?id=A7763EAE-D4B4-0EDD-16CF84191E7F2062

Grand Valley State University Sustainability Community Development Initiative, LEED Buildings, 2010 Retrieved April 10, 2010 from http://www.gvsu.edu/sustainability/leed-buildings-131.htm

Grand Valley State University Sustainability Community Development Initiative, Student Sustainability Partnership, 2010. Retrieved April 10, 2010 from http://www.gvsu.edu/sustainability/student-sustainability-partnership-183.htm

Grand Valley State University: 2008 Sustainability Indicator Report. Grand Valley State University, Retrieved from http://www.gvsu.edu/cms3/assets/1ACDDEF0-A15A-67B1-F268BE06B2416593/ documents/2008-sustainability-indicator-report.pdf

Grand Valley State University Making it Happen, Applied Sustainability at GVSU, 2009 Retrieved April 11, 2010 http://www.gvsu.edu/cms3/assets/1ACDDEF0-A15A-67B1-F268BE06B2416593/2655-App_Sus_Broch_2[1].pdf

Grand Valley State University Community Sustainability Partnership, Endorsing Partners as of March 2010. Retrieved April 8, 2010 http://www.grpartners.org/pdfs/resources/CSP_Endorsement_list_-_3-20101.pdf

Grand Valley State University Sustainability Recognitions, 2010 Retrieved April 8, 2010 from and programming. The second phase can strated broad and diverse methodologies http://www.gvsu.edu/sustainability/gvsu-sustainability-recognitions-160.htm be the driver for more substantial work to and applications of data collection, program- be carried out in the areas of procurement, ming, stakeholder involvement, and pro- Grand Valley State University Sustainability Report, October 2005. facilities, interdisciplinary curriculum de- gram measurement. The examples from the Retrieved April 8, 2010 from velopment, campus participation in local, research streams and the Grand Valley State http://www.gvsu.edu/cms3/assets/1ACDDEF0-A15A-67B1-F268BE06B2416593/sustainability_report2.pdf regional, and global initiatives, and faculty University Sustainable Community Devel- and student involvement in programming. opment Initiative show that there is room for RecycleMania is Here! GVSU and other college campuses high- applying models for a Theoretical Framework Retrieved April 10, 2010, from http://www.gvsu.edu/facilitiesservices/index.cfm?id=7A35702E-D089-7913-B495E8C24D8EB962 lighted in this research became involved in for Sustainability and Proactive Implementa- both on campus and off-campus initiatives. tion. Institutes of higher education should United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies (2010). Regional Centres of Expertise (RCE) Retrieved April 8, 2010 from For some institutions of higher education, examine critical success factors that can help http://www.ias.unu.edu/sub_page.aspx?catID=108&ddlID=183 off-campus engagement can be a starting and inhibit the quality and effectiveness of point for sustainability projects. campus sustainability programs before and Velazquez, L., Munguia, N., Sanchez, M., (2005) The fifth and final phase focus is on- in during the process. Deterring Sustainability In Higher Education Institutions, An Appraisal Of The Factors Which Influence Sustainability In Higher corporation of continuous learning and im- Education Institutions. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, Vol 6, No 4 pp. 383 - 391 provement at a systemic level. This can be accomplished through program evaluation practices, such as sustainability indicators, or more targeted work around climate action. This phase also focuses on looking at rede- sign and revision as a part of growing and developing. The research streams and the implementa- tion phases can be conceptually integrated to show the relationship between the theory and suggestion for program development, implementation, and monitoring.

Conclusion

The campus sustainability programs that were reviewed varied in form and demon-

46 Campus Triple Bottom Line: College Sustainability and Grand Valley State University GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 47 Co-localization of Histamine and eGFP in the Central Nervous System from tion of living cells containing HDC activity remains elusive, and thus, the pHdc-5’-UTR- pHdc-5’-UTR-eGFP Transformants of Drosophila melanogaster eGFP transgene may serve as such a marker for living histaminergic neurons. Thus, the co-localization of the transmitter histamine Abstract Introduction in the same cells expressing eGFP in the cen- tral nervous systems from pHdc-5’-UTR- Histamine is a biogenic amine synthesized Histamine has been shown to be an im- eGFP transformants is shown in this paper, by the enzyme histidine decarboxylase (Hdc) portant neurotransmitter, a chemical that which should now allow the identification and used as a neurotransmitter in the central transmits signals between neurons, for and study of living histaminergic neurons. nervous system of Drosophila melanogaster. photoreceptor cells and other sensory cells Identification of living cells containing We are interested in understanding how tissue- in Drosophila melanogaster (Sarthy, 1991; Hdc activity, and consequently histamine, specific expression of Hdc is controlled by ex- Melzig et al.,1996). The enzyme that cata- will allow the study of the differentiation amining the function of both the Hdc 5’-UTR lyzes the decarboxylation of histamine, form- and development of the histaminergic cells (Untranslated region) and 3’-UTR through ing histamine in the central nervous system in vivo. It will also allow the identification of the regulation of the expression of the reporter of Drosophila melanogaster, is histidine de- these cells for future physiological and other gene, eGFP. Initial studies reported here ex- carboxylase, with mutations in the Hdc gene biochemical analysis, increasing our knowl- amine the function of the 5’-UTR of the Hdc having also been identified (Hdc; Burg et al., edge of the action of histamine in the central Wendi-Jo L. Ervin gene by determining whether eGFP expression 1993). An earlier study indicated that a 9.4 nervous system. McNair Scholar can be demonstrated in histaminergic cells of kb genomic DNA fragment containing the Methods and Materials transformant flies containing the pHdc-5’- Hdc gene could be used to restore Hdc func- UTR-eGFP transgene. To determine if all tion in mutant flies lacking Hdc function cells expressing eGFP in these transformants (Burg and Pak, 1995). Further studies also Histamine Immunocytochemistry: The cen- are also histaminergic, examination of hista- identified regions necessary for expression of tral nervous systems from various develop- mine-stained CNS preparations from various Hdc in the central brain complex (Burg and mental stages of pHdc-5’-UTR-eGFP trans- developmental stages of transformant flies was Pak, 1995). More recently, the gene encod- formant flies were dissected in a 2% EDAC conducted and analyzed using fluorescence ing the enhanced green fluorescent protein fixative (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo) microscopy. Results indicate that many hista- (eGFP) was inserted at the 5’ end of the Hdc in a phosphate buffered saline, pH 7.2. The minergic cells appear to express eGFP as well. gene in Drosophila melanogaster using the resultant tissue was then washed with Droso- These results indicate that the 5’-UTR region pGreenPelican vector (Anderson and Burg, phila Ringer’s solution twice for 10 minutes of Hdc can induce expression of eGFP in cen- 2007) and transformed into flies, with one each, after which the tissue was incubated in trally located histamine-containing neurons. pHdc-5’-UTR-eGFP transgene being locat- 5% normal goat serum (NGS; Invitrogen, Differences in the level of expression of eGFP ed on chromosome 2 and another on chro- Inc.) for one hour. The tissue was then incu- observed between cell types and developmental mosome 3 (Miller and Burg, 2008). Trans- bated overnight in a rabbit histamine poly- Martin G. Burg, Ph.D. stages suggest that the 3’-UTR of Hdc may still formants carrying the pHdc-5’-UTR-eGFP clonal antibody (Immunostar Inc., Stillwater, Faculty Mentor be required for complete expression. Since the can therefore be used to determine whether MN) diluted 1:1000 in PBS containing 1% co-localization of eGFP and histamine in cells the 5’-UTR region is sufficient for normal NGS, at 4°C. After the overnight incuba- has been achieved, new areas of research may Hdc expression. tion, the tissue was washed with TBS + 1% now be conducted to investigate the function of In addition to identifying cells that con- NGS + 0.3% Triton X-100 twice for 20 min- histaminergic cells in culture, leading to a bet- tain histamine, this type of labeling of hista- utes each and then incubated in an Alexa- ter understanding of the role that histamine minergic neurons may lead to a more thor- fluor 555 goat anti-rabbit antibody diluted cells play in the central nervous system. ough study of the regulation of Hdc itself. 1:1000 (Invitrogen, Inc.) for 30-60 minutes. For example, not much is known concerning The tissue was then washed in TBS + 1% Figure 1: Whole-mount 2nd instar larval brains demonstrating NGS + 0.3% Triton X-100 twice for 10 min- how the Hdc protein is regulated within a eGFP expression induced by the pHdc-5’UTR-eGFP transgene cell. As in other vertebrate HDC proteins, utes each time and then washed in PBS and detected using an FITC filter (A,B; eGFP). Histamine immu- placed on microscope slides for microscopic regions known as “PEST” regions have also noreactivity is shown in panels C,D (HA). E,F: merged images been identified in both the “N”- and “C-“ of A+C and B+D, demonstrating co-localization of eGFP and analysis (protocol adapted from Pollack and terminal regions of the Drosophila HDC histamine (note yellow cells; eGFP+HA). Histamine staining Hofbauer, 1991). protein. These regions may mediate cleav- and the eGFP flourescence appear to co-localize, indicating that age of the HDC protein in Drosophila, as the pHdc-5’UTR-eGFP transgene induces expression of eGFP in Fluorescence Photomicrography: For bright- has been identified to occur in other species histaminergic cells. Specimens in these images are from the pH- field microscopy, specimens were examined dc-5’UTR-eGFP transformant with insert on chromosome 2. during the maturation of the HDC protein using an Olympus AX70 microscope using (Fleming and Wang, 2000). Due to this type DIC optics, and images were captured using of maturation, it has been difficult to purify a high-resolution digital camera. To co-lo- or tag the protein with various epitopes, such calize histamine and eGFP using epifluores- as green fluorescent protein (GFP). Without cence microscopy, an Alexa-fluor 555 goat the ability to purify or tag HDC, identifica- anti-rabbit antibody (detecting histamine)

48 Co-localization of Histamine and eGFP in the Central Nervous System from pHdc-5’-UTR-eGFP Transformants of Drosophila melanogaster GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 49 was visualized using a rhodamine excitation formant flies, eGFP can be localized in neu- filter set. eGFP was detected in whole mount rons that also contain histamine, and thus, tissue using epifluorescence microscopy us- can serve as a marker for living histaminergic ing a FITC excitation filter set. Images were neurons. collected and digitally merged using Adobe The co-localization of eGFP and hista- Photoshop, adjusting only brightness and mine shows that the 5’ UTR region of Hdc contrast. is sufficient to drive expression of histamine in most histamine-containing neurons of the Results central nervous system. This also means that histaminergic neurons can be viewed in live Specimens of Drosophila melanogaster tissue of transformant flies with the eGFP from both the larval and adult stages that insert, opening many avenues of histamine- contain the pHdc-5’-UTR-eGFP transgene related research and potentially enabling the were dissected, fixed, and stained with a discovery of more pertinent information re- rabbit histamine antibody diluted 1:1000 garding the function of histamine in the cen- and then incubated with a goat-anti-rabbit tral nervous system. secondary antibody labeled with the Alexa- Future studies will need to be conducted fluor 555 dye diluted 1:1000. After these to determine if all histaminergic cells in the incubations, each specimen was placed on a central nervous system co-localize with eGFP microscope slide, viewed and imaged using in the pHdc-5’-UTR-eGFP transformant fly. a fluorescent microscope equipped with a It is unclear whether the 3’ UTR region of high resolution digital camera. Figures 1-3 the Hdc gene is necessary for increasing the show images with each column representing levels of Hdc gene expression. Construction the image of the same specimen at the same of a transgene containing both the 5’-UTR focal plane using different excitation filters. and the 3’-UTR controlling expression of The first row of images was generated using eGFP, and comparison of eGFP expression an FITC excitation filter, which allows exci- Figure 2: Images from whole-mount 3rd instar larval brains dem- to the pHdc-5’-UTR-eGFP transgene, may onstrating eGFP expression induced by the pHdc-5’UTR-eGFP tation of eGFP, normally providing a green demonstrate what function the 3’-UTR has transgene detected using an FITC filter (A,B; eGFP). Histamine fluorescence and indicating the location of immunoreactivity is shown in panels C and D (HA). E: merged with respect to cell-specific expression or eGFP. The second row of images was gen- image of A and C; F: merged image of B and D. Both E and F dem- level of expression. erated using a rhodamine excitation filter, onstrate co-localization of eGFP and histamine (note yellow cells; Whether copy number of the pHdc-5’- which in this case shows the location of his- eGFP+HA). A, C, E are the same image using either the FITC UTR-eGFP transgene can improve eGFP Figure 3: Images from whole-mount adult thoracic and ab- (A), rhodamine-cutoff filter set (B), or combined image (E) from a tamine. The third row of images results from detection has yet to be clearly determined. dominal CNS demonstrating eGFP expression induced by the more ventral focal plane as compared to the image in B, D, F, which the digital merging of the first row of images Transposition of the pHdc-5’-UTR-eGFP pHdc-5’UTR-eGFP transgene in adult tissue, detected using an is a more dorsally oriented focal plane. vg, ventral ganglia; anterior with the second row of images. transgene to other locations in the genome FITC filter (A, B). Histamine immunoreactivity is shown in toward top of image. The images in Figure 1 contain the results is necessary before this type of analysis can C and D. E: merged image of A and C; F: merged image of B from different 2nd instar stage larval brains, continue. Currently, attempts to transpose and D. A, C, E are the same image using either the FITC (A), clearly demonstrating that all cells that con- the pHdc-5’-UTR-eGFP transgene to an- rhodamine-cutoff filter set (B), or combined image (E) from tain eGFP (Fig. 1A, B) were also positive other chromosome are being initiated. a more ventral focal plane as compared to the image in B, D, for histamine (Fig. 1C, D); see also merged There were also differences in the signal and F. Histamine staining and the eGFP fluorescence appear to images in Fig. 1E, F. While there were dif- intensity for eGFP when directly compared co-localize, indicating that the pHdc-5’UTR transgene induces expression of eGFP in histaminergic cells. While all histamin- ferences in the intensity of the eGFP stain- to the levels of signal observed in histamine ergic cells in the thoracic and abdominal nervous system appear ing between preparations, co-localization of mine staining in the brain of the 3rd larval E as well as 3B, D, F). Thus, results demon- detection. To improve the signal of eGFP in to be expressing eGFP, the neurons in the central brain do not eGFP and histamine was consistently dem- instar brain (Python and Stocker, 2002). strate that, in all tissues thus far examined, fixed tissue, a monoclonal antibody against appear to be as easily detected (data not shown). This suggests onstrated. Next, a 3rd instar larval brain While larval brains examined previously eGFP and histamine co-localize in cells of eGFP will be used, which is planned to be that while the majority of the pHdc-driven expression is present, was examined for both eGFP and histamine, for histamine appeared as expected (Python the central nervous systems from pHdc-5’- done in future work. Once carried out, this it may not be completely expressed in all histamine-containing demonstrating results from different focal and Stocker, 2002), intact adult nervous UTR-eGFP transformant flies. enhanced detection for eGFP should clearly cells. tg, fused thoracic ganglia; anterior toward top of image. planes, one more ventral (Fig. 2 A, C, E) and tissue was also examined for histamine lo- demonstrate whether all histamine-contain- the other more dorsal (Fig. 2B, D, F). Both calization, which has not been as well char- Discussion ing neurons express eGFP in the pHdc-5’- sets of images support the previous observa- acterized. Figure 3 demonstrates the results UTR-eGFP transformants at various devel- tion in 2nd instar larval brains that eGFP from co-localization experiments carried out Histamine, synthesized by Hdc, likely acts opmental stages. expressing cells also contain histamine (note showing 2 different focal planes taken of the as a neurotransmitter in Drosophila melano- the merged images which indicate only “yel- adult thoracic ganglia from pHdc-5’-UTR- gaster. Currently, the only effective way to low” colored cells, indicating the presence of eGFP trasnformant flies. While eGFP ex- view histamine in the central nervous system both red and green fluorescence). The hista- pression appears to be stronger than in the of Drosophila melanogaster requires fixation mine staining observed appears to be identi- larvae, the eGFP appears to still co-localize of the tissue. Results from this study demon- cal to previously published reports of hista- to cells that contain histamine (Figs 3A, C, strate that, in the pHdc-5’-UTR-eGFP tran-

50 Co-localization of Histamine and eGFP in the Central Nervous System from pHdc-5’-UTR-eGFP Transformants of Drosophila melanogaster GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 51 References From Soldadera to Adelita: Anderson, E. and M.G. Burg (2007) Synthesis of a HDC-GFP Promoter-Gene Fusion as a Tool to Identify Histaminergic Cells and Examine The Depiction of Women in the Mexican Revolution HDC Regulation. GVSU McNair Scholars Journal 11: 5

Burg, M., Sarthy, V., Koliantz, G., and W. Pak. (1993) Genetic and molecular identification of a Drosophila histidine decarboxylase gene re- Abstract A gun is strapped to her back, as are ban- quired in photoreceptor transmitter synthesis. EMBO J. 12(3): 911-919. doliers across her chest. She wears a flow- Popular images of women during the Mexi- ing skirt, a revealing blouse, and a carefree Burg, M., and W. Pak. (1995) Separation of cis-acting regulatory regions required for photoreceptor and brain-specific expression of the histi- can Revolution (1911-1920) often depict expression on her face. This image has been dine decarboxylase gene of Drosophila. Invest. Ophthal. and Vis. Sci. 36(4): 1979. them as dressed provocatively, yet wearing reproduced repeatedly on t-shirts, calendars, a bandolier and gun. Although the image is address books, advertisements, and even in Fleming J., and T. Wang. (2000) Amino- and Carboxy- Terminal PEST Domains mediate Gastrin Stabilization of Rat L-Histidine Decarboxy- common, its origin is not well known. An ex- the media through movies, songs, and art lase Isoforms. Molecular and Cellular Biology. 20(13):4932-4947. amination of secondary literature and media (see Figure 1). She embodies the image of will show the transformation in the image of soldaderas, or women soldiers, who fought Melzig J., S. Bunchner, F. Wiebel, R. Wolf, E. Buchner, Burg M., and W. Pak. (1996) Genetic Depletion of Histamine from the Nervous System the female soldier (soldadera) over the course during the Mexican Revolution in the years of Drosophila Eliminate Specific Visual and Mechanosensory Behavior. Journal of Comparative Physiology A. 179:763-773. of the Revolution from that of the submissive between 1911 and 1920.¹ At this time in follower into a promiscuous fighter (Adelita). Mexican history, a patriarchal society con- Miller, E. and M.G. Burg (2008) Determination of epitope-labeled Hdc gene expression in transgenic flies of Drosophila, GVSU Student Sum- The soldaderas exhibited masculine charac- strained women and limited their lives in mer Scholars. Delia Fernández teristics, like strength and valor, and for these nearly every aspect. Women’s responsibili- McNair Scholar attributes, men were responsible for reshaping ties to their families and the expectations of Pollack I. and A., Hofbauer (1991) Histamine-like immunoreactivity in the visual system and brain of Drosophila melanogaster. Cell Tissue the soldadera’s image into the ideal (docile, yet the Catholic Church stifled any possibility Res 266:391–398. licentious) woman of the time. of equality with men. Whether intentional or not, becoming a soldadera allowed some Python, F. and R. F. Stocker (2002) Immunoreactivity Against Choline Acetyltransferase, γ-AminobutyricAcid, Histamine, Octopamine, and women to leave behind part of their respon- Serotonin in the Larval Chemosensory System of Drosophila melanogaster. The Journal of Comparative Neurology 453:157–167(2002) sibilities and begin a journey that would ul- timately help them gain equality with men. Sarthy, P.V. (1991) Histamine: A Neurotransmitter candidate for Drosophila photoreceptors. J. Neurochem. 57(5):1757-1768. Over the years, the image of the soldadera has been misrepresented in popular culture. The brave, strong woman who fought for equality, such as the anonymous soldadera depicted in Figure 2, has been transformed into the promiscuous woman often referred to as La Adelita, described above.² Unlike David Stark, Ph.D. the true soldadera, La Adelita hardly seems Faculty Mentor capable of fighting in a war. How and why has the image of the soldadera evolved into that of La Adelita? More importantly, why are the romanticized images of the soldadera perpetuated to this day in popular culture, including corridos (love songs) and movies? This paper examines the transformation of the soldadera into La Adelita. To this end, I provide an overview of Mexico during the Porfiriato (1876-1911), specifically focusing on the plight of women and their status as second-class citizens. Next, I analyze the sol- daderas themselves, including the different types of women who fought and their partic- ipation in the Mexican Revolution. Finally, I

¹ The word soldadera has its origins in the Spanish Conquest. The soldaderas were responsible for aiding the army by finding food and caring for injured soldiers. The term has also been applied to Spanish women who fought during the Conquest. As Spanish became Mexico’s language after the conquest, the term soldadera was used to describe all women who fought and aided in the Mexican conflicts. The first time it appeared in print was 1865. For more information, see Elizabeth Salas’ Soldaderas in the Mexi- can Military: Myth and History (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990), 11-33. ² There are many myths surrounding the identity of La Adelita, however her true identity is unknown.

52 Co-localization of Histamine and eGFP in the Central Nervous System from pHdc-5’-UTR-eGFP Transformants of Drosophila melanogaster GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 53 discuss the evolution of the soldaderas’ image themselves. Their exploitation increased and accomplished all of this while upholding an stories about Villa’s opinion of soldaderas Manuela Oaxaca, who was fifteen years old over time in song and in film. What I found so did their anger at the government that image of innocence and purity, much like the and women in general. One story describes when she decided to follow her boyfriend suggests the romanticized depictions of La ignored them. Díaz’s government also over- Virgin Mary, who dutifully and faithfully ac- Villa as a man who wanted to protect women into the war.¹⁵ Salas describes other young Adelita are a result of men’s framing of these looked women and treated them as second- cepted her destiny without complaint. This and relegate them to “the back of firing line girls, twelve and thirteen years old, who were women soldiers in the way they recorded his- class citizens under the law. The Constitu- was the ideal woman in Mexican society. to places of safety.”⁹ Yet in another story, forced to accompany their parents into war tory. Men sought to recast the soldaderas’ tion of 1857 and Civil Code of 1884 greatly Participation in the Mexican Revolution, Villa orders the massacre of ninety women and later became soldaderas themselves.¹⁶ legacy as strong, assertive, and in some cases, restricted women’s rights. For example, the however, would open an avenue to liberation and children prisoners under his command, There were also women who did not become violent women because these women exhib- Constitution did not define citizenship for from the patriarchal society. believing that one of them conspired to kill soldaderas of their own volition. Some wom- ited masculine characteristics that clashed women, and by law women without citizen- him.¹⁰ Villa’s views on the soldaderas are not en were forced to join the war after they were with societal expectations of how women ship could not vote.⁴ Although suffrage was Who Were the Soldaderas? clear; nonetheless, both stories suggest he kidnapped by men in the Federal Army or the should act. Therefore men downplayed the important for women, their lack of citizen- likely did not want them fighting alongside revolutionary forces.¹⁷ This was a common accomplishments of soldaderas on the battle- ship was more problematic. Without it, One way women were emancipated was his troops. Emiliano Zapata must have felt occurrence; many of the soldaderas joined field and instead emphasized their beauty and women lacked rights and were dependent on by becoming soldiers in the Mexican Revolu- differently about the soldaderas because he the Revolution after seeing this happen to loyalty to the men in their lives. By rendering their husbands or fathers in ways that made tion. As soldaderas, women found they were included many women among his troops. family members and friends. Angela Jimenez female soldiers in a romanticized manner, life difficult. According to the Civil Code of able to rise above some of the limitations in Although some would assume that Zapata’s joined the war after watching her sister kill men effectively neutralized the threat these 1884, married women could not enter into a their lives. When soldaderas left home to forces would attract lower-class women, he a soldier who attempted to rape her.¹⁸ Jime- women posed to their masculinity. contract, sell property, or oversee their chil- take up arms, they left behind their tradi- drew support from women of diverse back- nez’s sister subsequently killed herself after dren’s education.⁵ Moreover, a Commercial Figure 1. Reproduction of Angel Martin's "La tional roles at the same time. Women shed grounds, including farmers and unmarried shooting the officer.¹⁹ This prompted Jime- The Porfiriato and the Plight of Women Code also prohibited them from working as Adelita" on Hecho en México Address Book, 1996. their docile image, strapped on bandoliers professors.¹¹ Venustiano Carranza also wel- nez to avenge her sister’s death by joining her teachers or attorneys for anyone except their and wielded guns – much like men. The idea comed women from all social classes in his father in the Revolution, where she eventu- Porfirio Diaz, governor of Mexico from husband or children.⁶ In 1910, Francisco I. that a woman could take up a non-tradition- army. In addition to their aid in the Revolu- ally attained the rank of lieutenant colonel.²⁰ 1876-1880 and 1884-1911, created condi- Madero, an upper-class land owner, chal- al profession as a soldier was a radical idea. tion, he also looked for women’s support to Additionally, older women entered the war tions that pointed towards revolution. His lenged Díaz in the presidential election but Many women were active participants during advance his political career.¹² In exchange seeking revenge for the death or capture of presidency was marred by deception, cor- was jailed and subsequently lost the election. the Revolution. Though it is not known how for their support, Carranza enacted so- their husband, son, or brother. Examples of ruption, and violence. Upon seizing power Nevertheless, Madero had the support of many women fought, they did so on behalf of cial reforms benefiting women during his such soldaderas include Señora María Sán- in 1876, he espoused an anti-reelection many Mexicans, and the time was right for the federal government (federales) and also presidency.¹³ Regardless of whom they sup- chez, who took her brother’s place in a rebel platform that prohibited consecutive terms a change. The following year, the Mexican on the side of those opposing the dictator- ported, women’s participation was a key army after his death, and Señora Pimental, for a president. Díaz’s successor, Manuel people rose up in revolt against the Porfiria- ship, including the armies of Pancho Villa, component of the Revolution. who freed her son from a Federal prison by González, had the constitution amended to to; the Revolution was underway. Emiliano Zapata, and Venustiano Carranza.⁷ Women who fought in the Revolution killing two guards.²¹ Thus, women of all ages permit presidential reelection, which allowed Not all people fighting in the Revolution Each of these revolutionary leaders attract- did so for a variety of reasons. Elizabeth Salas actively participated as soldaderas, albeit for Díaz to be elected again in 1884 - a position pursued the same objectives, and neither ed a sizeable following of women soldiers. provides a description of different soldad- different reasons. he held until the outbreak of the Revolution. were they all men. Some men took up arms However, Pancho Villa was not as receptive eras in her book Soldaderas in the Mexican Diverse backgrounds also played a role in Díaz’s policies had a profound impact on in opposition to Díaz’s policies or in support toward female soldiers as the other lead- Military: Myth and History.¹⁴ Some women women’s motivation to take up arms. Most Mexico, mostly benefiting the upper classes of opposition leaders, such as Pancho Villa ers, but they still figured among his troops. fought in support of revolutionary ideals like soldaderas came from the lower rungs of so- as well as foreigners in Mexico. Díaz was well and Emiliano Zapata. There were, however, Because Villa used quick attacks and swift agrarian reform. Others fought because the ciety. Some were the indigenous or mestiza, known for favoring foreign interests over some women who joined in the fighting to troop movements, he did not like to travel men in their lives were fighting, and they of mixed indigenous and Spanish ancestry, domestic ones. This was obvious in the 1906 advance their own causes. Not only were with soldaderas.⁸ There are also conflicting wanted to support them. One example is daughters of farmers or merchants.²² In the Cananea labor strike that killed over twenty women’s lives limited by the law, but gen- people. Díaz allowed the American mine der roles were also constraining to women. owner to pay Mexican workers lower wages A woman remained under the control of a ⁶ Soto, 11. than their American counterparts at the same man her entire life: in her childhood, it was ⁷ There is little information on the number of soldaderas who fought due to the vague definition of who was a soldadera. For mine, which provoked the strike. When the her father; in her adulthood, it was her hus- example, camp aides and women fighters might be counted differently. Also, the wives of soldiers who fought may not have been miners went on strike and violence ensued, band, brother or uncle. If she joined a con- Figure 2. Soldadera. Reprinted from counted. Salas affirms that there were thousands of soldaderas, Salas, 39. A Washington Post reporter remembered over 500 sol- Díaz welcomed the arrival of U.S. troops into vent, her life was regulated by the Catholic Casasola, vol. 1, p. 263. Found in Shirlene daderas in one battle. (“Amazons Under Fire.” Washington Post [Del Rio, Mexico] 3 Nov. 1913: 3). Mexico to quell the disturbance, in effect un- Church. Women were expected to serve Soto, Emergence of the Modern Mexican ⁸ Salas, 45. dermining Mexico’s sovereignty.³ Countless their families faithfully, especially the men Woman Her Participation in Revolution and . Denver, ⁹ Op Cit. indigenous and peasants also suffered under in their lives. Moreover, they were producers, Struggle for Equality, 1910-1940 Colo: Arden, 1990. ¹⁰ Salas, 46. Díaz. They experienced the loss of their lands in that they needed to contribute economi- ¹¹ Soto, 45. at the hands of the landed elite through a se- cally to the family’s income, and reproducers, ¹² Ibid., 49. ries of agrarian laws. The peasants and indig- because they were expected to bear children ¹³ Ibid., 58. enous lacked any feasible means to support and serve as their primary caregiver. They ¹⁴ Salas, Elizabeth. Soldaderas in the Mexican Military: Myth and History, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990). ¹⁵ Salas, 72. ¹⁶ Ibid., 73. ³ Soto, Shirlene Ann. Emergence of the Modern Mexican Woman: Her Participation in Revolution and Struggle for Equality, 1910- ¹⁷ For more information on these soldaderas, see Salas, 40. 1940, (Denver: Arden Press, 1990), 24. ¹⁸ Salas, 71. ⁴ Ibid.,10. ¹⁹ Op Cit. ⁵ Op Cit. ²⁰ Salas, 68. ⁶ Soto, 11. ²¹ "Women Fight on Both Sides." New York Times [Del Rio, Mexico] 3 Nov. 1913: 3.

54 From Soldadera to Adelita: The Depiction of Women in the Mexican Revolution GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 55 pictures of soldaderas from this era, many of back to health after injury, and carried their objectives. true identity until she was a well-established in ways that went beyond the ideals of the dadera unfettered women in ways that would the women had a darker complexion, most equipment and supplies from one battle to There were women who became soldaderas member of Carranza’s forces. When her se- Revolution. Even if a soldadera took care have been impossible if they had remained at likely indicating their indigenous or mixed the next.²⁵ Among the supplies the soldad- in an effort to improve their own economic cret was revealed, she was awarded command of the troops, she had left her home, where home and were still constrained by males. ancestry. The pictures included in Shirlene eras transported was bedding for the soldiers situations. Such women looked for a way to of an all-women regiment and led them to society wanted and expected her to remain. As much as fighting in the war helped the Soto’s book, Emergence of the Modern Mexi- because they were not supplied with these support themselves in an economy that did many battlefield victories.³⁴ Thus, Herrera is Soldaderas received payment for their work, soldiers, it also helped women advance their can Women, reveal their tattered, worn cloth- materials.²⁶ At this time, the Federal Army not provide for all citizens, and becoming a an example of a woman who believed in the but more importantly, they were released position in society. ing, which may attest to their lower class did not have a department responsible for soldadera did this for them. Women became Revolution and allowed nothing to stand in from the house and the attachment to a Upper-class women found ways to further background or might simply be a reflection these tasks; neither did the revolutionary soldaderas both to serve soldiers and to pro- the way of her participation. man. If she wanted to work for a particular their rights under the law. Although some of inadequate supplies.²³ In most cases, social armies have the organization or manpower vide for their own families. They received There were other brave women like Herre- soldier, she could; if she wanted to move on upper-class women fought in the Revolu- class also dictated the reasons why the wom- to arrange for these. Therefore, armies de- money from the soldiers to buy food and ra, and some of these soldaderas even caught to another for any reason, she could also do tion, most found ways to liberation through en fought. An indigenous woman or mestiza pended on the women to perform these kept some of it for themselves. In doing so, the attention of foreigner observers. María that. There were no rules or expectations political activism. They formed groups seek- woman’s livelihood depended on farming. tasks, especially to set up camp between the women would have enough money to Quinteras de Mares was one such soldad- that governed her movement. She was free to ing to obtain women’s suffrage and greater This woman was more likely to support Zap- battles. Women typically arrived at the camp feed themselves and even their children if era. She was married to a captain in Pancho do as she pleased. By virtue of such actions access to education and contraception, and ata and fight against Díaz or other presiden- site before the men to put up tents and be- they brought them along.³¹ As noted above, Villa’s army, and their daughter accompa- women were able to attain equality with in support of political candidates. Examples tial aspirants who did not embrace agrarian gin preparing the food.²⁷ Without the ben- the women and their children traveled with nied them on all their campaigns. Coronela men in Mexican society, if only in this con- of such groups include the Consejo Femi- reform. However, a woman whose economic efit of a well-supplied army, soldaderas were the troops wherever they went, providing Quinteras de Mares was so committed to the text. Their equality was derived from hav- nista [Mexican Feminist Council] and the situation improved under the government in responsible for procuring food by whatever services the soldiers needed in order to sur- Revolution that she refused to be paid.³⁵ Her ing fought alongside men, taking “machetes Liga Feminista Mexicana [Mexican Femi- power was probably fighting on behalf of the means possible, even if it meant foraging and vive. Although these women did not partici- skills on the battlefield caught the attention and [killing] as many as the federal men…” nist League].⁴² The former worked for “the Federal Army. One example of a soldadera looting. Soldaderas in the Federal Army of- pate in the war because of their ideals or to of many observers in Mexico and the United killed.⁴⁰ Moreover, female soldiers died like economic, social, and political emancipation from a higher class background was a woman ten bought food with a portion of the pay support their husband, lover, or son in the States. In 1914, a reporter from the El Paso their male counterparts, as described in the of women,” while the latter was dedicated referred to as La Neri, who was “a natural that the men received. Meal preparation oc- war, they were still an important part of the Morning Star wrote that she “has led many article “Battle on At Night,” in which a wom- to women’s suffrage.⁴³ These groups exerted leader, with absolute command of her [all- curred whenever and wherever the troops Revolution. desperate charges and her followers have an was bound with her child and thrown into pressure on whatever presidential adminis- women] forces.”²⁴ Because of the conflict- stopped for the day. Women were known The second way women supported the come to believe she is endowed with some a burning building along with other male tration was in power to see that their objec- ing stories surrounding La Neri, it is unclear to start making tortillas in the middle of a war was to fight valiantly alongside the supernatural powers.”³⁶ Soldaderas’ exploits soldiers.⁴¹ Based upon these examples, there tives were met. However, it was not until on which side of the Revolution she fought. desert and even on top of moving trains.²⁸ men. Women who did so did not limit their were also documented in popular American is no doubt that women fought heroically the 1920s and 1930s, after the revolution Due to her upper-class status, one might as- Perhaps what is so remarkable about these participation to tasks that they already per- newspapers like The Washington Post and The and died valiantly, as did men. Women’s con- had ended, that these groups were successful. sume that she fought for the Federales, but it women is that some brought along their formed in the home. Instead, the soldaderas New York Times. For example, The New York tributions and participation in the Revolu- Even though these women were not physi- was common for such women to sympathize families while they tended to the soldiers. took up arms and integrated themselves into Times referred to soldaderas in a 1913 piece tion were a liberating experience, and their cally fighting for equality like the soldaderas, with the revolutionary forces and fight with Soldaderas brought their children with them the Federal Army as well as the opposition entitled, “Women Fight on Both Sides.”³⁷ sacrifice was rewarded with equality. they were still working to obtain freedom their armies. Because of the different reasons to the camp sites and even accompanied the forces. Women were often among the low- The five hundred soldaderas were said to be The soldaderas’ newly acquired freedom and fairness under the law. for which women fought, it is important not troops while pregnant.²⁹ An onlooker who est ranks of the soldiers; nonetheless, skilled, “expert with both knife and rifle.”³⁸ Also, led some women to reject the societal norms Women were an integral part of the Revo- to generalize about the soldaderas. wrote for an American newspaper recorded assertive soldaderas could become colonels another soldadera previously mentioned, La imposed on them. Women were able to en- lution. They aided troops in every way imag- Similar to the diversity in the soldaderas how impressed he was that women would and generals. One example of a capitana Neri, could “shoot and ride almost as well gage in open relationships with men at this inable, allowing the armies to carry out daily and their motivations, the responsibilities of carry all the equipment and their children. (captain) was Petra Herrera. She fought for as men.”³⁹ These women were recognized time. Liberated from the Catholic Church, tasks that made the war possible. In fighting these women also varied as they performed The author remarked, “without these sol- Venustiano Carranza’s forces disguised as a for their talents and contributions at a time many women chose to have sexual relation- alongside men, women matched their brav- many of the necessary jobs that enabled daderas the army could not move...” as fast as man for most of her military career. Using when women in the United States were not ships with men they were not married to ery and valor. Some women ultimately be- the army to function on a day to day basis. they did.³⁰ The women’s role in the war effort the nom de guerre of “Pedro Herrera,” she allowed to participate in armed combat. Al- and had no plans to marry. They could be- came famous colonels and generals. In doing Women were primarily responsible for two was integral, albeit frequently overlooked. rose up through the ranks to become a cap- though these were only a few examples of have like the men who had controlled them so, they challenged common stereotypes of tasks. The first task involved taking care of Without the women’s help, the men would tain and later a colonel.³² She earned fame women who fought, they are representative for so many years. Soldaderas sometimes docile and submissive Mexican women. Both the men, much like the women did at home. have been slowed down with daily tasks that for her fearlessness, skills on the battlefield, of the soldaderas’ motivations for fighting formed sexual relationships with the soldiers as a camp aide or combatant, the women lib- They cooked for the soldiers, nursed them took time away from pursuing their military and temper.³³ Herrera did not reveal her and how their actions were viewed by on- they worked for or soldiers with whom they erated themselves from some of the restraints lookers. fought alongside. These relationships em- in their lives and achieved equality with men. Through their participation in the war, powered women and may have made them Unfortunately for the women, their par- ²² Salas, 70. these soldaderas were deservedly liberated more assertive, which helped in their mili- ticipation is often overlooked, unlike that of from cultural norms and achieved equality tary work. As a profession, becoming a sol- Pancho Villa or Emiliano Zapata. ²³ Soto, Shirlene Ann. Emergence of the Modern Mexican Woman: Her Participation in Revolution and Struggle for Equality, 1910- 1940, (Denver: Arden Press, 1990). ²⁴ “Mexico City Menaced.” Washington Post 15 May 1911, Special ed.: 3. The name “La Neri” probably referred to Margarita Neri. There are many stories surrounding her identity as a soldadera, however there are conflicting accounts as to which side of the revolution she fought. For more information on Neri, see Soto, 45. ³⁴ Soto, 49. ²⁵ “Funny Side to Mexican Wars.” Washington Post [Real Mexico] 3 May 1914: M1. ³⁵ Ibid., 42. ²⁶ Salas, 59. ³⁶ Op Cit. ²⁷ “Funny Side to Mexican Wars.” Washington Post [Real Mexico] 3 May 1914: M1. ³⁷ “Women Fight on Both Sides.” New York Times [Del Rio, Mexico] 3 Nov. 1913: 3. ²⁸ Herrera-Sobek, Maria. The Mexican Corrido: A Feminist Analysis, (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), 80. ³⁸ Op Cit. ²⁹ Salas, 50. ³⁹ “Mexico City Menaced.” Washington Post 15 May 1911, Special ed.: 3. ³⁰ “Funny Side to Mexican Wars.” Washington Post [Real Mexico] 3 May 1914: M1. ⁴⁰ “Battle on at Night.” Washington Post 23 May 1912: 3. ³¹ Soto, 36. ⁴¹ Op Cit. ³² Ibid., 48. ⁴² Soto, 103. ³³ Op Cit. ⁴³ Op Cit.

56 From Soldadera to Adelita: The Depiction of Women in the Mexican Revolution GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 57 The Image of the Soldaderas over Time the sexual behavior of men. The soldadera can Revolution. One of the most prevalent Herrera, the women in these songs were not In this particular excerpt, La Adelita is im- and the prostitute were able to have sexual topics was that of the women soldiers. The mentioned by their first and last name. Of- mortalized for her valor as well as her beauty, The soldaderas’ legacy is clouded by mis- relationships with whomever they pleased. soldaderas were remembered in many ways. ten they were referred to by a nickname and but the rest of the corrido describes how conceptions. Although women made prog- Also, the soldaderas were fighting for equal- Men wrote most of these corridos and, there- were probably fictional characters. The lack much the men desired her. She is described ress by virtue of their accomplishments on ity on the battlefield, while the prostitutes fore, their interpretations are based upon a of a real name for these women downplays as being so beautiful “si Adelita se fuera con the battlefield, the transformations in their achieved equality by other means. Some peo- male point of view. Because these are men’s their significance. However, the woman in otro, la seguiría por tierra y por mar” [if gender roles were not always looked upon ple even saw prostitution as the logical result views of the soldadera, they contributed to this type of song has a more prominent leg- Adelita left me for another, I would follow favorably. Women’s participation and sub- of feminism, which most people associated the depiction of the soldadera that was popu- acy than Herrera. Instead of being the work her by land and sea].⁵⁵ This woman was the sequent success threatened patriarchal struc- with female soldiers. In a review of Rodolfo larized at the time of the Revolution and that of a composer who was impressed by the sol- perfect archetype for a soldadera because she tures. Men were supposed to be the strong Usigli’s play El Eterno Femenino [The Eter- remains popular to this day. According to daderas’ bravery, these songs were written by was brave, although men still idolized her for figure in Mexican society. Successful women nal Feminine], Georges Batailles argues that the research by Rosalva Resendiz, the corri- soldiers who were most likely love sick and her beauty. in the Mexican Revolution had to be remem- “not every woman is a potential prostitute, dos categorized women into different arche- writing about the women with whom they La Valentina is another corrido that de- bered in a way that would not threaten the but prostitution is the logical consequence types: “good mother, goddess, the lover, and wanted to be. Such ballads described the scribed women in the same way. The song men’s masculine characteristics. Therefore, of the feminine attitude.”⁴⁵ Although the the soldier.”⁴⁷ The female soldier is usually extent of women’s beauty and femininity, al- gained popularity in 1914 and describes men recast the image of women in a way that play was written in the 1950s, it shows that remembered in the corridos as either brave luding to the prevailing standard of women’s the depths of love the composer has for this allowed the men to retain their dominance in many people previously equated feminism or a love interest. By examining the different Figure 3. María Félix in Doña Diabla. physical appearance in Mexican society. soldadera.⁵⁶ The lyrics are as follows: society and that subjugated the soldaderas to with prostitution or simply the idea of a depictions of the soldaderas in corridos we Found in Mediating Two Worlds Cinematic There are two popular corridos, not only in a subordinate role. Soldaderas were portrayed “loose” woman. Any unattached woman was can see how they contributed to the roman- Encounters in the Americas, (Annapolis: British Mexico, but in other Latin American coun- “Una pasión me domina in a romanticized manner that was at odds considered “loose” or “easy” in Mexican so- ticized image of La Adelita in history. Film Institute. 1993) 155. tries, that can best be described as tributes Es la que me hizo venir with who they were in real life. The woman ciety. Unmarried soldaderas therefore were The brave soldaderas’ accomplishments to the women soldiers. One particular song Valentina, Valentina in Figure 1 has come to embody the image of also in this category of women. They were as well as their beauty were described in was so popular that the character’s name, La Yo te quisiera decir” the female soldier. Clearly this woman does seen as a potentially disruptive force within corridos. Depending on the composer, the Adelita, has now become a generalized name not resemble the actual soldadera, like the society because they were unable to control portrayal of these women varied. There are Long live Petra Herrera for all soldaderas.⁵² The song titled “La Adel- one in Figure 2. This romanticized depiction their sexuality and thus needed to be under more songs that describe how gorgeous these Long live the Maderistas! ita” was most likely written at the beginning “A passion dominates me of the soldadera highlights her sexuality and a man’s control. The prevailing image of the women soldiers were than how fiercely they Let the baldies (Federales) die! of the Revolution. There are several theories That’s what brought me here omits her bravery. Although the image re- promiscuous soldadera is probably derived fought.⁴⁸ For example, Petra Herrera was With the cowardly Porfiristas! ”⁵⁰ about the identity of La Adelita, including Valentina, Valentina tains the assertive traits of the woman, it also from the sexual behavior associated with the one of the soldaderas whose exploits in war that she was a soldier in Pancho Villa’s army, I wish to tell you so” subtly undermines her with sexual overtones. prostitute. granted her a corrido. Herrera’s song dates In these lyrics, Herrera does not share the his lover, or a nurse who helped a soldier re- Despite the soldaderas’ efforts to support the back to 1911 and the battle of Torreón.⁴⁹ An spotlight with any other soldaderas or male turn to good health after an injury.⁵³ There is The composer’s passion for this woman gives Revolution and pursue equality, their memo- Popular Culture: Corridos excerpt of the song follows: soldiers. This illustrates the esteem the au- no way of verifying who she really was, but the reader the impression that La Valentina ry has been replaced by the idealized one that (Love Ballads) and Film thor had for his female subject. For Her- we are left with the following lyrics excerpted was beautiful. She was inspired by a fierce men have conjured up in their imagination. “La valiente Petra Herrera rera to have a corrido dedicated to her as a from The Mexican Corrido that describe who woman fighter; however, the lyrics do not re- Additional sources for this over-sexual- While prostitution bestowed a promiscuous En el fragor del combate woman, she must have been regarded as val- she could have been:⁵⁴ flect that. It is obvious by the omission of her ized image can be found in another type image upon the soldaderas, the Mexican cor- Aunque cayó prisionera iant as other revolutionary leaders, such as accomplishments on the battlefield that La of woman who broke down gender roles: rido, or love ballad, created a more feminine Ni se dobla ni se abate … Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa. Accord- “…y una moza que valiente los seguía Valentina was best remembered as a beautiful prostitutes.⁴⁴ Although soldaderas and pros- image of beauty and devotion. The corrido ing to María Herrera-Sobek, Petra Herrera Locamente enamorada de su sargento woman, rather than as a heroic participant in titutes would seem very different, there are was one of the primary methods for spread- Que viva Petra Herrera is only one of three women remembered in Popular entre la tropa era Adelita, the Revolution. many commonalities. For example, prosti- ing information, especially about the war in Que vivan los maderistas corridos by their first and last name.⁵¹ The La mujer que el sargento idolatraba This misrepresentation of the soldad- tutes were some of the most liberated wom- this era. Dating back to the Spanish coloni- Que mueran con los pelones mere mention of this soldadera by her full Porque además de ser valiente, era bonita era fits better with how Mexican society and en in Mexico at the time of the Revolution. zation, the Mexican corrido has maintained Los cobardes porfiristas!” name is indicative of the level of acclaim she men in particular, viewed women at that They rejected the cultural norm that women its validity for disseminating information received, especially from a male composer. time. They were objects of desire, rather than were supposed to be under male control for throughout history.⁴⁶ Although these ballads Unfortunately, the popularity of this type of “And a young woman who valiantly equals on the battlefield. Although it is wide- the duration of their lives, in that they were have been used to circulate all types of infor- “The valiant Petra Herrera soldadera was limited to that time period, as followed ly accepted that these women were fighters, not committed to one man through marriage mation, at the beginning of the twentieth In the heat of the battle there was no lasting legacy of her like there is Madly in love with the sergeant their true legacy has been lost. For example, or sex, as was the case of the soldadera. Also, century they were used to tell stories about And even though she was taken prisoner of the other type of woman soldier. Popular among the troops was Adelita in another excerpt of La Adelita, she is not- these women sought equality by emulating the participants and events in the Mexi- She doesn’t surrender or give up … The inspiration for the famous picture The woman the sergeant adored ed for being respected by the colonel, but of the soldadera (Figure 1) probably has its Because she was not only valiant but the composer goes on to describe how she origins in the corridos that describe how beautiful” is viewed as a love object rather than a sol- beautiful the women were. Unlike Petra dier: “…Y si Adelita quisiera ser mi novia, y si ⁴⁴ Castillo, Debra A. Easy Women: Sex and Gender in Modern Mexican Fiction, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998). ⁴⁵ Ibid., 21. ⁵⁰ Op Cit. ⁴⁶ Resendez, Rosalva, “Female Subjectivity and Agency in Popular Mexican Corridos (Ballads): An Examination of Im- ⁵¹ Herrera-Sobek, 94. ages and Representations of Soldaderas (Female Soldiers) in the Mexican Revolution 1910-1920.” PhD dissertation, Texas ⁵² Ibid., 108. Woman’s University, 2001, pg. 7. ⁵³ Salas, 92-93. ⁴⁷ Ibid., 8. ⁵⁴ Herrera-Sobek,107. ⁴⁸ Herrera-Sobek, 103. ⁵⁵ Op Cit. ⁴⁹ Ibid., 93. ⁵⁶ Herrera-Sobek, 109.

58 From Soldadera to Adelita: The Depiction of Women in the Mexican Revolution GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 59 Adelita fuera mi mujer, le compraría un ves- era filmmakers in the United States started woman). For the mostly Catholic Mexican dos, the main characters were soldaderas, but tido de seda, para llevarla a bailar al cuartel” to use Mexican conflicts as inspiration for population, the Virgin Mary is the most ven- the focus of the movie was about the women’s [If Adelita would like to be my girlfriend, If entertainment. Dating back to the onset erated woman in society.⁶⁴ She represents in- relationships. Besides giving less attention to Adelita would be my wife, I'd buy her a silk of the Revolution, the film industry in the nocence, purity, and self-sacrifice. In contrast, the women’s participation on the battlefield, dress to take her to the barrack's dance.]⁵⁷ U.S. had produced many movies that shaped La Malinche is one of the most despised wom- the other popular theme is the domestication The rest of the song goes on to describe her popular perception of the “Mexican wars” en in Mexico. She is the indigenous woman or taming of women’s behavior. Like Ameri- physical appearance, rather than her exploits and society.⁵⁸ Hollywood created lasting ste- who betrayed the Mexican people in help- can and Mexican movies which show the bad in combat. Conservative Mexican society did reotypes of Mexican men and women, the ing the Spanish conquistador, Hernán Cor- women transformed into the good women, not want to acknowledge that women broke state of the country, and society as a whole. tez, defeat the Aztecs. Additionally, she was popular films about the soldaderas were no free of the cultural expectations when they One theme that emerged often portrayed Cortez’s lover; their child was the first mes- different. InLa Cucaracha (1958) the main became soldiers, even when some achieved mestizo men as villains, a white American tizo born in Mexico. Therefore, La Malinche character was a rude, violent soldadera that success as fighters. This helps explain why male as the hero, and the Mexican woman represents betrayal and unbridled sexuality. subsequently is passed up as the love interest La Adelita and La Valentina are the models as strong and assertive, yet easily tamed by Mexican movies often portrayed women as of the general because of her behavior. She upon which the popular images of all soldad- the hero.⁵⁹ Moreover, the Americans were either of these archetypes. It is also common only becomes a more appealing woman after eras are based. These songs became popular depicted as peacemakers and the Mexicans as in Mexican movies for the bad woman to be she becomes pregnant. Ironically, after giving throughout Mexico by word of mouth and unreasonable and savage. Many films made portrayed in the beginning, to be tamed or birth she becomes a camp aide and does not also with the invention and the popularity of in this era adhere to this formula, including domesticated as the movie progresses, and return to the life of a fighting soldadera.⁶⁷ Figure 5. Bandidas. The International Movie the radio. The prevalence and appeal of these The Americano (1917) and Captain Alvarez transformed into a good woman by the end Here we see that it was more acceptable for Database.. Adelita as the embodiment of the soldaderas. movies left a lasting impression that contin- Figure 4. María Félix and Jorge Negrete. Los was one actress who earned acclaim for her than masculine traits. Mexican viewers want- In this way, the corridos had a lasting impact ues to shape the perception of women today. Dos Grandes Del Cine de Oro Mexicano. Nov. roles as the bad woman. She was a strong, ed to see a woman in a relationship with a 1953. El Rapto (Film). Mexican society. true paradox: strong and beautiful, yet they toward her male counterparts.⁶⁵ In Figure 4, ing, successful soldier. Thus, soldaderas were The new version of the soldadera that could be docile and easily seduced. In The Félix’s body language implies resistance, yet no exception from the stereotypical attitudes emerged from the corrido has continued Americano, a Mexican woman spies on a man at the same she time allows a man to embrace that governed the film industry. to live on through film. Several themes and who appears to be Mexican but is an Ameri- they established an archetype of a Mexican her. If we recall that the ideal image of the The physical descriptions and person- characteristics have evolved. For example, can in disguise. He appears more chaste and woman that has been transferred from the Mexican woman embodies both the Virgin alities of these protagonists have also tran- La Adelita is commonly portrayed as beau- sensitive than his Mexican counterparts in corrido to film. Mary and La Malinche, Felix’s resistance scended time. In present-day depictions of tiful, brave, and passive. Whereas the songs the movie.⁶¹ Because of these characteristics, The Mexican cinema was not far behind represents La Malinche, while her softness this revolutionary era, women are continu- spawned the characters, the movies created he is the obvious choice as the love interest Hollywood in its depiction of Mexicans, es- is representative of the Virgin. This theme is ally shown as over-sexualized, yet assertive the storylines that were readily understood by for the Mexican woman. The women in these pecially women. Although it originated in persistent throughout Mexican cinema and characters. Based upon a visual examination Mexican viewers. Popular culture has given movies are not representative of the major- the early 1920s, the Mexican film industry other forms of popular entertainment as well of these women, one can see that not much these women storylines that followed them, ity of Mexican women. For example, the reached its height of popularity later between as in society. Hollywood influenced Mexican has changed. Looking at Figure 1 and Fig- especially Mexican women, into the present actress María Félix (depicted in Figure 3) is the 1930s and the 1950s. Using Hollywood society in the creation of images for women ure 5, one can notice many similarities. The day. They also exemplify other stereotypes not mestiza like many women in Mexico, but as a model for success, Mexican cinema tried that have followed them throughout the promotional posters for Bandidas (2006), that Mexican society has about women, in- instead is fair-skinned, denoting her Spanish to imitate every aspect of filmmaking includ- twentieth century. starring Salma Hayek and Penelope Cruz cluding the labels of the good woman and ancestry.⁶² Perhaps she was more appealing ing plots and, most importantly, characters. The soldaderas suffered equally from the and set in the early 1900s, replicate the im- the bad woman. These stereotypes and other to an American audience, as opposed to a However, the Mexican cinema exploited its stereotypes of women in the film industry. age that the corridos and earlier films used to categories of women can be seen in the mov- mestiza woman. The actresses in the mov- own society’s cultural norms, myths, and Much like the images of women that Hol- portray women in this era. Hayek and Cruz ies examined in the following sections. ies clearly resemble the famous picture of attitudes.⁶³ While Mexican movies lacked lywood and Mexican cinema portrayed, the are both carrying guns and bullets and wear Mexican cinema and Hollywood were La Adelita (Figure 1). La Adelita appears the American male as the hero, they did soldaderas were often framed in a similar a revealing blouse, much like the woman in responsible for the perpetuation of these sensual, subservient as she kneels, and her show strong Mexican men in their place, and manner. A variety of films made between Figure 1. There is no doubt that these images stereotypes and others beginning in the complexion is much lighter than many of the the role of the woman did not change. the 1930s and the 1970s offers strong mes- were taken from the descriptions that were Figure 6. Desperado. The International Movie early twentieth century. Mexico and the actual soldaderas from the Mexican Revo- Women in Mexican society draw their in- sages about the women from this era. Most informed by corridos and movies. Another Database.

60 From Soldadera to Adelita: The Depiction of Women in the Mexican Revolution GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 61 The Depiction of Women in the popularized. These corridos created female Language, Culture, Perception and Knowledge Mexican Revolution characters that would later be immortalized in American and Mexican movies as either The popular image of La Adelita does not do the good woman (Virgin Mary) or the bad justice to the real-life soldadera. Glamorous woman (La Malinche). Subsequent depic- characters in movies played by María Felix, tions of soldaderas fell victim to these same Abstract The world without language becomes Penelope Cruz, and Salma Hayek, among stereotypes. Successful films showed talented unimaginable, since language makes the ar- others, are romanticized representations of women-soldiers as they were tamed. Their The complexity of our diverse communi- ticulation of our thoughts and the human the real women soldiers. The true women transformation from the bad woman (sol- ties requires us to reflect on pre-conceived no- experience possible. Through an interactive fighters battled adversity in Mexico at a dadera) to the good woman (mother) satis- tions of understanding that shape worldviews. connection with symbols, signs, and sounds, time when the dominant patriarchal society fied conservative viewers who wanted to see This project examines approaches that exclude language enables us to express complex con- restricted their actions with gendered ex- women in this role. divergent perspectives, while promoting in- cepts while allowing us to process and convey pectations and cultural norms. Becoming a The accomplishments of women on the tolerant ideologies that limit our possibilities the abstract, thus creating an environment soldadera provided these women with an op- battlefield are often overlooked or misrep- for shared learning. It also explores crucial of communication through the exchange of portunity to break away from the control of resented in the media. Women overcame elements that shape our understanding in an ideas. men and assert their equality with their male many obstacles and achieved limited forms effort to expose the limitations created by abso- The human need for expression and con- counterparts. of equality through their participation in the lute frames of mind. This research involves an tact with one another connects us with the The idea of participating in the Revolu- Revolution. However, Colonel Petra Herrera analysis of scientific and religious fundamen- origin of language. Once the connection tion was liberating in itself because it meant is now virtually unknown, while La Adelita Alfredo Hernandez Corsen talist outlooks that negate vital opportunities takes place, the cultural components of lan- the women were not forced to stay at home remains a permanent fixture in our collec- McNair Scholar for discovery through mutual collaboration guage begin to develop an interactive re- in their traditional gendered roles. Although tive memory. Not many people can recall and the acknowledgment of exclusive and in- lationship between our traditions and our some women performed the same tasks on the heroics of Herrera like they can those of complete perspectives that discourage and un- verbal living experiences as a society. It is the battlefield as they did in the home, it Emiliano Zapata or Pancho Villa; instead, dervalue diversity. through this association that our world be- was by their choice. Soldaderas also fought La Adelita has come to embody the myriad gins to take shape, and the perception of our valiantly alongside the men in every rank of women with varying backgrounds, motiva- world becomes outlined by culture and lan- both the Federal Army and the revolutionary tions, and accomplishments who fought in guage. This bond between language and hu- forces. They became feared soldiers and ad- the Revolution. La Adelita represents a sex- man thought becomes our cultural reality, as vanced through the ranks, some even becom- ual yet at the same time brave woman during well as the medium through which we relate ing generals. Though many women gained Mexican cinema’s golden age (1930s-1950s) to one another. Through the interrelated na- acclaim for their accomplishments on the and in the years following. She symbolizes ture of language and its cultural components, battlefield, their efforts were soon forgotten all the characters in the corridos and mov- the way we learn and recognize the world be- or misrepresented after the Revolution. ies that depicted women in that manner. comes predetermined and dependant on our Women’s actions on the battlefield were Even though her image is still controversial, specific system of symbols and sounds used framed in such a way so that they fit with with the birth of the Chicano movement in Judy Whipps, Ph.D. within our communities, developing our societal expectations. As soldaderas, women the 1960s, the name of La Adelita began to Faculty Mentor sense of reality and cultural identity. posed a threat to the male’s dominant posi- represent more of who the soldaderas really My main argument explores the relation- tion in society. Assertiveness, bravery, and were.⁶⁸ Some Mexican women have begun ship between language and its cultural com- violence were male attributes, and their pres- to take pride in La Adelita because she rep- ponents from a linguistic anthropological ence in women made many men uncomfort- resents a strong fighter, working for equality; and philosophical perspective and investi- able. Thus, men began to portray soldaderas if she chooses, she can appear overtly sexual, gates the role language and culture play in in a non-threatening way by emphasizing the but she no longer is forced into that role. She shaping our perception and epistemological female soldiers’ beauty and depicting them stands for independence from any oppressive understanding of the world as well as the de- as objects of desire. The image of the strong force. She is less associated with the image of velopment, recognition, and acceptance of women fighters was neutralized in such a the women in the revealing blouse, than she knowledge. If our cultural identity originates way that coincided with males’ expectations is aligned with her own image of a remark- through language, then the foundation for of women. This resulted in a paradox that able woman, much like who the soldaderas learning and development of worldviews also was at odds with Mexican gender roles. really were. relies on the existence of language. Edward Popular culture, in particular, corridos Sapir¹ speaks about the power of language and films, was an effective way to disseminate and culture as he warns us that our cultural this image of women and the soldaderas over traditions potentially imprison our thoughts the course of the twentieth century. Cor- as well as our acceptance of reality. He states, ridos idolized beautiful, submissive women “Once they had become a part of a linguistic and established the archetype that was system, they would then be more likely to be imposed on it because of the tyrannical hold

¹ Edward Sapir was a student of Frank Boas, who was widely acknowledged as the founder of American Anthropology (The ⁶⁸ Salas, 115-17. Anthropology of Language).

62 From Soldadera to Adelita: The Depiction of Women in the Mexican Revolution GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 63 that linguistic form has upon our orienta- words such as “electricity” (電気), “weather” their composition. He suggests that the time is 9:15, most North Americans will explored through an analysis of words and different forms of snow, and morphemes or tion of the world” (Ottenheimer, 25). Sapir’s (天気) and “health” (元気). It is notable “Strong Whorf theory might be compared state that is its fifteen minutes after nine or how they are formed. “There are two parts adjectives are not attached. This could rep- statement reasonably causes mixed responses that the words “electricity,” “weather,” and to the idea that language is a prison, while a quarter past nine, but people in the Czech to a morphological analysis: 1. Identifying resent the possibility that, for this culture in among scholars, philosophers, and psycholo- “health” are combined with the“ki”character, the Weaker Whorf might be compared to Republic describe it as a quarter of ten. These morphemes (the smallest unit of meaning central Canada, snow is a vital part of their gists, and his radical outlook on language perhaps injecting the essence of something the idea that language is a room, but you can definitions of time may seem trivial, but they in a language) and 2. Analyzing the way lives, and that minimizing the nature of each does not necessarily receive worldwide sup- mystical into their meaning. It is also worth leave the room and enter other rooms, and could indicate a cultural tendency to focus morphemes are arranged in words” (Otten- denomination of snow by attaching an adjec- port; nevertheless, the study and recognition noting the character preceding “ki” (気) in return to your original room, shifting per- on the past rather than the future based on heimer, 83). Although this two-step process tive or a morpheme to it would not display of cultural elements ingrained in our verbal the word “weather” is pronounced “ten” (天) spectives as you go” (Ottenheimer, 26). Both a given outlook and interpretation of time. is complex and requires detailed explanation, the important essence that each form of traditions may begin to clarify the role that and it means heaven. When words like “elec- theories share similar concepts but vary in North Americans will address the hour that describing some of the fundamental elements snow carries for this culture. If Mavsa (snow language plays in shaping our perception as tricity,” “health,” and “weather” carry poten- intensity. The Weaker Whorf theory perhaps is coming up next usually when is closer to of this method becomes essential in order to overhang ready to fall) is something that well as our understanding of the world. tially supernatural connotations, combined displays language as a more flexible medium the hour, therefore 9:45 could be a quarter understand the complexity of the practice as people deal with on a regular basis, and if Gadamer speaks about our verbal tradi- with the historical importance of nature and of understanding, one that could be left be- to ten, but 9:15 is rarely expressed as having a well as the shape that language takes based this represents danger to others or it carries tions and their role as perception shapers. spirituality to the Japanese culture, it makes hind and returned to at will, while the Strong relationship with the next hour⁶. on its cultural representation. a tremendous amount of importance on its He tells us about our inevitable connection sense that the reflection of these cultural ele- Whorf theory paints a more linked relation- Issues that cultural communities consider Here is an example based on two languag- own, then it makes sense that a completely with language and the correlation between ments comes through the language, resulting ship between language and thought, making important are incorporated into the lan- es displaying the use of morphemes: new word independent from describers or perception and understanding. He reminds in a perception of the world that adjusts to us ponder on the potential influences of lan- guage as they begin to highlight our cultural morphemes is created, since its importance us that, “All kinds of human community are these components. guage and human thinking. understanding of the world around us. A Shinzwani English Equivalent is designated by its people and it is reflected kinds of linguistic community” (443). This The cultural factors shaping our under- The development of our cultural under- morphological⁷ analysis of words connects through the language.⁸ relationship between people and language standing and interpretation of knowledge standing as well as the establishment of our us with the formation of language based on hufua to work metal develops our connection with knowledge, through language guide us into a specific cultural traditions takes place in the world its cultural emphasis. For example, in the hujua to know Language Shaping Interpretation and it opens a medium that allows us to in- worldview that conforms to the reality of of language. Gadamer communicates the Yupik Inuit culture (Central Canada), there hulagua to speak, talk terpret the world through its cultural com- that particular cultural community. These importance of language not just as a percep- are many different words for snow; Anuit: huloa to fish So far, language offers us the best medium ponents. elements are transferred from generation tion shaper, but also as the main component packed snow, Mixik: very soft snow, Natib- for communicating the abstract. It is central A valuable source for exploring the rela- to generation and continue to live through for human understanding. He adds, “Lan- vik: snowdrift, Mavsa: snowdrift overhang As it becomes noticeable, the words in Shin- to my research to suggest that, through the tionship between language and culture is the language that is spoken. Edward Sapir’s guage is not just one of man’s possessions in ready to fall, Nutabaw: fresh snow, powder zwani have the morpheme “hu” at the begin- recognition of the influential role of lan- the written language. An ethno-semantic² theories on the power of language originate the world; rather, on it depends the fact that snow and Sitxiq: hard crusty snow (Otten- ning of each word. Although this minimal guage as a perception shaper, we may begin examination of words and symbols offers in part from the concept of linguistic deter- man has a world at all” (440). The explora- heimer, 15). Observing the structure of these unit is not separated from the rest of the to understand its capacity for shaping world- us both a broader understanding of the fac- minism, which argues that language has an tion of language and its influence in design- words allows us to see that no specific pattern word, the morpheme carries the same mean- views, thereby giving us the tools necessary to tors influencing our perception as well as a effect in the way we recognize the world.⁴ ing our human experience becomes crucial is followed, and each word displays no resem- ing. As a result, when compared with the analyze our own perceptions with a more re- more detailed explanation of the power that Many of these components display them- for a better understanding of our worldviews blance to the other words. Although they all sentences on the right, we notice that “hu” ceptive mind, conscious that the cultural ele- our cultural traditions carry into the writ- selves through different cultural forms of ex- as well as recognizing outlooks that develop represent snow, each word carries its own in- means “to” in English and that, every time ments of our language do not have to keep us ten form. This power is not exclusive to one pression, such as religion, politics, and social narrowly within their cultural constraints dependent composition emphasizing its im- a new word comes up with the morphene prisoners of their own limitations. Through a language, but it manifests throughout many traditions. Recognizing the metamorphosis and connect with the world through a medi- portance. In English an adjective or describer “hu,” its meaning is understood without un- medium of openness and awareness, our lim- cultures around the world. The Japanese cul- of language and its influence on our specific um that underestimates the cultural weight is normally attached to the noun to describe derstanding the rest of the word. Examples of ited interpretations begin to expand, offering ture gives us an example of the weight of lan- worldviews and accepted perspectives of real- of our traditions and the role they play in the more in depth the type of snow (snow flur- morphemes in English would be: us the opportunity to engage with a wider guage and its influential role as an interpreter ity is important, because it allows us to avoid developing of our accepted reality. ries, loose granular snow, corn snow, crud range of possibilities and innovative think- of reality and a designer of perception. In falling into narrow forms of interpretation Before advancing into a more detailed snow, powder snow). In English we find Farm Farmer Farmers ing. Stephen Rowe expresses this need for Japanese the word for spirit is “ki” (気).³ This that understand the world through a limited exploration of incomplete perspectives that words that independently describe types of Wa l k Wa l k er Wa l k ers awareness when he describes the importance word represents the essence of something su- connection with knowledge that originates claim knowledge of our living experiences, let snow, such as slush or hail, but for the most Jump Jumper Jumpers of becoming conscious of our own world- pernatural, the substance of a force beyond from pre-determined cultural and historical us continue to examine language through its part the word snow is used to complement views in order to expand the opportunities the material world, a different dimension, or perspectives. cultural components and its vital connection each denomination, therefore downgrading Although there are exemptions to the rules for intellectual growth: “Our times require the core nature of a mystical entity. Yusua Ya- Sapir and his student Whorf developed with perception. This is important because its importance. To elaborate further on the and not all morphemes behave equally, some that we make conscious that which had been suo describes more in depth the importance theories that became known as the Sapir- the process illustrates the potential narrow- possible implication of the radical differ- of the elements of the smallest unit of lan- unconscious, and that we act in the ways that of the “ki” element within the Japanese cul- Whorf hypothesis. Their theories investi- ness of language and its influence in the hu- ences between words and their meaning, we guage help us understand many of the uni- become evident from the perspective of that ture in his book The Body, Self-Cultivation gate the role of culture within the world of man experience. For instance, in the United must continue to explore the morphological versally shared characteristics of languages consciousness” (10). This entails the necessity and Ki-Energy, when he states, “The ultimate language as well as its influential force. An- States time is perceive differently from how structure of language. regardless of their cultural nature. Returning to understand that our perception is partially secret of Japanese martial arts is said to lie in thropologist Michael Agar describes the dif- it is perceived in the Czech Republic. North Languages in general follow some basic to the Yupik Inuit example, one discovers the shaped and prescribed by our past traditions, letting the mind unite with ki” (Yasuo, XI). ference between the two primary outlooks Americans picture the hour that just passed, pattern, and they share a common blue- importance of snow in this culture, since a and that only through a medium of aware- The essence of “ki” is later transferred into explored by Sapir and Whorf and explains while Czechs look at the hour ahead⁵. If the print. The study of this universal design is completely new word is used to describe the ness that recognizes our limited perception

² Ethnosemantics: an anthropological approach in which vocabulary is analyzed to learn about systems of meaning and perception ⁶ Ottenheimer displays the potential differing views of time based on our cultural understanding. He explains that 9:30 is “half (The Anthropology of Language). past nine” for English speakers while it is “half of ten” for Czechs (Ottenheimer, 28). ³ Ki, 気 1. Spirit; soul. 2. Feeling. 3. Intention; inclination (The Random House Japanese-English English-Japanese Dictionary). ⁷ Morphological analysis: The analysis of word structure; it has two parts identifying and describing morphemes, and analyzing ⁴ Linguistic Determinism: the idea that language affects, even determines, your ability to think about things as well as to talk the way morphemes are arranged into words (Ottenheimer, 272). about them (Ottenheimer, 265). ⁸The ethnosemantics breakdown of language based on its cultural emphasis is clearly explained in chapter two of Ottenheimer’s ⁵ Ottenheimer claims that the perception of time could be influenced through the spoken language. He states “even as a beginner book, The Anthropology of Language. This chapter displays many of the differing views people display based on the language I found myself thinking differently when I used these two different languages” (Ottenheimer, 28). spoken and the important elements of their culture.

64 Language, Culture, Perception and Knowledge GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 65 we can begin to distinguish open channels come slaves of our own perception through originates from a diversity of perspectives; technological advancements and ground- truth takes away our autonomy of thought and knowledge. However, we must explore that offer a more expanded interpretation of language. Lindquist also states, “Apart from any attempt to narrow it separates us from breaking medical discoveries, its exclusive since, in order to explore ideas, we must ad- constricted methods for determining the our past, present, and future. This new level its status as a special form of talk, every ar- a connection with unlimited wisdom. The approach to understanding¹¹ reality narrows just to the rules and regulations provided by truth through claims of absolute certainty. of awareness would let us perceive our per- gument is a cultural event and has a layer of need for a universally accepted method that the possibilities for innovation through dif- the accepted technique. This attitude undermines the possibilities of ceptions and interpret our interpretations meaning as such” (123). Although language accesses knowledge undermines the diver- ferent mediums that do not comply with Huston also describes the essence of the unexplored options, and it sets apart knowl- in unconventional ways, making our under- potentially shapes our perception through its sity of our worldviews in postmodern times, scientifically approved theories of knowing. scientific language when he points out that edge to an elite group of like-minded people, standing less biased and more effective. cultural components and ancient traditions, while it establishes a dominant position that Huston Smith speaks about this issue when “Number is the language of science; the more while it stagnates the growth of awareness it- Stephen Pinker argues that the idea that by becoming aware of this process, we tran- underestimates the value of our different he states, “What science discovers somehow knowledge can be expressed quantitatively, in self by encouraging exclusive agendas, where language shapes our reality is ridiculous and sition from a place of complacent ignorance perspectives and promotes uniformity of casts doubt on things it does not discover” probability equations and the like, the more suggestions become discarded through a bizarre. He states, “The idea that thought is to a place of appreciation and recognition of thought. This research explores the cultural (34). The fast growing success and accep- scientific it is considered to be” (Smith, 10- filtering organism that endorses contrac- the same thing as language is an example of our traditions, culture, and worldviews. characteristics of language in order to expose tance of this methodology that supplies us 11). Numerical formulas aid in the process of tion rather than expansion and operates on what can be called a conventional absurdity” The development of our worldviews the narrowness of methods of understand- with systematic answers reduce our ability to pre-determining and confirming the validity exclusiveness rather than inclusiveness. The (47). Pinker negates the possibility that lan- through language establishes our different ing that speak a single language and expect consider unconventional ways of knowing as of the information gathered. The distinctive Chinese philosopher, Chuang-Tzu¹³, known guage shapes our perception, and he rejects perspectives of reality based on our cultural everyone else to conform to specific guide- possible sources for knowledge. scientific approach to reality, based on a con- as a rival of Confucius and mocker of logical the idea that language shapes our thinking. inclinations. Due to different perspectives lines. Science speaks a language that relies on fident method that pre-determines it, pro- thinking, reminds us of the danger of narrow- He implies that thought is not directly con- and belief systems, nations have gone to war, The assertion of knowledge claimed by al- physical evidence as the condition for ac- duces a specific type of result that overlooks thinking: “My life flows between confines, nected to language. He says, “To have a feel- and the world finds itself in chaos and discon- legedly universal perspectives leads me to ex- cepting something as real. Richard Dawkins diverse possibilities for discovery. Based on but knowledge has no confines” (62). The ing, there has to be a ‘what we mean to say’ tentment. In order to find a place of mutual plore fundamentalist¹⁰ assumptions enforc- places emphasis on the need for tangible data a perception of knowledge that excludes idea that a carefully designed system creates that is different from what we said” (47). understanding and respect, we shall begin ing a kind of reality as the recognized truth. in order to recognize something as real. He opportunities for unconventional find- a single medium for truth expansion ignores Although his theory displaying language as by recognizing our own biases and our own Claims of infallible methods of knowing states, “We believe in evolution because the ings through different mediums, this single the importance of our diverse cultural com- an instinct⁹ makes us wonder about the pos- sense of the real and the unreal. Through this dangerously narrow the chances for knowl- evidence supports it” (320). The prominence view of reality restricts new opportunities munities. sibility of our thoughts not being limited by awareness, one begins to comprehend the edge expansion by engaging in the practice of this selected method for judging reality de- for intellectual development by locking un- Chuang-Tzu suggests an approach that language, it is nearly inconceivable to think limitations of our views and the influence of inclusion of sameness and exclusion of dif- mands a mechanical analysis of data through explored channels of unknown truths. The explores unconventional thought through without language. The moment we engage in of language for limiting our understanding ferences. In order to understand our limited a process that relies on guidelines founded world of knowledge and discovery becomes unconventional channels. He indicates the the thought process, the moment we begin of the world. An educated perspective of understanding, we need to look at methods on a particular version of understanding that property of a specific methodology or lan- importance of a connection with reality and to describe the abstract, an active interaction the relationship between language and cul- of knowing that claim absolute certainty of recognizes and values the materialness¹² of guage that recognizes no other. knowledge not founded on and guided by with language takes place; without it, the pos- ture gives us some of the fundamental steps knowledge. I will focus on the language of the universe as the main component for ac- In his book, Truth and Method, Gadamer logical methods. He emphasizes the need sibilities for understanding and for any kind needed to understand our thinking process religion and the language of science and the curate conclusions. This singular approach speaks about the scientific approach to reality for acknowledging our fixed limitations in of thought process seem rather impossible as well as new ways to define and reshape our role they play in promoting single methods efficiently develops hypothesis through a tri- when he says, “Each science, as a science, has order to explore unrestricted territories. The to grasp. Gadamer states, “All understand- knowledge. of knowing through fundamentalist perspec- al and error technique that narrows the pos- in advance projected a field of objects such reality of a world that is real only through ing is interpretation, and all interpretation Gadamer recognizes the importance of tives of reality. sibilities for miscalculations, creating a form that to know them is to govern them” (449). fixed principles precludes an opportunity to takes place in the medium of a language that understanding our connection with knowl- Science and religion both serve essential of knowledge that bonds itself to strict prin- This need for control pre-determines an out- explore unexplored channels of wisdom that allows the object to come into words and edge based on our perception of the world. purposes in our society, and it is clear that ciples for its success. By focusing on matter as come that is shaped by a particular vision. may open a new realm of possibilities never yet is at the same time the interpreter’s own This recognition keeps us from limiting our- the world without faith or science is nearly the main component for identifying the real, Gadamer discusses the selective method that considered by pre-approved methods. David language” (390). This connection between selves to one specific way of knowing. He as imaginable as a world without language. supplemented with a system that supports science offers and criticizes its narrowness. Stewart addresses the importance of being language and interpretation is important to argues that, “understanding always includes My exploration of the methods used by sci- the selected theories, modern science finds He adds, “But the knowledge of all natural open-minded so that no one is restricted to recognize in order to continue exploring the interpretation” (Gadamer, 400). As long as ence and religion does not imply that both ways to minimize mistakes and arrive at con- science is knowledge for domination” (447). single versions of reality. He speaks about our interactive nature of language, culture, and we are able to distinguish the role that lan- areas of knowing function only through fun- clusions with results that can be duplicated. The restrictions placed on knowledge by a reliance in logic and states, “This emphasis human thought. guage plays in prescribing our interpretations damentalist perspectives; instead, I focus on In his essay, “The Will to Believe,” William specific method promote the singularity of on rationality is one-sided, for human beings of reality, we establish a connection with the radical viewpoints that each approach of- James questions the integrity of the scientific one way of knowing, while excluding or dis- are not just creatures of reason, but function The Homogenization of Knowledge knowledge that is not regulated by unorigi- fers when it begins to claim the acceptance of method with this statement, “She has fallen crediting mediums that reach for the truth through a complex unity of reason, emotion, nal thinking and become free of regulated reality only through its acquired methods. so deeply in love with the method that one through unconventional channels. will, appetites and feelings” (5). The recog- In her book, A Place to Stand, Julie views. may even say she has ceased to care for the The modern scientific approach derives nition of other components shaping reality Lindquist speaks about awareness as an es- The homogenization of knowledge re- The Language of Science truth by itself at all. It is only truth as tech- its power from its narrowness. This care- and making us human becomes essential in sential component for a more in depth cul- stricts knowledge itself by confining under- nically verified that interests her” (Stewart, fully selected method proves itself effective our quest for knowledge. tural understanding; “To understand the standing to a single interpretation of reality. Let us start by recognizing that mod- 233). Richard Dawkins expresses his willing- at arriving at dominant positions within its Recognizing one method, one language, particulars of persuasion for a given culture If language influences our perception of the ern science breakthrough discoveries have ness to change his view, but not the method, confined structure. My research does not one form of thinking as universal, neglects is to understand how that culture establishes world based on its cultural components, and changed the way we view the world. The making his reality dependant on a given sys- attempt to discredit the usefulness of sci- the existence of multiple perspectives of re- itself as a culture” (Lindquist, 4). It is in the if our perception of the world varies accord- scientific systematic approach carefully tem. An attitude that relies fully on the steps ence, nor the fact that its objective approach ality and cultural differences. Science condi- place of origin that many of the given char- ing to our exposure with cultural elements, analyses data through selected steps that cre- of a specified method for determining the provides us with great resources for truth tions our thought process through the prin- acteristics of language are shaped, and it is then we must not designate knowledge to ate desired outcomes. Although the success also in this place where we potentially be- a single orientation. Our understanding of this precise system shows itself through ¹¹ Understanding: intelligence; ability to comprehend and judge (Webster’s English Dictionary). ¹² Huston Smith speaks about science reliance on the physical as a determinant factor for acknowledging the real. He quotes Paul Dirac, ⁹ “The Language Instinct (How the Mind Creates Language)” argues that language is not created by culture, but that instead the father of antimatter and his point reads as follows: “All matter is created out of some imperceptible substratum. This substratum is not we are genetically pre-disposed to learn it. accurately described as material, since it uniformly fills all space and is undetectable by any observation. In a sense it appears as nothing- ¹⁰ Fundamentalism: Strict maintenance of ancient or fundamental doctrines of any religion or ideology (The New Oxford ness—immaterial, undetectable, and omnipresent. But is is a peculiar form of nothingness, out of which all matter is created.” American Dictionary). ¹³ Chuang-Tzu’s life dates back to the reign of King Hui of Liang or Wei (370-319 BC) and King Hsuan of Ch’i (319-301 BC).

66 Language, Culture, Perception and Knowledge GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 67 ciples that create and establish its credibility. Single minded worldviews become troubling phors. A belief system founded on literal consider the role that language plays before of the world. Reflecting on our isolated past feeds on different sources of understanding, Huston Smith speaks about liberating our issues when they ignore the existence of mul- interpretations of written works is question- attempting to achieve literal translations of experiences Swidler states, “Everyone for the while shaping and strengthening our own minds from constricted thinking when he tiple perspectives while affirming a particular able since, not only do they become the rules meaning. most part talked to their own cultural selves” views, allowing us to understand our own states, “The Zenith of Being is Being Unlim- view of the world as the standard for univer- and guidelines that believers must follow in (1). This unawareness of their cultural differ- cultural connection with our traditions and ited, Being relieved of all confines and condi- sal understanding. By crafting a system that order to gain approval and the acceptance The Epistemology of Knowledge ences confined knowledge to single societies, views of the world more in depth through tionings” (Smith, 25). Becoming entrapped asserts infallibility, single theories that deny of the Ultimate, but these written messages each describing their understanding of the an interactive relationship with multiple by a single vision that accepts the truth of the the importance of diversity in postmodern are also translated into hundreds of different Chuang-Tzu believes that, in order to con- world through their given perspectives. Al- perspectives. Stephen Rowe elaborates on universe and our human beginnings through times restrict the potential for knowledge languages, thereby complicating the authen- nect with knowledge--in order to learn and though we have come a long ways from living this elastic approach to different perspectives a singular method confines us to the limited growth through mutual collaboration. ticity and integrity of the message even fur- reach unknown levels of spiritual knowledge in small communities oblivious of each oth- when he points out, “This is not to say that world of a limited perspective. A method of knowing that is carefully pre- ther. The process of translation complicates and intellectual understanding--we must re- er’s presence, the voluntary endorsement of a I do not have (or am not serious about) my scribed diminishes the potential for spiritual the validity of a message, since the process move ourselves from ourselves. The real con- single method of knowing continues to seg- own particular understandings of the Good The Language of Religion growth. The primary components of early of translation deals with many cultural ele- nection takes place by discovering the truth regate concepts of combined knowledge by and the True, but rather that I am able to see Christianity paid little attention to religion’s ments existing within the language. within ourselves, and this original truth is promoting single ideologies that attempt to that my understandings are limited because Throughout history, religious fundamen- diversity and the variety of cultural tradi- Gadamer speaks about the difficulties of not defined by conventions and traditions. demote or discourage integrative thought. I—and the people, my community and my talism has enforced self-interested agendas tions across the world. Hick states, “We have carrying the original message through trans- It is through the discovery of our unconven- Although Chuang-Tzu lived thousands of tradition, and everything about me! – am that exclude opportunities for intellectual to see the world religions as vast complex lation. He reminds us that “The requirements tional selves that a connection with knowl- years ago in a small village in China, within limited, and that I am capable of growth” and spiritual growth by promoting confident religio-cultural totalities, each a bewilder- that a translation be faithful cannot remove edge and wisdom takes place. the confines of his own cultural community, (36). This recognition of our own limitations claims of knowledge that restrict opportu- ing mixture of varied goods and evils” (39). the fundamental gulf between the two lan- Our interpretation and understanding of he was able to recognize the importance originates from a place of humility rather nities for discovery and expansion through The moment we claim absolute knowledge, guages” (387). The gap between two languag- the world are shaped by factors such as so- of thought diversity as well as the dangers than overconfidence, from a place of trust unconventional channels. The overconfi- we close the door for on an assortment of es and their cultural components complicates ciety, religion, culture, and language. To rely of confining knowledge to single perspec- rather than insecurity, and from a place that dence of these selected principles overlooks potential opportunities for discovery, while the possibility for transferring the essence of fully on our ability of interpretation would tives. He was aware that an understanding practices the inclusion of all ideas rather than the existence of different mediums of under- limiting the world of knowing to limited a message into another language literally. In be to deny other mediums of knowledge. of the world is simply that, one understand- the exclusion of unknown or disliked ones. standing, while it engages in a behavior that perspectives. Claims of the only truth by re- his book, Truth and Method, Gadamer sym- This approach not only separates us from the ing, and it does not make it the only valid Fundamentalism thrives in narrowness. It encourages discord and segregation. John ligious ideologies engage in convinced and pathizes with the people who engage in the rest, but it also closes us to the possibilities of source of knowledge. In his essay, “Death questions our right to ask questions as it pro- Hick speaks about this exclusive approach in dogmatic approaches of understanding that difficult task of translation. He states, “The growth by unwelcoming and denying other or Dialogue,”Swidler addresses the need for motes a single ideology that compromises his essay “The Pluralistic Hypothesis,” where undermine different mediums of knowing, translator is often painfully aware of his in- perspectives. By confining our choices to a new level of consciousness that recognizes independent and unconventional thought in he communicates the importance of open- since in order for a person to hold the out- evitable distance from the original” (388). limited perceptions, we connect with fabri- our worldviews as limited and welcomes dif- order to provide a version of knowledge that minded methods of knowing that acknowl- lined truth, one must adopt their existing The original meaning of a message may cated ideas of the real and the unreal through ferent perspectives. This new level of con- is enforced by the people who benefit from edge the reality of multiple perspectives. He principles. be altered or lost through the translation a limited medium. Chuang-Tzu’s connection sciousness is similar to the one that Chuang- a formed perspective. As we become more reflects on the narrow views of religious ide- Religious fundamentalism continues to process, making literal translations and inter- with knowledge is one that welcomes all per- Tzu spoke about a couple of millenniums and more aware of our differences and inter- ologies based on fundamentalist approaches, enforce its inflexible agenda throughout the pretations nearly impossible. Ottenheimer spectives regardless of their differences, leav- ago. Swidler expresses the need for awareness connectedness with one another across the and he questions the idea of salvation reserved ages. Many denominations claim to hold the further elaborates on this issue of translation ing knowledge thriving in a spirit of oneness when he mentions that, “More and more of globe, let us remind ourselves of the impor- for a select few as others are condemned truth while negating and discrediting oth- in his book The Anthropology of Language by that integrates and welcomes all possibilities. us, both individually and even at times insti- tance of open dialogue and open mediums for not complying with the rules of a given ers. Some speak of tolerance and acceptance, sharing the difficulties encountered between It is important not to confine the continuous tutionally, are gaining enough maturity to that encourage wisdom and value knowledge dogma. He expresses his frustration toward but their rules are written to be followed; one idea and another across the world of lan- growth of knowledge to a simple or complex notice that there are entire other ways of in- growth through unlocked channels. ideologies that segregate people by engaging attempts to deviate from the given concepts guage. For example, the word Ruka in the interpretation, since knowledge stagnates the tegrating an understanding of the world than Our ideas are expressed through language. in agendas of exclusion rather than inclusion. are seen as immoral, evil, and wrong. Ch- Russian language means “hand” and “arm” in moment it is claimed, and the prospects for the way we and our forebears grew up in” (2). These ideas and views of the world, based on He asks for an approach that welcomes other uang-Tzu criticizes these claims of infallibil- English. The word “love” in Ukrainian has development and creativity become nearly Awareness of multiple worldviews may give its cultural components, potentially become views and is not founded on narrow perspec- ity when he states, “We do not yet know of two different meanings; one describes love extinct. us a glimpse into the diversity of thought and our accepted reality. It is through the recog- tives. He states, “It is not possible to establish anything which we now affirm that we shall in general, while the other refers to romantic It is essential to move beyond concepts human experiences across the globe, but it nition of our own biased perspectives that a unique moral superiority of any one of the not deny it fifty nine times over¹⁴” (102). love. In the Russian language there is also one of tolerance¹⁵ and visit a stage of knowing does not automatically create a medium that we may begin to understand the roots of our great world faiths” (Hick, 39). Dogmatic ap- These claims of knowledge and absolute un- word for foot and leg. In Standard English the that addresses and recognizes our differ- welcomes the exchange of ideas as a valuable fixed vision. This understanding will develop proaches attempt to own knowledge of the derstanding function through a very specific words lend and borrow are divided, while in ences and thrives in a spirit that is welcoming source for knowledge growth; instead we are a new foundation of thought that is more truth based on their accepted agenda. outline that defines our world through their Shinzwani the word kopa expresses both ac- and accepting. It is also crucial to recognize required to take additional steps that move flexible and welcoming of new concepts not As stated earlier, the cultural components constricted views. tions. These different interpretations become our own view of the world and our cultural us from tolerating our differences to accept- founded on our accepted methods of know- of language connect us with interpretations Fundamentalist religions frequently base difficult to translate accurately since the cul- understanding of it in order to engage with ing them, giving us all an opportunity to ing. of reality that shape our understanding of their ethical standards and belief system on tural elements of language vary from culture different perspectives with a receptive mind. transcend from fixed mediums of knowing Language and culture both play an influ- the world. This connection with knowledge the literal interpretation of a book. This text to culture and from language to language. If Leonard Swidler speaks about our distant to flexible ones that thrive in a spirit of coex- ential role in our development of worldviews; outlined primarily through our cultural tra- becomes a symbolic icon that establishes and only one word describes “love” in Ukrainian, past and our secluded existence when he re- istence in the plurality of thought. our world takes shape through their relation- ditions sets the foundation for specific ways regulates the faith through pre-assumed ac- but the word has more than one interpreta- minds us that groups of people would live Advocating a flexible worldview that is ship, and we begin to form our convictions of thinking that characterize worldviews. curate interpretations of the written meta- tion for this culture, then it is important to their lives with little or no interaction with open to others and recognizes its own limi- based on inherited cultural principles. The another one, and for the most part they were tations does not promote the disintegration language of science and the language of re- unaware of each other’s way of life and sim- of our traditions or cultural values; rather it ligion both benefit our world in innumerous ply lived within their cultural understanding functions through a system of openness that ways. Science explores the universe through ¹⁴ Chuang-Tzu was primarily referring to Confucius in this statement. He stated, “Confucius by the age of sixty had sixty times changed his mind; whenever he began by judging ‘That’s it’ he ended by judging ‘That’s not’ (Chuang-Tzu, 102). He reminded us through this concept that we must understand the limitations of our knowledge through a medium that acknowledges our own misunderstanding of understanding itself. ¹⁵ Tolerance: capacity for enduring; allowable deviation (Webster’s English Dictionary).

68 Language, Culture, Perception and Knowledge GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 69 technical methods that display the creativity formity of thought. and interpretation of it. Our worldviews car- References and imagination of the human race, while re- Let us coexist in a world that welcomes ry the essence of our cultural understanding. ligion searches for meaning within the soul the autonomy of thought rather than the Through their fundamental natures we may Ottenheimer, Harriet Joseph. The Anthropology of Language An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology. Belmont: Wadsworth, 2005. and the mystical essence of humanity. Let uniformity of it. Huston Smith reminds us find a need to go beyond appreciating our us thrive in the combination of our strengths of the importance of unrestricted and un- own, wanting to explore a variety of them, so Gadamer, Hans Georg. Truth and Method. London: Continuum, 2004. and the recognition of our weaknesses in conventional thinking when he speaks about that we may become unrestricted and uncon- order to integrate human thought and maxi- being unlimited and relieved from all con- fined from concepts that claim the universal- Dawkins, Richard. The God Delusion. New York: Mariner Books, 2008. mize the possibilities for reaching unknown fines; these words resonate with those from ity and uniformity of the human existence. levels of knowledge through nameless me- Chuang-tzu, which express his concern with Smith, Huston. Forgotten Truth The Common Vision of the World's Religions. New York: HarperOne, 1992. diums of discovery. This integration¹⁶ does confining knowledge to limited perspectives. not imply the assimilation of knowledge into Universal standards do not promote diversi- Nakao, Seigo. Random House Japanese-English English-Japanese dictionary. New York: Random House, 1997. oneness, but rather it values the diversity of ty; instead they constrain the possibilities for perspectives while it develops a new version growth (spiritual and intellectual) by enforc- Pinker, Steven. The Language Instinct How the Mind Creates Language (P.S.). New York: Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2007. of knowledge more elastic and less rigid. ing the homogenization of notions to single The choice to become prisoners of our own perspectives. Zhuangzi., and Chuang-Tzu. The Inner Chapters. Boston: Hackett Company, 2001. thoughts through our given worldviews is Culture and language influence our views more of an option today than it has ever been and perhaps shape our interaction with the Stewart, David. Exploring the Philosophy of Religion (6th Edition). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2006. before. The media and technological advanc- world. Our vision of the real connects with es keep us informed of the latest events and our inherited cultural interpretation of the Yasuo, Yuasa. The Body Self-Cultivation, and Ki-Energy. New York: State University of New York Press, 1993. the newest conflicts and discoveries taking world as well as with the interconnected place around the world. Information is read- elements of language and human thought. Rowe, Stephen. American Hope from Moral Disease to a Democratic World. 2008. MS. Grand Valley State University. ily available and it is no longer affordable to We must become aware of this relationship hide behind the blanket of ignorance. among language, culture and the develop- Swidler, Leonard. "Death or Dialogue." From the Age of Monologue to the Age of Dialogue: 01-24. Diverse pools of methods for engaging ment of worldviews and fundamentalist with the truth allow us to expand knowledge thinking in order to practice a more flexible through a variety of perspectives. Huston approach that not only tolerates different Smith reminds us, “The world is not as sci- views and opinions, but also thrives in the ex- ence says it is; it is as science, philosophy, ploration of other ways of thinking as a me- religion, the arts, and everyday speech say it dium for expanding knowledge itself. When is” (16). The integration of human thought, speaking about dandelions in his book, The from all areas of creativity, with a search for Anthropology of Language, Ottenheimer meaning is essential in order to reach uncon- states, “But in your culture dandelions are a ventional knowledge. In his book, Explor- kind of lettuce and can be put into salad and ing the Philosophy of Religion, David Stewart in my culture dandelions are a kind of weed mentions: “There is no such a thing as reli- and must be dug out of lawns and gardens gion, only religions” (2). It is in the recogni- and thrown away” (18). These two different tion of our own limited interpretations that maps of the world provided by our cultural the process of growth and discovery becomes connection with it define and mold our in- unlimited through an understanding that terpretation, regulating our perception, and our worldview is valid without a need to dis- outlining our understanding. credit or dismantle different ones. As our worldviews become influenced by As we continue to witness death and de- our connection with language and culture, struction by arrogant and narrow-minded let us thrive in the recognition of an under- practices that encourage the exclusion rather standing that explores the world through its than inclusion of diversity of thought, we multiplicity of understandings. The assimila- must consider the importance of flexible ap- tion of thought into a medium that claims proaches to spirituality and human knowl- absolute certainty does not take into account edge that recognize the limitations of human that dandelions are beautiful and delicious thought in order to engage in a process that while ugly and unwanted at the same time. thrives in the diversity of ideas, rather than Let us respect our diverse perspectives while in the homogenization of human thinking; striving for visions that crave for truths and a process that flourishes through the integra- understandings of the world through diver- tion of multiple perspectives rather than uni- sity rather than a truth or a single definition

¹⁶ Allen F Repko, in his book Interdisciplinary Research, speaks about integration and describes it as “An activity of critically evalu- ating and creatively combining ideas and knowledge to form a new whole or cognitive advancement” (16).

70 Language, Culture, Perception and Knowledge GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 71 Assessing the Utility of Genetic Data as a Monitoring Tool: A Case Study of measures such as losses in heterozygosity. roosting migratory bats, including eastern 408 bp with a mutation rate μ = 2 x 10-5 sub- However, Luikart et al.’s (1998) analyses as- red bats (Lasiurus borealis), hoary bats (L. ci- stitutions/gene/generation and a generation Eastern Red Bats (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae: Lasiurus borealis) sumed an extremely severe bottleneck in a nereus), and silver-haired bats (Lasionycteris interval of 5 years. To evaluate microsatellite single panmictic population and evaluated noctivagans), the three of which represent data, we modelled a dataset of 20 diploid loci only microsatellite data. Such power analy- 72.8% of the annual bat fatalities reported with a mutation rate μ = 10-5 substitutions/ Abstract measures of diversity (segregating sites and ses may be limited in their applicability; ide- for wind energy facilities in the United locus/generation and the same generation average heterozygosity) are much more infor- ally, the use of genetic data as a monitoring States (Table 1; Kunz et al. 2007b). Most interval of 5 years. To mimic population de- High levels of bat and bird mortalities have mative for detecting population declines than tool should be evaluated on a case-by-case of these fatalities in North America appear cline in L. borealis due to genetically-random been documented at wind energy facilities; neutrality tests such as Tajima’s D and Cox’s basis (Hedrick & Miller 1992). Specifically, to be concentrated during the fall migra- mortality from wind turbines, we used a de- particularly hard-hit among bats are the tree- Δ. Between the two types of markers, microsat- population parameters such as the initial tion of the affected species (Cryan 2003). mography in which a single population ini- roosting migratory species Lasiurus cinereus, ellites provided more power to detect popula- population size, the degree to which popula- Because these species roost in low densities tially sized at 3.3 x 106 individuals decreases L. borealis, and Lasionycteris noctivagans, tion declines over shorter timescales (hundreds tions are structured across the landscape, the in relatively unpredictable locations, the by 1% per year with samples (n = 150) taken which together compose approximately 79% of generations for microsatellites as opposed to level of gene flow connecting structured pop- population-level impact of these fatalities is after 0, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, and 1000 years of affected bats. Traditional mark-recapture thousands of generations for sequence data). ulations, and the rate of population decline currently difficult to assess and traditional (Fig. 2A). To examine the impact of popula- monitoring methods have proven ineffective for These results demonstrate that even quickly- must be considered in order to judge the util- demographic approaches have limited utility tion structure on the loss of genetic diversity these species due to the fact that these bats roost evolving microsatellite data are unlikely to be ity of genetic monitoring (Hedrick 2001). with these three species of bats (Cryan 2003; in a declining population, we also considered in small numbers, fly very high, and are dif- useful for the type of year-to-year comparisons Polymorphism studies can be conducted Kunz et al. 2007a). Because of the ineffi- a model in which a single population initially ficult to catch. Thus it is hard to tell what effect needed by monitoring agencies. We conclude using relatively small datasets (Nordborg ciency of traditional approaches, such as the sized at 3.3 x 106 individuals first splits into Anne K. McNeeley these deaths at wind energy facilities are having that genetic data do not appear to be a useful 2001). The coalescent approach is useful in mark-recapture method and the limitations two subpopulations of 1.65 x 106 connected such studies due to the practicality of mod- of such methods in inferring the demograph- by gene flow at a rate m = 0.01% Each sub- McNair Scholar on population numbers. Genetic data may pro- metric for monitoring red bat population de- vide a means of monitoring populations when clines due to wind turbine-associated deaths. eling the genealogy backward in time (Nor- ics of bat populations, the use of molecular population then decreases in size by 1% per demographic methods are unsuitable. We used We emphasize that these conclusions are lim- dborg 2001; Hudson 2002). This approach markers to estimate population parameters year with samples (n = 150) taken after 0, 5, coalescent-based simulations to determine the ited to the population parameters examined traces lineages of alleles from a sample of the and demographic trends may be the best op- 10, 50, 100, 500, and 1000 years (Fig. 2B). efficacy of genetic data as a monitoring tool for in this study, specifically those for eastern red current population back to their most recent tion for monitoring migratory tree-roosting Coalescent datasets (10,000 replicate data- short-term changes in population size. Simu- bats facing population declines from wind tur- common ancestor, and imposes mutations bat populations and assessing the long-term sets per demographic scenario) were simulat- lations were run under demographic models bines. Similar questions in other species (e.g., upon these models (Harding 1998). Param- importance of fatalities at wind power facili- ed according to these demographic models parameterized using mitochondrial DNA se- little brown bats facing local extirpation from eters such as effective population size, rates ties. Our analyses will allow us to determine using the software ms (Hudson 2002). For quence data and microsatellite genotypes from white-nose syndrome) should be addressed us- of population growth or decline, and pat- which marker type, loci, and analyses provide microsatellite data, variation simulated in ms the eastern red bat, Lasiurus borealis. DNA ing models appropriately parameterized for terns of population structure can be inferred the most power for detecting recent popula- was converted to microsatellite genotypes sequence data and microsatellite genotypes those systems. from the shape of the resulting coalescent tion declines, such as those hypothesized in using the software microsat (M. Cox, un- were simulated in both panmictic and struc- genealogies and the timing of genealogical eastern red bats, and to make educated rec- published code). Genetic variation was sum- tured populations using the computer program, Introduction coalescent events. Such coalescent methods ommendations as to which methods should marized as the number of segregating sites S, ms, and analyzed using statistical software prove particularly useful in power analyses be pursued in future monitoring of this spe- nucleotide diversity π, and Tajima’s (1989) D (microstat) to interpret the results. ms is a co- One application of conservation genetics for conservation genetic studies, since simu- cies. The immediate research objectives of using the softwarems_stats (Hudson 2002) Amy Russell, Ph.D. lation software can be utilized to evaluate the project were to: for DNA sequence data. For microsatellite Faculty Mentor alescent-based program that simulates genetic is the analysis of molecular data to determine data under specific population models that are the amount of genetic variation present in an evolutionary histories specific to a species of data, genetic variation was summarized as parameterized by initial population size, rate endangered population (Hedrick & Miller interest. Here, we use such analyses to evalu- • Assess the utility of genetic data as a moni- average heterozygosity, θP, and Cox’s Δ using of decline, time since the onset of decline, muta- 1992). High levels of genetic variation are ate the utility of genetic monitoring tech- toring tool for tracking population declines. the softwaremicrostat (M. Cox, unpublished tion rate of the chosen molecular marker, and typically associated with healthy popula- niques for a bat species threatened by wind code). pattern of population structure. Initial esti- tions, and many conservation efforts place turbines in North America. • Model genetic data and examine changes Results mates of these parameters were taken from pre- great emphasis on maintaining or increas- Wind power is among the fastest growing caused by manipulating population size, vious studies on L. borealis (initial population ing genetic diversity in threatened popula- sectors of the energy industry (Pasqualetti et mortality rates, time since onset of decline, size = 3.3 million individuals, rate of decline = tions (O’Brien et al. 1983). Conservation al. 2004). However, the low cost and infinite type of molecular marker used, and degrees Effect of marker type –1% per year, mitochondrial mutation rate = agencies are increasingly relying on genetic renewability (U.S. Department of Energy of population structure. We considered two types of molecular mark- 10-5 substitutions per gene per generation, no monitoring of threatened and endangered 2005) of wind power are coupled with un- ers commonly used in studies of conserva- Methods significant population structure). Simulations populations with the assumption that these expected consequences (Morrison & Sinclair tion genetics: mitochondrial DNA sequence were allowed to run from 1 to 1000 genera- data are very quickly responsive to popula- 2004; Kunz et al. 2007b). The presence of data and autosomal microsatellite genotype tions following the initial onset of population tion size changes while requiring relatively wind turbines is documented as having a Modeling of Lasiurus borealis populations data. These marker types vary in both mode decline to determine the timescales necessary small sample sizes and minimally invasive negative effect on some bird and bat species. We used coalescent-based simulations to of inheritance and in mutation rate, with mi- to observe significant loss of genetic diversity sampling techniques (Luikart et al. 1998). Bird fatalities have been estimated around determine the efficacy of genetic data as a tochondrial DNA being maternally inher- under biologically realistic conditions. Loss of Molecular markers have proven to be an average of 2.19 fatalities per turbine per monitoring tool for short-term changes in ited and having a slower mutation rate than genetic diversity was assessed using summary useful for detecting population bottlenecks year in the U.S. for all species (Erickson et population size. Simulations were parameter- the biparentally inherited microsatellite loci. statistics including the number of segregating (Garza & Williamson 2001). Luikart et al. al. 2001), while more recent reports of bat ized based on DNA sequence data from the Our results indicate that microsatellite data sites, nucleotide diversity, and Tajima’s D for (1998) showed that a loss of alleles and de- fatalities range from 18.5 to 69.6 carcasses mitochondrial D-loop of the eastern red bat, are more effective than mitochondrial DNA DNA sequence data; analogous measures for crease in variance at microsatelite loci can per turbine per year (reviewed in Kunz et al. Lasiurus borealis (Vonhof & Russell, unpub- sequence data for detecting population de- microsatellite data included average heterozy- signal population bottlenecks with greater 2007b). lished data). To evaluate the utility of DNA clines over relatively short time scales (Fig. gosity, θP, and Cox’s Δ. We found that direct statistical power than more commonly used Wind turbines predominantly affect tree sequence data, we modelled a haploid locus of 3-5).

72 Assessing the Utility of Genetic Data as a Monitoring Tool: A Case Study of Eastern Red Bats (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae: Lasiurus borealis) GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 73 Even though microsatellites appear to be of population decline = 0). This expected often used in demographic studies as indica- structured populations. Although this may markedly more responsive to demographic pattern was observed in our simulations, tions of population growth; the overabun- seem counter-intuitive, a review of genetic population declines, even these quickly with variation around the expected average dance of singleton mutations associated with analyses in plant studies has shown that small evolving loci require hundreds of genera- test statistic value of 0. With increasing time population growth tends to cause significant- structured populations tend to maintain tions to manifest significant losses of genetic since the onset of population decline, we ly negative values for these analyses (Russell higher levels of diversity in total than large diversity (Fig. 3A). For example, average het- observed little change in the neutrality test et al. 2005). Our analyses suggest that the panmictic populations (Ellstrand & Elam erozygosity values remain relatively constant statistics except for a notable but statistically same test statistics are not useful for detect- 1993). As the total population size decreas- for at least 500 generations following the insignificant increase at 1000 generations. ing population declines. One caveat to this es, subpopulations in a structured popula- onset of population decline before declin- conclusion stems from the particular neu- tion may individually function as refugia for ing significantly between 500 and 1000 gen- Effect of population structure trality tests that were examined in our study. different samples of alleles, allowing a larger erations. For mitochondrial DNA sequence Eastern red bats show no evidence of genetic Tajima’s D has previously been shown to be amount of genetic information to be pre- data, we start to see a significant decline in population structure throughout their range lacking in statistical power for detecting pop- served in total than in a single unstructured simple diversity statistics (number of segre- (Vonhof & Russell, unpublished data). Al- ulation growth, whereas statistics such as Fu’s population. We emphasize that the simple gating sites, Fig. 3B) by 1000 generations fol- though not true for eastern red bats, popu- (1997) Fs proved powerful enough to detect island model of population structure evalu- lowing the onset of population decline. lation structure is a common phenomenon sudden population growth (Ramos-Onsins ated in our study is probably not realistic for among species of conservation concern; & Rozas 2006). Such differences leave open most species; unequal subpopulation sizes or Effect of summary statistic therefore, we evaluated the impact of a the possibility that our analyses with Tajima’s asymmetric migration rates may alter these We used multiple summaries of the data to simple island model of structured popula- D (and its microsatellite analog, Cox’s Δ) results. evaluate which statistic(s) were most respon- tions on the rate of loss of genetic diversity were ineffective because we examined an in- We further emphasize that these conclu- sive to simulated population declines. These (Fig. 3). These structured populations main- appropriate neutrality test. Future analyses sions are limited to the population param- summary statistics fell into two general tained comparable levels of genetic diversity should evaluate other neutrality tests to de- eters examined in this study, specifically classes: direct measures of genetic diversity for similar periods of time as unstructured termine the true utility of neutrality tests as a those for eastern red bats facing population and neutrality tests. The former includes panmictic populations. When population measure of population declines. declines from wind turbines. The specific statistics such as average heterozygosity (Fig. declines persisted for >500 generations, how- Between the two types of markers, mic- evolutionary history and population param- 3A) and θP (Fig. 5A) for microsatellites and ever, unstructured populations lost diversity rosatellites provided more power to detect eters of a species provide invaluable informa- the number of segregating sites (Fig. 3B) and at a significantly higher rate than structured population declines over shorter timescales tion when assessing the utility of a proposed nucleotide diversity (Fig. 5B) for DNA se- populations. (hundreds of generations for microsatellites conservation genetic study (Hedrick 2001). quence data, while the latter class includes as opposed to thousands of generations for Similar questions in other species (e.g., little Cox’s Δ (Fig. 4A) for microsatellites and Ta- Discussion sequence data). Microsatellite data are high- brown bats facing local extirpation from jima’s D (Fig. 4B) for DNA sequence data. ly variable and are commonly used for the as- white-nose syndrome) should be addressed Simple measures of genetic diversity such Previous research has supported genetic sessment of short-term trends in population using models appropriately parameterized as average heterozygosity or segregating sites data as an effective means for monitor- sizes (Hedrick 2001). Our study supports the for those systems. emerge as the most useful metrics for assess- ing population declines (Hedrick & Miller conclusion that haploid DNA sequence data ing population declines (Fig. 3). Although 1992; Luikart et al. 1998; Garza & William- possess significantly less power for detecting Acknowledgements the simulated populations retained high son 2001). However, these studies were lim- population declines than microsatellite data; levels of variation for long periods of time ited in a number of ways, particularly in the however, neither marker type appears to be We thank Dr. Murray Cox, Massey Uni- following the onset of population decline demographic models and genetic markers useful for monitoring population declines versity, for invaluable advice and access to (on the order of 102 generations), average that were evaluated. For large populations on the yearly timescales typically required by unpublished code used in simulating and heterozygosity or segregating sites proved experiencing a relatively low rate of popula- monitoring agencies. analyzing microsatellite data. Dr. Maarten quite responsive to population losses total- tion decline such as the eastern red bat, our If the observed and projected growth of Vonhof, Western Michigan University, pro- ing at least 60% of the initial population size. results indicate that genetic monitoring is wind energy facilities are coupled with the es- vided access to unpublished DNA sequence Statistics such as θP and nucleotide diversity not likely to be effective for time spans of timates of bat fatalities at wind turbine facili- data from Lasiurus borealis. (Fig. 5) represent the same direct measures of <500 generations. ties, it is expected that population decline in genetic diversity, but are scaled by the muta- We found that direct measures of genet- the eastern red bat is an immediate problem tion rate; as such, they show the same overall ic diversity (segregating sites and average for conservationists (Pasqualetti et al. 2004; pattern as heterozygosity and segregating heterozygosity) are much more informative Kunz et al. 2007b). Given that our method sites. for detecting population declines than neu- is only significant on the order of 102 genera- Neutrality tests such as Cox’s Δ and Ta- trality tests such as Tajima’s D and Cox’s Δ. tions, these methods of genetic evaluation do jima’s D appear to be ineffective for detecting Direct measures of diversity remained high not prove useful. We conclude that genetic or monitoring population declines over the for hundreds of generations, but they proved data do not appear to be a valid metric for time scales considered in this study (Fig. 4). responsive to population losses above 60% of monitoring red bat population declines due These test statistics are expected to approach the initial population size. Tajima’s D and to wind turbine-associated deaths. 0 for neutral loci in a very large population, Cox’s Δ varied around an average of zero For population declines persisting longer such as was simulated in our constant popu- with statistically insignificant changes even than 500 generations, structured population lation size scenario (i.e., time since the onset after 1000 generations. Neutrality tests are retained diversity to a greater extent than un-

74 Assessing the Utility of Genetic Data as a Monitoring Tool: A Case Study of Eastern Red Bats (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae: Lasiurus borealis) GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 75 Appendix Literature Cited

Simulation code for single-population model Cryan, P. M. 2003. Seasonal distribution of migratory tree bats (Lasiurus and Lasionycteris) in North America. Journal of Mammalogy ./ms 150 500000 -t 13.068 -eN 0 1 84:579-593. ./ms 150 500000 -t 13.068 -eN 0 0.95099005 -eG 0 -33166.108317 -eN 1.51515E-06 1 ./ms 150 500000 -t 13.068 -eN 0 0.904382075 -eG 0 -33166.108317 -eN 3.0303E-06 1 Garza, J. C., & E. G. Williamson. 2001. Detection of reduction in population size using data from microsatellite loci. Molecular Ecology ./ms 150 500000 -t 13.068 -eN 0 0.605006067 -eG 0 -33166.108317 -eN 1.51515E-05 1 10:305–318. ./ms 150 500000 -t 13.068 -eN 0 0.366032341 -eG 0 -33166.108317 -eN 3.0303E-05 1 ./ms 150 500000 -t 13.068 -eN 0 0.006570483 -eG 0 -33166.108317 -eN 0.000151515 1 Ellstrand, N. C., & D. R. Elam. 1993. Population Genetic Consequences of Small Population Size: Implications for Plant Conservation. ./ms 150 500000 -t 13.068 -eN 0 4.31712E-05 -eG 0 -33166.108317 -eN 0.00030303 1 Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 24: 217-242.

Simulation code for structured-population model Erickson, W. P., G. D. Johnson, M. D. Strickland, D. P. Young, K. J. Sernka, and R. E. Good. 2001. Avian collisions with wind turbines: a ./ms 150 500000 -t 13.068 -I 2 75 75 330 -eN 0 1 summary of existing studies and comparisons to other sources of avian collision mortality in the United States. Western Ecosystems Tech- ./ms 150 500000 -t 13.068 -I 2 75 75 313.8267165 -eN 0 0.95099005 -eG 0 -33166.108317 -eN 1.51515E-06 1 nology, Inc. National Wind Coordinating Committee Research Document. Washington, DC. ./ms 150 500000 -t 13.068 -I 2 75 75 298.4460848 -eN 0 0.904382075 -eG 0 -33166.108317 -eN 3.0303E-06 1 ./ms 150 500000 -t 13.068 -I 2 75 75 199.6520022 -eN 0 0.605006067 -eG 0 -33166.108317 -eN 1.51515E-05 1 Fu, Y. 1997. Statistical tests of neutrality of mutations against population growth, hitchhiking, and background selection. Genetics 147:915- ./ms 150 500000 -t 13.068 -I 2 75 75 120.7906726 -eN 0 0.366032341 -eG 0 -33166.108317 -eN 3.0303E-05 1 925. ./ms 150 500000 -t 13.068 -I 2 75 75 2.168259404 -eN 0 0.006570483 -eG 0 -33166.108317 -eN 0.000151515 1 ./ms 150 500000 -t 13.068 -I 2 75 75 0.014246512 -eN 0 4.31712E-05 -eG 0 -33166.108317 -eN 0.00030303 1 Harding, R. M. 1998. New phylogenies: an introductory look at the coalescent. New Uses for New Phylogenies p.15-22 Oxford University Press

Hedrick, P. W. 2001. Conservation genetics: where are we now? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 16:629-636.

Hedrick, P.W., & P. S. Miller. 1992. Conservation genetics: techniques and fundamentals. Ecological Applications 2: 30-46.

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Kunz, T. H., E. B. Arnett, B. M. Cooper, W. P. Erickson, R. P. Larkin, T. Mabee, M. L. Morrison, M.D. Strickland, & J.M. Szewczak. 2007a. Assessing impacts of wind energy development on nocturnally active birds and bats: a guidance document. Journal of Wildlife Manage- ment 71:2449-2486.

Kunz, T. H., E. B. Arnett, W. P. Erickson, A. R. Hoar, G. D. Johnson, R. P. Larkin, M. D. Strickland, R. W. Thresher, & M. D. Tuttle. 2007b. Ecological impacts of wind energy development on bats: questions, research needs, and hypotheses. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environ- ment 5:315-324.

Luikart, G., W. B. Sherwin, B. M. Steele, & F. W. Allendorf. 1998. Usefulness of molecular markers for detecting population bottlenecks via monitoring genetic change. Molecular Ecology 7:963-974

Morrison, M. L., & A. K. Sinclair. 2004. Environmental impacts of wind energy technology. In: C. J. Cleveland (ed.). Encyclopedia of En- ergy, Vol. 6. Elsevier, New York

Nordborg, M. 2001. Coalescent theory. Handbook of Statistical Genetics, 1:179–212. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Chichester, U.K.

O’Brien, S. J., D. E. Wildt, D. Goldman, C. R. Merril, & M. Bush. 1983. The cheetah is depauperate in genetic variation. Science 221:459- 462.

Pasqualetti, M., R. Richter, P. Gipe. 2004. History of wind energy. 419-433. In C. J. Cleveland (ed.). Encyclopedia of Energy, Vol. 6. Elsevier, Ne w York

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76 Assessing the Utility of Genetic Data as a Monitoring Tool: A Case Study of Eastern Red Bats (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae: Lasiurus borealis) GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 77 Tajima, F. 1989. Statistical method for testing the neutral mutations hypothesis by DNA polymorphism. Genetics. 123: 585-595. Figure 2. Demographic models of population decline. A. Single panmictic population. B. Structured population.

U.S. Department of Energy, 2005. Wind Energy Benefits. Wind Powering America Fact Sheet Series.

Table 1. Species composition of annual bat fatalities at wind energy facilities. Table reproduced from Kunz 2007b.

Pacific Rocky South- Upper Species Northwest Mountains Central Midwest East Total

Hoary bat 153 (49.8%) 155 (89.1%) 10 (9.0%) 309 (28.9%) 396 (28.9%) 1023 (41.1%) Eastern red bat - - 3 (2.7%) 106 (20.3%) 471 (34.4%) 580 (23.3%) Western red bat 4 (1.3%) - - - - 4 (0.2%) Seminole bat - - - - 1 (0.1%) 1 (0.1%) Silver-haired bat 94 (30.6%) 7 (4.1%) 1 (0.9%) 35 (6.7%) 72 (5.2%) 209 (8.4%) Eastern pipistrelle - - 1 (0.9%) 7 (1.3%) 253 (18.5%) 261 (10.5%) Little brown myotis 2 (0.7%) 6 (3.5%) - 17 (3.3%) 120 (8.7%) 145 (5.8%) Northern long-eared myotis - - - - 8 (0.6%) 8 (0.4%) Big brown bat 2 (0.7%) 2 (1.1%) 1 (0.9%) 19 (3.6%) 35 (2.5%) 59 (2.4%) Brazilian free-tailed bat 48 (15.6%) - 95 (85.5%) - - 143 (5.7%) Unknown 4 (1.3%) 4 (2.2%) - 30 (5.7%) 15 (1.1%) 53 (2.1%) Figure 2A.

To t a l 307 174 111 523 1371 2486

Figure 1. Bat carcass specimens collected at wind turbine sites. Species names are given in text: BigBr = big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus), Myotis = Myotis spp., Hoary = hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus), Red = red bat (L. borealis), and SilvH = silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans). Figure reprinted from Howe et al. (2002).

Figure 2B.

78 Assessing the Utility of Genetic Data as a Monitoring Tool: A Case Study of Eastern Red Bats (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae: Lasiurus borealis) GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 79 Figure 3. Decline in genetic diversity with increasing time since the onset of population size reduction. Data were simulated Figure 4. Change in neutrality tests with increasing time since the onset of population size reduction. Data were simulated under under demographies with (black) and without (blue) population structure. Average diversity statistics are shown with 95% CI demographies with (black) and without (blue) population structure. Average test results are shown with 95% CI (dashed lines). (dashed lines). A. Diversity measured as average heterozygosity for 20 autosomal microsatellite loci. B. Diversity measured as the A. Neutrality measured as Cox’s Δ for 20 autosomal microsatellite loci. B. Neutrality measured as Tajima’s D for haploid (mito- number of segregating sites in haploid (mitochondrial) DNA sequence data. chondrial) DNA sequence data.

Figure 3A.

Figure 4A.

Figure 3B. Figure 4B.

80 Assessing the Utility of Genetic Data as a Monitoring Tool: A Case Study of Eastern Red Bats (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae: Lasiurus borealis) GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 81 Figure 5. Decline in genetic diversity with increasing time since the onset of population size reduction. Data were simulated under demographies with (black) and without (blue) population structure. Average diversity statistics are shown with 95% CI Quaternary Geology, Toco, Trinidad, West Indies (dashed lines). A. Diversity measured as average θP for 20 autosomal microsatellite loci. B. Diversity measured as average π for haploid (mitochondrial) DNA sequence data.

Introduction acting over the duration of the pull-apart, approximately the past few million years The island of Trinidad sits in the bound- (Weber, 2005). These features and the idea ary zone between the Caribbean and South of long-term subsidence lead Weber (2005) American plates. According to Global Po- to propose a hypothesis that we test here: sitioning System data (GPS), the Carib- northwestern Trinidad may be sinking into bean Plate is currently moving N86ºE ± 2º the pull-apart basin via a see-saw tectonic at ~20mm/yr to the east in relation to the mechanism, causing the entire island to tip South American plate (Figure 1) (Weber et down to the west and up to the east. We con- al., 2001). This motion is accommodated ducted a detailed investigation of the coastal along the trace of the east-to-west striking El terrace deposits along the northeastern coast. Pilar fault zone in eastern Venezuela, which An understanding of the processes leading to has an average right lateral slip of 1.3 m, as the formation of coastal deposits could pro- Mallory Morell the Caribbean plate moves east in relation vide a clearer picture of tectonism affecting McNair Scholar to South American plate (Baumbach et al., the region. Measuring vertical active tectonic 2004). In contrast to the single active El Pilar motion directly is a challenge, but defining a fault trace in Venezuela, several widely spaced, long-term rate of uplift for the northeastern east-west to northeast striking strike-slip coastal terraces may be estimated by dating traces have been mapped in Trinidad (Soto the terrace sediments and then comparing et al. 2004; Robertson and Burke, 1989), their age and elevation to a reliable global sea but GPS data show that most transform mo- level curve (Chapelle et al. 1996). tion is currently concentrated on the Central Previous research on the subaerially ex- Range Fault (Weber et al. 2009). Flinch et al. posed coastal terraces found along the north- Figure 5A. (1999) demonstrated that the Gulf of Paria eastern coast of the island was done primar- pull-apart basin connects the El Pilar fault ily by Barr (1963). Barr described the unit as system and the Central Range fault of Trini- coarse quartz sand and quartzose gravels with dad at a major right step-over. This pull-apart boulder beds containing rounded cobbles up basin is critically related to the geomorphic to 15 in (38 cm) across of pure vein-quartz, John Weber, Ph.D. features seen on the island of Trinidad, which and less commonly, quartzite. The units he Faculty Mentor suggests that the island is sinking to the west included in his terrace deposits ranged in into the Gulf of Paria pull-apart basin. Weber thickness from a few inches to about 20 ft (2005) explains these features in detail, and (6 m) and lie approximately 30 to 55 ft (9 many are illustrated in Figure 1. The coast- to 17 m) above sea level. These descriptions line becomes highly scalloped, drowned and compare well with what we saw in the field. submergent in western Trinidad along the Barr also stated that the terraces are likely the northern coast, with many sunken islands result of sub-Recent positive (or upward) trailing off from the Northern Range into the movements, a claim that correlates with the Gulf of Paria towards Venezuela. Some other hypothesis we tested in our study. Barr also features that illustrate westward sinking are tried to correlate these terraces to what he re- subaerial coastal terraces and alluvial fan ferred to as the Lower Caroni terraces, which systems around Northern Range. The suba- lie along the southern margin of the North- erial coastal terraces are mainly present along ern Range. Based on field observations (Rit- the northeastern coast, with a few outcrops ter and Weber, 2007), it is known that these present as far west as Blanchisseuse along the range-front deposits are actually alluvial fan Pablo Llerandi-Román, Ph.D. northern coast, but not beyond. The alluvial deposits. Barr also inferred a second older set Faculty Mentor fans along the southern margin of the North- of morphometric terraces that he claimed lie ern Range may also reflect westward sinking about 150 ft (45 m) above sea level, but he into the pull-part basin. They change system- added that this higher terrace set is sparse atically in morphology from east to west. In and difficult to see because of the thick cover the east they are raised and cut by streams, of tropical vegetation. Figure 5B. and in the west they are buried. This sinking Barr’s (1963) coastal terrace mapping was probably reflects vertical tectonic motions part of his more comprehensive geologic

82 Assessing the Utility of Genetic Data as a Monitoring Tool: A Case Study of Eastern Red Bats (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae: Lasiurus borealis) GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 83 map of the Toco district and was the first but in a later publication Choi et al. (2003b) distributions, using the method explained and these data were plotted onto a graph This energy stimulates electrons, which get face value, the samples appeared to be poorly ever made. On it, the terraces are labeled were able to resolve this inconsistency. This in detail in Folk (1974). This method in- in the form given by Zingg (1935), which caught in electron traps, or impurities or sorted (Table 2). This is not characteristic of simply as “Quaternary terraces.” This unit gave us hope that even though Trinidad’s volved weighing the original samples and the permits one to plot 3-dimensional shapes in structural defects within the crystal lattice. beach sediments. The histograms (Appen- has been shown on all geologic maps of Trin- tropical climate may be working against us samples left on each sieving screen, and then 2-dimensions. The OSL age of the sample is determined dix C) indicate that two of the five samples idad/Toco made since Barr’s work, including by weathering the feldspar, this technique making tables with the weight percent from by dividing the equivalent dose by the dose- were strongly bimodal. We hypothesize that the Kugler (1961) map, the Saunders (1997) still had potential. each sieve screen and the cumulative weight X Ray Diffraction Methods rate. The equivalent dose is the laboratory the fines in these samples could be second- map, and the Latinum (2002) map, which is percent. A histogram and a cumulative per- After it became obvious that there was a dose of nuclear radiation needed to induce ary (e.g., cement between primary grains, the most recent geologic map created during Methods cent curve were then created using these small but significant fraction of fines from luminescence equal to that acquired subse- pedogenic material transported downward a hydrogeological assessment of Trinidad by percent values. The mode was determined the sieved samples, we became interested in quent to the most recent bleaching event. in pore spaces between primary grains, and/ Earthwater Technology Trinidad and To- Base Mapping Methods from the histogram, and the values of φ (φ= finding the composition of this fine mate- The dose-rate is the rate at which the energy or spallations of fines from intense tropical bago, LLC. Though these newer maps did Before going out in the field, we created a -log2d, with d being the diameter of the grain rial, which might enable us to discriminate is absorbed from the flux of nuclear radiation physical weathering of primary grains) and not change the location or extent of Barr’s series of field base maps referenced to the in micrometers) were found using data from the fines as primary (clastic) or secondary (Aitkens, 1998). not primary (e.g., matrix). This idea still mapped terrace deposits, they changed their WGS84 datum and with UTM grid lines in the cumulative weight percent curve. We (e.g., pedogenic or diagenetic cement) mate- needs to be tested and fleshed out. Table 3 name. For example, Kugler (1961) correlat- meters using ArcGIS®. We started by using then calculated the mean, median, standard rial. This composition was found by taking Results presents the adjusted sieving results with the ed the age of the terrace deposit with other 1:10,000 detailed preliminary topographic deviation, skewness, and kurtosis following samples from sieve 325 or size 4.50φ, which fine tails revised (also see XRD Results). This Quaternary deposits found in the southwest- maps scanned from paper copies that were Bogg’s (2006) approach. An explanation of is the smallest screen used, from each of the Mapping Results improves the sample sorting and brings them ern corner of the island and grouped the two obtained from the Trinidad and Tobago the statistical parameters used in the sedi- sieved samples and analyzing them using X Figure 4a shows the locations of all the ter- more in line with what is expected for typical units together, calling them the Cedros For- Lands and Surveys Division. We used the mentological analyses is shown in Table 1. Ray Diffraction. This was done at Hope Col- race deposits studied in the field in 2009. beach sediments. Samples should be epoxied, mation after the young sediments exposed topographic map layer as an overlay to geo- lege using a Rigaku Miniflex with a copper Figure 4b shows terrace elevations calculated dyed, and studied in thin-section to test and on the Cedros Peninsula (Fig. 1). This is a rectify scans of the Barr (1963) map and (Cu Kα1; λ = 1.54059 A) source tube, that from the DEM for each field location; these better flesh out this approach. bit of a stretch because the units are not ge- the Latinum map (2002). After visiting the Table 1. was run at 30 kV, at a scanning speed of 2º fall between 7.12 - 26.71 m above sea level. The Zingg diagram made from the cali- netically related. More recent mapping of the field in May 2009, we used ArcGIS® to cre- Terms How defined per minute, and using a range of 2θ between Notice that three of the four locations near per calculations illustrates that 52% of the terraces, such as that on the Latinum (2002) ate point files of the studied terrace locations. Mean Arithmetic average 10º and 80º. The program MDI Jade 7® was Blanchisseuse (shaded in Fig. 4b) have ter- pebbles are prolate, 20% are bladed, 4% are map, has simply labeled the units as Quater- By overlaying these points on a digital eleva- used to search internal databases and to de- race elevations that are almost 10 m higher oblate, and 24% are equant. The samples Median The midpoint of grain- nary Deposits or Quaternary Terrace Depos- tion model (DEM) of the island (Latinum, size distribution termine the mineralogy of the sample fines. than any of the terraces near Toco. Figure 4c also seem to cluster to the right side of the its, which may be a more descriptive way to 2002), we were able to determine the height Jade 7® uses Bragg’s Law to determine miner- is the graphic representation of the UTM diagram, illustrating that they are not flat, Mode Most frequently occur- show them but is also somewhat vague. of the terraces we studied in meters above sea ring particle size alogy. The Bragg equation is: easting vs. terrace elevation. The Blanchis- which is a characteristic that we saw in the The Quaternary age of these terraces has level. Aerial photographs (1994) of the Blan- θ = sin-1(λ/2 n/dhkl) seuse terraces are higher than those near field and is typical of the modern beaches in Standard Mathematical expres- been inferred indirectly since Barr’s (1963) chisseuse region were also obtained from the deviation sion of sediment where θ is ½ the measured angle of X-ray re- Toco but also show a much greater elevation the area. work and is based on the sediment charac- Trinidad and Tobago Lands and Survey Di- sorting, in this case the flection, λ is the X-ray wavelength (constant scatter. ter and stratigraphic relationships. These vision, scanned, and georeferenced. amount of deviation for each given source, in our case CuK α 1), n XRD Results unconsolidated terrace deposits sit on top from the mean sedi- is an integer(constant), and dhkl is the plane The XRD results made it clear that the fines ment size Field Results of Northern Range metamorphic bedrock, Field Methods (e.g., Azároff, 1958). The majority of the terraces, both near Toco in all five samples studied are made primar- Skewness The degree of asym- therefore they are the youngest unit mapped From May 26th through June 9th of 2009, metry in the sediment and in Blanchisseuse, fell near the edges of, ily of quartz. These graphs show the XRD in this area. Determining absolute ages for Morell and Weber used hand-held GPS units size frequency curve or Dating Methods or within, the Quaternary terrace units as curves for two samples with overlays of the the terrace deposits would enable us to know and preliminary topographic and geologic a relative measure of the Five quartz-rich coastal terrace deposits mapped by Barr (1963). Nine stratigraphic quartz curve. sea level when they were forming by plotting maps to examine the coastal terrace deposits most abundant particle (samples 07-MT-6, 07-MT-7a, 07-MT-7b, columns, three in Blanchisseuse and six in size ranges in a sample their age on a reliable global sea level curve in the Toco region. Field data were collected of sediments 07-MT-8a, 07-MT-8b; Figure 2) were dated Toco, were created from our field measure- OSL Dating Results (Chapelle et al. 1996). The greatest challenge by measuring, describing, and photograph- using Optically Stimulated Luminescence ments and organized based on their loca- Of the five samples sent in to be dated, only Kurtosis The degree of peaked- in dating these deposits is that they lack fos- ing stratigraphic sections of the terrace de- ness of the frequency (OSL) at The Luminescence Dating Research tions (Figures 5, 7). Sub-units are correlated three had calculable ages, 07-MT-6, 07-MT- sils. We overcame this limitation using Opti- posits. Information collected at each site curve Laboratory in the Department of Geological based on texture, composition and thickness, 8, and 07-MT-7. These ages were found cally Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dat- included the deposits’ thickness, sedimen- Sciences at the University of Illinois at Chi- and the correlated column sections illustrate to be 40,090±3000, 74,020±5650, and ing. The deposits are made almost entirely of tary structures, and sediments’ grain size, cago. OSL measures the last time a quartz how the terrace deposits change in thickness 137,500±10,880 years respectively. Ages for quartz and feldspar, and they are estimated shape, arrangement, texture, color, etc. The grain was exposed to sunlight. When a grain and composition with horizontal distance. the other two samples were considered incal- to be Quaternary in age. Both characteris- raw field data were then used to create and Hand samples were also studied qualitatively is exposed to sunlight it becomes “bleached,” In addition, figures 6 and 8 are photographs culable because the equivalent dose was too tics made this technique seem promising correlate stratigraphic columns with Adobe using a binocular microscope, and the gross which means that its latent signal, or stored of one terrace deposit from each of the strati- low. When the equivalent dose approaches (Lian, 2007). Samples which give the most Illustrator®. Carefully oriented photographs sphericity, roundness, mineralogy, and sur- ionized energy which is gained from radia- graphic column sets. zero, it makes the age impossible to define. reliable OSL ages typically come from arid were also taken. In addition, hand samples face textures were noted. tion emitted from radioisotopes within the This also occurs when the equivalent dose ap- environments, as this technique was initially of the terrace sediments were also collected, To quantify grain shape, a caliper was used mineral grain, from its immediate surround- Sedimentology Results proaches the top of the dose response curve, developed to date eolian deposits. However, described, labeled, and recorded to be used to measure the dimensions of 50 random ings, and from cosmic rays (Lian, 2007), is Tables 2 and 3 summarize the sieving data. which is exponential in nature. The wide OSL dating has been used in other climates for later sedimentological analyses and OSL pebbles collected at field location T-09-38 set to zero, or lost. When a grain becomes The mean and median put the gravel samples range in the ages obtained could be present as well. Choi et al. (2003a) had some success dating. (see Figure 2). This location was chosen be- buried, the latent signal begins to build up in the very coarse sand to granule size grains. because of the tropical weathering that the dating terrace deposits along the coast of Ko- cause it was easily accessible; 50 pebbles were again through its exposure to a weak flux Two of the samples, 05-Toco-1 and T-09-37, sediments have experienced. The age differ- rea, but adjustments to the test-dose cut-heat Sedimentology Methods chosen because this is the smallest number of ionizing radiation provided by Thorium, are bimodal. The sample 05-Toco-1 has two ence is caused primarily by the variation in temperature had to be made. Even after mak- We conducted grain size analyses on a repre- required for a sample to be considered ran- Uranium, and Potassium-40 predominantly very coarse modes, whereas T-09-37 has one the dose rate. The dose rate that created the ing this adjustment, there was still one unit sentative suite of samples taken from the ter- dom. The longest, intermediate, and shortest from radiometric decay of unstable isotopes mode that is very coarse sand and another that oldest age is unusually low and was caused by that gave a stratigraphically inconsistent age, race deposits by sieving to quantify grain size dimensions of each pebble were measured, in feldspar in the surrounding sediments. is very fine sand. Taking the sieving values at an extremely low level of Potassium in the

84 Quarternary Geology, Toco, Trinidad, West Indies GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 85 sample. Weathering or leaching of feldspar as the Blanchisseuse terraces to answer the Figure 1. The Caribbean plate moves approximately east at ~20 mm/yr in relation to the from the unit most likely caused this low questions that remain. South American plate. Trinidad’s geology reflects this by islands and gravels that are sinking level of Potassium. This was the main com- into the active Gulf of Paria pull-apart basin to the west and unsunken and exposed gravels positional difference in the 40,000 year old Acknowledgements: and terraces to the east. We studied terrace exposures near the village of Toco in the north- sample and the 137,000 year old sample, and Martha Roldan, GIS expert east corner of the island and near the village of Blanchisseuse along the north coast. it is also the reason that we consider the old- Professor Steve Forman, UIC est age to be the least reliable/representative. Professor Jon Peterson, Hope College

Discussion

We began our study testing the hypoth- esis put forth by Weber (2005), which states that the terraces in eastern Trinidad may have been tectonically lifted out of the sea as the western side of the island sunk into the Bay of Paria pull-apart. A second hypothesis, which was also developed as we began gath- ering data in the field, stated that the Toco terraces have remained horizontally constant in relation to changing sea level and that we do not see them in the western part of the island because they have sunk into the Gulf of Paria. Comparing our field maps to Barr’s map (Figure 2), we believe that the distri- bution of these terraces have been reliably mapped. Our XRD analyses show that the fine material in the samples is quartz. The texture of the hand samples leads us to call the fines a quartz silt. This silt could have filled in around the larger quartz sand and gravel grains through the extensive weather- ing, which could have broken down the larg- er grains and transported the tiny fragments away from their parent grains. This observed textural relationship could thus be inter- preted as the weathering of a gravelly beach sediment. Weathering has also probably in- fluenced the OSL age data we obtained. The OSL ages have such a large spread because of the lack of feldspar in some of the samples; the feldspar has most likely been removed by weathering processes. The oldest OSL age is considered unreliable because it is greatly ex- aggerated by the lack of Potassium. Neither of the two remaining ages fall near the last global sea level high stand cut, ~120 ka, so sea level was probably never high enough to form these terraces at the elevations where we currently find them. So, provisionally, we accept the see-saw hypothesis as reason- able. The terraces at Blanchisseuse pose an interesting challenge for future work. They are clearly at higher elevations than the Toco terraces. Are they older? Are they the same age (if so, they would falsify the see-saw hy- pothesis)? It is clear that we need more reli- able ages for both the Toco terraces as well

86 Quarternary Geology, Toco, Trinidad, West Indies GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 87 Figure 2. Quaternary terrace deposits near Toco taken from Barr (1963) and field Figure 3. Aerial photographs (1994) from the Blanchisseuse region, georeferenced using locations studied here shown (dots). These are typically quartz-rich, sand-gravel, and ArcGIS©, showing terraces studied here (white dots). These coastal terraces appear to flat-lying deposits that sit unconformably on metamorphic bedrock. be narrower and approximately 10 m higher than those near Toco. Arima-Blanchisseuse road and the village of Blanchisseuse labeled for geographic reference.

88 Quarternary Geology, Toco, Trinidad, West Indies GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 89 Figure 4 (a) DEM with all (Toco and Blanchisseuse) field locations shown (dots), Figure 5. Quaternary coastal terrace stratigraphic sections measured near Toco. Horizontal scale based (b) table with terrace elevations taken from DEM, and (c) a graph of terrace eleva- on UTM Northing component (WGS 84) of measured section locations. Each column is subdivided tions in meters above sea level plotted against their UTM easting. (Zone 20 ,WGS into units that are described in detail in Appendix A. Three main units (cover, coastal terrace sediments, 84) The shaded boxes in Figure 4b are the field locations near Blanchisseuse. and metamorphic bedrock) are shown here. Thicknesses in cm in or on sides of stratigraphic sections represent sub-unit thicknesses.

90 Quarternary Geology, Toco, Trinidad, West Indies GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 91 Figure 6. Quaternary coastal terrace at location 09-T-36 (facing northwest). See Figure 8 for location and see Figure 7. Quaternary coastal terrace stratigraphic sections measured near Blanchisseuse. Appendix A for additional details and detailed unit (A, B, C) descriptions. Horizontal scale based on UTM Easting component (WGS 84) of measured section loca- tions. Each column is subdivided into units that are described in detail in Appendix A. Three main units (cover, coastal terrace sediments, and metamorphic bedrock) are shown here.

92 Quarternary Geology, Toco, Trinidad, West Indies GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 93 Figure 8. Quaternary coastal terrace at location 09-T-52 (pictures both facing northwest). (a) Table 2. Terrace in outcrop view and (b) close-up of unit B to show grain size and texture. See Figure 8 Raw Sieve Data for location and see Appendix A for additional details and detailed unit (A, B) descriptions. Sample Mean Median Mode Standard Skewness Kurtosis deviation T-09-37 0.23φ -0.45φ -0.75- -0.50φ 1.82φ 0.53 1.29 v. coarse sand v. coarse sand v. coarse sand v. well sorted Strongly finely 4.00-4.25φ skewed v. fine sand

T-09-34-7 -0.29 φ -0.26 φ -2.00- -1.75 φ 1.28 φ 0.16 0.93 v. coarse sand granule pebble poorly sorted finely skewed

T-09-52 -0.84 φ -1.20 φ -1.25--1.00 φ 1.02 φ 0.71 1.00 granule granule granule poorly sorted strongly finely skewed

05-Toco-1 -0.61φ -0.90 φ 0.25-0.50 φ 1.14 φ 1.05 1.05 v. coarse sand granule coarse sand poorly sorted strongly finely -1.75- -1.50φ skewed granule

T-09-34-1 2.18 φ 2.60 φ 2.75-3.00 φ 1.83 φ 0.39 1.57 medium sand fine sand fine sand

Table 3 Adjusted Sieve Data Sample Mean Median Mode Standard Skewness Kurtosis deviation T-09-37 -0.80 φ -0.77 φ -0.75- -0.50 φ 0.65 φ 0.08 0.99 v. coarse sand v. coarse v. coarse sand v. well sorted Near symmetrical sand

T-09-34-7 -1.15 φ -1.21 φ -2.00- -1.75 φ 0.48 φ 0.05 0.07 granule granule pebble v. well sorted Near symmetrical

T-09-52 -1.56 φ -1.57 φ -1.25--1.00 φ 0.23 φ -0.01 1.00 granule granule granule well sorted Near Symmetrical 05-Toco-1 -0.69 φ -0.59 φ -1.75- -1.50 φ 0.84 φ -0.14 0.57 v. coarse sand v. coarse granule v. well sorted coarse skewed sand T-09-34-1 2.18 φ 2.60 φ 2.75-3.00 φ 1.83 φ 0.39 1.57 medium sand fine sand fine sand

94 Quarternary Geology, Toco, Trinidad, West Indies GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 95 Figure 10. Zingg diagram illustrating quantitative data analysis which classifies particle shape with ref- Figure 11. X-ray diffraction (XRD) graphs created by the Rigaku Miniflex with the horizon- erence to triaxial ellipsoids. DL, DI, and DS represent the longest axis, intermediate axis, and shortest tal axis displaying degrees within the range of 2θ between 10º and 80º and the vertical axis axis measured of the sample respectively. The horizontal axis of the graph illustrates the ratio DS/DI, displaying the intensity in CPS. The graphs were overlaid with the standard graph of quartz, and the vertical axis illustrates the ratio DI/DL. See Appendix B for the list of each DS, DI, and DL. which was found to match all of the samples. (a) Sample collected at location 09-T-52 near Blanchisseuse and (b) sample collected at location 09-T-37 near Toco.

a)

b)

96 Quarternary Geology, Toco, Trinidad, West Indies GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 97 Figure 12. (a) Chart illustrating the change in global sea level from 140 ka to Appendix A present, with the horizontal line at 0 representing modern sea level. Arrows show Descriptions of units in Figures 5,6,7, and 8 our dated samples’ ages. The oldest sample has been thrown away because its age is too exaggerated (Sea level curve modified from Chappell et al. 1996). (b) Data T-09-7 (07-MT-7) – (A) 40 cm of med-fine sand limonite- and hematite-stained, (B) 20 cm of material similar to unit above, but more limo- table of all relevant information related to the dating process. nite, sample 07-MT-7 taken here, (C) 35 cm of quartz granules to sand-sized sandy gravel, weathered, buff colored, (D) 35 cm of mottled, chocolate brown/limonite yellow, brown appears to be clay-rich unit, (E) 30 cm of weathered sand and gravel = A soil horizon, (F) 30 cm of organic rich, weathered sand and gravel = A soil horizon

T-09-34 (07-MT-5) – (A) 20 cm of fine-sand, medium yellowish-brown, limonite-stained and cemented, sample T-09-34-1 taken here, (B) 15 cm of gravel, metamorphic rock fragments and vein quartz ~13 cm or less in diameter, subrounded, hint of imbrication, short dimension of pebbles sub-perpendicular to contact, (C) 10 cm of mostly subrounded vein quartz and most grains touching each other with sand matrix (sand is fine to very fine and orange), ~1cm diameter, the top contact is gradational, (D) 10 cm of gravel, mostly metamorphic Northern Range rock fragments ~5 cm or less in diameter, pebbles roughly equidimensional, top contact sharp, grains touching each other but have a sand matrix, (E) 12 cm of gravel less than 1 cm in diameter and sand mixture, gravels mostly rounded vein quartz, orange, top contact sharp, (F) 4 cm of gravel, Northern Range metamorphic rock fragments and vein quartz pebbles ~5 cm or less in diameter, hint of imbrication within axes of rock fragments sub-perpendicular to bedding, (G) 13 cm of coarse-sand and ~2 mm or less in diameter gravel mix, orange, sample T-09-34-7 taken here, (H) 13 cm of blocky metamorphic rock fragments and subrounded vein quartz, to 3-4 mm vein quartz gravels and coarse-sand mix, fines upward from 3-4 cm diameter pebbles at base stained orange, (I) 20 cm of coarse-sand, highly weathered and limonite stained, gradational contact on top, (J) 80 cm of poorly sorted coarse-sand, 2-3 mm gravel made of vein quartz and occasional rounded vein quartz pebbles ~5 cm or smaller, (K) 25 cm is organic rich modern soil, A soil horizon, roots

T-09-35 – (A) 40 cm of covered material probably sand underneath soil, (B) 80 cm of medium grained sand, weathered orange with goethite and limonite bands, (C) 60 cm of coarse to very coarse sand, subangular, gray, weathered orange, (D) 70 cm of light gray, rooted and weathered material, (E) 30 cm of possible well covered A soil horizon

T-09-36 – (A) metamorphic bedrock, (B) 60 cm of very coarse to coarse sand with fine sand matrix, sample 09-T-36 taken here, (C) 60 cm covered with vegetation

T-09-38 – (A) metamorphic bedrock, (B) 25 cm of coarse sand with few granules, layered, highly weathered, limonite stained and cemented, (C) 35 cm of subrounded vein quartz and Northern Range metamorphic pebbles in grain-to-grain contact, moderately sorted, grains greater than 5 cm in diameter

T-09-41 – (A) weathered bedrock, (B) 220 cm of coarse sand with a few millimeter sized granules in grain-to-grain contact cemented, sample T-09-41 taken here

T-09-50 – (A) 25 cm of colluvium and poorly sorted vein quartz and clasts up to 16 cm, (B) 100 cm of very fine sand, (C) 50 cm of cover

T-09-51 – (A) 10 cm of sand, sample T-09-51-1 taken here, (B) 20 cm of gravel with rounded clasts, (C) 200 cm of covered, highly weathered material, (D) 50 cm are covered and grassy

T-09-52 – (A) 50 cm of metamorphic bedrock, (B) 140 cm of rounded very fine gravel, ~.5 cm in diameter

98 Quarternary Geology, Toco, Trinidad, West Indies GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 99 Appendix B Appendix C Lengths of the long, intermediate, and short dimensions of the 50 pebbles used to create the Zingg diagram in Figure 10. Histograms for each of the samples sieved.

Pebble # DL DI DS 1 0.732 0.516 0.424 2 0.85 0.702 0.404 3 0.856 0.764 0.654 4 0.874 0.694 0.52 5 0.914 0.608 0.416 6 1.024 0.878 0.678 7 1.112 0.706 0.442 8 1.128 0.856 0.71 9 1.132 0.738 0.262 10 1.158 0.918 0.604 11 1.182 1.014 0.648 12 1.184 0.84 0.634 13 1.188 1 0.654 14 1.194 0.924 0.688 15 1.198 0.824 0.61 16 1.262 1.118 0.752 17 1.268 0.856 0.584 18 1.32 1.096 1.002 19 1.364 0.832 0.51 20 1.448 1.07 0.69 21 1.502 1.074 0.874 22 1.522 1.29 0.398 23 1.598 0.818 0.508 24 1.654 1.034 0.572 25 1.658 0.952 0.7 26 1.706 1.206 0.53 27 1.758 1.36 0.452 28 1.804 1.55 0.6 29 1.814 1.5 1.19 30 1.858 0.854 0.54 31 1.864 1.288 0.8 32 1.89 1.644 1.002 33 1.912 1.5 0.772 34 1.974 1.42 0.69 35 2.002 1.118 0.632 36 2.074 1.252 0.922 37 2.118 1.988 1.018 38 2.288 1.466 0.786 39 2.456 1.664 0.964 40 2.5 1.7 1.178 41 2.524 2.204 1.402 42 2.774 1.896 1.572 43 2.826 2.224 1.138 44 2.826 2.624 1.4 45 3.078 2.184 0.79 46 3.358 2.364 1.138 47 3.744 2.824 1.1 48 4.218 3.39 1.086 49 4.52 2.72 1.692 50 4.726 3.268 1.996

100 Quarternary Geology, Toco, Trinidad, West Indies GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 101

102 Quarternary Geology, Toco, Trinidad, West Indies GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 103 Computer-Aided Student Study Group Formation interfaces (see section 3.1.1 and 3.1.2) and information, the user becomes part of the se- tion selection page allows the administrator a MySQL database. The interfaces consist lection pool under consideration when form- to perform the following actions: of HTML with embedded PHP web pages ing study groups, and, therefore, becomes styled by CSS. These components operate eligible to be selected to be in a study group. • Manually insert data into the MySQL on four procedural steps (see section 3.2). The user information processing page dis- database Abstract nied by more developed interpersonal skills plays a message confirming the information • Manually delete information from the and higher self-esteem on the part of stu- 2.1 System Components has been correctly entered into the database MySQL database Students thrive in a variety of collaborative dents.” Study groups utilize the principles of and ended the user task of entering informa- • Search and display information stored in learning environments. Furthermore, research collaborative learning, and, therefore, retain 2.1.1 User Interface tion. Finally, PHP code on this page retains the database has shown student study groups are especially many of these benefits. Dörnyei continues The user interface consists of three web the user information in a MySQL database • Execute the group formation algorithm effective methods to promote learning. Our on to state “group characteristics and group pages: the user account login page, the user for later processing (see section 3.2). research project developed an artificially intel- processes significantly contributed to suc- customization page, and user information Once the administrator selects and executes 2.1.2 Administrator Interface ligent, Internet-based system that aids in for- cess or failure in the classroom and directly processing page, accessed in this order. The an option, the third page, the administrator mation of study groups outside the classroom affect the quality and quantity of learning user account login page facilitates user access function output page, displays the result of setting. The system utilized a HTML/PHP/ within the group.” While our system does to the system. The user must enter his or her The administrator interface also consists of the action. CSS web interface with a MySQL database not control what group processes are used in username and password into a PHP form in three web pages: administrator account login 2.2 System Operation Procedures backend for the system design. Analysis of stu- study groups, it does determine what charac- order to input information into the system. page, administrator function selection page, dent feedback following system demonstration teristics a group is composed of in order to The user customization page possesses the and administrator function output page, ac- Kurt O'Hearn revealed significant support on viability and boost group cohesiveness and success. Phyl- purpose of obtaining user information need- cessed in this order. The administrator ac- The system resolved current problems in ed to form cohesive groups which promote count login is identical to the user account group formation by using three methods: McNair Scholar potential usage. A formal study will be con- lis C. Blumenfeld et al. [2] asserts that group ducted during the fall 2009 semester at Grand composition should be of similar knowledge learning (see section 1.1). This information login page, with username and passwords scheduling study group meeting times and Valley State University and analysis of results levels to best promote learning. Phil Kelly also is entered into PHP forms. By inputting required for access. The administrator func- locations; expanding the number of study- will follow. [3] expands the list of characteristics to in- clude group size, gender, ability, personality, Figure 1: User Customization Page User Data Entry 1 Introduction nationality, age, and experience. The focus of this research is to form effective study Students thrive in a variety of collab- groups using the principles of collaborative orative learning environments, especially learning. Currently, the goal of this stage in through the use of study groups [1], [4], [6]. the research is to develop an artificially in- However, the typical means by which stu- telligent, Internet-based system that aids in dents form study groups remains problem- the formation of study groups. Our system atic. The nature of the problems stems from looks at the individual characteristics of age, randomly or pseudo-strategically selecting gender, knowledge level in a subject, gender Roger Ferguson, Ph.D. study-mates amongst students in a class. This group preference, and available study times Faculty Mentor approach does not typically yield top-notch when forming groups. study groups. Consequently, students face challenges such as arranging meeting times 1.2 Paper Outline around busy schedules, not knowing highly- compatible study-mates, and limiting study- This paper presents our approach to de- mate selection to one’s class. To overcome veloping a group formation system and ana- these problems, we have developed an au- lyzing viability and potential usage of our tonomous group formation system utilizing system. Section 2 outlines and describes our the Internet. system operation procedures and compo- nents for facilitating their procedures. Sec- 1.1 Background tion 3 describes our evaluation of our system prototype in terms of viability and potential Our system operates on the foundation usage. Analysis of the data shows that our that collaborative learning is an effective computer system is viable, usable, and well- means of learning. In his paper, Zoltán received by students. The final section out- Dörnyei [1] asserts that collaborative learn- lines future research refinements to our pro- ing is “a highly effective classroom interven- totype for a formal study and deployment. tion, superior to most traditional forms of instruction in terms of producing learning 2 System Components and gains and student achievement, higher-order Operation Procedures thinking, positive attitudes toward learning, increased motivation, better teacher-student The system was designed with the fol- and student-student relationships accompa- lowing components: user and administrator

104 Computer-Aided Student Study Group Formation GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 105 mate selections, especially across sections of of check boxes collects the available study sible groups. The current algorithm utilizes Grand Valley State University. Following 5 Future Research the same class; and selecting “best-matching” times by hour, then that information is con- a filtering approach by time-increment and the demonstration, students were asked to group members to maximize meaningful catenated into a string for processing. In step characteristics for determining groups [5], complete an anonymous survey on the proj- With promising statistics on viability and learning from the new possibilities. In order two, all the user data is stored in a MySQL [7], [8], [9], [10]. This approach uses the ect viability and potential usage. A total of usability of our current system, the direction to accomplish these actions, we developed database. PHP code in the user interface following sequence: first, the system finds all 76 students were surveyed. of future research is to refine and deploy our four cyclical operational procedures. These web pages accesses the MySQL database and students who can meet at a certain hour and system during the fall 2009 semester here at procedures can be summed up in the follow- stores all the user data in a single table. This have not yet been assigned a group (i.e., the Grand Valley State University. Two sections ing four steps: table is sorted by user data categories (e.g., system started at 9 AM for convenience and Figure 3: Viability Responses of CS 162 (Computer Science I) are the first name, last name, e-mail) so that one en- incremented until 7 PM). Next, this pool is intended targets for testing. Additionally, 1. Users enter data via the user interface try in the database corresponds to one per- filtered down further by other characteristics refinements to the system for future deploy- 2. User data are stored in a MySQL database son. A concatenation of the user e-mail and (see section 1.2). Finally, the system forms ments include user feedback mechanisms, 3. An AI program is run via the administra- the class name abbreviation serves as the pri- groups out of users left with matching char- additional communication methods, group tor interface to form groups mary key for accessing information. In step acteristics. The system then increments to confirmations/cancellations, and improve- 4. The system communicates to users that three, an administrator logs onto an admin- the next hour and repeats the process. In the ment of the group formation algorithm. groups have been formed istrator Internet interface, which is a series of fourth step, the system takes the output of web pages similar to the user interface, and the group formation algorithm (i.e., a list of The first idea for future deployment is a In the first step of the procedure, the user ac- runs the group formation algorithm to form groups) and sends e-mails to the users con- user feedback mechanism. This mechanism cesses our system via the user interface com- groups. taining the date, time, and location of the would function similarly to eBay’s rating sys- ponent (i.e., a series of web pages with PHP meeting and the nicknames of the members tem for sales feedback. Following a study forms). In Figure 1 the user enters data into The group formation algorithm is made up in the group. group meeting, users could log into the sys- our system. Data entered include user iden- of PHP code that accesses the MySQL data- tem and rate fellow group mates. Negative tification information, user contact informa- base and temporarily copies all the data into 4 Results Figure 3 shows responses to the following ratings would indicate little group cohesion, tion, and user characteristics. One unique PHP variables. These variables in conjunc- statement: “The concept of a program that thus, incompatible members could not be item contained in the user characteristics is tion with loops and conditional statements We analyzed data collected through demon- facilitates forming study groups is a ‘good’ grouped together in the future. Likewise, the available study times in Figure 2. A series evaluate all the information and found pos- strations to four summer classes in 2009 at idea.” Statistics in Figure 3 reveal that stu- strong ratings would signify strong group dent response was overwhelmingly positive: cohesion, thus, group members with positive over ninety percent of students thought our feedback would likely be grouped together Figure 2: User Customization Page Available Study Times system that formed student study groups was again. a feasible, worthy idea. Another feature to be developed is new com- munication methods. Additional communi- Figure 4: Potential Usage Responses cation methods beyond e-mails to users may include text messages to cell phones, voice messages, and integration into existing on- line applications such as Facebook.

A mechanism that allows users to confirm or cancel attendance for a group meeting is an- other possible addition. Users could log into the system and indicate their plans on attend- ing a group. The system could then contact other members and inform them of a group member’s attendance plans. If enough peo- ple confirm or cancel, the system would con- firm or cancel a group meeting. Besides the Figure 4 shows responses to the following confirmation/cancelation feature, the group statement: “If the program presented today formation algorithm could be improved to was available at Grand Valley State Univer- form more cohesive groups and maximize sity, I would use it.” Statistics in Figure 4 learning. The fall 2009 deployment will pro- on potential usage of our system are also sup- vide information on system performance as portive: approximately half of the students well as group cohesiveness through simple said they would use our system if it was avail- surveys. This information could be used to able. Analysis confirms that our computer change which characteristics the group for- system is viable, usable, and well-received by mation algorithm uses to form groups. students.

106 Computer-Aided Student Study Group Formation GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 107 Appendix A: Source Code -->

"http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">

href="style1.css" />

width=100% height=200px /> width=100% height=200px />

This Program is for Demonstration Purposes ONLY
This program is not yet fully operational

Welcome to Our Website!

//Process information from username/password form if(array_key_exists("username", $_POST)) Please log in below to edit information on your account
$username = $_POST['username'];

if(array_key_exists("password", $_POST)) $password = $_POST['password']; //Error checking for username/password combination print "Error: Incorrect Username/" . "Password Combination
";

Username:
Password:

} ?>

User Profile Customization

We Form Groups to Promote Learning

Please Enter the Specified Information:

108 Computer-Aided Student Study Group Formation GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 109

maxlength="50" /> size="25" maxlength="50" /> maxlength="50" />FreshmanSophomoreJuniorSeniorCS 150STA 215 value="M" />Male FemaleFemale No PreferenceIntermediate Beginner

First Name:	maxlength="50" />
Last Name:
E-Mail:
	12pm
Account Nickname:
Class Standing:
1pm
Class Name:
Gender:
2pm
Study Group Gender Preference:		Male
Knowledge Level of Subject:
3pm	Very Good

Please Check All Available Study Times:Allendale Campus

4pm

110 Computer-Aided Student Study Group Formation GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 111

	Mon	Tue	Wed		Thu	Fri	Sat	Sun
9am
5pm
10am
6pm
11am
7pm
3pm

4pm Pew Campus

	Mon	Tue	Wed		Thu	Fri	Sat	Sun
9am
5pm
10am
6pm
11am
7pm
12pm

1pm

2pm

112 Computer-Aided Student Study Group Formation GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 113

(array_key_exists("saa$i", $_POST) ? $atime .= '1' : $atime .= '0'); for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) (array_key_exists("mp$i", $_POST) ? $ptime .= '1' : $ptime .= '0'); for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) (array_key_exists("tp$i", $_POST) ? $ptime .= '1' : $ptime .= '0'); for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) (array_key_exists("thp$i", $_POST) ? $ptime .= '1' : $ptime .= '0'); (array_key_exists("fp$i", $_POST) ? $ptime .= '1' : $ptime .= '0'); for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) (array_key_exists("sap$i", $_POST) ? $ptime .= '1' : $ptime .= '0'); for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) (array_key_exists("sup$i", $_POST) ? $ptime .= '1' : $ptime .= '0'); $time = $atime.$ptime;

|| !$classstanding || !$classname || !$level ) { print "Error: Incorrect Data Entry
"; print "Please Fill In All Areas Before Submitting
"; exit(0); }

Error: Incorrect Data Entry
"; if(array_key_exists("lname", $_POST)) print "Please Fill In At Least 1 Available Study”; $lname = $_POST['lname']; print " Time Before Submitting
"; if(array_key_exists("email", $_POST)) exit(0); $email = $_POST['email']; } if(array_key_exists("nickname", $_POST)) $nickname = $_POST['nickname']; //1st Database Testing Code if(array_key_exists("gender", $_POST)) mysql_connect("localhost", "mcnairdb", "mcnairdb1579") or die ("" . $gender = $_POST['gender']; "No Connection. Please Try Again Later.
"); if(array_key_exists("genderpref", $_POST)) $genderpref = $_POST['genderpref']; // mysql_query ("CREATE TABLE mcnairdb.table1(email CHAR(40) PRIMARY KEY, " . if(array_key_exists("classstanding", $_POST)) // "fname CHAR(30), lname CHAR (30), nickname CHAR (30), gender CHAR (1), " . $classstanding = $_POST['classstanding']; // "genderpref CHAR (1), classstanding CHAR (9), classname CHAR (6), level" . if(array_key_exists("classname", $_POST)) // " CHAR (1), time CHAR (154))"); $classname = $_POST['classname'];

if(array_key_exists("level", $_POST)) //Delete similar entries before inserting to prevent duplicate entries $level = $_POST['level']; $temp = "DELETE FROM mcnairdb.table1 WHERE email = '$email' && classname =

'$classname'"; $atime = ""; mysql_query ($temp) or die (mysql_error()); $ptime = ""; //Insert form data

114 Computer-Aided Student Study Group Formation GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 115

$temp = "INSERT INTO mcnairdb.table1(email, fname, lname, nickname, gender,
You will receive e-mail notification(s) of groups forming soon.

Return to

"http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"> style.css" />

Welcome to Our Website!
This is the Administrator Login Page

Please log in below

Username:
Password:

We Form Groups to Promote Learning

116 Computer-Aided Student Study Group Formation GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 117

size="15" maxlength="50" />

"http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">

Enter Data to Insert into the Database:

content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> href="style1.css" />

size="25" maxlength="50" />

CS 150 STA 215

if(array_key_exists("username", $_POST)) $username = $_POST['username']; if(array_key_exists("password", $_POST)) $password = $_POST['password']; if ($password != "admin" || $username != "administrator") { exit(0);

First Name:
Last Name:
E-Mail:
Account Nickname:
Class Standing:	Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior
Class Name:
Gender:	Male Female
Study Group Gender Preference:	Male Female print "Error: Incorrect Username/" . "Password Combination "; No Preference
Knowledge Level of Subject:	Very Good } Intermediate ?> Beginner

Choose One of the Four Options Below

Please Check All Available Study Times:

Specify Category and Keyword to Search the Database For:

118 Computer-Aided Student Study Group Formation GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 119 Allendale Campus

	Mon	Tue	Wed		Thu	Fri	Sat	Sun
9am
5pm
10am
6pm
11am
7pm
12pm

Pew Campus

120 Computer-Aided Student Study Group Formation GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 121

1pm
	Mon	Tue	Wed		Thu	Fri	Sat	Sun
9am
2pm
10am
3pm
11am
4pm
12pm

1pm

Specify E-mail and Class Name to Delete Entry:

size="15" maxlength="50" /> size="15" maxlength="50" />

E-mail:		Class Name:
2pm

3pm

Group Formation Algorithm:

Log Out

4pm 5pm 6pm 7pm

122 Computer-Aided Student Study Group Formation GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 123

$classstanding[$i] = $r[6]; $classnames[$i] = $r[7]; $i++; } //Assigned group number. By default, each person is assigned a "0" //which means no group is assigned $gassign[$j] = 0; for($j = 0; $j <= $i; $j++) $ttemp[$j] = 0;

//Day of group meeting for($j = 0; $j <= $i; $j++) $gday[$j] = "";

for($j = 0; $j <= $i; $j++) $gtime[$j] = ""; //Storage of all the arrays into another array for easy access to all data $data = array(0 => $emails, 1 => $fnames, 2 => $lnames, 3 => $nicknames, 4 => $genders,

5 => $genderprefs, 6 => $classstandings, 7 => $classnames, 8 => $levels, 9 => $times, $gassign, 11 => $ttemp, 12 => $gday, 13 => $gtime);

//This function copies all selected data stored in the database and displays it return $data; function display ($q) { } print "

"; print "" . function dbSize () { "" . $q = mysql_query ("SELECT email FROM mcnairdb.table1") or die (mysql_error()); ""; while ($r = mysql_fetch_row($q)) while ($r = mysql_fetch_row($q)) { foreach ($r as $column) print ""; $size++; foreach ($r as $column) print ""; return $size; print ""; } } print "

E-mail	First Name	Last //This function counts the number of entries in the database Name	Nickname	Gender	Gender Preference	Class Standing	Class $size = 0; Name	Knowledge Level	Study Times
".$column."

"; //This function determines the meeting day of a group } //in the group formation algorithm

124 GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 125 Computer-Aided Student Study Group Formation

function assignGroupDay ($k) { print ""; if(((int)($k / 11)) == 0 || ((int)($k / 11)) == 7) } return "Monday"; } else if(((int)($k / 11)) == 1 || ((int)($k / 11)) == 8) } return "Tuesday"; else if(((int)($k / 11)) == 2 || ((int)($k / 11)) == 9) //This function generates an array containing one entry for return "Wednesday"; //each unique class name to use in the group formation algorithm else if(((int)($k / 11)) == 3 || ((int)($k / 11)) == 10) function getClasses () { return "Thursday"; //Copy class names else if(((int)($k / 11)) == 4 || ((int)($k / 11)) == 11) $q = mysql_query ("SELECT classname FROM mcnairdb.table1") or die return "Friday"; (mysql_error()); else if(((int)($k / 11)) == 5 || ((int)($k / 11)) == 12) $i = 0; return "Saturday"; while ($r = mysql_fetch_row($q)) { else foreach ($r as $column) return "Sunday"; if($i == 0) { } $cnames[$i] = $column; $i++; //This function determines the meeting time of a group } //in the group formation algorithm else { function assignGroupTime ($k) { $flag = 0; if($k % 11 == 0) for($j = 0; $j < $i; $j++) return "9AM"; if($cnames[$j] == $column) else if($k % 11 == 1) $flag = 1; return "10AM"; if($flag == 0) { else if($k % 11 == 2) $cnames[$i] = $column; return "11AM"; $i++; else if($k % 11 == 3) } return "12PM"; } else if($k % 11 == 4) } return "1PM"; else if($k % 11 == 5) return $cnames; return "2PM"; } else if($k % 11 == 6) return "3PM"; //This function works identically to the function above else if($k % 11 == 7) //except it returns the number of unique classes instead return "4PM"; function getNumberOfClasses () { else if($k % 11 == 8) //Copy class names return "5PM"; $q = mysql_query ("SELECT classname FROM mcnairdb.table1") or die else if($k % 11 == 9) (mysql_error()); return "6PM"; $i = 0; else while ($r = mysql_fetch_row($q)) { return "7PM"; foreach ($r as $column) } if($i == 0) { $cnames[$i] = $column; //This function displays the output of the group $i++; //formation algorithm (i.e. groups) } function displayGroups ($gnumber, $size, $data) { else { for ($j = 1; $j < $gnumber; $j++) { $flag = 0; print "

"; for($j = 0; $j < $i; $j++) print ""; if($cnames[$j] == $column) print "

Group#$j

"; $flag = 1; for ($i = 0; $i < $size; $i++) if($flag == 0) { if($data[10][$i] == $j) { $cnames[$i] = $column; print ""; $i++; print ""; } print ""; } print ""; } print ""; print ""; return $i; print ""; } print ""; print ""; //Process data needed to discern option print ""; if(array_key_exists("category", $_POST))

126 GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 127 Computer-Aided Student Study Group Formation

$category = $_POST['category']; //to new entry are deleted to prevent duplications if(array_key_exists("keyword", $_POST)) if ($delete == "yes") { $keyword = $_POST['keyword']; $temp = "DELETE FROM mcnairdb.table1 WHERE email = '$email' && " . if(array_key_exists("insert", $_POST)) "classname = '$classname'"; $insert = $_POST['insert']; mysql_query ($temp) or die (mysql_error()); if(array_key_exists("delete", $_POST)) } $delete = $_POST['delete']; if(array_key_exists("algorithm", $_POST)) //Insert new entry $algorithm = $_POST['algorithm']; if ($insert == "yes") { //Process data needed to insert new entry //Create time string for manipulation if(array_key_exists("fname", $_POST)) $atime = ""; $fname = $_POST['fname']; $ptime = ""; if(array_key_exists("lname", $_POST)) //Allendale Campus Times $lname = $_POST['lname']; for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) if(array_key_exists("email", $_POST)) (array_key_exists("ma$i", $_POST) ? $atime .= '1' : $atime .= '0'); $email = $_POST['email']; for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) if(array_key_exists("nickname", $_POST)) (array_key_exists("ta$i", $_POST) ? $atime .= '1' : $atime .= '0'); $nickname = $_POST['nickname']; for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) if(array_key_exists("gender", $_POST)) (array_key_exists("wa$i", $_POST) ? $atime .= '1' : $atime .= '0'); $gender = $_POST['gender']; for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) if(array_key_exists("genderpref", $_POST)) (array_key_exists("tha$i", $_POST) ? $atime .= '1' : $atime .= '0'); $genderpref = $_POST['genderpref']; for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) if(array_key_exists("classstanding", $_POST)) (array_key_exists("fa$i", $_POST) ? $atime .= '1' : $atime .= '0'); $classstanding = $_POST['classstanding']; for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) if(array_key_exists("classname", $_POST)) (array_key_exists("saa$i", $_POST) ? $atime .= '1' : $atime .= '0'); $classname = $_POST['classname']; for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) if(array_key_exists("level", $_POST)) (array_key_exists("sua$i", $_POST) ? $atime .= '1' : $atime .= '0'); $level = $_POST['level']; //Pew Campus Times for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) //Insert entry general error checking (array_key_exists("mp$i", $_POST) ? $ptime .= '1' : $ptime .= '0'); if ((!$fname || !$lname || !$email || !$nickname || !$gender || !$genderpref for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) || !$classstanding || !$classname || !$level) ) { (array_key_exists("tp$i", $_POST) ? $ptime .= '1' : $ptime .= '0'); print "Error: Incorrect Data Entry
"; for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) print "Please Fill In All Areas Before Inserting
"; (array_key_exists("wp$i", $_POST) ? $ptime .= '1' : $ptime .= '0'); exit(0); for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) } (array_key_exists("thp$i", $_POST) ? $ptime .= '1' : $ptime .= '0'); for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) //Insert entry study times error checking (array_key_exists("fp$i", $_POST) ? $ptime .= '1' : $ptime .= '0'); if ($ptime == "0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000" . for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) "0000000000000000000000000000" && $atime == "0000000000000000000" . (array_key_exists("sap$i", $_POST) ? $ptime .= '1' : $ptime .= '0'); "0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000") { for($i = 9; $i <= 19; $i++) print "Error: Incorrect Data Entry
"; (array_key_exists("sup$i", $_POST) ? $ptime .= '1' : $ptime .= '0'); print "Please Fill In At Least 1 Available Study Time" . $time = $atime.$ptime; " Before Submitting
"; exit(0); //Search input error checking } if ($category != "all" && !$keyword && !$algorithm) { print "Error: No Search Term
"; $temp = "INSERT INTO mcnairdb.table1(email, fname, lname, nickname, " . exit(0); "gender, genderpref, classstanding, classname, level, time) VALUES " . } "('$email', '$fname', '$lname', '$nickname', '$gender', '$genderpref'," . " '$classstanding', '$classname', '$level', '$time')"; //Database connection and manipulationnn mysql_query ($temp) or die (mysql_error()); mysql_connect("localhost", "mcnairdb", "mcnairdb1579") or die ("No Connection." . } " Please Try Again Later.
"); //Query options by category //Create table //Query db for all data // mysql_query ("CREATE TABLE mcnairdb.table1(email CHAR(40) PRIMARY KEY, fname " . if ($category == "all") // "CHAR(30), lname CHAR (30), nickname CHAR (30), gender CHAR (1), genderpref " . $q = mysql_query ("SELECT email, fname, lname, nickname, gender," . // "CHAR (1), classstanding CHAR (9), classname CHAR (6), level CHAR (1), time " . " genderpref, classstanding, classname, level, time" . // "CHAR (154))"); " FROM mcnairdb.table1") or die (mysql_error());

//Delete entry //Query db for matching email entries only //Before inserting new entry, all similar entries else if ($category == "email")

128 Computer-Aided Student Study Group Formation GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 129

$q = mysql_query ("SELECT email, fname, lname, nickname, gender," . if ($algorithm == "yes") { " genderpref, classstanding, classname, level, time" . //Copy All Data from the Database and Store Temporarily for Algorithm Execution " FROM mcnairdb.table1 WHERE email = '$keyword'") or die (mysql_error()); $data = transfer(); //Copy array of class names //Query db for matching first name entries only $cnames = getClasses(); else if ($category == "fname") //Determine the number of unique class entries $q = mysql_query ("SELECT email, fname, lname, nickname, gender," . $numberofclasses = getNumberOfClasses(); " genderpref, classstanding, classname, level, time" . //Study group formation algorithm " FROM mcnairdb.table1 WHERE fname = '$keyword'") or die (mysql_error()); $size = dbSize(); //Number of entries in db $gnumber = 1; //Group assignment number. Increments with each new group. //Query db for matching last name entries only else if ($category == "lname") //Cycle through study times $q = mysql_query ("SELECT email, fname, lname, nickname, gender," . for($m = 0; $m < $numberofclasses; $m++) " genderpref, classstanding, classname, level, time" . for($k = 0; $k <= 153; $k++) { " FROM mcnairdb.table1 WHERE lname = '$keyword'") or die (mysql_error()); $pool = 0; //Cycle through db entries //Query db for matching nickname entries only for($i = 0; $i < $size; $i++) else if ($category == "nickname") if($k <= 152) $q = mysql_query ("SELECT email, fname, lname, nickname, gender," . //Check entry if possible match for pool, then add " genderpref, classstanding, classname, level, time" . if(strcmp(substr($data[9][$i], $k, -153 + $k), 1) == 0 " FROM mcnairdb.table1 WHERE nickname = '$keyword'") or die (mysql_error()); && $data[10][$i] == 0 && $data[7][$i] == $cnames[$m]) { $data[11][$i] = 1; //Query db for matching gender entries only $pool++; else if ($category == "gender") } $q = mysql_query ("SELECT email, fname, lname, nickname," . //Remove entry from pool if not possible match "gender, genderpref, classstanding, classname, level, time " . else "FROM mcnairdb.table1 WHERE gender = '$keyword'") or die (mysql_error()); $data[11][$i] = 0;

//Query db for matching gender preferences entries only //To Compare the Last Piece of the String; else if ($category == "genderpref") //Couldn't Use strcmp for last element with zero for reverse number $q = mysql_query ("SELECT email, fname, lname, nickname, gender," . else " genderpref, classstanding, classname, level, time" . //Check entry if possible match for pool, then add " FROM mcnairdb.table1 WHERE genderpref = '$keyword'") or die if(strcmp(substr($data[9][$i], -1), 1) == 0 (mysql_error()); && $data[10][$i] == 0 && $data[7][$i] == $cnames[$m]) { $data[11][$i] = 1; //Query db for matching class standing entries only $pool++; else if ($category == "classstanding") } $q = mysql_query ("SELECT email, fname, lname, nickname, gender," . //Remove entry from pool if not possible match " genderpref, classstanding, classname, level, time" . else { " FROM mcnairdb.table1 WHERE classstanding = '$keyword'") or die $data[11][$i] = 0; (mysql_error()); }

//Query db for matching class name entries only //Check for large enough pool to form group else if ($category == "classname") $j = 0; $q = mysql_query ("SELECT email, fname, lname, nickname, gender," . if($pool >= 2) " genderpref, classstanding, classname, level, time" . //Able to form another group " FROM mcnairdb.table1 WHERE classname = '$keyword'") or die while($pool != 0) { (mysql_error()); $thisgroup = $pool % 6; if($pool == 0) //Query db for matching knowledge level entries only $thisgroup == 6; else if ($category == "level") while($thisgroup > 0) { $q = mysql_query ("SELECT email, fname, lname, nickname, gender," . //Add member to group " genderpref, classstanding, classname, level, time" . if($data[11][$j] == 1) { " FROM mcnairdb.table1 WHERE level = '$keyword'") or die (mysql_error()); $data[10][$j] = $gnumber; //Assign group day if (!$algorithm) { $data[12][$j] = assignGroupDay($k); //Display query option //Assign group time print "
"; $data[13][$j] = assignGroupTime($k); display($q); $thisgroup--; print "
"; $pool--; } }

//Group formation algorithm execution //Next group

130 GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 131 Computer-Aided Student Study Group Formation

if($thisgroup == 0) $gnumber++; $j++; body } {background: #AEFA73} } h2 } {font-size: 28px; //Display groups text-align: center;} displayGroups($gnumber, $size, $data); h3 } {text-align: center;} error //Delete Table {font-size: 28px; // mysql_query("DROP TABLE mcnairdb.table1") or print "Failure to drop table" . color:red; // " -> Table does not exist6
"; width: 100%; mysql_close(); text-align: center;} ?> label {color: white;

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132 Computer-Aided Student Study Group Formation GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 133

References Development of the Innate Immune Response in Nestling

[1] Zoltán Dörnyei, Psychological Processes in Cooperative Language Learning: Group Dynamics and Motivation, The Modern Language Journal Tree Swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) (p. 81), 1997.

[2] Phyllis C. Blumenfeld, Ronald W. Marx, Elliot Soloway, and Joseph Krajcik, Learning With Peers: From Small Group Cooperation to Collab- Abstract develops throughout the juvenile stage. Be- orative Communities, Educational Researcher Vol. 25 No. 8 (p. 37,40), November, 1996. cause these components have a genetic basis, The innate immune system provides an im- they are directly subjected to natural selec- [3] Phil Kelly, Achieving Desirable Group-Work Outcomes Through the Group Allocation Process, Team Performance Management Vol. 14 No. 1/2 mediate, short term, first line of defense from tion, thus favoring the evolution of immune (p. 22-38), 2008. pathogens; its appearance early in development competence, and observations that the com- in vertebrates is evidence of its critical impor- ponents of the innate immune system appear [4] Leonard Spring, Mary Elizabeth Stanne, and Samuel S. Donovan, Effects of Small-Group Learning on Undergraduates in Science, Mathemat- tance. Even so, few studies have investigated early in development in vertebrates [2, 4], ics, Engineering, and Technology: A Meta-Analysis, Review of Educational Research Vol. 69 No. 1 (p. 21-51), spring 1999. the development of the immune response as ju- including Tree Swallows, Tachycineta bicolor veniles transition into adults. Ultimately, the [1], are evidence of its critical importance. [5] Martin Wessner and Hans-Rüdiger Pfister,Group Formation in Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, GROUP ’01, ACM, Septem- ability to respond to pathogens confers fitness Immune function involves life-history ber, 2001. benefits in terms of health, survival, and re- trade-offs influenced by differences in energy productive success, and it follows that functions allocation to growth, maintenance and re- [6] Dadong Wan and Philip M. Johnson, Computer Supported Collaborative Learning Using CLARE: the Approach and Experimental Findings, such as rapid growth cannot be fully met simul- production [5], all of which are energetically ACM, 1994. T.R. Stambaugh taneously since energy is a limiting resource. As costly [6]; thus these three processes cannot McNair Scholar a result, defense mechanisms are compromised be fully met simultaneously. Juveniles use [7] Maria Grigoriadou, Kyparisia Papanikolaou, and Evangelia Gouli, Investigating How to Group Students Based on their Learning Styles, Sixth at an early age due to energy allocation to rapid energy for growth and maintenance, whereas International Conference on Avanced Learning Technologies (ICALT ’06), IEEE Computer Society 2006. growth; therefore, immunity should increase as adults use energy for maintenance and repro- individuals mature. I studied the development duction. Ultimately, the ability to respond [8] Fusako Kusunoki, Masanori Sugimoto, and Kiromichi Hashizume, A System for Supporting Group Learning that Enhances Interactions, pro- of innate immunity in nestling Tree Swallows to pathogens confers fitness benefits in terms ceedings of the 1999 conference on Computer Support for Collaborative Learning, International Society of Learning Sciences, 1999. using microbicidal assays which were conduct- of health, survival, and reproductive success ed in vitro to assess the ability of the immune [7]. Selection should favor those individu- [9] Lasse Lipponen, The Challenges for Computer Supported Collaborative Learning in Elementary and Secondary Level: Finnish Perspectives, system to kill E. coli via lysis. This research may als that are able to budget their energy so CSCL ’99, International Society of the Learning Sciences, 1999. provide insight into patterns of disease suscep- as to balance the demands of growth and tibility, which in turn influence evolutionary maintenance. This demand results in strong [10] Weijian Ni, Jun Xu, Hang Li, and Yalou Huang, Group-based Learning – A Boosting Approach, CIKM ’08, October (p. 26-30), ACM 2008. fitness and population dynamics. selection pressures on developing songbirds, which must grow rapidly to be able to leave Introduction the nest and avoid predation [8] while at the same time develop a competent innate im- Michael Lombardo, Ph.D. Ecoimmunology seeks to explore and mune response. Faculty Mentor understand various immune defense strate- Most ecoimmunological studies have not gies observed among species. The ecological focused on the development of innate im- study of the development of immune func- munity in immature, wild animals, but rath- tion in birds and other vertebrates is in its er have used domesticated species such as infancy [1], and age-specific variation in im- chickens with precocial development [9, 10] mune function has been understudied in re- as opposed to altricial development found gard to innate immune development in wild in wild Tree Swallows and other passerines. animals [2, 1]. Furthermore, chickens have been artificially The vertebrate immune system consists of bred for increased body growth for meat pro- two components: innate and acquired immu- duction or egg-laying, which may alter their nity [3]. Innate immunity is the nonspecific lifespan, thus possibly altering natural, in- response to pathogens through complement, nate immune defense mechanisms [11, 12]. a cascade of proteins acting in sequence to Additionally, in those studies that do exist produce biological effects concerned with in- on wild species, measurements were primar- flammation and the lysis of cells, and phago- ily taken at one specific age (e.g., 12 days after cytosis, macrophages that ingest foreign par- hatching), neglecting developmental stages ticulate matter by enveloping them into the as juveniles transition into adults. cell, occurring in the blood. Unlike acquired Studies on the development of immune immunity, which develops over the lifetime defense in nestling Tree Swallows may pro- of an organism from previous encounters vide insight into patterns of age-related dis- with pathogens, innate immunity is present ease susceptibility, which in turn influences at birth. Innate immunity provides an im- evolutionary fitness and population dynam- mediate, short-term, first line of defense that ics [13]. I studied the development of innate

134 Computer-Aided Student Study Group Formation GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 135 immunity in a free-living, altricial bird, the corticosterone, which can affect immune re- endotoxin-free Phosphate Buffered Saline at ND-18 (ANOVA, F = 62.12, df = 3,123, ism, and that parasitism was associated with of development, with full immune potential Tree Swallow. Microbicidal assays [14] were sponse, remains at or near baseline levels in (PBS) and held at 4º C. Each day that assays P < 0.001). Though body weight remained a reduction in survival probability. Because not being reached until after fledging. This used to examine age-specific variation in the birds for up to 3 min. following handling were run, the stock culture was diluted with nearly the same (ND-18 mean mass = 21.0 the immune system is designed to prevent trade-off may reflect the balance between innate immune function of nestlings at dif- [17]. Blood was collected into sterile hepa- cold PBS to make a working culture with g, n = 22; adult mean mass = 20.8g, n = 79), and control infection by pathogens and par- predation and pathogen pressures on nest- ferent stages of development, and I predicted rinized capillary tubes (50-75 µL capacity) approx. 50,000 microbes/mL. Working cul- wing length was significantly shorter (second asites, a reduction in immunocompetence lings favoring selection on rapid growth. that immune function would increase over directly from the brachial vein in the wing tures were kept on ice. year female = 110.3mm ± 2.6mm, µ ± sd, n might lead to an increased risk of infection, the course of the nestling period. after venipuncture using sterile lancets or Whole blood was diluted to 1:4 with pre- = 77; after second year female = 112.3mm thus reduced fitness and chances of survival Acknowledgements needles. Prior to venipuncture, the area on warmed (41º C) CO -independent media ± 3.1mm, µ ± sd, n = 216; second year male [7]. Methods the wing was sterilized with 70% ethanol. (#18045; Gibco-Invitrogen, Californai, CA) = 116.7mm ± 4.0mm, µ ± sd, n = 51; after Finally, there are data suggesting that leav- Mentors: Professor Michael Lombardo Venipuncture and blood collection occurred plus 4mM L-glutamine in a sterile 1.5 mL second year male = 116.2mm ± 3.4mm, µ ing the nest upon a predation attempt could and Professor Patrick Thorpe. Assistants in Tree Swallows are a common, aerially for- after the ethanol completely evaporated be- capped tube. Ten microliters of the working ± sd, n = 114) and percent lysis (fig. 4) was be part of the normal behavioral repertoire the field and laboratory: Heather Danhof, aging, passerine species distributed through- cause ethanol can cause hemolysis, which culture ( 200 microbes) was added per 100 µL significantly less in ND-18s than in adults of altricial nestlings [23] and is associated Brad Houdek, Lisa Bol, Marcia Baiz, Angel out North America that readily accept nest can complicate immune assays [14]. Capil- of diluted blood, vortexed, and incubated for (Mann-Whitney U = 267.5, P < 0.001). with adaptations in their ontogenesis and Hayden, Liberty Hightower, and Matt Rom- boxes as breeding sites. Females usually lay lary tubes were sealed with clay and placed in 45 min. at 40.5 º C. After incubation samples morphology [24]. Research on Meadow Pip- eyn. Funding by: McNair Scholars Program, clutches of 5-6 eggs which hatch after ap- sterilized containers for transport to the lab. were removed from the incubator, vortexed, Discussion its, Anthus pratensis [25], suggests patterns National Science Foundation/S-STEMS proximately 15 days of incubation display- Blood was transported to the laboratory usu- and duplicated, 50 µL aliquots were pipetted of growth in nestlings with directional selec- Program, and GVSU, Dept. of Biology. ing. Hatchlings are altricial, and both par- ally within 60 min. of collection for the best onto agar plates, spread, inverted, and incu- These data show evidence of life-history tion for high growth rates, where the mean ents feed the nestlings up until the time they results during immune assays [14]. bated at 37º C for 24 hours. E. coli colonies trade-offs. At ND-6, nestlings possessed growth rate of nestlings in entirely depre- fledge, which is about 20 days [15]. I studied The microbicidal assay produces an index were counted after 24 hours. The number of little to no immunity (Fig. 1) while presum- dated broods was lower than the population Tree Swallows that nested in wooden nest of the capacity of the blood, measuring how microbes in the initial inoculums were deter- ably expending considerable amounts of en- mean while that for partially depredated boxes arranged in grids in an old field on rapidly it can thwart an invasion by poten- mined by diluting microbes in media alone ergy on body growth [5]. At ND-12, Tree broods was higher. In broods that grew ex- the campus of Grand Valley State Univer- tial pathogens [14]. This assay is a generalin (10 µL of working culture per 100 µL of me- Swallow nestlings showed increased immu- tremely slowly, the number of nestlings was sity (GVSU) (42º57´N, 85º53´W), Ottawa vitro measurement of the effectiveness of the dia) and then immediately plated. Negative nity over that of ND-6 nestlings (Fig. 1) and reduced by either nestling competition for County, Michigan in June and early July, innate immune system because it evaluates controls in which no microbes were added weighed as much or more than adults and food or by predation, or by a combination 2009. Nests were monitored closely to de- the ability of multiple elements in the blood were also prepared. Microbicidal activity of then dropped in weight as they began to al- of both. Magrath [26] showed that the post- termine clutch completion date, exact hatch (e.g., white blood cells, natural and specific the blood was defined as the percent of the locate their energy into feather growth [16, fledging survival of slowly growing young is date, and, therefore, exact nestling age. antibodies, lysozimes, and opsonins [mol- inoculum killed which equal 1- (viable mi- 15]. As they transitioned to ND-18, there low, suggesting that mortality due to lack of I collected blood samples from 36 nest- ecules that help white blood cells to bind to crobes after incubation/number inoculated) was another significant increase in immu- food and by predation were synergistic, yet lings. Due to the small size of Tree Swallows, potential pathogens during phagocytosis]) [14]. nity (Fig. 1) while body mass increased to a both acted independently [25] and differed I obtained only a single blood sample from to kill microbes, and the assay integrates Responsible Conduct of Research—The weight similar to that of adults. Energy allo- with range. All broods in Halupka’s study, each individual nestling to prevent jeopar- many of the important components of the methods used in this study were in ac- cation to innate immunity appeared to differ with the exception of those birds that grew dizing its health. Tree Swallow nestlings innate immune system [14]. cordance with suggestions for the ethical between the three stages of development in extremely fast, were susceptible to preda- undergo three basic stages of development: This assay is ideal for examining innate im- handling of wild birds [18]. We obtained nestlings as well as between ND-18 nestlings tion, and only the slowest growing nestlings their eyes open 3-4 days after hatching; they munity in small birds for two reasons. First, permission to conduct this study from the and adults. Though body weight remained suffered from mortality associated with the develop endothermy 8-9 days after hatching it was optimized to evaluate the immuno- GVSU Institutional Animal Care and Use nearly the same, percent lysis (Fig. 4) was sig- food shortage. Thus, it appears that nest pre- [16]; and, they fledge approximately 20 days competence of the innate immune system Committee (IACUC). nificantly less in ND-18s than in adults. This dation is the most important factor selecting after hatching [15]. I examined the innate using very small blood volumes (< 100 µL) suggested that a large amount of energy was for rapid growth in altricial bird species, in- immune system at nestling days (ND; ND-0 with species-non-specific reagents [14]. Sec- Results still being used by ND-18s for wing growth, cluding Tree Swallows. = the day the first egg in a clutch hatched) 6, ond, it was developed to be a rapid, simple, thus less was devoted to developing immu- In summary, I studied the development of 12, and 18, which fall in the range of these and reliable measure of innate immune func- Total numbers of agar plated E. coli bacte- nity, further suggesting differences in energy the innate immune response in nestling Tree developmental stages. At ND-3-4, nestlings tion and does not require elaborate training ria were measured in nestlings at ND-6 (n = allocation with an immunological cost dur- Swallows at different stages of development were too small to obtain blood samples of or specialized equipment. 10), ND-12 (n = 16), and ND-18 (n = 22). ing growth and development, which is con- via blood samples using microbicidal assays. adequate volume to perform in vitro assays, Microbicidal Assay—This assay evaluated the Lysis increased as birds matured; the ability of sistent with findings in previous studies [19, Since there is strong selection pressure to de- so I began drawing blood from ND-6 nest- ability of constituents found in whole blood constituents in the blood to kill this pathogen 5]. velop a competent innate immune response, lings, which weigh 10-12 g, about half as to kill microbes following the methods de- increased from approximately zero at ND-6 In addition to trade-offs between growth as expected, there was a steady increase in the much as adult swallows weigh [15]. At ND- scribed in Millet et al. (2007). Assays were to 22% at ND-12 to 43% at ND-18 (ANO- and immune development, it has been shown ability of the innate immune system to kill 12, Tree Swallow nestlings weighed as much performed on samples of less than 100 µL. VA, F = 12.25, df = 2,50, P < 0.001, Fig. 1). that increased reproductive effort reduces bacteria as juveniles transitioned into inde- or more than adults and then dropped in Briefly, I tested the ability of whole blood to Neither wing chord nor mass showed any humoral immunocompetence [20] in both pendence along with transitions in energy weight as they began to allocate their energy kill microbes Escherichia coli (ATCC#8739, significant correlation in the amount of lysis adult female Barn Swallows, Hirundo rusti- allocation. Energy is limited, and because of into feather growth [16, 15]. In addition, on Microbiologics Inc., Saint Cloud, MN) sup- that occurred in ND-12s and ND-18s (Fig. 2 ca, and her nestlings, showing decreased im- this, there are physiological trade-offs within ND-18 nestlings, I measured nestling mass plied as 10 organisms per lyophilized pellet. & 3). Even though ND-18 nestlings became munity as brood size increases due to lower an energy budget in terms of costs and ben- to the nearest 0.2 g with a Pesola spring, and These are common microbes and did not independent when they fledged, their innate per capita feeding rate with limited resources efits. Juveniles appeared to allocate more flattened wing chord of the right wing to the need special treatment beyond normal mi- immune systems were not fully developed. [21]. This was supported with the findings energy to maintenance and rapid growth, nearest 1 mm using a ruler with a stop fixed crobiological methods. All lab work took In comparison, adult Tree Swallows (n = 79) of Nordling et al., [22] which showed that fe- with apparently little energy towards immu- to one end. place inside laminar flow hoods. Microbe (B. Houdek et al., unpublished data) at my male Collared Flycatchers, Ficedula albicollis, nity, as clearly seen with the ND-6 nestlings. Blood samples were collected within 3 pellets were reconstituted according to man- study site displayed significantly greater lysis raising enlarged broods, had lower humoral Energy allocation to immunity appeared to min. of handling because the stress hormone ufacturer’s instructions in 40 mL of sterile, (mean = 82.6% ± 24.6%) than did nestlings immunocompetence and increased parasit- increase throughout each subsequent stage

136 Development of the Innate Immune Response in Nestling Tree Swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 137 Figure 1. Mean percent lysis (± SE) measuring the ability of the blood to kill bacteria E. coli at different stages of Figure 3. Measurements of wing chord and mass showing percent lysis assessing the ability of the blood to kill bacteria development in nestling Tree Swallows (ANOVA, F = 12.25, df = 2,50, P < 0.001). E. coli for each nestling day 18 Tree Swallow sampled.

Figure 2. Measurements of wing chord and mass showing percent lysis assessing the ability of the blood to kill bacteria E. coli for each nestling day 12 Tree Swallow sampled.

Figure 4. Mean percent lysis (± SE) measuring the ability of the blood to kill E. coli bacteria at different stages of development, including adults, in Tree Swallows (ANOVA, F = 62.12, df = 3,123, P < 0.001).

138 Development of the Innate Immune Response in Nestling Tree Swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 139 References 21. Saino N, Calza S, Moller AP. Immuno-competence, ornamentation and viability of male barn swallows (Hirundo rustica). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 1997; 94:579-585. 1. Palacios MG, Cunnick JE, Vleck D, Vleck CM. Ontogeny of innate and adaptive immune defense components in free-living tree swallows, Tachycineta bicolor. Develomental and Comparative Immunology 2008; (doi:10.1016/i.dci.2008.09.006). 22. Nordling D, Andersson M, Zohari S, Gustafsson L. Reproductive effort reduces specific immune response and parasite resistance. Proceed- ings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 1998; 265:1291-1298. 2. Palacios MG, Cunnick JE, Winkler DW, Vleck CM. Immunosenescence in some but not all immune components in a free-living vertebrate, the tree swallow. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 2007; 270:951-957. 23. Redondo T, Carranza J. Offspring reproductive value and nest defense in the magpie Pica( pica). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 1989; 25:369-378. 3. Roitt I, Brostoff J, Male D. Immunology. Mosby: London, UK; 1998. 24. Bjorklund M. Allometric relation in three species of finches (Aves: Fringillidae). Journal of Zoology London 1994; 233:657-668. 4. Franceschi C, Bonafé M, Valensin S. Human immunosenescence: the prevailing of innate immunity, the failing of clonotypic, and the filling of immunological space. Vaccine 2000; 18:1717. 25. Halupka K. Partial nest predation in an altricial bird selects for the accelerated development of young. Journal of Avian Biology 1998; 29:129-133. 5. Sheldon BC, Verhulst S. Ecological immunology: Costly parasite defences and trade-offs in evolutionary ecology. Trends in Ecology & Evo- lution 1996; 11:317-21. 26. Magrath RD. Nestling weight and juvenile survival in the blackbird, Turdus merula. Journal of Animal Ecology 1991; 60:335-351.

6. Raberg L, Grahn M, Hasselquist D, Svensson E. On the adaptive significance of stress induced immunosuppression. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 1998; 265:1637-1641.

7. Norris, K. and Evans, M.R. Ecological immunology: life history trade-offs and immune defense in birds. Behavioral Ecology 2000; 11:19-26.

8. Skutch AF. Parent birds and their young. Austin: University of Texas Press; 1976 503p.

9. Starck JM, Ricklefs RE. Patterns of development: the altricial-precocial spectrum. In: Starck J.M., Ricklefs, R.E., editors. Avian growth and development. New York: Oxford University Press; 1998 p. 3-30.

10. Klasing KC, Leshchinsky TV. Functions, costs, and benefits of the immune system during development and growth. In: Adams, N.J., Slo- tow, R.H., editors. Proceedings of 22nd International Ornithological Congress. Johannesburg: Birdlife South Africa; 1999 p. 2817-35.

11. Bayyari GR, Huff WE, Rath NC, Balog JM, Newberry LA, Villines JD. Effect of the genetic selection of turkeys for increased body weight and egg production on immune and physiological responses. Poultry Science 1997; 76:289-96.

12. Leshchinsky TV, Klasing, DC. Divergence of the inflammatory response in two types of chickens. Developmental and Comparative Im- munology 2001; 25:629-38.

13. Anderson RM, May RM. Infectious diseases of humans. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2003.

14. Millet S, Bennett J, Lee KA, Hau M, Klasing KC. Quantifying and comparing constitutive immunity across avian species. Developmental and Comparative Immunology 2007; 31:188-201.

15. Robertson RJ, Stuchbury BJ, Cohen RR. Tree Swallow (Tachycineta bicolor.) In: Poole A, Stettenheim P, Gill F, editors. Birds of North America. Philadelphia, PA/Washington, DC: Academy of Natural Sciences/American Ornithologists’ Union; 1992.

16. Dunn EH. Age of effective homeothermy in nestling Tree Swallows according to brood size. Wilson Bulletin 1979; 91:455-457.

17. Romero LM, Romero RC. Corticosterone responses in wild birds: the importance of rapid initial sampling. Condor 2002; 104:129.

18. Gaunt AS, Oring LW (Editors). Guidelines to the use of wild birds in research (2nd Edition). Special Publication of the Ornithological Council, Washington, D.C. 1999.

19. Verhulst S, Dieleman SJ, Parmentier HK. A trade-off between immuneocompetence and sexual ornamentation in domestic fowl. Proceed- ings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 1999; 96:4478-4481.

20. Deerenberg C, Apanius V, Daan S, Bos N. Reproductive effort decreases antibody responsiveness. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Lon- don Series B-Biological Sciences 1997; 264:1021-1029.

140 Development of the Innate Immune Response in Nestling Tree Swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 141 About the TRiO Programs

To fight the war on poverty, our nation made a commitment to provide education for all Americans, regardless of background or economic circumstances. In support of this commitment, Congress established several programs in 1965 to help those from low-income backgrounds and families with no previous college graduates (first generation). The first three programs established were Talent Search, Upward Bound, and Student Support Services. Thus, they are known as the TRiO Programs. Since then, other programs have been added, including Upward Bound Math and Science, Educational Opportunity Center, The Training Authority, and in 1989, The Ronald E. McNair Post-Baccalaureate Achievement Program. The goal of all of the programs is to provide educational opportunity for all. The Ronald E. McNair Post- Baccalaureate Achievement Program is designed to prepare highly talented undergraduates to pursue doctoral degrees. In addition, the goal is to increase the number of students from low-income backgrounds, first generation college students, and under-represented minorities on college and university faculties.

Copyright This is the official journal of the Ronald E. McNair Post-Baccalaureate Achievement Program, A TRiO Program, at Grand Valley State University. It is funded through the United States Department of Education (A TRiO Program) and Grand Valley State University. Copies of this publication may be obtained by contacting Advising Resources and Special Programs, TRiO McNair Scholars Program, Grand Valley State University, 1 Campus Drive, 230 Student Services Building, Allendale, MI 49401-9403; (616) 331-3441; e-mail [email protected]. The manuscripts are the property of Grand Valley State University and the Grand Valley State University McNair Scholars Program. All copyrights are owned by Grand Valley State University. Reproduction of this material is authorized provided that it is not sold, only used for educational purposes, and the source and author of the material is clearly acknowledged. 2009 Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan

112 TRiO Programs

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