Dean Message from the Dean Mary A. Seeger, Ph.D. Director Arnie Smith-Alexander Associate Director rand Valley State University is proud to be the home of our Ronald E. McNair Dolli Lutes GScholars Program now in its tenth year. The activities of our scholars and their mentors continue to reflect the spirit of Dr. Ronald E. McNair, and to serve as a Project Manager model for everyone involved in assisting students to prepare for graduate study. Dolli Lutes Editor Special thanks to the faculty mentors for affording these capable students the Nancy J. Crittenden opportunity to improve their research skills as they begin their post-baccalaureate Cover Design work. Grand Valley State University Communications And congratulations to the 11 GVSU McNair Scholars whose work appears in this Journal Printing edition of the Grand Valley State University McNair Scholars Journal. Your projects Grandville Printing reflect well on you, and enrich the life of the university community. Photography John Corriveau/cover Bernadine Carey-Tucker Graphic Design and Production Cindy Hoekstra Mary A. Seeger, Dean Grand Valley State University Advising Resources and Special Programs Faculty Mentors and Research Editors John Adamopoulos, Ph.D. Professor of Psychology Majd Al-Mallah, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Modern Languages and Literatures Janet G. Brashler, Ph.D. Professor of Anthropology Martin Burg, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Biomedical and Health Sciences Lawrence R. Burns, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Psychology Edward Cole, Ph.D. Professor of History Bradley J. Morris, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Psychology Andrea Rotzien, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Psychology Christine Rydel, Ph.D. Professor of Modern Languages and Literatures Jennifer Stewart, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Sociology Anton Tolman, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Psychology Steve Tripp, Ph.D. Professor of History Before You Can Make A Dream Come True, You Must First Have One. —Ronald E. McNair, Ph.D.

onald Erwin McNair was born October 21, 1950, in Lake City, South Carolina, R to Carl and Pearl McNair. He attended North Carolina A&T State University where he graduated Magna Cum Laude with a B.S. degree in physics in 1971. McNair then enrolled in the prestigious Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1976, at the age of 26, he earned his Ph.D. in physics. McNair soon became a recognized expert in laser physics while working as a staff physicist with Hughes Research Laboratory. He was selected by NASA for the space shuttle program in 1978 and was a mission specialist aboard the 1984 flight of the USS Challenger space shuttle. After his death in the USS Challenger space shuttle accident in January 1986, members of Congress provided funding for the Ronald E. McNair Post-Baccalaureate Achievement Program. The goal is to encourage low-income, first generation students, as well as students who are traditionally under-represented in graduate schools, to expand their opportunities by pursuing graduate studies.

Ronald E. McNair Post-Baccalaureate Achievement Program

The Purpose Program Services Funding The McNair Scholars Program is The McNair Scholars are matched with The Ronald E. McNair Post- designed to prepare highly talented faculty research mentors. They receive Baccalaureate Achievement Program is undergraduates to pursue doctoral academic counseling, mentoring, a TRiO Program funded through the degrees and to increase the number of advising, and GRE preparation. In United States Department of Education individuals (from the target groups) on addition to the above services, the and Grand Valley State University. college and university faculties. McNair Scholars have opportunities to attend research seminars, conduct Who are McNair Scholars? research, and present their finding orally The McNair Scholars are highly or written via poster presentations. In talented undergraduate students who the first semester of their senior year, are from families with no previous the scholars receive assistance with the college graduate, low-income graduate school application process. background or groups under- represented at the graduate level for doctoral studies. The program accepts students from all disciplines.

2 Ronald E. McNair, Ph.D. Table of Contents

Jennifer Goven “From Coahoma County to Cook County: The Music of Muddy Waters” . . . 5 Faculty Mentor: Steve Tripp, Ph.D.

Brett Homkes “Certainty, Probability, and Stalin’s Great Party Purge” ...... 13 Faculty Mentor: Edward Cole, Ph.D.

Kelly Kammeraad “Not Separate but Still Unequal: Disparities, Invisibility and Bias in Access and Quality of Health Care in Michigan” ...... 19 Faculty Mentor: Jennifer Stewart, Ph.D.

Derrick Kroodsma “Identification of Histidine Decarboxylase Expression using a Histamine Antibody Staining Technique” ...... 29 Faculty Mentor: Martin Burg, Ph.D.

Christina G. Mello “Gender and Empowerment: Contemporary Lakota Women of Rosebud” . . 35 Faculty Mentor: Janet G. Brashler, Ph.D.

Katherine Midkiff “Use it or lose it? What predicts age-related declines in cognitive performance in elderly adults?” ...... 53 Faculty Mentor: Bradley J. Morris, Ph.D.

Jennifer E. Nyland “Dysfunctional Cognitions: Associations with Perfectionistic Thinking Utilizing the Positive and Negative Perfectionism Construct” ...... 61 Faculty Mentor: Lawrence R. Burns, Ph.D.

Susan Polanco “Cultural Influences on the Formation of Interpersonal Intentions” ...... 69 Faculty Mentor: John Adamopoulos, Ph.D. 2004 McNair Scholars

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 3 Table of Contents

Megan Staples “The Metonymies of Unhappy Families” ...... 75 Faculty Mentors: Christine Rydel, Ph.D. and Majd Al-Mallah, Ph.D.

Danielle J. Terry “Investigating the Relationship between Parenting Styles and Delinquent Behavior” ...... 87 Faculty Mentor: Andrea Rotzien, Ph.D.

John Traxler “Psychopaths in the Courtroom: A Preliminary Report on Judicial Sentencing for Violent Offenses” ...... 97 Faculty Mentor: Anton Tolman, Ph.D.

About the TRiO Programs ...... 106 2004 McNair Scholars

4 Table of Contents VOLUME 8, 2004 From Coahoma County to Cook County: The Music of Muddy Waters

ABSTRACT It was 1941, late August, presumably African Americans developed the blues a sticky Mississippi afternoon when as a reaction to the harsh conditions in Alan Lomax and John Work reached the Mississippi Delta. The music found Coahoma County, Mississippi. Lomax a new home during the first half of the was a folklorist for the Library of twentieth century when thousands of Congress; Work was a member of the African Americans migrated to northern Fisk University Music Department. cities. Inevitably, the sounds and styles of The reason for their trek, Lomax the bluesmen that journeyed North changed suggests, was in response to their new environment. My research focuses on the music of Muddy To explore objectively and Waters because of his unique experiences exhaustively the musical habits of in both the Delta and Chicago. This a single Negro community in the portion of research analyzes Waters’ Delta, to find out and describe Stovall Plantation recordings, as they are a the function of music in the reflection of his life in the Delta. Later study community, to ascertain the history will explore his early work in Chicago. of music in the community, and to document adequately the cultural and social backgrounds for music in Jennifer Goven the community.1 McNair Scholar Both Lomax and Work understood the importance of capturing the folklore that thrived undocumented in the African- American communities of the South. They shared a common perception of “folklore” that encompassed not only the oldest songs, those considered the most pure by others in the field, but also included the “living folk and their input.”2 Lomax expresses the importance of documenting the music emerging in the Mississippi Delta when he says, “the portable recorder put neglected cultures and silenced people into the communication chain.”3 The purpose of my project is similar although it concentrates on the music of one man as a reflection of his community. This portion of my research will focus on the early life and music of Muddy Waters; I will analyze the lyrics of two particular songs Waters recorded on the Stovall Plantation, “I Be’s Troubled” and “Country Steve Tripp, Ph.D. Blues,” specifically looking for lyrical Faculty Mentor

1 Robert Gordon, Can’t Be Satisfied: The Life and Times of Muddy Waters. (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2002), 37. 2 Gordon, 36. 3 Alan Lomax, The Land Where the Blues Began. (Delta, 1994), xi.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 5 reactions to the harsh environment Waters’ career in Chicago redefined Like many African Americans in the of the Mississippi Delta. My final the blues. His blend of down-home Mississippi Delta, his grandmother was goal is to understand how the Great blues and urban electric sound replaced a sharecropper, cultivating cotton on a Migration affected the African American the classical blues that dominated small parcel of rented land in exchange community of Chicago by examining the Chicago scene when he arrived. for a percentage of her crops. The Waters’ re-recording of the songs His presence is still alive today in the sharecropping system emerged after the previously mentioned. During the 1940s bwaaang of a slide running down the Civil War due to the mutual dependency an estimated 200,000 African Americans neck of any guitar or in the deliberate of plantation owners and African migrated to Chicago, twice that of distortion of a punk rock band, and his Americans in the South.6 The economic the 1930s.4 The increase in industrial legacy continues to influence generations system of the South could not survive production coupled with a significant of musicians. without cheap labor. Left with nothing amount of the labor force stationed Work and Lomax arrived at the Stovall after the Civil War, former slaves now overseas during World War II caused Plantation on August 31, 1941 and, needed to make a living and plantation the resurgence of African American with permission granted by the overseer, owners found it easy to bind them to the migration. I want to take a closer look at began looking for Muddy Waters. Son land. It did not take long for the system the impact that moving from Coahoma House, Waters’ childhood mentor and to develop into what historian Robert County, the heart of the Delta, to Cook fellow Delta bluesman, told Lomax and Palmer calls “a modern-day feudalism”.7 County, home of Chicago’s South Side, Work that Waters sounded similar to the Sharecroppers lived throughout the year had on a bluesman and his music. legendary Robert Johnson.5 This excited on supplies provided by the plantation Although research on the blues has Lomax. He had come to Coahoma owner. The owners often overcharged increased since the 1940s, nothing County looking for Johnson, unaware sharecroppers fueling the vicious cycle has been published specifically on the that he had died a few years earlier. of debt. The provisions, referred to by effects that migration had on the Delta- He had hoped to record the mythical locals as the “furnish,” consisted of a inspired music and its place in the bluesman that summer. Instead, Lomax cabin, store credit, and the necessary migration culture of African Americans. recorded a young Muddy Waters, and farming equipment including seeds, Generations of African Americans looked music has not been the same since. mules, and plows. The plantation cabin to the North as the “promised land” and McKinley Morganfield was born usually consisted of two rooms with no saw the move as their “exodus.” Cutting April 4, 1915 to Ollie Morganfield and electricity or running water. After the their ties to the plantation and to the Berta Grant in an area of Issaquena harvest, the plantation owner took a Delta offered African Americans a sense County, Mississippi, known to locals as share of the crop to pay for the furnish of power like nothing they experienced Jug’s Corner. He was given his father’s and any other expenses incurred over before. Inevitably, such a journey had last name, although his parents never the year. Often, this left the farmers with an impact on the emotions expressed by married. Shortly after the birth of her next to nothing. In 1942, Waters told bluesmen who took their talents North. only son, Berta passed away leaving Lomax his family cleared between $100 Just as they did in the South, bluesmen McKinley in the care of his thirty-two and $300 dollars per year after paying continued to sing for their community, year-old grandmother, Della Grant. off any outstanding debts.8 Whether or expressing emotions shared by the many Waters spent the first few years of not a sharecropper went into debt at African Americans who left the Delta for his life on the Cottonwood Plantation settlement had everything to do with Chicago. I chose to study the life and in Issaquena County. While living on the integrity of the owner who in many music of McKinley Morganfield, better the Cottonwood Plantation, Waters’ cases “fixed the books”. Since most known as Muddy Waters, concentrating grandmother re-christened her grandson sharecroppers had only a rudimentary on his life in the Delta and his early “Muddy” because she often found education, they could not easily dispute career in Chicago. him playing in the rich delta mud. the owners’ claims. Waters’ grandmother

4 Robert G. Spinney, City of Big Shoulders: A History of Chicago (Illinois: Northern Illinois Press, 2000), 200. 5 Gordon, 57. 6 Robert Palmer, Deep Blues. (New York: Penguin Books, 1982), 9. 7 Palmer, 9. 8 Lomax, 413.

6 From Coahoma County to Cook County: The Music of Muddy Waters had no education at all and Waters only South including economic disparities, religions and Christian themes. The completed the third grade. Often, an segregation, and intimidation. Although content of spirituals is positive and indebted sharecropper might simply the music did not emerge until the early hopeful. They offered the weary and leave one farm for another in an effort 1900s, the spirit of the blues had been enslaved a place in the world, often to avoid repayment. Most likely, this simmering in the South for years. In referring to themselves as God’s chosen is the reason Della Grant left the Blues People Leroi Jones explains people bound for the Promised Land. Cottonwood Plantation. Spirituals typically followed the call-and- Grant, her son Joe, and a young Blues was a music that developed response pattern, an African musical Waters relocated to the Stovall Plantation because of the Negro’s adaptation tradition in which everyone contributed. in Coahoma County, Mississippi, to, and adoption of, America, it was The blues, however, were an act of eighty miles north of Issaquena County also a music that developed because individual expression in that the singer some time before 1920. Owned of the Negro’s peculiar position in conveyed his personal dissatisfaction by Colonel Howard Stovall III, the the country.11 to the audience. The content of the 4,000-acre plantation had a friendly blues is also very different from that of reputation among the African-American Bluesman Memphis Slim agreed, spirituals. The major themes of the blues population.9 Again, Grant made a living telling Lomax that “the blues come are alienation, hopelessness, and the as a sharecropper. By the age of ten, from slavery”.12 The blues did descend recognition that evil and injustice are Waters, too, worked in the cotton fields. from its predecessors, the field hollers always present. The bluesman’s inability This was common of African-American and spirituals that developed during to escape the evil of the world places children living on plantations.10 slavery. Robert Palmer, author of Deep his focus on the overwhelming power Cultivating cotton is back breaking Blues, further develops this idea when of the devil, an idea that would never work; at picking-time sharecroppers he suggests: find its way into a spiritual. Despite the traveled down endless rows of cotton desolate emotions expressed in blues with sacks strapped to their backs. Blues is a musical idiom that has songs, bluesmen also exuded energy and These sacks could be up to nine feet drawn on numerous sources, confidence. Perhaps their resignation to long and could hold a hundred pounds including jump-ups, field hollers fate freed them from the torture of trying of cotton. Many plantation owners, in (which it most closely resembles to understand the peculiar situation of an attempt to keep their tenants from melodically), songster ballads (from African Americans concentrating too heavily on the misery which it borrowed some imagery Muddy Waters’ relationship with of life as a sharecropper, encouraged and some guitar patterns), church the blues began at an early age. His them to spend their off time, and their music (which influenced the neighbor, and later his grandmother too, money, on vices like moonshine and singing of many blues musicians), had phonographs that introduced him to gambling. For this reason, Colonel and African-derived percussive the popular music of the time. Around Stovall situated a juke joint next to his music (which furnished some the age of seven, he began to play the general store; this way he could keep rhythmic ideas).13 harmonica.14 At fourteen, he saw Son a close watch on his workers and on House perform for the first time.15 their pocketbooks. Stovall’s juke joint However, crucial differences exist House was a popular traveling bluesman was home to gambling, dancing, and between earlier music and the blues. from Coahoma County. Waters recalled what many churchgoers called the devil’s The blues and spirituals, the other that his “eyes lit up like a Christmas music, the blues. major African-American musical forms, tree” the first time he saw him wailing Scholars generally view the blues as a are significantly different in both content on the guitar with his signature reaction to the dead-end circumstances and style. African-American spirituals bottleneck.16 In Robert Gordon’s African Americans faced in the Deep stem from a combination of African biographical Can’t be Satisfied, Waters

9 Gordon, 11. 10 Lomax, 412. 11 Leroi Jones, Blues People: Negro Music in White America. (New York: William Morrow. 1999). 12 Blues in the Mississippi Night. Features Memphis Slim, Big Bill Broonzy, and Sonny Boy Williamson, as told to and recorded by Alan Lomax. Notes by Alan Lomax. (Massachusetts: Rykodisc. 1990). 13 Palmer, 43. 14 Palmer, 104. 15 Gordon, 23. 16 Gordon, 23.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 7 recounts watching House perform; the crystallized when Lomax played back In the first verse, Waters expresses his image Waters provided is that of a son the recording and Waters heard his need for a sexual release: watching a father. Waters’ own father voice for the first time. Describing this played guitar around Jug’s Corner, but event to Paul Oliver, Waters verbalizes Was getting late over in the evening, apparently he wanted nothing to do his reaction: child, with raising Waters. Instead, his father I feel like blowin’ my horn. influenced Waters through his absence. I really HEARD myself for the first I woke up this mornin’ Lomax, in his book The Land Where the time. I’d never heard my voice. Find my little baby gone. Blues Began, suggests that “the degree to I used to sing; used to sing just which bluesmen experienced the sense how I felt, ‘cause that’s the way Bluesmen commonly used double- of pain and loss that accompanies the we always sang in Mississippi. But entendres like “I feel like blowin’ my disappearance of parents” determined when Mr. Lomax played me the horn” to express to their audience, how they sang the blues (Lomax record I thought, this boy can sing especially the women, that they were 362).17 At seventeen, Waters sold the the blues.21 in need of what Lomax called “sex and family’s last horse, and after giving his mothering.”24 At a basic level, Waters grandmother half the profit, he bought Lomax and Work recorded Waters howls for carnal gratification as well as his first guitar, a second-hand Stella.18 playing a number of tunes that for the return of his woman. Waters’ decision clearly indicates his afternoon; Lomax chose to put two In the second verse: vision of the future and his ambition to of them, “Country Blues” and “I Be’s be a bluesman, not a farmer. Troubled,” on the album Afro-American Well, now some folks say When Lomax and Work arrived Blues and Game Songs, released in The old worried blues ain’t bad. in the Delta, Waters was twenty-six January of 1943.22 Lomax promised That’s the miserabliest feeling, years old. He still spent his days in the Waters two copies of the record. Less Child, I most ever had. cotton fields, but on the weekends, he than six months after he received transformed his cabin into a juke joint them, Waters abandoned the cotton Waters explains that despite what where his moonshine and music flowed field, and with his grandmother’s other folks say about the situation, he freely. Waters’ weekend parties not blessing, he caught the Illinois Central, is unable to be consoled. This verse only supplemented his income, which Chicago bound. conveys his unsatisfied yearning for Palmer estimates at twenty-two and a “Country Blues,” the first song freedom and his heartache as a result. half cents an hour, but also made him recorded on that fateful Sunday in 1941, In the third verse: a popular bluesman among locals.19 conceptualizes Waters’ image of the Why Colonel Stovall allowed Waters to Delta and solidifies him as a bluesman. Well, brooks running into the run his own juke joint historians can The song “Country Blues” was a Delta ocean, only speculate. Perhaps, Colonel Stovall standard recorded earlier by Robert The ocean, the ocean running into depended heavily on Waters not only as Johnson as “Walkin’ Blues”; the tune the sea, a farmer but also as an entertainer and had been passed on to Johnson by If I don’t find my baby, a bootlegger. Waters’ mentor Son House.23 In his first Somebody goin, gon bury me. Despite Waters’ popularity on the recording of “Country Blues,” Waters Stovall Plantation, he never intended wades through a stream of emotions; Waters explains his inability to be to live out his days as a sharecropper. beginning with his inability to be appeased. The first two lines express an Waters told James Rooney, “I wanted to satisfied and ending with the resolution accepted sentiment shared by bluesmen be a known person, all of my life, that’s to leave his worrying, waiting, and half- that heartache and discontent are what I worked for.”20 Waters’ desires hearted hoping behind. endemic to their lives. In the last two

17 Lomax, 362. 18 Gordon, 23. 19 Palmer, 7. 20 James Rooney, Bossmen: Bill Monroe and Muddy Waters. (New York: The Dial Press, 1971), 107. 21 Paul Oliver, The Story of the Blues. (Massachusetts: Northeastern University Press, 1998), 9. 22 Gordon, 61. 23 Gordon, 38. 24 Lomax, 367.

8 From Coahoma County to Cook County: The Music of Muddy Waters lines, “If I don’t find my baby somebody a desire for freedom more concretely.”25 Yeah, I know my little ol’ baby, she goin, gon bury me” Waters conveys the Perhaps Waters used “Country Blues” to gonna jump and shout passion in which his desires are rooted. express a deep-rooted longing to escape That ol’ train be late, girl, and I The fourth verse reveals Waters’ the harshness of the Delta. Waters may come walkin’ out misery as he waits for change: have been singing about a low-down I be troubled, I’m all worried in woman, but he might also have been mind, Yes, minutes seem like hours singing about the intransigence of Delta And I never be satisfied, and I just And hours seem like days, racism and African Americans’ limited can’t keep from cryin. Seem like my baby means of fighting that racism. In this Will stop her, her lowdown ways. sense, the song reflects a more universal This is the same sentiment Waters longing than the simple longing for expressed in “Country Blues”–that When Waters sings “seems like my baby sexual gratification or even romance. misfortune invariably always follows would stop her, her lowdown ways” Waters makes it clear that his situation is the bluesman. he underscores his frustration with his miserable and may always be miserable. The next verse reveals Waters’ reason existing conditions. Indeed, by the final verses, he wonders for feeling blue; again, his woman has In the final verse, Waters resolves to how long he will have to wait for been unfaithful to him. What is most free himself from his desolate situation, a change. In desperation, he resolves to important about this verse is Waters’ decision frequently made by bluesmen: risk death in search for freedom. expression of dissatisfaction; this is Waters addresses dissatisfaction with an underlying theme of many blues Well, I’m leaving this morning his lover again in “I Be’s Troubled”, the songs. The unforgiving Mississippi If I have to ride the blinds second song recorded on the Stovall Delta swamped its sharecroppers in I feel mistreated, girl, Plantation in 1941. Unlike the swelling discontent, and Waters describes this You know now, I don’t mind dyin misery of “Country Blues” which bitter bath: culminates in the final verse with Waters’ The escape will not be easy “riding the decision to leave, in “I Be’s Troubled” Yeah, I know somebody, who’ been blinds,” slang for secretly hitching a Waters states his intent to escape in the talkin’ to you freight train, might lead to his death. first two lines: I don’t need no telling, girl, I can Nevertheless, Waters is unwavering in watch the way you do his commitment to leave, claiming, “I Well, if I feel tomorrow, like I feel I be troubled, I’m all worried in don’t mind dyin.” If the only alternative today, mind, to the endless wretchedness of waiting I’m gonna pack my suitcase, and And I never be satisfied, and I just for change is death, then Waters resolves make my getaway. can’t keep from cryin. to accept his fate. I be troubled, I’m all worried in The theme of “Country Blues” is mind, In the final two verses, Waters freedom. Waters expresses his desire for And I never be satisfied, and I just en-capsulates the theme of “I Be’s freedom from misery in his metaphoric can’t keep from cryin. Troubled”, dissatisfaction and the tale of a low-down woman. Bluesmen struggle for power: often told of the mistreatment they Waters then outlines his motives in endured at the hands of fickle women. the verses following his declaration to Yeah, now goodbye baby, got no Jeff Todd Titon suggests that “the be free. more to say overt subject matter of many songs, In the second verse, Waters claims Just like I been tellin’ you, you’re mistreatment (and what the singer will innocence when, by arriving late, he gonna have to leave my way do about it), allows the singer to express upsets his woman. He sings: I be troubled, I’m all worried in mind,

25 Jeff Todd Titon, ed., Downhome Blues Lyrics: An Anthology from the Post-World War II Era, 2nd ed. (Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 10.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 9 And I never be satisfied, and I just and to be respected. “Country Blues” understanding how African Americans can’t keep from cryin. and “I Be’s Troubled” both articulate felt during the tumultuous years these themes. following their momentous migration Yeah, my baby she quit me, seem The spirit that gave birth to the North. Blues historians often gravitate like mama was dead blues is the same spirit that eventually towards Waters because of his unique I be troubled, I’m all worried in mind, carried thousands of African Americas experience in both the Delta and And I never be satisfied, and I just to the North. That spirit, ignited by the Chicago. Both Robert Palmer and Alan can’t keep from cryin. desire for freedom, provoked African Lomax pay considerable attention I got all worried gal, and she drove Americans to break their ties with to Waters, but neither fully analyzes it to my head. the Delta and to reach into the hands his lyrics. Because he re-recorded of their plantation owners and take “Country Blues” and “I Be’s Troubled” Waters has presumably been putting back their pride. After years of being in Chicago, Waters provides a window up with the deceitfulness of his bound to the land, the act of moving into his worldviews at two exceptionally woman for some time now. Finally, elicited a sense of freedom for African different stages of his life, occurring in after much warning, he tells her that Americans. They longed to taste the two extraordinarily different places, the he has had enough. In the final verse, power that undoubtedly washed over Mississippi Delta and Chicago’s South Waters again expresses the worry and them while riding the Illinois Central. Side. Further analysis of Waters’ lyrics misery he endured because of her Thousands of African Americans did is necessary to understand the effect of continual mistreatment. savor that freedom during the first half the Great Migration on the emotions of Historian J. William Harris describes of the twentieth century. In the 1940s, African Americans, who in many ways the blues as a record of the African- the decade in which Waters migrated traded disillusionment in the South for American experience in the Delta and North, 154,000 African Americans disillusionment in the North. Perhaps considers the bluesmen the embodiment arrived in Chicago.27 In the urban cities the most untainted freedom those of such experiences.26 African-American of the North, the blues continued to leaving the Delta experienced occurred communities across the South could express African American attitudes while sitting on the Illinois Central, relate to the words sung by local toward progress.28 watching America and all its glory pass bluesmen or even those just passing The next phase of my research will them by, captivated by the freedom of through. Bluesmen expressed African concentrate on Waters’ reaction to his the journey. Americans’ desire to feel what it meant new environment in the North. The to be free, to control their own destiny, music of Muddy Waters is a tool for

26 J.William Harris, Deep Souths: Delta, Piedmont and Sea Island Society in the Age of Segregation. (Maryland: The John Hopkins University Press, 2001), 191. 27 Palmer, 12. 28 Titon, 2.

10 From Coahoma County to Cook County: The Music of Muddy Waters Bibliography

Blues in the Mississippi Night. Features Memphis Slim, Big Bill Broonzy, and Sonny Boy Williamson, as told to and recorded by Alan Lomax. Notes by Alan Lomax. Massachusetts: Rykodisc, 1990.

Gordon, Robert. Can’t Be Satisfied: The Life and Times of Muddy Waters. New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2002.

Grossman, James. Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners and the Great Migration. Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1989.

Harris, William Jr. Deep Souths. Maryland: John Hopkins University Press, 2001.

Jones, Leroi. Blues People: Negro Music in White America. New York: William Morrow, 1999.

Litwack, Leon F. Trouble in Mind. New York: Vintage Books, 1998.

Lomax, Alan. The Land Where the Blues Began. New York: Pantheon Books, 1993.

Muddy Waters: His Best, 1947 to 1955. Notes by Mary Katherine Aldin. California: MCA, 1997.

Muddy Waters: The Complete Plantation Recordings. Notes by Mary Katherine Aldin. California: MCA, 1993.

Oliver, Paul. The Story of the Blues. Massachusetts: Northeastern University Press, 1998.

Palmer, Robert. Deep Blues. New York: Penguin Books, 1982.

Rooney, James. Bossmen: Bill Monroe and Muddy Waters. New York: The Dial Press, 1971.

Sackheim, Eric., ed. The Blues Line: Blues Lyrics from Leadbelly to Muddy Waters. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1969.

Spinney, Robert G. City of Big Shoulders: A History of Chicago. Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press, 2000.

Titon, Jeff Todd., ed. Early Downhome Blues: A Musical and Cultural Analysis. 2nd ed. Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1990.

Trotter, Joe William Jr. The African American Experience. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 11 12 Certainty, Probability, and Stalin’s Great Party Purge

ABSTRACT In 1936, Josef Stalin, General Secretary In 1935, Stalin decided to purge his own of the Communist Party of the Soviet party to consolidate power in the Soviet Union [CPSU], initiated a Party Purge, government. Since the inception of historical the extent of which, measured by the research about this event, a debate has numbers of deaths and arrests of Party developed regarding the number of arrests members and their affiliates, has proved and deaths of Soviets ordered by Stalin. This to be highly controversial. A long- study will examine the figures calculated simmering historical debate about this by Western historians to determine where issue surprisingly deepened after the fall correlation and discrepancy exist. The of the Soviet Union brought about the importance of this research is to assess partial opening of government archives the reasons why such dramatic statistical that many thought would answer all differences exist among various historians. questions. Part of the problem is that the The historians’ sources show the difficulty of numbers have ideological significance: determining accurate figures because of the for example, the lower the figures, secretive nature of the Soviet government the more “normal” the USSR appears, and only partial opening of Soviet archives. making it possible that it could have become a social democracy on the welfare state model. Conversely, the Brett Homkes higher the figures, the more “surreal” McNair Scholar the whole Soviet experience seems, making it virtually impossible to believe that it could have mutated into anything that would have prevented ultimate catastrophe. The most influential participants in the “purge debate” are J. Arch Getty and Robert Conquest. Getty’s numbers of deaths and arrests are low in comparison to Conquest’s vastly higher figures. Much has been made of Getty’s “revisionism” and Conquest has been pilloried as a “Cold Warrior,” but a study of the sources used by these two historians better explains how they arrived at their conclusions than do their politics and the rhetoric of their friends and enemies. In the late 1980s, when Mikhail Gorbachev’s policy of glasnost began the long-anticipated opening of the state archives, the dispute about the Soviet Union’s capacity to develop into a “normal” social democracy gained a new intensity. One of the key questions was, Edward Cole, Ph.D. and remains, the extent of the actual Faculty Mentor human cost of Soviet socialism. Basically, it was a question of scale. Many believed that the archives possessed the necessary evidence to settle this matter once and for all.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 13 The question of the extent of the the revisionist task was a body count people within and without the Party terror that Stalin’s Communist Party low enough to suggest the credibility of counter-revolutionary crimes. The unleashed upon the Soviet people of a Soviet Union on the road to height of the Purge was from 1937 to became a battleground for historians. social democracy. 1938 when most of the Old Bolsheviks, Those who believed that the USSR was The Party Purge was not the first Lenin’s closest associates at the time in the midst of evolving into a social episode of terror within the Soviet of the Revolution, were subjected democracy downplayed the harsh Union. Beginning with the severe to humiliating show trials ending in traits and ideology of Stalin’s regime. policy of War Communism under executions and long sentences to the These historians argued in favor of a Lenin, and continuing with Stalin’s growing prison camp system. paradigm centered on “grass roots” forced collectivization and mass After the fall of the Soviet Union mechanisms of modernization such as industrialization, the Soviet people had and the partial opening of the archives, upward social mobility coupled with already experienced extensive pain and Conquest and Getty both focused the problems of mass industrialization death at the hands of the Bolsheviks. their research on the Stalinist era, within a ten-year period. But the great Party Purge was unique specifically on the Purge. The most The problem of the human cost of because it was the first time that the notable difference between the two socialism encompasses many subjects, target had shifted to the Party itself. historians’ respective works is the scale such as forced collectivization and As a means to further solidify his of their respective totals of arrests, slave labor, but the Party Purge of the own power, Stalin used the December camp populations, camp deaths, and late 1930s remains the emblematic 1, 1934 assassination of Kirov, the executions within the Soviet Union from focal point. Once seen by traditional Leningrad Party chief, as an excuse 1936 to 1938. scholars as “totalitarian,” in the hands to begin the cleansing. The project of revisionists, who began collecting slowly gained momentum as the NKVD evidence to discredit “the t-word,” the fabricated accusations of Trotskyite Purge took on a new look. Essential to and Zinovien conspiracies, charging

Figure 1. Comparison of J. Arch Getty and Robert Conquest’s arrests, camp population, camp deaths, and executions for 1936–1938 Party Purge of the Soviet Union

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14 Certainty, Probability, and Stalin’s Great Party Purge Robert Conquest, who was born people remained in prison throughout say that Memorial’s agenda promotes July 15, 1917, attended Winchester 1938, and roughly eight million people higher figures of deaths and arrests in College, Grenoble, and Magdalen were confined in the system of NKVD order to demonize Stalin. College, Oxford. Conquest joined the labor camps administered by an organ Forensic work also uncovered mass Communist Party in 1937 and fought in now known simply as the Gulag. graves within the former Soviet Union. the British light infantry during World Conquest uses interviews with former In an article titled, “Unearthing the War II. After the war ended, Conquest inmates of the Gulag system as one of Great Terror,” Conquest says about left the Communist Party and joined the his main sources. The transcripts of the graves: “Revisionists’ estimates for Foreign Office, where he remained until these interviews are difficult to obtain the whole USSR could be tucked into 1956. He is the author of seventeen because Conquest fails to document a single corner of…one gravesite of a books on Soviet history and politics. His where they can be found. Nonetheless, single minor republican capital.”4 For best-known work, The Great Terror, was independent interviews with former evidence that Byelorussian executions published in 1968 and then again in Gulag inmates completed by the United numbered somewhere between 250,000 1990, in a revised edition.1 States Congress in 1970 confirm and 300,000, Conquest relies on several In The Great Terror, Conquest Conquest’s numbers. articles written about Soviet mass graves. attempts to explain Stalin’s motives and Conquest also relies on several Of course, owing to the impossibility methods as he began the Party Purge. newspaper and magazine articles from of exhuming all of the many suspected Regrettably, during the 1960s, when the Soviet Union and present-day modern mass burial mounds in the Conquest was researching his book, Russia. These sources include Russian Byelorussian region, these totals are the Soviet Union was a closed society, newspapers: Yunost’, Agitator, Moscow difficult to confirm. or in other words, was unwilling to News, and Sotsialisticheskaia Industriia. One of Conquest’s more unique share information with the international Although these papers and periodicals sources is the Japanese Navy’s record of community concerning certain events are not readily available in the United ships entering and leaving the enormous that had taken place within its borders. States, I was able to find two articles Kolyma camp region dedicated chiefly Although much had been learned from from Moscow News that Conquest uses: to mining gold in the Arctic wilderness Nikita Khrushchev’s famous 1956 XX one dated week number eighteen of of northeastern Siberia. While Kolyma Party Congress “Secret Speech” and 1988 and the other week forty-eight of was in operation, the only way to from the campaign of “de-Stalinization” 1988. From the week eighteen article, receive goods or export gold was for that followed, to estimate the true Conquest uses the number of executions Soviet ships to pass through Japanese scale of the Purge Conquest really had within Uzbekistan, approximately forty waters. The Japanese routinely stopped no choice but to turn to alternative thousand, to extrapolate figures for the these vessels to perform customs sources of information. However, the entire Soviet Union.2 Conquest also uses searches, thus recording estimates of rapid decline of the Soviet Union after the article of week forty-eight, written the populations of workers’ camps and Mikhail Gorbachev took power in 1985 by Roy Medvedev, a famous dissident the amount of gold Soviet prisons were opened up many sources of information who estimates that the number of Purge producing. The records reveal that each previously unavailable. Hence, Conquest victims ranges from 16 to18 million of five ships carried approximately continued his research and published arrests, of which 10 million either died 4,000 prisoners and completed 10 to 11 his revised version of The Great Terror or were murdered.3 One controversial journeys annually, thus leading to a total in 1990. Conquest concludes that aspect of Medvedev’s article is that of 200,000 to 220,000 prisoners being approximately seven million Soviet it originated from an organization transported each year.5 citizens were arrested from 1937 to called Memorial, a famous glasnost-era J. Arch Getty, the best and most 1938, and of these, approximately one institution still dedicated to preserving famous of the revisionists, was born in million were executed and two million the memory of the men and women Louisiana and received a BA from the died in camps. Another one million who fell victim to Stalin’s Purge. Some University of Pennsylvania in 1972, and

1 Robert Conquest, The Great Terror, (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 180. 2 Kamil Ikramov, “Not Supposed to See it?” Moscow News, No. 18, 1988. 3 Roy Medvedev, “The Suit Against Stalin,” Moscow News, No. 48., 1988. 4 Robert Conquest, “Unearthing the Great Terror,” Orbis, Spring 1989: 240. 5 Conquest, Kolyma: The Artic Death Camps, (New York: The Viking Press, 1978), 227.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 15 his PhD from Boston College in 1979. Rossisskoi Federatsii (GARF); from narrow range of sources. Also, Getty’s Currently, Professor Getty teaches at the documents he found there, Getty estimates lack credibility because they the University of California at Los creates a table of figures for arrests are implausible in light of the evidence Angeles. He is the author of five books and sentences. These derive from accumulating from forensic archaeology, and many articles. In his study titled documents in fond 9401 of the NKVD the oral tradition, and other non- The Road to Terror, Getty produces archival material. Getty also uses fond archival sources. estimates of the number of executions, 9401 for other statistics, such as those This is part of a larger pattern arrests, camp populations, and camp concerning persons banished in efforts of research differences, a tradition deaths from 1937 to 1938: total to collectivize agriculture, and those born out of the nineteenth century arrests approximately 2.5 million, executed from 1937 to 1938.8 Getty “old history” and the emergence of camp populations from 1.9 million, utilizes another fond, 9414, for figures a 20th century “new history.” Old camp deaths at 160,084 and of the number of prison inmates in the history emphasizes the importance executions at 681,692. beginning of 1938 and camp deaths and of documents primarily from archival Throughout The Road to Terror, camp sentences from 1935 to 1940. sources, while new history takes Getty refers to an article written in Getty also employed documents into account a much wider range of collaboration with Gabor T. Rittersporn from the Federal Archives in other sources such as sociology, economics, and Viktor N. Zemskov, who compare publications. For example, several times psychology, anthropology, and and contrast several different estimates throughout his article entitled “Victims,” archaeology. Getty is squarely in of the number of “victims” during he cites GARF documents as sources for the “old history” tradition, whereas Stalin’s great Purge, including those by the number of deaths and arrests during Conquest was compelled to rely on Conquest, Dmitri Volkogonov, and the Purge. He employs documents from “new history” evidence. Roy A. Medvedev. In comparison to fond 9401 to compare percentages of These two historians are at odds in these, Getty’s figures are much lower convictions and arrests during 1937– the debate over the potential transition and have the advantage of precise 1938, and fond 9401 documents also of the Soviet Union into a social archival documentation. appear throughout the article. democracy because of the methods and In addition to archival sources, Getty Because of the wide discrepancy sources used to determine the number also uses the newspaper Pravda, and in between the figures arrived at by the of Purge victims. Regardless of whether particular, an article published on 22 accepted authorities on the subject, or not their personal ideologies support June 1989, exploring the damage that chiefly by Conquest and Getty, the most or deny the theory of social democracy, Stalin caused to the Russian economy recent books on Stalin’s Purge avoid the the evidence they present will be used and people, thereby harming the question of numbers. One suspects that by scholars far into the future. country’s defense during World War this also is done to avoid appearing to At present, what we can say, without II. The author, G. Kumanev, provides be a “Cold Warrior” like Conquest or checking out the sources ourselves, is execution figures for 1936 of 1,118 a “revisionist” like Getty. For example, that Getty’s figures can be taken as a and for 1937 of 353,074. Kumanev in her widely acclaimed 2003 book on reliable minimum and Conquest’s as a comments on the figures arguing the Gulag, Anne Applebaum effectively reliable maximum. One is a certainty that they seemed to be purposefully avoids giving specific numbers in terms and the other a probability, and at lowered and/or inaccurate (in Russian, of arrests, executions, and deaths within present they are so far apart that even “ЗаНИЖеННЬІМИ”).6 Another article used the camp system.9 specialists in the field of Soviet history by Getty is in Pravda, 14 February When comparing historians’ are reluctant to choose. Let us hope that 1990. The unnamed author numbers conclusions, analyzing the sources is future generations will be more apt to the 1930–1953 executions for very important. Conquest utilizes a diversify their sources and consider both “counterrevolutionary and state crimes” wide variety in compiling his totals. archival documents and non-archival at 786,098. According to the article, the However, there is little or no supporting evidence to come to a consensus about source for these figures was the KGB.7 documentary evidence. Getty, on the what is certainly one of the greatest The most significant source used other hand, has more precise numbers, atrocities of modern times. by Getty is the Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv but they are derived from a very

6 KG Kumanev, Pravda, No. 173., June 22, 1989. 7 Pravda, No. 45, February 14, 1990. 8 J. Arch Getty, The Road to Terror, (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999), 588. 9 Anne Applebaum, Gulag, (London: Doubleday, 2003), 571.

16 Certainty, Probability, and Stalin’s Great Party Purge Bibliography

Applebaum, Anne. Gulag. London: Doubleday, 2003.

Conquest, Robert. Kolyma: The Artic Death Camps. New York: The Viking Press, 1978.

______. The Great Terror. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.

______. “Unearthing the Great Terror.” Orbis. Spring 1989.

Getty, J. Arch. The Road to Terror. (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999.

Ikramov, Kamil. “Not Supposed to See it?” Moscow News. No. 18. 1988.

Kumanev, G. Pravda. No. 173. June 22, 1989.

Medvedev, Roy. “The Suit Against Stalin.” Moscow News. No. 48. 1988.

Pravda. No. 45. February 14, 1990.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 17 18 Not Separate but Still Unequal: Disparities, Invisibility and Bias in Access and Quality of Health Care in Michigan

ABSTRACT Introduction Current research points to race and Breast cancer, like other forms of cancer, ethnicity as predictive of disparities in is an equal opportunity killer. Cancer access and quality of health care. A cells pay no attention to the race or 2002 Institute of Medicine Study found ethnicity of the body in which they that African-American patients tend reside. Cancer cells do not care about not to receive the same type of care as the biology or genetics of the body they White patients, even when controlling inhabit. They go about their divisions, for socioeconomic status. Self-reported invisible to detection, until they have perceptions of racial bias within the patient created a critical mass identifiable provider relationship, from the patient’s with current diagnostic tools. When it perspective, are analyzed to uncover the comes to mortality from breast cancer, subtle ways perceptions of differential despite 40 years of civil rights struggles treatment based on racial bias work to in America, this equal opportunity create barriers or perpetuate disparities killer may take an unwittingly given in health outcomes for African-American advantage, cloaked in the guise of breast cancer survivors in Michigan. racial bias, and thereby ravage African- American women’s lives unequally. This study seeks to discover if Kelly Kammeraad perceptions of racial bias directed McNair Scholar towards African-American breast cancer survivors by health care providers is contributing to the measured disparities in health outcomes. While it is likely that racial bias is not the only factor contributing to higher mortality rates for African-American women diagnosed with breast cancer as compared to White women, current evidence points to race and ethnicity as predicative of disparities in access and quality of health care despite socioeconomic status (Smedley, Stith, & Nelson, 2003). A 2002 Institute of Medicine Study found that African-American patients of similar socioeconomic status tend to receive lower quality treatments than White patients (Dept. of Health and Human Services, 2003, p.4). The American Cancer Society states, “additional factors that contribute to the survival differential include unequal access to medical care and a higher prevalence of coexisting medical conditions” (American Cancer Society, 2004, p. 20). Jennifer Stewart, Ph.D. Other studies, however, point to Faculty Mentor additional persistent barriers even in the absence of financial constraints (Arbelaez, Cooper, & Saha, 2003, p. 1713). According to National Cancer

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 19 Institute data, death rates for African- elucidate patterns in healthcare delivery women at the lowest overall rates. The American women are higher than for that may be negatively influencing critical race theorist Paul Kivel argues White women at all age ranges (National outcomes. Perceptions matter. that we should assume that racism is Cancer Institute, 2000). Disparities in Perceptions of bias, aside from adding at least a part of the picture in self- outcomes, with deadly consequences to the cognitive load women need to reports of racial bias, and “in light of for African-American women, can be manage, may compound the unequal this assumption, we should look for the seen in the five-year survival rates of brunt of disease borne by women who patterns involved rather than treating the disease. Data from the Surveillance, are already fighting for their lives. most events as isolated occurrences” Epidemiological, and End Results This study addressed issues that (Kivel as cited in Rothenberg, 2002, (SEER) cancer registries, between the are difficult for some to talk about: p.128). Ikemoto maintains that health years 1992-1998, document five-year breast cancer and racial bias. Breast care providers trumpeting of the values survival rates for White women at 87.6 cancer was not mentioned publicly of “objectivity and universalism do not per 100,000 and African-American until the 1980s, and racism is a topic shield them from the racism, nativism, women’s five-year survival rate at 72.5 that is often unaddressed, despite and ethnocentrism inherent in dominate per 100,000 for the same span of time. its harmful mental and physical culture” (Ikemoto, p. 97). During the years 1979 to 1996, the rates consequences. Racism is not a subject of breast cancer actually declined for that is discussed dispassionately, nor Scope White women, but African-American should it be. This study hopes to help The lifetime, national risk for breast women and other women of color did break the silence and push for an cancer in women is one in seven not experience any decline in the rate ongoing, thoughtful dialogue about (American Cancer Society, 2004, p.19). of the disease during the same period of how intentional or unintentional racism The lifetime risk of breast cancer in time (Layde & Marabella, 2001, p. 120). may be contributing to the disparities in Michigan is similar to national rates. Despite these significant disparities outcomes for African-American breast Each year over 7,000 women are in health outcomes for African- cancer survivors. Perhaps, because there diagnosed with breast cancer and 1,400 American breast cancer survivors, many is no intent, White providers may be women die of the disease (Olszewski & White Americans are unaware of the unable to “see” racism and the biased Wisdom, 2004, p. 20). Breast cancer is inequalities in access to health care. assumptions and actions that may flow second to heart disease as the leading Researchers conducting a recent poll from this mindset. People of color, causes of death and, on average, commissioned by Harvard Forums on however, are aware of the bias because results in a loss of 18.4 years of life to Health found that African Americans they experience its effects. This racism women (Olszewski & Wisdom, p. 20). and Hispanics living in the United invisible–intentional or not–may have African-American women have a lower States are much more likely to recognize deadly implications for delivery of incident rate of breast cancer compared that minorities do not always have an quality care. This study does not seek to to White women; however, African- equal level of health care (Late, 2003, castigate healthcare providers; this study American women have a significantly p. 1). The same poll found that many asks these questions to raise awareness higher mortality rate from the disease White Americans are unaware that such and start a dialogue about how this (Olszewski & Wisdom, p. 20). African- disparities exist. In fact, the researchers racism may be telegraphed, intended or American women have a 36.9 per found that 57 percent of African not, to African-American women who 100,000 rate of mortality nationally and Americans and 49 percent of Hispanics are being treated for breast cancer. 35.9 per 100,000 rate of mortality in felt health care providers treated According to Dr. Lisa Ikemoto (2003), Michigan, as compared to White women minorities differently (Late, p.1) “provider bias can directly translate into who have a 27.2 per 100,000 national less effective health care for patients of death rate and a 27.3 per 100,000 death Context for Proposed Study color” (p. 96). A study conducted by rate in Michigan (CDC, 2003, p. 2). This study hopes to contribute to the Kevin Schulman in 1999 (Schulman Breast cancer is not preventable; ongoing dialogue between researchers as cited in Ikemoto, p. 96) surveyed but, if it is detected and treated early, looking at ameliorating disparate health seven hundred and twenty primary outcomes improve significantly, which outcomes for African-American breast care physicians who took part in video leads to reduced mortality and increased cancer survivors. Allowing women interviews with actors portraying male survival time (Olszewski & Wisdom, to speak in their own words of their and female, black and white patients. 2004, p. 20). One of the most deadly experiences during treatment may Physicians referred African-American outcomes for African-American women

20 Not Separate but Still Unequal: Disparities, Invisibility and Bias in Access and Quality of Health Care in Michigan with breast cancer is the fact that professional values, healthcare providers, The questionnaire included a series of African-American women are diagnosed like other members of society, may not open and closed questions to explore at distant or later stages of the disease recognize manifestations of prejudice in the women’s perceptions of bias while 42.3 percent of the time, compared to their own behavior” (Smedley, Stith & undergoing care. Questions were asked White women at 29 percent (Olszewski Nelson, 2002, p. 162). Therefore, with to determine if perceptions of bias & Wisdom p. 20). A late diagnosis of the idea that subtle perceptions of bias limited care seeking, compliance, or breast cancer not only subjects women could be contributing to poor health other health-related behaviors. To control to longer and more toxic treatment outcomes for African-American women for lack of insurance coverage, only regimens, late diagnoses rob women with breast cancer, this proposed study women with some insurance coverage of years of life. The overall survival seeks to ask the following: were included in the sample. The age rate for African-American women is ranges were confined to women who 73.5 percent compared to 88 percent • Does the perception of provider are between 35 to 65 years old, and for Whites (Olszewski & Wisdom, bias change the care seeking socioeconomic status information was p. 21). Another disparity in health behavior of African-American gathered using questions addressing care, which may contribute to poorer women or influence the yearly income, occupation, and number outcomes for African-American breast importance the women place of years of educational attainment. The cancer survivors, is the fact that African- on preventative mammogram women must have received medical American women are under-represented screening in the first place? treatment for breast cancer in Michigan in clinical trials of cancer drugs and within the last ten years. Confidentiality treatment regimens. Another alarming • Does racial bias work to limit was assured to each woman through a trend, according to a recent study, found physician recommendations for randomly assigned number. Questions that “the proportion of trial participants follow-up screening or further were asked to identify and control for who are black has declined in recent investigation such as biopsy of racial concordance between patients years” (Murthy, Krumholz, Cary, & African-American women? and providers. The sample was gathered Gross, 2004, p. 2726). using a snowball method, which is a Other than age, more than 80 percent • Do perceptions of bias create way of gathering names of potential of breast cancers have no known barriers for African-American interviewees from the women who have risk factors (Olszewski & Wisdom, women in access or compliance already been contacted. Initially, the 2004, p. 20). Less than 10 percent of with appropriate adjuvant women will likely have been treated breast cancer is due to inherited genes therapy? while living in similar geographical (Burstein, Miller, & Mocharnuk, 2002, regions, but as the snowball expands, it p. 3). The remaining 90 to 95 percent Methods will lead to women from various locales, of breast cancers happen randomly My research project began by which will control for regional differences (Burstein, Miller, & Mocharnuk, p. 3). identifying African-American breast in health care service providers. cancer survivors who were diagnosed While this is a qualitative study, Hypotheses and treated for cancer while living in insightful gleanings could serve as a While the factors contributing to Michigan. Several phone calls were guide to better conceptualized and disparities for African-American women’s made to network with women to tightly measured future studies. The experiences with this disease are likely identify survivors willing to either take purpose is to probe survivors for to be multifaceted, this study seeks part in an interview or complete a how perceptions of bias within the to examine only a small piece of the questionnaire for this study. Two breast patient provider relationship may puzzle. This study seeks to uncover how cancer survivor support groups were compound their diagnosis of cancer perceptions of bias operating within the contacted to solicit volunteers. in ways that White survivors do not patient provider relationship may be Seventy questionnaires were mailed experience. Patterns within the reports contributing to the late diagnosis and or emailed to breast cancer survivors, of the women’s experiences will be poor prognosis for African-American and four completed questionnaires identified to understand if subtle, women with breast cancer. While most were returned to me. Four women verbal and nonverbal cues, are working healthcare providers believe prejudice took part in face-to-face interviews. to alter behavior, which may directly and discrimination to be “morally The same questionnaire was used for or indirectly be contributing to poor abhorrent and at odds with their both the survey and the interviews. outcomes. The questionnaire probes for

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 21 knowledge of common age appropriate chronic conditions result in expensive, when there is lack of racial concordance preventative screening services and avoidable complications, and may between patients and providers despite unintended barriers of access to lead to increases in hospitalizations. provider gender (Cooper-Patrick, et al. appropriate evidenced-based health care This downward loop of worsening 1999, p. 588). Research does suggest, for these women. Questions probe for health leads to increased costs for the “provider’s diagnostic and treatment inappropriate comments, “gut feelings,” individual and for the public health decisions, as well as feelings about and personal experiences that the programs many people depend on for patients, are influenced by patients’ women perceive were in response to, or health care (National Health Disparities race and ethnicity” (Smedley, Stith, & resulting from, their race. Report, 2003. p. 6). Nelson p. 11). The idea of overt discrimination may Support for the hypotheses of this Definitions seem alien to most people born after the proposal can be found in a study For the purpose of this proposal, civil rights struggles of the 1960s in the done in 2002, which suggests three disparities will be defined as “differences United States. Books and films shape possible mechanisms working to create in time spent trying to get healthcare, knowledge of life in pre-civil rights disparate health outcomes as measured information about healthcare not America for many citizens. For others in minority patients. These mechanisms being available in the same ways to who lived it, the first-hand accounts are located within the provider side of different groups, quality or availability are woven into familial history, shaped the exchange and include: “bias against of insurance, transportation, and with each retelling of the day-to-day minorities, greater clinical uncertainty other factors that act as deterrents” struggles for the basic human rights when working with minority patients, (Casanas, Coello, Parsons, & Rocco, each American holds dear. Feagin and and beliefs or stereotypes held by the 2003, p. 39). Prejudice is defined in the Sikes (1994, p. 204) report that one provider about the behavior or health of realm of psychology as “an unjustified historic study of overt discrimination minorities” (Smedley, Stith, & Nelson, negative attitude based on a person’s is the Tuskegee Study, which began in 2002, p. 9). Studies show that minority group membership” (Smedley, Stith, 1932. According to Fegin and Sikes, the patients are aware of the bias held by & Nelson, 2002, p. 162). When American government promised 400 providers towards them, and recent prejudice is reasoned to be a valid African-American men free treatment for studies report that minority patients individual worldview it is likely to “Bad Blood” a euphemism for syphilis. feel they have lower quality interactions become normative for that individual However, they report that medical with their doctors (Arbelaez, Cooper, & (Smedley, Stith, & Nelson, p. 162). For treatment was withheld, and the study Saha, 2003, p. 1713). The hypotheses of the purposes of this study, healthcare allowed the men to go untreated for this proposal ask if patients’ awareness providers could be physicians, physician syphilis four decades. No new drugs of provider bias holds implications for assistants, nurses, or other allied were tested and no effort was made to their health outcomes. A study that healthcare workers. establish the benefits of any of the older lends credence to the hypotheses of this forms of treatment. proposal presents evidence that even History of Health Care Inequality A more recent study, conducted “small numeric differences on perceptual Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. once said, “of in 2000, found that doctors rated measures can have important effects all the forms of inequalities, injustice African-American patients as less on health and health care” (Doescher, in health is the most shocking and the intelligent, less educated, and less likely Fiscella, Franks, & Saver, 2000, most inhumane” (cited in Farmer, 2003, to comply with medical advice than p. 1161). This study found that a p. 173). Despite the gains made for White patients, even after income and “1-point change in the medical people of color since the start of the civil education levels were controlled for skepticism score (range 1-5) was rights movement, disparities in health (Smedley, Stith, & Nelson, 2002, associated with an 11 percent increase outcomes continue to this day. This p. 11). Another study found that in total mortality” (Doescher, Fiscella, issue is important from moral, personal, African-American respondents were less Franks, & Saver, p. 1161). and economic perspectives. Disparities likely to trust their doctors and more Bias may be communicated in ways in health outcomes exact costs in dollars likely to trust their insurance plans from providers to patients without for all of us; however, people of color (Boulware, Cooper, LaViest, & Ratner, the providers’ awareness that such disproportionately pay with their lives. 2003, p. 1). Additionally, studies show attitudes are being projected. Bias may Disparities cause avoidable disabilities that African-American patients rank be overt and conscious, or may be and escalations of poorly managed their doctor visits less participatory unconscious, and due to origins which

22 Not Separate but Still Unequal: Disparities, Invisibility and Bias in Access and Quality of Health Care in Michigan “arise from virtually universal social With the knowledge of race and Critical Race Theory, Social categorization processes, bias may exist, ethnicity as an influence of provider Constructs and Access to Quality often unconsciously, among people who behavior, this study suggests that further Health Care strongly endorse egalitarian principles” investigation of how intentional or The impetus for this study is grounded (Smedley, Stith, & Nelson, 2002, p. 10). unintentional bias of providers works in critical race theory. The disparities These same researchers have found that to create poorer health outcomes for minorities face in access to quality “socially conditioned implicit prejudice African-American women. Studies health care, as compared to people in may be manifested in healthcare show that African-American women are the majority population, grow out of providers’ nonverbal behaviors reflecting less likely to receive recommendations historic and contemporary inequities anxiety (e.g., increased rate of blinking), for mammography at age appropriate (Smedley, Stith, & Nelson, 2004, p. 1). aversion (e.g., reduced eye contact) or intervals (Fu & van Ryn, 2003, p. 252). The complex tangle of health systems, avoidance (e.g., more closed postures) Women who are less likely to receive administrative and bureaucratic when interacting with minority rather recommendations for mammograms are processes and policies, as well as than white patients” (Smedley, Stith more likely to be diagnosed at a later, individual healthcare providers and & Nelson, p. 162). This awareness of less treatable stage of disease. Literature patients they treat, coupled with the provider bias may perpetuate disparate shows “that to a large extent, racial/ patient provider interactions, weave health outcomes by working to alienate ethnic bias differentials seen in staging together to create a complex matrix that patients from the treatment decision- are the result of lower screening rates” contribute to inequalities in treatment for making process. (Cutter & Jacobellis, 2002, p. 1148). minorities in the United States (Smedley, Racism is present in every day life According to the Physicians Insurers Stith, & Nelson, p. 1). This complex and is obvious in popular culture Association of America (as cited matrix also includes racial and ethnic (Hall, Harrell, & Taliaferro, 2003, in Steyksal, 1996, p. 1), “the most stereotyping, bias, socioeconomic status, p. 243). Racism is not only present in expensive and common medico legal language, and cultural barriers, which individual acts of bias and interpersonal claim against physicians is delay in the work to limit access and quality of health discrimination, it is also present in the diagnosis of breast cancer.” care (Smedley, Stith, & Nelson, p. 1) relationship between health and health There are many confounding Critical race theory has grown out outcomes (Hall, Harrell, & Taliaferro, factors within the study of disparities, of examinations of the legal system of p. 243). These acts of discrimination including racial and gender patient/ the 1970s in America. Legal scholars and interpersonal bias act as “salt in the provider concordance, type of hospital Derrick Bell and Richard Delgado began wounds previously inflicted by a host of or clinic or geographic variations, to challenge the slow pace of racial negative life events whose relationship to co-morbidities, and compliance with reform since the Civil Rights Movement racism in often cloaked” (Hall, Harrell, medical recommendations (Smedley, of the 1960s (Jeris & McDowell, 2004, & Taliaferro, p. 243). Stith, & Nelson, 2002, p. 42). Yet p. 82). The advances of the Civil Rights Social cognition theorists study how studies show that despite adjusting Movement have been legally challenged people make sense of other people for all of these confounding factors, to this day in an attempt to disregard and the “processes that underlie social disparities in outcomes for African- race for a “color-blind meritocracy” perception, social interaction, and Americans continue to predominate (Jeris & McDowell, p. 82). Critical race social influence” (Fu & van Ryn, 2003, in cardiovascular care (Smedley, Stith, theory offers a broad social perspective p. 248). Psychologists have focused on & Nelson, p. 42). Though most for assessing the speed and direction of social cognition for several decades, studies have examined racism and its this country’s polices in relationship to which has resulted in a “massive body contributions to disparities in cardiac race and has been used in education, of evidence with significant implications care, fewer studies have examined the law, and the social sciences as a lens for understanding how race/ethnicity role of bias in relation to breast cancer. with which to analyze historical power influences provider behavior” (Fu & It is a logical question to ask if the relationships between groups of people van Ryn, p. 248). Studies show that same sort of mechanisms documented in this country (Jeris & McDowell, p. 82). patient perceptions are important and in disparate outcomes in heart disease Critical race theory recognizes the do recognize that communication, both could be contributing to disparate breast ongoing implications for people that verbal and nonverbal, influence cancer outcomes. have grown out of the legal history of patient’s behavior (Cooper-Patrick, et al., this country’s racist past. 1999, p. 588).

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 23 Dr. Harold Freeman, 1997 Chair of more likely to talk about their health altered to probe more deeply into the the President’s Cancer Panel, quoting issues with a provider of the same race; subtle interactions between patients and Albert Einstein, said, “What you see this was true both in the questionnaire providers. Gender bias is likely to be a depends on where you stand” (Einstein and within the interviews. The women confounding issue and difficult to tease as cited in Freeman, 1997, p. 2). all responded that they did not know out within this study of perceptions Einstein made his remarks to describe how their care might improve if their of bias and health outcomes. All of the point of view from which scientists healthcare providers were of the same the women who took part in this approach scientific investigation of race, race. The questionnaire respondents study were from similar education and which he knew all too well, are often (QR) and the interviewees reported socioeconomic backgrounds. Each shaped by social and political thought. that the healthcare personnel they woman was Stage I at diagnosis. It is Because there is no language to encountered always treated them with important to note there is little regional describe the experience of racism or dignity and respect. They all responded variability among the women in the of growing up a minority in America, that racism has not influenced the care current sample. The small sample size critical race theorists “attempt to inject they received. offers a narrow snapshot of the range of the cultural viewpoints of people of All of the women reported that they interactions expected to be analyzed for color, derived from a common history of were able to take all of the medications this study. oppression” (Casanas, Coello, Parsons, and follow all of the guidelines and In response to concerns about the & Rocco, 2003, p. 39). recommendations for their illness. They bias that can occur when measures of The assumption that underlies all reported they were given ample time health status are based on self-reports, critical race theory is the idea that for questions, and they all felt they Williams, Neighbors, and Jackson many interactions of privilege that were well informed by their healthcare (2003) conducted a longitudinal study Whites take for granted happen without providers. Every woman reported having of African Americans which revealed any conscious thought. In everyday a primary caregiver and reported having that “no association between baseline interactions, the privileges and power of trust in this person. The follow-up measures of major depression or invisibility happen with no awareness cycles varied for each woman, and they psychological distress and subsequent of how these interactions might be reported being seen by surgeons and reports of racial discrimination” (p. 204). different for those who do not share the oncologists. The QRs and interviewees Researcher bias is another limitation, same physical features. These privileges, were all in their early fifties when especially for the face-to-face interviews. apart from their intentions or conscious diagnosed, and none of the women A more robust study design is planned choices, influence lives in large and small reported any recurrences of disease. for winter 2005, which will include ways. Whites do not often face racial It is interesting to note that the ethnographies of African-American profiling which affects, for example, the women who took part were at Stage I and White survivor group meetings, ability to move freely through a store when diagnosed with cancer. The to better capture the essence of patient without security people following, or women were of similar socioeconomic provider relationship. driving a car without worrying if skin backgrounds, worked in white-collar color will single the driver out for undue occupations, and all reported having Conclusion harassment by law enforcement. some college education. The data collected from the women who took part in this study does not uncover Discussion Limitations perceptions of bias within the patient The women who took part in The study design may have contributed provider relationship. This is more likely interviews (n=4) and responded to to the non-findings. Perhaps women to be due to the study design than a the questionnaire (n=4) reported who have had negative experiences with conclusive finding. Researchers who experiencing no perceptions of racial healthcare providers are less likely to conducted a study on discrimination bias during their treatment for cancer. take part in the first place. Perhaps it is in health outcomes recently concluded Every woman reported being treated by too frightening for women to consider that, “one of the critically important healthcare providers of a race different perceptions of bias while being treated issues for future research is to improve from her own, and each woman for a potentially life threatening disease. the assessment of discrimination in responded that her relationships with The questionnaire and interview health studies” (Williams, Neighbors, healthcare providers were excellent. question design was not pre-tested, & Jackson, 2003, p. 202). These None of the women said they would be and the questions chosen could be researchers also acknowledge the serious

24 Not Separate but Still Unequal: Disparities, Invisibility and Bias in Access and Quality of Health Care in Michigan methodological issues and inadequate assessment of discrimination in health status in many studies, but states that “nonetheless, the consistency of the finding that discrimination is associated with higher rates of disease is quite robust” (Williams, Neighbors, & Jackson, p. 202). As Dr. Sandra Harding (cited in National Cancer Institute, 1997, p. 14) said, “individual scientists can best avoid racist bias in their work by identifying their own values and studying the history, philosophy, and sociology of science; and since human values change slowly, the lessons of the past remain of great relevance.” Future research must strive to measure the way perceptions of discrimination adversely effect health behaviors and create negative emotional states, which may contribute to physiological responses and their subsequent impact on health (Williams, Neighbors, & Jackson, 2003, p. 205).

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 25 References

American Cancer Society. (2004). Cancer statistics 2004. Atlanta, GA: Author.

Arbleaez, J., Cooper, L., & Saha, S. (Oct. 2003). Patient-physician relationships and racial disparities in the quality of health care. American Journal of Public Health, 93(10).

Boulware, L., Cooper, L., LaVeist, T., Powe, N., & Ratner, L. (July-August, 2003). Race and trust in health care systems. Public Health Report, 4.

Burstein, H., Miller, K., & Mocharnuk, R. (Dec. 2002). 25th annual San Antonio breast cancer symposium. Retrieved June, 2004, from http://www.medscape. com/viewprogram/2193_pnt

Centers for Disease Control. (2003) Cancer burden fact sheet. Atlanta, GA: Author.

Coello, H. M., Casanas, J. A., Rocco, T., S., & Parsons, M., D. Using critical race theory: An analysis of cultural differences in healthcare education. 2003 Midwest Research to Practice Conference in Adult, Continuing, and Community Education.

Cooper-Patrick, L., Ford, D., Gallo, J., Gonzales, J., Hong, T., Nelson, C., & Powe, N. (Aug. 1999). Race, gender, and partnership in the patient-physician relationship: Journal of American Medical Association, 282(6).

Cutter, G., & Jacobellis, J. (July 2003). Mammography screening and differences in stage of disease by race/ethnicity. American Journal of Public Health, 92(7).

Doescher, M., Fiscella, K., Franks, P., & Saver, B. (Nov./Dec. 2000). Racial and ethnic disparities in perceptions of physician style and trust. Archives of Family Medicine, 9.

Farmer, P. (2003). Pathologies of power: Health, human rights, and the new war on the poor. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: U California.

Feagin, J. R., & Sikes, M. P. (1994) Living with racism: The black middle-class experience. Boston, MA: Beacon.

Freeman, H. (April 1997). The meaning of race in science–Considerations for cancer research. Statements from the President’s Cancer Panel. Atlanta, GA: National Cancer Institute.

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National Cancer Institute, (April 1997). The meaning of race in science: Considerations for research. President’s Cancer Panel Meeting, New York, NY. Retrieved May, 2004, from http//www.deainfo.nci.nih.gov/advisory/pcp/archive/pcp0497/minutes.htm

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Smedley, B., Stith, A., & Nelson., A. (2003). Unequal treatment confronting racial and ethnic disparities in health care. Washington, DC: National Academy of Science, Institute of Medicine.

26 Not Separate but Still Unequal: Disparities, Invisibility and Bias in Access and Quality of Health Care in Michigan Steyskal, R. (1996). Minimizing the risk of delayed diagnosis of breast cancer. Medscape Women’s Health eJournal, 1(4). Retrieved June, 2004, from http:// www.medscape.com/viewarticle/408807

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. (June, 2003). National healthcare disparities report. Rockville, MD: U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services.

Williams, D, Neighbors, H., & Jackson, J. (Feb. 2003). Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: Findings from community studies. American Journal of Public Health, 93(2).

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 27 28 Identification of Histidine Decarboxylase Expression using a Histamine Antibody Staining Technique

ABSTRACT Introduction Cells containing histamine were identified A neurotransmitter is a chemical used in a third instar brain of a normal for neuronal cell communication. Drosophila melanogaster larva using Histamine has been identified as a whole-mount staining technique that a neurotransmitter in Drosophila detects histamine. The histamine antibody melanogaster, where it functions in a staining was performed on intact tissue variety of sensory systems, including the to easily identify cells that likely use visual system. For example, histamine histamine as a neurotransmitter in the has been implicated in mechanosensory brain. Results indicate that mutants in the neurons that are required for behavioral Hdc gene do not have detectable levels of functions such as grooming (Melzig et histamine in the central brain of larvae. The al., 1996). Histamine has been localized methodology used and these results should to a variety of other locations, most allow an examination of mutants that may notably in the central nervous system be defective in spatial regulation of the of adults (Buchner et al., 1993) and transmitter, histamine. larvae (Python and Stocker, 2002). The functional role that histamine may play in the central nervous system is not yet known in the adult or any other Derrick Kroodsma developmental stage. McNair Scholar Histamine is synthesized by a decarboxylation reaction from histidine by the enzyme, histidine decarboxylase (HDC). Mutations in the gene encoding this enzyme, Hdc, were identified by screening for defects in the on/off transients of the electroretinogram (ERG), an extra cellular light which evoked retinal response that is recorded in the compound eye (Pak, 1995). From this ERG screening approach, the mutant Hdc alleles HdcP211, HdcP217, HdcP218 and HdcJK910 were obtained (Burg et al., 1993). Both HDC enzyme activity measurements and histamine content assays indicated that most Hdc mutant alleles caused a lowering of histamine levels, while one mutant allele in particular, HdcJK910, had no histamine detected (Burg et al., 1993). The HdcJK910 allele was therefore thought to be a null allele, as no Hdc gene activity or histamine was normally detected in the mutant’s tissues (Buchner et al., 1993; Burg et al., 1993). In comparison, the Martin Burg, Ph.D. HdcP211, HdcP217, and HdcP218 mutant Faculty Mentor alleles contained varying levels of histamine in the photoreceptors, while no histamine was detected in the central brain. From the mutations identified,

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 29 the Hdc genetic region was identified that these cells synthesize the swine serum with 0.3 % Triton X-100 physically, molecularly cloned, and transmitter, histamine. in an isotonic phosphate buffer for one DNA sequenced (Burg et al. 1993). By Hdc mRNA localization at the hour. Next, the brains were incubated inserting a normal Hdc gene, that was cellular level is now possible, using with a histamine antibody (Panula et isolated from normal flies, into mutants non-radioactive methods to label and al, 1989), diluted 1:1000 in an isotonic lacking Hdc function, it was shown detect the cells containing Hdc mRNA phosphate buffer with 0.3% Triton X- that the wild-type Hdc gene completely in situ (Tautz and Pfeifle, 1989). This in 100 (TBST) and 1% swine serum at restored HDC function in the HdcJK910 situ hybridization technique could use 4oC overnight. After at least 16 hours mutant. From this “rescued mutant”, it an Hdc-specific RNA probe to identify incubation at 4oC, the brains were set was determined that normal Hdc gene the cells that express Hdc by binding out at room temperature for one hour, expression was localized to a defined to the mRNA transcript which would after which they were washed twice for genomic DNA region of about ~7.4 then be detected by antibodies. While 0.5 hour each with TBST+1% swine kb (Burg and Pak, 1995). The rescue the original purpose of this project was serum. Next, a one-hour incubation of the HdcJK910 mutant along with to develop the tissue in situ technique with swine anti-rabbit-immunoglobulin, other functional studies has provided to detect Hdc mRNA in larvae, it was diluted 1:40 in TBST+1% swine serum, definitive evidence that histamine is a decided, during the course of the work, was done. Afterwards, two additional neurotransmitter used by photoreceptor to concentrate on further histamine 0.5-hour washes were done with cells (Sarthy, 1991; Burg et al., 1993). staining to guide which developmental TBST+1% normal swine serum. The Photoreceptor and mechanoreceptor stage(s) the in situ hybridization should next step was a one-hour incubation cells can take up histamine from be done. In this report, we present data with a rabbit peroxidase-anti-peroxidase exogenous sources (Melzig et al., 1998). indicating that the histamine antibody complex, which binds to the swine It has also been suggested that some can be used to detect cells in intact anti-rabbit immunoglobulin, diluted histamine-containing cells may not Drosophila larval brain tissue and that 1:200 in TBS+0.3% Triton X-100. The be able to synthesize histamine, but we can identify alterations in histamine brains were then washed in TBS+0.3% rather, may take it up exogenously. This staining in brain tissue from various Hdc Triton X-100 before reacting with 3,4- result would suggest that these cells mutant alleles. diaminobenzidine (DAB). The DAB may utilize histamine differently than solution contained 30 mg DAB, 0.3% photoreceptors, where histamine’s use Methods H2O2 in 10 ml TBS+0.3% Triton X-100. as a neurotransmitter has been widely Cultures of normal and Hdc mutant The reaction between the enzyme accepted (Stuart, 1999). For a cell to Drosophila were grown in bottles at that is bound to the antibody, synthesize histamine, it must express 25ºC. The heat accelerates their growth horseradish peroxidase and DAB, an mRNA from the Hdc gene which rate, with the larvae developing into creates a black precipitate. Therefore, will then be translated into histidine adults in about 10 days total. Flies go the black dots (fig. 1) represent cells decarboxylase. Cells that contain Hdc through four major developmental that contain histamine. mRNA will likely be able to synthesize stages: embryo, larva, pupa, and histamine. Identifying cells that contain adult stages (Demerec, 1994). Bottles Results Hdc mRNA and comparing their containing food from a prepared mixture Histamine staining with normal larva location in tissue to those cells already were used to transfer adult flies every brain was done, results from which are identified to contain histamine will three days. Larvae were removed from shown in fig. 1. There appears to be identify the cells that can synthesize the bottles when they were climbing on a symmetric distribution through the histamine. This has been done with the bottle sides and dissected with fine ventral ganglion of histamine-containing limited success in the adult, where forceps under a microscope. cells. In other staining experiments, the regions containing histaminergic cells Larvae brains were dissected in a 2% axons from these cells and connections had been identified to be regions that 2, 4-carbodiimide fixative in phosphate in the central nervous system are may contain the Hdc mRNA (Burg et buffer (pH ~7.2; on ice) and kept in a also visible (not shown). This picture al., 1993). However, the methodology well plate that also contained the fixative illustrates staining typically found in used could not resolve single cells, and (on ice). After three hours in the fixative, various larval developmental stages, it is important to identify the cells that the brains were washed twice in Ringer’s indicating 10 sets of cells along the contain both histamine and the mRNA solution for durations of 0.5 hours each. ventral ganglion. There are also three for the transcript to be able to state The brains were then washed in 5% sets of histamine-containing cells in

30 Localization of Histamine Expression both brain hemispheres, indicated by Figure 1. Histamine localization in the CNS of a normal 3rd instar larvae the arrows. One set of cells seems to be located at the junction between the ventral ganglion and the brain hemispheres. This is the maximum number of histamine-containing cells found in the staining experiments carried out. These result compare favorably with those of others who have done histamine immunocytochemistry on the same developmental stages (Python and Stocker, 2002). Table 1 contains a summary of results obtained from histamine staining done on various Hdc mutant brains. In the brains of all mutant alleles examined (HdcP217, HdcP218, HdcJK910), histamine staining was not detected in the central brains using the technique described and used in this report (see table 1). The histamine-containing cells appear to be neither efferent nor afferent neurons, since they reside in the brain and their axonal branches are restricted to the brain. They do appear to synapse to rows of cells, and the staining that we were able to obtain appears identical to that of others who previously had reported histamine staining in normal brains (Python and Stocker, 2002). Table 1. Summary of mutant staining in 3rd Instar larval brain The histaminergic cells identified in these studies may be related to the normal hdcP217 hdcP218 hdcJK910 central brain cells identified in earlier studies, as later developmental stages Histamine staining detected Yes None No No do retain a number of these cells through metamorphosis (T. Tomasiak, # of cells 10 pair in N.A. N.A. N.A. pers. commun.). ventral ganglia; 3 sets in each brain hemisphere

Histamine containing cells in a 3rd instar larval brain. Arrows point to cells containing histamine (darker spots in the tissue). Note that there are 10 pairs of cells in the ventral ganglia (vg) and several other cells in the brain hemispheres (BH). In all Hdc mutant alleles tested, no staining such as this was detected, indicating that these mutants have no ability to synthesize histamine this early in development (data not shown). Refer to Rulifson et al. (2002) for more complete descriptions of anatomical structures.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 31 Discussion The lateral histaminergic cells in the mutants, showing again no central brain Histamine immunocytochemistry has brain hemispheres of the larva could histamine staining. These results suggest shown that in the central nervous be neurosecretory-type cells, similar that the mutants that do allow histamine system of the larva, a number of to types that have been implicated to be present in small amounts in adult neurons are consistently found to in regulating such processes as photoreceptors do not allow histamine contain histamine. In the ventral metamorphosis. Further analysis of expression in the larval CNS. ganglia, 11 segments exist: 3 thoracic these cell types will assist in identifying Knowing where histamine is present and 8 abdominal. It is interesting to their putative function more readily, by in the nervous system provides a first note that it appears as if abdominal staining for other transmitters used by glance into where to look for cells segment 7 does not appear to have the neurosecretory cells of the fly. containing the Hdc transcript. The histaminergic neurons, while all other The immunocytochemistry done RNA in situ hybridization technique abdominal segments have a single pair in these experiments was completed (Tautz and Pfeifle, 1989) may illustrate of neurons. While there appear to be before differentiation of photoreceptors similar results to this report, but it is not 7 of 8 abdominal ganglia containing a occurs; hence, there is no staining of clear whether all the cells will express histaminergic cell pair, it is likely that photoreceptor cells or their axonal Hdc mRNA until this experiment is all of the thoracic ganglia each contain terminals. Examining the timing of complete. Improving our understanding a pair of histaminergic cells. These Hdc expression can be done more of the genetic control of Hdc will allow histaminergic neurons in the ventral precisely with an mRNA in situ us to identify the various ways that Hdc ganglia may have a regulatory function, approach rather than using a histamine expression is controlled in this manner. as they are located in a central portion antibody approach. However, the ease Further experiments combining the of the ventral ganglia and form apparent and speed of the histamine antibody immunocytochemical and RNA in situ connections with regions of the central staining technique has allowed it to approaches are now set to begin to connectives in the ventral ganglion. In develop into a useful analytical tool elucidate how the Hdc is regulated, in addition, they do not send processes out to assay for histaminergic cells in the both normal and mutant flies. of the central nervous system, unlike intact nervous system. The whole sensory or motorneurons that would mount staining technique, using a very Acknowledgements have such cellular extensions. sensitive detection method, is well We would like to thank the GVSU In addition to the 10 pairs of suited for permanent mounts. Other McNair Scholars Program for financial histaminergic cells in the ventral ganglia, staining procedures used to date utilize assistance in support of this work. there are several regions in the brain fluorescent probes, which is a temporary We would also like to thank Tom hemispheres, both medial and lateral preparation that requires rapid analysis Tomasiak for developing the methods in location, where histaminergic cells after staining is complete. We hope utilized in this project and sharing have been detected. The medial regions to use the whole mount preparation unpublished results. may contain histaminergic cells that results to compare with future staining likely differentiate into some of the experiment results as well as in situ adult histaminergic central brain cells. hybridization experiments in the same It is known that many neurons survive types of tissues. through metamorphosis and change In this study, we were able to their shape and function from larva to determine whether other Hdc mutations adulthood (Hartenstein, 1993). Since the affected larval staining observed in number of histaminergic cells is fairly normal flies. We had already shown similar between larval and adult stages through earlier work that the HdcJK910 and relative positions in the nervous mutant has no detectable histamine at systems remain intact, it is possible any developmental stage (Tomasiak, that these cells identified in the larval pers. commun.). It is likely that this brain are the precursors to the adult mutation disrupts the production of histaminergic cells. Further detailed study mRNA, as the Hdc mRNA was not of later developmental stages, examining detected in earlier studies (Burg et al, the cells in this region of the brain 1993). The current work extended these carefully, may confirm these identities. observations to the HdcP217 and HdcP218

32 Localization of Histamine Expression References

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Burg MG, Sarthy PV, Koliantz G, Pak WL (1993) Genetic and molecular identification of a Drosophila histidine decarboxylase gene required in photoreceptor transmitter synthesis. EMBO J 12(3): 911-919

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GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 33 34 Gender and Empowerment: Contemporary Lakota Women of Rosebud

ABSTRACT Introduction Western-European stereotypes still The focus of this research is on permeate Plains Indian culture suggesting understanding women’s roles in that women were passive and subjugated contemporary Lakota society on the while men were dominant warriors. This Rosebud Reservation1 of the Sicangu research challenges those stereotypes Nation (see figure 1). In the past and through exploration of origin and continuing into recent times, Lakota spirituality accounts, kinship organization, women have been stereotyped as historical impact, contemporary and subjugated and submissive (Young traditional issues, and through first hand 2002:161). However, origin accounts ethnographic research of the Sicangu Nation and literature suggest that women’s of Lakota people in regards to gender positions in Lakota society vary from roles. Using feminist critique and reflexive women having equal roles to men, to theoretical approaches, information was being renowned, and even to leading collected through participant observation the Lakota into a new era. Evidence is and interviews with Sicangu people in contrary to stereotypes as offered by 2004. By focusing on how Lakota women the high position of women among the have empowered themselves, this research Sioux, the values placed upon virtue, illustrates how women were and continue to upon childbearing, and upon industry Christina G. Mello be respected, influential members of what is and craftsmanship (Hassrick 1964:164; McNair Scholar now a matrifocal society. Medicine 2001:164).

Figure 1. Sicangu Nation in South Dakota http://www.rosebudcasino.com/pics/ rosebudmap3.gif

The feminist critique theoretical approach employed in this study focuses on gender roles and traditional explanations of biased images created for colonized peoples through a reflexive methodology. In addition, since gender roles of women are the focus of this research, kinship is examined. Kinship terms are complex and reflect gender, generation, and birth order (Young Janet G. Brashler, Ph.D. 2002:159). Relying on a feminist Faculty Mentor theoretical framework coupled with

1 The word reservation is a western word. One informant told me the term reservation refers to a place for wild animals. I would like readers to be mindful as they read the word “reservation” that many people prefer to refer to their homeland as “Indian Country” rather than as a reservation.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 35 a reflexive approach, the methods of female empowerment. Increasingly, different complementary roles and their participant observation and in-depth life many matrifocal families emphasize roles in society were considered equally history interviewing are employed. In matrilateral kin where women have important (Young 2002:161). particular, the research asks: in regards replaced men as providers. People on to gender roles, kinship, origin and Rosebud do not fit into neat objective A woman caring for children spiritual beliefs, and contemporary and categories especially with the many and doing all the work around traditional issues, how much power outside influences. Very strong evidence the house thought herself no is vested in contemporary Lakota for women being upheld and influential worse off than her husband women at the Rosebud Reservation, permeates contemporary society. who was compelled to risk his South Dakota? The concept of power life continuously, hunting and exemplifies how empowered women Background: remaining ever on guard against are by examining the positive changes Issues of Gender and Power enemy attacks on his family. implemented in their lives, which places Stereotypes of Native American women, (Deloria 1944:39-40) women in positions of being providers in general, and Plains Indian women, and respected members of society. in particular, suggest that women The attitude on division of labor was According to the theoretical models were passive and subjugated, and by quite normal, despite how it looked employed and research observations, inference, lacked power. However, a to outsiders. kinship and ritual, origin myths, brief review of recent literature creates and spiritual beliefs should not be a different understanding about women In Sioux society, men were the ignored. Contemporary issues stem from a number of Native American protectors, the providers; the from historical impact. The variables of cultures and the Lakota in particular. women were the homemakers. historical impact, kinship, origin beliefs, Stereotypes of the past can be dissolved Unfortunately, popular literature and contemporary issues are examined by reviewing research on the variables and films have greatly distorted individually and interconnected to of kinship, origin/spiritual beliefs, the role of women by depicting illustrate how empowered women are and historical impact in regards to them as slaves and household unlike what traditional stereotypes gender roles along with true depictions drudges, unequal or inferior to suggest. To the Lakota people everything of traditional gender roles. Effects their men. This is far from the is interconnected and circular and so is of colonization such as alcoholism, truth. The Lakota woman was a this research, to an extent. For example, poverty, and violence can’t be ignored. total individual, and her physical, contemporary issues are a result of The reflexive approach emphasizes the spiritual, emotional, and mental historical impact in which the colonizers importance of taking colonialism into makeup were not derived from tried to eradicate Lakota beliefs and way account when considering contemporary the Lakota male. She had her own of life. Today, people are resolving these situations at Rosebud so the effects of name suited to her personality and contemporary issues by returning to historical impact are included in the ability and did not take her father’s their traditional beliefs. Accounting for background review section. Gender or husband’s name. (Black Hills past gender roles in regards to the above roles, spiritual/origin beliefs, and Center for Indian Studies qtd in variables will invalidate the stereotypes. historical impact are examined in Reyer 1991:5) The findings also address these variables separate categories. as they relate to contemporary times. Early Lakota society was misconstrued Gender Roles The focus was originally on women until and misunderstood when interpreted as More recent researchers realize that it became clear that both Lakota men subjugating to women. Kehoe (qtd in European ideas of society affected and women desire to pull together to Albers and Medicine 1983:56) explains researcher’s interpretations and restore their nation. The focus on Lakota that women’s insights and attention observations. Katherine M. Weist wrote women does not exclude considering to their roles along with ignoring the that early observers focused on work Lakota men’s roles and perspectives that ethnocentric, Victorian influenced and marriage of women and this is how reveal how men and women perceive images of women’s proper place in they drew conclusions of low status one another. society sheds light on a more accurate (Weist qtd in Medicine and Albers Demonstration of changes in these depiction of early Lakota society. 1983:31). She reported on observations variables, especially kinship patterns, Lakota society in the past was not of women doing all of the work around over the years supports the idea of male dominated. Women and men had camp. Men were observed to be having

36 Gender and Empowerment: Contemporary Lakota Women of Rosebud “fun” as hunters and warriors with many publicly wiihepa or throw away the too much about his people and was a wives through the practice of sororal wife. At the appropriate time, he would shirt wearer so he didn’t retaliate when polygyny. Labor division and polygyny approach the drum, hit it, and throw No Water stole his wife who returned practices were quite functional within the drumstick over his shoulder, and the to him and shot Crazy Horse out of Lakota society. Furthermore, there act was incontestable (Powers 1990:88). jealousy. The same source gives a quote was variability among gender roles so A woman would simply wicasaihpeyapi, in regards to the abuse of women. A that men and women did not always throw away the man by packing up man’s abuse portrays weakness: perform according to the stereotypes. his stuff while he was gone and leave Early observers viewed polygyny as an it outside the doorway, and he had no At your tipi a dog will make water, indicator of lower status for the Sioux choice but to take his things and leave and if it happens, take your peace woman. In no way did this imply a low (Powers 1990:89). pipe and remember these words status or a threat to her rights but, in Another variation in gender roles was and your will power. many instances, it was the woman who the role of berdaches. Berdaches were men (Black Elk 1932: 390) suggested her husband take a younger who from the time of youth dressed wife to relieve her of some of her as women, performed women’s work, In other words, there are a lot of things household duties (Medicine 2001). never married, and were believed to be that are insulting, but if I am a chief Negative interpretations of bride price sacred (DeMallie 2000:726). DeMallie and someone elopes with my wife, I and menstrual taboos were imposed does not describe women’s roles but have to stand it. Take your pipe and and developed by early observers. does provide information on the roles control yourself (Rice 1992:31). The Horses were offered in a respectful way of men. His failure to discuss women’s practice of cutting women’s noses for to ask a woman’s hand in marriage and roles has been cited as an example of female infidelity is described in a range weren’t an economic purchase like early perpetuating subjugated stereotypes from being a rare practice to a common observers believed (Medicine 2001:194). about women (Young 2002:162). practice. Debra Lynn White Plume Menstruation taboos in ceremonies Various other accounts report flexibility writes that a wife batterer was called had nothing to do with being polluting in roles with stories of men engaging ce ni ya “he thinks with his penis.” A but had to do with a menstruating in crafts, women who were warriors, wife could make the man leave her women being observed as powerful. dreamers of Anuk Ite or Double Woman, lodge if they lived among her tiyospaye The Oglala Holy Man John (Fire) Lame and male berdaches. An Anuk Ite woman or extended family. He would, from Deer commented that the Oglalas do could choose between a life of reckless then on, be known as ki un ni “they not view menstruation, which they call fun and various sexual partners or simply exist” and he could never marry isnati (dwelling alone) as “something have all the desirable virtues of being a again. Her brothers were obligated unclean or to be ashamed of.” Rather woman along with being a very skilled by social law to retaliate by speaking it was something sacred; a girl’s first artisan (Medicine 2001:128-135). In an to him, beating him, or even killing period was greeted by celebration. But, analysis of Ella Deloria’s narratives, it is him. If a wife lived with her husband’s he continues, pointed out how the Sinte Sapala Win family, then her husband’s parents were (Black Tail Deer Woman) is a reminder obligated to return her to her home. We thought that menstruation had to young men to serve their people It was viewed as a broken home and a strange power that could bring rather than indulge in erotic fantasy the woman as honorable for leaving a harm under some circumstances. (Rice 1992:30). The story of a girl who destructive relationship behind. A man This power could work in some elopes with a man who turns into a who beat a woman was considered cases against the girl, in other cases monster reminds her that a man who irrational and could never lead a war against somebody else. waits for a woman in courtship and party or own a pipe. He was thought of (Allen 1992:253) offers horses to her family proves that he as contradictory to Lakota law and lost possesses the qualities of a hunter and many privileges. A man who killed his Women were able to “control the a father. wife was thought not to be Lakota any courting process” and owned the tipi Abuse of women is another area more (Reyer 1991:71). along with everything but the man’s where power and gender are inextricably hunting implements. Both women and mixed, but there are many contradictory Origin and Spiritual Beliefs men could dissolve a marriage at free accounts. An account of a story about According to the Lakota origin account, will at any time. A man could announce Crazy Horse says that Crazy Horse cared there are very well documented female

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 37 figures who exemplify power. Maka ‘The task which has been given you Kinship is the earth spirit created by the spirit is as great as the one given to the Because kinship and family are of Inyan who created the earth but warrior and hunter.’ And therefore, intimately related to issues of power shriveled up when he created Maka the sacred pipe is also something, and social organization among many and gave her all his power (Young which binds men and women in a Native American groups, a brief review 2002:162). Different origin accounts circle of love. (141) of the kinship system is relevant. report that an old woman is the one Grobsmith (1981) provides useful who determines the fate of the spirit Gender roles are complementary at background. Lakota kinship of the world as souls pass on (Young 2002). the mythological level as discussed past included the tiyospaye or extended White Buffalo Calf Woman who is of the by Powers (1990). White Buffalo Calf family system or what was the basic Ikce Oyate (real people), who emerged Woman or Ptehincalasan Win introduced hunting band. Courting took place in to the earth out of the Black Hills, is the the Lakota to all of their religious the summer when different bands would one who will lead the Lakota people traditions but the male trickster, Inktomi, join together. There was a bilateral to a new era and restore the buffalo taught the buffalo people how to live on emphasis with a patrifocal structure. (Green 1992:99). The White Buffalo the earth’s surface once they emerged After WWII, many Lakota lived along Calf Woman is said to be the most there (Powers 1990:37). The duality in the same streams in close proximity. influential and important deity of Lakota economic and social roles that ensures Living in close proximity was the only spirituality (Young 2002). White Buffalo the group’s survival is reenacted in such way left that resembled old kinship/ Calf Woman’s story is considered the ceremonies as the Sun Dance (Medicine social structure of kinship or tiyospaye. most important to the Lakota people. 2001:141). The government formed people into She taught women quillwork, to avoid Another example of women in the clusters that broke up traditional kinship men during menstruation, and other context of spiritual beliefs related to structure even further. Contemporary roles (Young 2002:162). She taught power is demonstrated by pregnancy issues resulted from people being the Lakota the seven sacred rites or and menstruation. Eglushaka or surrounded by strangers. Today ceremonies, (Powers:1990). pregnancy translates to growing strong among the twenty communities on the Acknowledgements of the importance and the wakan of the female’s menstrual reservation there are some who have of the roles of women are in Sioux cycle could weaken the wakan or holy more traditional values and more of a mythology and are central to the components of male things such as tiyospaye structure. Remnants of tiyospaye preservation of the Sioux way of life. medicine or war bundles (Medicine are evident amongst family who are Ryer (1991) explains, “Indeed, the most 2001:141). The times when women are living in households of close proximity. important mythological figure was female, most involved in ceremonies are before The Antelope community does not the White Buffalo Calf Woman” (3). a woman looses her virginity and after resemble the old tiyospaye according Medicine (2001) agrees: a woman’s menopause ceremonies. to Grobsmith’s research (1981). The Virgins (Witansna) can handle sacred Antelope community is located one Essentially, this mythic occurrence objects and carry the Sundance pole. mile from Mission. In the Antelope [the origin story] is constantly Menopausal women are considered community, there has been a high degree invoked by most Lakota people, sacred and older women often are in of intermarriage between Lakota people male and female, indicating the charge of herbal medicines, as well as and non-Lakota people over the years, high esteem in which women are instructing the younger women about which has had a considerable effect both held in the culture. (140) menstruation, sex, and child rearing on the degree to which native language is (Powers 1990:43). One of the major spoken and on adherence to traditional Furthermore, Lame Deer (qtd in Medicine ceremonies is Is`na awicalowanpi, ‘they kinship roles (Grobsmith 1981: 39). 2001) explains her significant role: sing over first menses’ or the White Contemporary issues are related to the Buffalo Ceremony in English (Powers breakup of the tiyospaye system with The White Buffalo Woman then 1990:43). Women are honored for being historical impacts that have changed addressed the women, telling them able to bear children, which is why the communities. Historical impact has given that it was the work of their hands first menses was an important ceremony. rise to a matrifocal organization as the and the fruit of their wombs in findings of this research validate. The which kept the tribe alive. ‘You are effects of historical impact on kinship are from mother earth,’ she told them. discussed in the following section.

38 Gender and Empowerment: Contemporary Lakota Women of Rosebud Historical Impact historical impact which occurred and is maintained egalitarian values despite the Here, the effects of historical impact occurring at Rosebud. Albers examines missionaries. Common law marriages are examined regarding gender roles, colonial impact by contrasting female and high divorce rates were still kinship, contemporary issues, and status in modern times (1972) to common, but women’s prestige was changes that have occurred among changes in their status since 1870. In declining in Sun Dance ceremonies the Lakota people due to colonization. this comparison, matrifocal organization along with their supernatural powers Kinship is a good example of a variable and the break up of the tiyospaye in curing the ill. Also, women were affected by historical impact or system is explained. There has been no not included in men’s token political colonization. Traditional social controls research like Albers done specifically for positions. Women policed community do not operate today. For example, the Rosebud Reservation. gatherings and supervised food Lakota brothers were expected to follow From 1870 to 1910 (Albers 1983) distribution from collective hunts before after sisters to serve as guardians. The women were excluded from treaty reservations came into existence. behavior of following sisters does not negotiations and discriminated against Albers (1983) goes on to discuss the occur due to the break up in tiyospayes by the United State government. colonial impact that occurred between and reflects acculturation followed by Women were excluded from being 1910 and 1945. Support of agrarian suppression of tradition agriculturalists so that Sioux customary development support was withdrawn (Medicine 2001). division of labor was reversed and and the government sold and leased Meeting the expectations of tiyospaye women would no longer be the “beasts Lakota land to neighboring white is difficult in contemporary times. of burden,” an imposed stereotype. farmers. Women could receive direct To pull ones own weight, especially These changes put men into positions cash benefits from selling the land for men, strikes at the core of bloka- of power along with the federal if they were divorced, widowed, or ness (maleness) and leads to drinking government making changes to the single and living alone with dependant (Medicine 2001:212). The difficulty tiyospayes or extended kin group. The children; husbands would respect of pulling one’s own weight has to do United States Government tried to women’s claim to this money. As many, with the displacement of male’s roles. change extended families into nuclear if not more, women owned land during Displacement of men’s roles began with groups so that the Lakota were more the 1940s as men. During the 1930s the government’s systematic slaughtering like white settlers. According to Albers, women lacked training for clerical jobs of the buffalo and forced relocation the federal government distributed due to only domestic skills being taught of Lakota people to the reservations. resources (food and other commodities) in boarding schools, so most of the low Men’s traditional role of provider and to the head of the household, which paying government temporary jobs warrior was eradicated. More economic was defined as a man. Agnatic (male) were given to the men. The tiyospaye opportunities for women became and uterine (female) ties used to shift had turned in to loose networks by available because women were able depending on the season but due to the 1920s and the older generations to implement their traditional roles colonial impact, agnatic and patrilineal couldn’t support their adult children. As as discussed in this section. Tiyospaye bias dominated post reservation times. a result, people began to move into the systems were the basis of traditional Albers (1983) also writes about mission and commercial communities kinship. Mary Crow Dog (1990) how women found their way to the for employment and subsistence. describes fragments of the old tiyospaye off reservation market place by selling Reliance on grocery stores was building. left today. If there is no alcohol then some of their garden produce and crafts. Families were breaking up so that the a child is never left alone, is always Women gained power by supervising the wife and children could get ADC that surrounded and enveloped in love distribution of food and material goods was instituted during the 1930s, which (Crow Dog 1990:29). Historical impact in honoring ceremonies. Neither sex had lessoned the institution of marriage and has resulted in homes becoming mostly any say in how land was used or what increased the likelihood that the wife headed by females (Reyer 1991:5) and was done with any products that were would provide most of the support many children ending up with their produced from the land. In these early for her children. Albers concludes grandparents (Crow Dog 1990:16). households, the ideal relationship was that during these times, the political Patricia Albers’ (1983) study of for men and women to be proficient positions still only belonged to the men. historical impact at the Devil Lake in their own activities. Couples shared Recently, a shift towards women Sioux Reservation in North Dakota the products of their labor, physical being more empowered is revealed. provides a basis for understanding abuse was not sanctioned, and they Many women are sole caregivers for

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 39 their children as a result of marriages When researchers perceive the that the enterprise supporting dissolving and the tiyospayes breaking asymmetrical relations between Indigenous survival and prosperity a part. Albers discusses modern times men and women in other cultures, can move forward. Native women that she labels 1968-1972 (Albers they assume such asymmetries repeatedly fault white feminists for 1983:200). Modern times were to be analogous to their own the devaluations of men in their characterized by Albers as a period cultural experience of the unequal revisionary tactics. Part of a man’s when women were increasingly and hierarchical nature of gender responsibility is to protect and elected to tribal office positions since relations in western society. provide for his family, as well as to the 1950s. Also, households began to (Moore 1988:2) expedite political and social duties. develop where the pooling of resources If a man fails in his responsibilities, occurred. Relatives with no incomes This is where the significance of the it falls upon the society’s women were welcomed into these homes reflexive approach lies so the researcher to instruct, reeducate and remind but expected to help with household is always examining the role as a him of his obligations. Native chores. During this time, she reported researcher and not acting as a colonizer activists fault Western hegemony that female contributions exceeded or by creating a false reality. Thus, two and capitalism as systems equaled men’s contributions in 40% theoretical approaches guide this responsible for alienating so many of the households that she looked at. research referred to as the reflexive Native men from their traditional Men and women divided expenses in approach and the feminist critique. responsibilities. (Udel 2001:8) proportion to income and the largest Feminist anthropology focuses portion most often came from the on gender differences in cultures. Recently attention has been drawn to wife. By 1972, a shift occurred toward Stemming from this general paradigm, this issue by a number of scholars. households that were independent of the reflexive approach combined Deloria (qtd in Mascia-Lees and Black men and controlled by females who with the feminist critique challenges 2000) notes: made decisions about how to run the traditional explanations of social household. The emphasis again became relations. Traditional explanations of In the United States, Native uterine with daughters staying at or near social relations generated biased images American groups, for example, home after marriage due to the males of colonized people to maintain unequal protested images of themselves that not being able to support a family. In relations between the colonized and had been created in anthropology 1972, there were many unmarried and their colonizers. The perspective of and some called for closing the separated women with children living hierarchal social relations highlights the doors to anthropological research in the households of their parents. Kin lack of attention to the roles of Lakota altogether. (93) relied on each other and held a definite women in ethnographic and historic sharing relationship. Men with no steady documents, which in turn perpetuates Reflexive anthropologists seek to income had come to rely on people in the subjugated, passive stereotype. The correct this bias and focus on how the community, and females such as the feminist critique is meant only to deal unequal power relations are reproduced wife, mother, sister, or daughter usually with past bias and misinterpretations in fieldwork and ethnographic supported these men. of Lakota women caused by colonial representations. The above ideology impact. The following quote illustrates was taken under consideration for this Under conditions such as these, it the uneasiness of Native activists current research project that seeks to is not surprising that the balance of towards the feminist critique. examine issues of power and gender power should shift increasingly in among the Rosebud Lakota. Also, favor of women. (Albers 1983:217) One primary goal of Native according to Moore (1988), in regard to activists involves restructuring the feminist critique in anthropology: Theory and Methodology and reinforcing Indian families. Most researchers cited in this analysis This includes their reevaluation [we] have to be careful that of Lakota women realize that European of both women’s and men’s roles. we’re not adhering to western ideas of society have affected researcher’s If Native women are to fulfill assumptions of personhood and interpretations and observations. traditions of female leadership, relationship between individuals they argue, Native men must and society. (39) reclaim their responsibilities so

40 Gender and Empowerment: Contemporary Lakota Women of Rosebud Focusing on the individual’s experience was on the constitutional convention the research will be briefly described. and perceptions of Lakota society in to amend the tribe’s constitution and Field notes, scratch notes, a journal order to grasp the essence of how the meetings were held at the Tree of along with methodological, descriptive, people define their own social reality is Life. The organization that I lived at and analytical field notes were kept on the goal of the combined methodologies did not seem to impact getting to know a daily basis. Keeping a personal journal in this research. An emic view was the individuals or how people responded helped to employ the reflexive approach desired ideal for this research project to me. A few people offered for me to by accounting for my reactions to other opposed to an etic view that could never live in their homes, gave gifts, and I was people and to decipher between other fully understand the dynamics of being invited to many ceremonies and events. people’s reality and how I perceived a Lakota individual. The qualitative Friendships with people were forged, as observable phenomenon. This was approach of gathering interviews driven the role of researcher was kept intact. helpful, for example, when I became by the interviewee and participant People in the community are generous frustrated with a family that seemed observation were chosen so that as in general but how I was welcomed manipulative and used me to run many as possible individual perceptions indicates that an oppressive, outsider’s errands. Utilization of my journal of Lakota women could be recorded. stance was not perceived. Both men and revealed to me how the family had women were very open to my presence their own style of returning favors in [The] theoretical shift in on the reservation. A few people who exchange for me driving people around anthropology that emphasizes an were more reserved came to seem to perform errands. The opportunity to actor’s model of how the world comfortable after a month’s time of me examine the reasons for their behaviors is and how they influence social being there. and how the researcher was affecting action rather than models of the The primary research strategy was their social reality by being involved in anthropologist or the analyst and participant observation enhanced by their lives arose using my feminist anthropologists have found interviews, primarily of Lakota women. personal journal. this stimulating, because of the In relationship to the objectives of central role which feminist analysis looking for how much power exists Attention to this process of of all kinds gives to women’s actual in regard to kinship, social structure, transforming the ethnographer’s experiences. (Moore 1988:38) gender roles, and family, relevant ‘me’ to accordance of other’s information was collected and cultural expectations can provide I was immersed in Lakota society and documented through daily field notes genuine knowledge of the nature of introduced to people by volunteering and interview notes. The open-ended others’ selves and societies. on the reservation at the Tree of Life interview approach provided rich and (Davies 1999:24) Ministry in Mission, South Dakota. My specific details as opposed to a less taking a colonizer’s position by working personal survey approach. Quantitative An etic view would have ignored at the Tree of Life did not seem to be data thus was not the anticipated end the role of men whose insights were an issue. Tree of Life, run by the United product. Rather, this was explicitly regarded as equally valuable to both Methodist Church, is a program that qualitative research to gain individual Lakota men and women. In the field repairs homes on the reservation and and personal perspectives on the issue notes, everything that was equally offers a clothing room with emergency of empowerment and gender roles. The observed among men and women was supplies for people in crisis. As people results should not be generalized to written down. The reflexive approach is in the community got to know me and the entire Rosebud Lakota population. mindful of the loss of information that felt more comfortable around me, they Nonetheless, these approaches enhanced can occur when one codes field notes asked about the Tree of Life to see if current knowledge regarding this group. with a computer software program. All they could get assistance. A key anthropological method in field notes were coded by hand. Coding One of the key informants was the anthropology is participant observation. notes by hand was done so that the secretary of the Tree of Life, a Lakota Participant observation targets activities, language I used to describe a particular woman who was from and grew up events and sequences, settings, phenomenon would not be missed if the on the reservation. She introduced me participation structures, behaviors wrong word were chosen for coding the to people in the community and she of people and groups, conversations notes. Key words could only be coded was very familiar and informed about and interaction. Each place where I by reading through all of the notes and the community that she lived in. She volunteered and how each place affected had to account for the conversations

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 41 that were recorded. Other people others of similar discomfort were not both men and women were learned didn’t use the same descriptions as I to asked of participants but some people and there was the opportunity to meet describe their social reality. For example, on their own accord did share about men who were empowering themselves. a researcher may describe and code abuse in their lives. Anonymity was The director of the men’s program for domestic abuse with words such as assured and pseudonyms are used here. held many Inipi ceremonies and spoke violence or alcoholism. An informant profusely about Lakota spirituality. He may describe a domestic abuse situation In the Field was an example of empowerment and as, “we were all messed up and I would The Little Hoop Treatment Center had how he used Lakota beliefs to turn his pick out dudes to fight with” 8-week cycles of in-house living for life around and to grow interpersonally (K’s interview). people with substance abuse issues or as an individual while he helped other In addition to participation co-dependency issues. I volunteered people in his community rediscover observation, narratives from three here twice a week and then once a Lakota tradition. Lakota women and one Lakota man week as time progressed. Personal At the Tree of Life, I volunteered were collected once rapport and trust relationships were built with a few of the in the clothing room every Monday, had been established after volunteering staff. Many of the staff who happened Wednesday, and Friday afternoons. and participating in the community to be very involved in the community Mostly the same people would patronize for a few weeks. The length of time became key informants. At events like the clothing room every week. The most required for interviews was flexible and a suicide workshop, methamphetamine common visitors were the street people, depended upon the subject’s available workshops, an 18-mile sobriety walk young college students who were time. Everyone who participated in followed by a ceremony, and at Inipi or often female, grandmothers looking an interview knew exactly why the sweat lodge ceremonies are where these for clothing for grandchildren that researcher was on the reservation. staff members could be observed. The they were raising, and people who had Before sitting down to an interview, number of clients ranged from 5-7 men just had a house fire. House fires were informants would read over the and women. The clients would share not uncommon. Some of the people informed consent form. I then asked their life stories. I agreed to protect their shared about their lives on a frequent if they had anything in particular they anonymity as a requirement of being a basis, and most people talked about would like to talk about and if they Little Hoop volunteer. The treatment their troubles in a casual manner. The would be comfortable responding to center’s focus was the Red Road Tree of Life provided a secretary who a series of questions or if they would recovery approach that fits into Lakota took me under her wing and told me like to just share their life without spirituality. The Red Road runs east and many stories of her life and about what questions. For three of the interviews, west in the Lakota medicine wheel and she called “my people.” She shared specific questions were asked and exemplifies healthy living, unlike the information that ranged from politics the informants would digress. Their black road which runs north and south. to social norms, language, traditional digressions incited more questions I fulfilled two different volunteer beliefs, contemporary problems, her from the researcher and this led to obligations at the White Buffalo Calf story of empowerment through spiritual more specific questions as they related Women Society (WBCW) by working beliefs, general gossip, the latest events to what the informant was speaking separately with both men and women. and news on the reservation; she also about. These interviews were 60 to 90 One of WBCW’s buildings was a introduced me to many people. minutes long. The interviews followed residential shelter for women and In fact, most people with whom I the pattern of an informal conversation their children who were experiencing interacted on a consistent basis and despite the researcher taking notes. The domestic abuse. Here a couple who frequented the places where male interviewee wanted to know what of women told of how they were I volunteered were engaged in the researcher would like to know but empowering themselves. Women were activities that promoted the growth had many ideas that he wanted to share, met who were caught in the cycle of of their community along with their and he talked for two hours without alcoholism and dependency on aid from own interpersonal growth such as any interruption by me, except when I the reservation and the government. participating in various workshops, asked for clarification. With one of the Another building housed meetings for traditional ceremonies, or recovery informants, there were three additional men who were sentenced to attend by programs for alcoholism. As a result, interviews collecting a genealogy of the court systems due to being charged this research reflects the perspective her family. Questions about abuse and with domestic abuse. Perspectives of of Lakota women as seen from people

42 Gender and Empowerment: Contemporary Lakota Women of Rosebud who live as traditionally as possible in people underreported how many people male or female is not. The percentage a contemporary society which has been lived in their homes. One home that I of householders over the age of 65 is altered from colonial impact. spent time in had 5 people, which was broken down by male or female in a the smallest number of people living separate table, but the number of these Findings together that I observed. This home householders who are grandparents is As discovered during participation tended to hold many acculturated not indicated. The number of women observation interviews, contemporary values and to have a nuclear family who are grandmothers by their early to Lakota perspectives tell of the Sicangu base. The census statistics reported mid-forties cannot be determined by women being revered and upheld. The an average of 3.69 people in a home the census statistics because sex and interviews exemplify people’s perspectives (U.S. Census Bureau 2000). With the age percentages only provide data by of gender roles, kinship, contemporary high rates of alcoholism, there is much gender for the ages over 65 years old issues, historical impact, and spirituality. mobility between homes. As a result, and for the ages between 18 and 21 Each of these variables will be examined it is difficult to ascertain how many years old. Similarly, education levels separately in response to observation people reside in each home. A census reported indicate fairly equal levels of and interview questions. The four of Todd County indicates a population academic achievement between the people interviewed along with the many of 9,050 for the year 2000 opposed to sexes. However, informants indicated documented conversations with people the Census population of 10,243 for that women are more likely to achieve during participant observation, which 2000 as reported for the inclusion of at least a bachelor’s degree. Regarding are the most relevant discussions that off-trust reservation land (U.S. Census employment, one of the U.S. Census concern this research, are included in Bureau 2000). The entire reservation lies tables breaks down difference in male these findings. The findings conclusively within Todd County with no inclusion and female employment based on hours demonstrate that women are empowered, of off-trust reservation land. These per week worked. Other research along respected, influential members of this facts indicate that at least slightly more with this research observes that many matrifocal society. than 10% of the people surveyed were women sell crafts to subsist but the residing outside of the reservation. Off- census does not count this as Census Data reservation trust land must be where an occupation. The census statistics relate to some of the fourteen homes valued for more A sample of the census statistics for the findings. Before there is further than one million dollars exist. Off- the Rosebud Reservation is provided discussion about the findings, the reservation incomes could raise the per in Table 1. Income, housing averages, census statistics as they relate to capita rate per household. The higher and prices of homes are skewed by the findings will be addressed. The or off-reservation income segment the inclusion of off-trust reservation 2000 Census Bureau statistical and of the population is likely to provide land. The table only includes who demographic information coincides with statistics that indicate smaller nuclear- did not work along with the most the reflexive approach of being leery of like households, greater incomes, more common type of employment that was bureaucracies’ possible tendency to skew education and employed men, and reported. Census data supports the stats to favor whatever the bureaucracy would skew the rest of the notion that the colonized continue to wants. The Census Bureau results may statistical data. be subjugated by their colonizers who be skewed due to the fact that off-trust It is difficult to obtain needed manipulate statistics, which conceals reservation land was included in their information that is applicable to this the fact that severe poverty exists surveys. For example, the 2000 Census research from the census statistics. For within the United States. reports that 14 homes valued at over example, this research is interested in 1 million dollars exist on the Rosebud the question: how many grandmothers Reservation (U.S Census Bureau: 2000). live with or are the providers for No such homes were observed on the their grandchildren? Qualitative data reservation. Observations indicate that indicates that many grandmothers people were known to lie to officials care for their grandchildren in their out of fear. It is assumed that this fear own households. “Grandparents as is due to the history that has developed caregivers” is a statistic that is provided between the Lakota people and the U.S. in the census data; however, the government. According to informants, percentage of caregivers being either

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 43 Table 1. Todd County (Rosebud Reservation) statistics from the U.S. Census Bureau; Rosebud Reservation and Off-Reservation # % Both Sexes Female Male Trust Land, SD Population in Occupied Housing Units 10,243 Total Population Female 5,319 51.3 Male 5,050 48.7 Per Capita Income (dollars) 7,279 Household Type Total households 2,779 Family households 2,170 1,238 932 (44.5%) (33.5%)

Non-family households 609 21.9 Average household size 3.69 Grandparents as Caregivers Living in household with children 18 and under 702 100.0 Responsible for grandchildren 517 73.6 16 Years and Over Who Did Not Work in 1999 1,365 3,263 Most Common Type of Industry (for employed population over the age of 16) Educational, health and social services 42.0% 51.8% 30.9% http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?

Kinship their own. A few women complained time to end up having a new girlfriend Kinship findings are related to Lakota of the foster care system that was eager or wife and children fathered by him. society being matrifocal. Contemporary to take their children and claim their The informants weren’t involved with issues of alcoholism and poverty as well home as unsuitable even when the these new families. Alcohol and men as the subsequent lack of patrilineal ties children had a loving family. Reservation finding less work over each generation are increasing the matrifocal tendency homes are often considered unsuitable has affected the family structure. of grandmothers who are householders. for the foster care system, which calls Families have become matrifocal due Also, women have placed themselves in into question the value of family love to the children ending up with the positions of empowerment with their and support over the value of western mother or the grandmother. Paternal educations. Existing traditional kinship “cleanliness.” Isn’t a home full of love grandmothers were observed as being practices will conclude this section and nourishment with many supporting caretakers for their grandchildren about kinship. family members and food suitable but on a less frequent basis. There is Grandmothers who were the sole regardless of cockroaches running across much mobility with the men who find providers for their grandchildren the floor? residence in different places across the frequented the Tree of Life clothing During this three-month project, reservation or have to move to the cities room. The parents of these I met a number of people who were to find work. One informant pointed grandchildren had often disappeared not familiar with their father’s side of out that housing is already scarce but due to alcoholism. A couple of the family. One girl lived next door to men struggle even more with having grandmothers expressed their sadness her father whom she did not speak their own homes because the tribe only over becoming attached to their to at all. Her brother pointed out his grants housing to families. grandchildren and then having the father’s house as we drove by but didn’t Family is an important Lakota parents of the children sober up and see or talk to his father. The same value and is at the core of mitakuye want their children back. One woman siblings’ mother had 10 children by 5 oyasin, an expression that means “all cared for her grandchildren and took different fathers. Women with up to 11 my relations” and relates all animate in foster children whose parents were children who all have different fathers and inanimate objects. One informant no longer living due to dying from were observed and identified to me by pointed out societal differences in the drug- or alcohol-related causes. Many various sources. Informants reported definition of poverty as he spoke about people cared for children other than their fathers as disappearing for some his land, spirituality, and family as all

44 Gender and Empowerment: Contemporary Lakota Women of Rosebud interconnected and relational in his without knowing the hypothesis of my on women that men are socialized to mind. He didn’t see himself as a man research, how anthropologists have been project as a result of colonization. who should have the “American 9-5 job” male and haven’t given credit to how On a couple of occasions and during but as a man who wanted to be close to much power women have and that the an interview, the topic of how women his family and in touch with his land and Lakota have a mostly egalitarian society. and men are socialized differently spirituality that is derived from living Women, she said, may have had more was brought up. A couple of women amongst his people and homeland. power in some areas in recent times. complained that women are taught to Kinship terms in the Lakota language However in one area, politics, there work, raise children, sew, cook, and to describe an uncle or sister, for is mostly male involvement. On the take care of their homes, but nothing example, are described in Powers constitutional convention committee, is expected of the men. Women are (1990:62). These terms are still spoken aimed at amending the constitution from expected to do these things and are today and were observed by this the 1930s, two out of the six people seen as lazy if they don’t. The following researcher as being spoken most often were women. Women are in the tribal excerpt from an interview with P in the Inipi or sweat lodge ceremonies council, but many people complain exemplifies how men and women are that I intended. The mother-in-law that the council is corrupt and doesn’t socialized differently. taboo was observed as still being in represent the Sicangu Nation like it practice. The mother- in-law taboo is should. A woman’s husband fondly Do men have empowerment in their lives or the practice of a child’s spouse ignoring joked that their roles had reversed. For how do they make positive changes to the parent-in-law of the opposite sex. It hobby and sale on the Internet, he made their lives? also prohibits the parents-in-law from crafts traditionally created by women, making eye contact or addressing their such as par fleches, bone awls, and Not yet. Women have to be women children-in-law of the opposite sex. spoons. His wife was involved in politics. before men can be men. There are families that live together Men and women shared their in a nuclear family arrangement (no perceptions of their opposing Can you explain? extended family in the home), and they gender. I was told by men, “you’re usually don’t drink. Remnants of the old a woman so you are strong and you I don’t know if you can write tiyospaye system of kinship seem to exist can do anything.” Does this reflect this down. Do you know what a more for survival, and large families an attitude by men that women are castrating bitch is? Assimilation that live together pool their resources. more empowered just because of their and acculturation have taught men I was told that many families gather in gender? Descriptions of women ranged to hate women and so women one home during the winter in order to from women being honored and revered hate men but women only hate share a home with heat and electricity. to being referred to as the backbone themselves if they hate men. They of the Red Nation. Men seemed to don’t leave men alone so they can Gender Roles speak more favorably of women than grow up and not be made weak by Observations and findings in my vice versa. One man did complain being taken care of. research about gender roles focus on about how poorly his sisters and mom work, sex ratios in politics, language, spoke of men and how this affected Why are women taking care of men? and how men and women are socialized his self-esteem. It is quite possible that differently. How men and women men were uncomfortable sharing any Men are more important, it’s perceive each other is also discussed negativity that they may harbor towards what I described to you about in this section. Briefly, the topic of women with a woman researcher. A the boarding schools. (She was medicine women will be broached. few women would tell me that they referring to an earlier conversation One woman who was a director at were taught never to marry men from in which she described how a program where I volunteered was the reservation because they are no boarding schools taught that men very direct and forward with wanting good and lazy. Women complained were more important, fed before to know what I was doing with my of there being no good men to marry. the women, and why she thinks education. She was very enthused about Overall, there was a general respect there are only medicine men now.) this research being done and offered her towards women and men spoke very Maybe it’s because we didn’t live office as a source for literary and video highly about their mothers. Respect right and the men were killed off at resources. She even pointed out to me, may be due to some of the dependence young ages. People get victimized

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 45 but when treated like a victim they on welfare because there wasn’t any There use to not be competition act like a victim. childcare but now there is. over roles. Everyone had a role for Informants reported that their fathers the tribe to survive and that was the How do women take care of men? and grandfathers were still finding work natural order of things. up until the 1970s and their moms (P’s interview) They let them get away with or grandmothers were housewives. things they shouldn’t. They enable. Sometimes, the families had to move P bases this on the old language that was Mothers enable sons and take care to find work. Families could work in all about self-responsibility. The language of sons financially or physically. sugar beat fields in South Dakota or changed her life as she reported during Don’t teach them how to move as ranch hands. Even the men who an interview. The language didn’t put out of homes and be responsible. were interviewed and have college her down instead it empowered her. Somehow girls learn how to do educations aren’t maintaining work due Waunisal means compassion and a long these things. They are shown how to alcoholism. What led to the decline time ago she said, it was meant to have it to cook, clean, sew, and work. of men working and the increase of for yourself. women working over the last 30 years? It was said that grandmothers carry Women’s experiences in the job field One informant said that men do work on the oral tradition (Penman 2000). It differ from men’s experiences. During but in ways that can’t be counted by would be interesting to know at what their thirties many women do return an official census. She said that the rate elderly women contribute to Lakota to college. This statistic correlates with men work hard and don’t get credit society and what exactly differentiates those provided by the Census (U.S. for it. They do a lot of hard labor like their roles. Grandmothers often take Census Bureau: 2000). College is a fixing cars for money. One man sold care of the children, so it would make source of empowerment for women. his paintings and danced once a month sense that they pass on oral tradition. Many more women are reported with an out-of-state group that traveled. Grandmothers are referred to as the as attending the local Sinte Gleske To find work he had to leave the carriers of oral tradition (Penman 87). University, SGU, which is located in reservation. He lived with his mother Grandmothers are who to consult with Antelope Community next to Mission and siblings that he was very close to. about politics; they are disciplinarians on the reservation. The classes are This is the conflict that many people and holders of herbal knowledge (Reyer oriented towards social services and face because families are so valued in 1991:11). Finally, sources suggest secretarial and administrative work Lakota society. They can live in poverty that men did and do have a higher that people view as women’s work. The with their families or go to the cities to mortality rate so it would make sense most common jobs on the reservation be the working poor and be isolated for grandmothers to be the carriers of are those with the tribe, school systems, from their families. oral tradition by story telling. However, or social services. Many more women A couple of informants pointed out confirmation of this observation would than men were observed as employed how the language has masculine and require more research. at these places and in director positions. feminine differences. In Theisz (1988:11) and Crow Dog Government and social services (1990:201) there are brief mentions positions favor women and are viewed Wo is for men and wa is for women of medicine women. More research by men and women as women’s work. in language. The letter O is for men about the existence of medicine women One woman attributes more women and A is for women. This is an could be done because I was told of working to relocation during the 1950s. example of how women had their there being medicine women in the Not until the 1950s did women start role and place. (N’s interview) past on only two occasions during working because of relocation. They the participant observation phase of could find jobs in the cities. When Women once had their own names. this research. The extent to which asked if women’s roles have changed, One woman accredited the language as colonization impacted the existence or an informant replied that more women empowering her because the traditional frequency of medicine women is a very work now. I asked if this was because of language had compassion unlike today’s important question. single mothers. She said that everyone language that has changed and is used to stayed with their babies until they were gossip about people. Spirituality grown and went to school and then they Lakota spirituality could be the subject went to work. Back then women lived of another paper, so this portion of

46 Gender and Empowerment: Contemporary Lakota Women of Rosebud the paper will be brief. Spirituality is spirit comes to the fork where an men when one acknowledges Lakota juxtaposed with the variables of kinship old woman is. She will review your spirituality, which treats men and and gender roles. Kinship is spirituality life and if you think that you were women as equals? Based on anecdotal in Lakota terms and one of the most selfish and lived on the black road, evidence, Lakota spirituality still important values is to care for family. she will push you off the spirit trail strongly exists in people’s everyday lives. Holism and circular thinking among and back. You retain these past life Missionaries, education, and outside the Lakota emphasize how equally memories in consciousness and this influences have affected this holism important men and women are because determines your value system. We with what N would call left-brained, everything is viewed as of equal value. have karmic debts to come back and materialistic thinking. Holistic thinking The saying mitakuye oyasin “all my undo from a selfish life and we keep can be observed in spiritual beliefs relations” exemplifies this statement. coming back to undo these debts and in the way many people interpret Mitakuye oyasin also describes kinship until we can go to her to return to events in spiritual terms. For example, I beyond biology and fictional kinship the center [of the universe]. was driving with a young woman who ties were commonly built in both and observed an owl fly across the road and outside of the Inipi ceremony. In the Historical impacts have affected spiritual seemed frightened as she told me the sweat lodges, people adopted uncles, beliefs. The following excerpts from a owl was a warning bird. My ears were sisters, brothers, aunts and grandparents. couple of interviews give insight into always filled with stories about spirits Historical impacts on spirituality and an impacts on beliefs. When I asked about when I would join a family of various interviewee’s description of key women women having different roles than men ages by a campfire in the canyons. I was in Lakota spirituality will, also, be (I had not meant in ceremonial terms), told often about the representations of included in this section. one informant, P, responded, different parts of nature and had few Examples of spiritual beliefs as they conversations about what was material. relate to women and empowerment We’re still stuck under the Catholic were provided by observations, Church or the medicine men, Contemporary Problems and Alcoholism conversations, and interviews. For thinking that men give life and Another group of questions related to example, on the local radio station, there women suppose to listen to them gender and empowerment are tied was a public service announcement for and not go against them. It’s where to alcoholism. the White Buffalo Calf Women Society spiritual abuse comes from. It’s Alcoholism is a significant problem walk for violence against women. The when you don’t question authority, on the reservation. Alcohol accounts story of White Buffalo Calf Woman was when you think God is out to get for many deaths along with violence, told. She had shown herself to two men you because God is a man. It’s all domestic abuse, matrifocal homes, and one was destroyed by the thunder that voodoo stuff about how you and people’s inability to maintain beings when he had disrespectful drop the pipe or have moon time scarce jobs and homes. The effects of thoughts about her. The PSA pointed and touch the pipe. Everything historical impact on traditional practices out that this story traditionally taught that is natural that happens to a can be accounted for, to some degree, men to respect women. woman is used against her. I don’t when alcoholism is removed from the During N’s interview, he told me, know if this is traditional or came contemporary picture. Alcoholism from the missionaries. stems from the atrocities and abuses The spiritual expression is feminine. inflicted upon the Lakota by the United The pipe was brought from WBCW Another male informant and interviewee States Government. The slaughter and she changed into the most spoke a lot about Indian people being of the buffalo to displace men’s roles beautiful woman man ever had seen holistic thinkers. He pointed out as hunters and force starving people with a voice to match. She taught how holistic thinking clashed with onto the reservations led to men’s songs and some of the lyrics in her white man’s middle class, left-brained frustration and dependence on alcohol songs so that the people can live. thinking. For him, lack of holistic which was introduced and steadily This is holistic. Spiritual expression thinking was part of the reason that supplied to reservations. Wounded is feminine because everything is stereotypes were developed, devaluing Knee, the death of leaders such as Crazy provided by Tunkushila and planet Lakota women when Lakota society Horse and Sitting Bull, withholding mother. She gives everything that was superimposed with euro-centric of commodities, forced relocation to we need here. In the Milky Way, the values. How can women be inferior to shoddy land, the taking of the Sacred

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 47 Paha Sapa (Black Hills), stealing off domestic abuse is not related to gender they were seeing. Their observations water rites, abuses of boarding schools, or being a woman. Domestic abuse were biased and superimposed from racism from surrounding towns, forced positively correlates with drugs and their own culture. sterilization, and many more injustices alcohol. Observations and informants have led to the devastation of a nation of reported just as many women abusers These people [whites] endured people who have sought comfort in the as male abusers. Often, for men, there great hardships, and all the while ongoing cycle of alcoholism. Alcoholism is shame in discussing abuse that affects they were thinking that our persists in an isolated place where there their bloka or maleness. Some of the women were slaves we felt that is not much opportunity and little hope. men sent to the White Buffalo Calf theirs were. It may not flatter the To the contrary, there is much hope Women Society for domestic abuse white man, but the Lakota did when we look to the effects of people described their girlfriends and wives as not think him considerate toward returning to traditional ways and Lakota abusive when the women were drinking. his women. (Standing Bear qtd in spirituality. The effects of alcohol repute On several occasions, I was told about Powers 1990:210) the variable of historical impact because a woman’s husband whom had abusive contemporary problems stem from girlfriends and one man shared about Native activists are concerned with alcoholism that was caused by historical having an abusive ex-wife. The common returning to their traditional roles which impact. When we remove the variable of factor was drugs and alcohol. One were egalitarian, and this requires alcohol and hence historical impact, we woman shared about her old hatred for the collective effort of both men and gain insight into how traditional ways men and how she would pick fights and women. Native activists such as Mary treat women. The historical impacts are beat up men while she drank. Another Brave Bird, as she wrote in Lakota never fully resolved, but traditional ways man used to be abusive to women in Woman, are concerned with replacing can be viewed more clearly. his past until he found sobriety and the effects of genocide and forced Why should there be a focus returned to Lakota spirituality and sterilizations that women claimed on traditional ways? Tradition and traditional ways. the Indian Health Service was still participation in ceremonies dictate performing in the 1980s. Replacing the and require sobriety. Sobriety, Lakota Conclusion effects of genocide means that women spirituality, and traditional ways have Research focused on contemporary times want to have many children and not been the most influential strategies is required so that the 21st century follow the nuclear type families that they in people empowering themselves positions of women are not erased (for feel are a by-product of being a feminist. and turning their lives around from an example see Farmer: 2004). The Lisa Udel in her work calls the having complete poverty, institutionalization, background describes how researchers of many children and the pooling of abuse, death, insanity, and everything have demystified stereotypes but also resources between women associated with alcoholism. Every sober shows very contrary ethnographic as “mother-work.” person or recovering alcoholic that I accounts and beliefs about particular spent time with had returned to their practices such as the practice of nose Women haven’t suffered loss of traditional ways, except one woman cutting for female infidelity. The general roles as much because they can who was slowly returning to traditional consensus is that Lakota men and still raise children and engage in ways. This particular woman was women lived in an egalitarian society mother- work. On Pine Ridge, resolving her conflict of the abuse that despite some of the contradictions. more women hold down jobs she endured during boarding school Contemporary Lakota people report because nursing, teaching, clerical times. The boarding schools taught her that past society was egalitarian and so and domestic work are jobs for that Catholicism was everything and is today’s contemporary society. With women that are more readily that she shouldn’t believe her traditional the call of feminism to find out what available. (Udel 2001:8) Lakota ways. women’s roles had been in societies A more accurate picture of the where male anthropologists focused Mother work is evident in this research Lakota’s perception of women can be on men’s roles through a western and supports the fact that a matrifocal developed when the variable of alcohol European lens, women anthropologists society is becoming predominant. is removed. Domestic abuse is cited as in the 1970s began to do research to Lakota women didn’t live lives of a reason why women are not respected discover what women’s roles were. subjugation as background research in contemporary times. Reality is that Anthropologists hadn’t understood what for this project revealed. Colonial

48 Gender and Empowerment: Contemporary Lakota Women of Rosebud impact has affected men’s positions and The following statement from an has ultimately contributed to women informant best concludes this analysis, being in more empowered positions in contemporary times. Gender roles, My definition of being a Lakota spirituality/origin beliefs, along with woman. You live your life so things kinship are measured variables that have are better for the next generation. always proven women to be respected That is the circle. If you lead a bad and influential members of Lakota life you leave nothing behind but society. The findings demonstrate this a lot of resentments, she laughed. fact. Kinship and spirituality are at the When I first got sober, I looked core of Lakota society and examination myself in the mirror and said I am of these variables alone demonstrates Lakota and I am a Lakota woman. how respected women are. Everything I realized that what they did a long being of equal importance, including time ago weren’t great things but all inanimate and animate objects, is you can live and do the next right best summarized in the saying mitakuye things, like you learn. (P’s Interview) oyasin, which means “all my relations.” This saying exemplifies the emphasis of egalitarianism that Lakota people place on their own society.

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GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 51 52 Use it or lose it? What predicts age-related declines in cognitive performance in elderly adults?

ABSTRACT Introduction Psychologists have suggested two possible Psychologists have long documented a causes of declines in cognitive performance general decline in cognitive performance with age: declines in cognitive capacity during the adult aging process (e.g., working memory), and the level of (Salthouse, 1996). Recent research has stimulation in their environments. Fourteen suggested two possible causes for this college students (mean age=21 years, decline: (1) decline is an inevitable SD=1.65), seven middle-aged (40-59, factor in aging or (2) decline is a result mean age=51, SD=4.8), and five elderly of cognitive inactivity (Meiser & Klauer, (60+, mean age=74.8, SD=8.3) participants 1999; Salthouse, Berish, & Miles, completed a series of assessments including 2002). The first hypothesis suggests simple and complex measures of processing that with aging comes a decline in and reasoning and assessments of cognitive cognitive functioning due to a reduction stimulation. The results indicated that in processing resources available to working memory declines with age and the reasoner. The second hypothesis that these declines predicted performance suggests cognitive activity will stave off on complex reasoning tasks while cognitive the effects of aging and subsequently stimulation was unrelated to performance. maintain cognitive functioning.

Katherine Midkiff Declines in Capacity and Speed McNair Scholar This general decline in the performance of adults may be explained by the cognitive load theory (CLT) (Paas, Camp, & Rikers, 2001). CLT suggests that the limited capacity for reasoning decreases with age and that this decrease is directly related to declines in reasoning and problem solving in later years. Pass et al. (2001) demonstrated a consistent decline in working memory (WM), a system that momentarily stores information available for ongoing cognitive processes capacity with age (Oberauer, 2001). There are three components of working-memory: (1) the phonological loop, (2) the visuo-spatial scratch pad, and (3) the central executive. Each of these components represents a resource that can be used for processing of different tasks. The phonological loop specializes in momentary storing and rehearsal of serial speech-based codes, as in reciting a phone number until the phone number is dialed. The Bradley J. Morris, Ph.D. visuo-spatial component processes Faculty Mentor information that is coded visually and spatially. The central executive function is the component that acts as a general processing agent for all

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 53 else that the other two do not cover. Older adults show declines in the task that required a reconfiguration of Central executive function also directs efficient use of WM capacity and in the cognitive system. This preparation all conscious responsibilities, all cognitive tasks such as mental rotation, increases the response-time and thus resource coordinating of activities, a simple cognitive task in which subjects increases the amount of errors especially and monitors task performance. This are shown a series of letters that have in the elderly population (Yeung & function can also donate processing been rotated 45, 90, or 180 degrees. Monsell, 2003). capacity to other functions when the In this task, Roberson, Palmer, and Verheghen et al. (2002) found that the load reaches capacity (Conners, Carr, Gomez (1987) found that older adult slowing of processing time may result & Willis, 1998). The phonological loop performance decreased as the degree of in retention intervals being lengthened and visio-spatial sketchpad are used for rotation increased. Salthouse, Berish, and may increase the likelihood that simple cognitive tasks while the central and Miles (2002) found that there is an stored information will decay. According executive is recruited for complex tasks. age-related decline in reasoning capacity. to the authors, this means that the Such a decline in WM capacity should This decline in capacity (i.e., processing information-processing mechanism (i.e. reduce an individual’s capacity for space) was a major predictor of age- processing stream) shows age-related reasoning. These declines are found to complexity effects. The authors note that deficits. The authors go on to note that be more apparent when the task places this capacity for reasoning was affected those memory dependent tasks should a greater amount of load on the working in a number of cognitive tasks including show a large amount of deficits and memory. When presented with a simple those that are cognitively complex and can result in a poor performance on task, the phonological loop is recruited cognitive tasks that were simple. cognitive tasks. Many researchers have for momentary recitation. When a task One major limitation is that although studied this decline in processing speed. requires additional processing, the many studies have examined simple For example, there is a marked central executive component of the cognitive tasks (e.g., letter rotation), decline in the performance of elderly working memory donates additional few have examined simple and complex participants on the Tower of Hanoi processing capacity. It has been tasks in the same experiment. One type puzzle, a task that requires planning suggested that it is a decline in executive of complex task is logical reasoning. and inhibition, two factors that tax functioning that declines with age Logical reasoning (e.g., syllogistic processing capacity and speed (Davis & (Conners et al., 1998). Furthermore, reasoning) draws on the central Klebe, 2001). There is much research this slowing of information processing executive in the integration of semantic that has found in an elderly population appears to begin as early as 40 years and syntactic information (Johnson- a reduced ability to manipulate and old (Myerson, Hale, Hirschman, & Laird, 1999). organize information in the working Hansen, 1989). The notion of a slowed A second factor is processing speed. memory (Campbell & Charness, 1990). working memory appears to be linked Processing speed is a factor in the The authors go on to note that declines to an individual’s capacity to reason and efficient use of limited capacity in can be the result of a general slowing in problem solve. that the faster the processing speed, informational processing. the more operations can be executed Capacity, Performance, and in the same amount of space (Kail, “Use it or Lose it” Complexity 2000). Slow processing speed has been There is a second explanation for this An additional factor in cognitive associated with poor performance by decline in cognitive performance in performance is the complexity of the children because they cannot complete the elderly sometimes called “use it problem to be solved (Halford, 1993). the necessary components of the task or lose it.” This explanation suggests The more complex the problem, the in the allotted time (Kail & Hall, 1994). maintaining cognitive function can more processing resources are required Processing speed increases throughout stave off cognitive decline. Without this for its solution. Thus, a decline in childhood and levels off in adulthood maintenance, cognitive operations will resources reduces the likelihood of (Kail). Salthouse (1996) notes that there begin to atrophy from disuse much like solving complex problems (Halford). is a gradual speed and efficiency decline physiological structures (e.g., muscles) Complexity is a measure of the central with age. Studies by Cepeda (2001) that are not used. Salthouse, Berish, and executive component of working have shown that individuals between the Miles (2002) found it conceivable that memory and is likely related to ages of 71-85 show some difficulty in with increased age there is a decrease in performance on complex reasoning tasks. task inertia, that is, the activation of the engagement in cognitively demanding stimulus-response rule after a change of activities. Results are mixed as to

54 Use It Or Lose It? What Predicts Declines whether engagements in cognitively Method if the second word rhymes with a target stimulating activities are related to Subjects word, blow, and press a paginated cognitive declines. Hultsch, Small, Twenty six subjects from three groups button if the word rhymes with the Dixon, and Roger (1999) note that older took part in this experiment. The target word or a second button if it does adults seem to have a reserve capacity control group was made up of 14 not. For each task, the subjects will that allows them to benefit from young subjects (mean age=21 years, be scored on span (number of words exposure to performance enhancing SD=1.65), seven middle age subjects correctly recalled) and recall rate (how environments; furthermore, this (40-59, mean age=51, SD=4.8), and quickly they recalled words). These exposure may, in fact, be able to predict five elderly (60+, mean age=74.8, tasks were selected to provide a measure a reversal of, or at least a maintenance, SD=8.3). The control group was of verbal working-memory (Case, of cognitive levels. recruited from Psychology 101 and Kurland, & Goldberg, 1982). Performance enhancing environments Psychology 301 classes at Grand Valley can be described in many ways, but for State University; these participants were Maintenance our purposes, we will follow Hultsch, either given credit or extra credit for Salthouse, Berish, and Miles (2002) Small, Dixon, and Roger (1999) who their participation. The middle-age and have used the Activity Inventory define a complex environment, or elderly participants were recruited from and the 18-item version of the Need cognitive stimulus, as one with diverse North Ottawa County Council on Aging for Cognition (AINC) noting that it stimuli that requires complex decision and included members and patrons of involves a range of cognitive tasks. making, with ill-defined contingencies the senior center. The age breakdown Participants will also be asked their age, that appear to be in contradiction. These is consistent with mean ages of prior sex, and education level. The specific authors go on to explain that research research conducted concerning working instructions for the AINC read, “rate suggests that there is a “use it or lose memory, on a wide age range of subjects how cognitively demanding you feel it” component on cognitive tasks and (Myerson et al., 1989; Campbell & the activity is on a 5-point scale where that performance can be moderated by Charness, 1990). 1=absolutely no cognitive demands an individual’s exposure to complex (e.g. sleeping), 3=moderate cognitive stimulus in his/her environment. Materials demands (e.g. reading a newspaper), The purpose of this project is to There are three types of measurements and 5=high cognitive demands (e.g. compare and investigate explanations in this project: (1) processing capacity, completing a tax form)” (p. 551). for decline in cognitive performance due (2) cognitive maintenance, and to aging. This will be accomplished by (3) cognitive tasks. There are two Cognitive Tasks: Simple measuring factors in processing capacity measures of processing capacity: simple Letter rotation and maintenance then comparing these and complex. The Word-Span-Simple Roberson et al. (1987) note that the to performance on several cognitive tasks. task (Daneman & Carpenter, 1980) process of letter rotation is analogous to We will measure activity levels used was the word span measurement. the process involved in the perception and three elements of the capacity Each participant is presented with a of the transformation of externally hypothesis: (1) processing capacity random series of three-letter words rotating objects. In this task, one letter is (a measure of phonological working at a rate of one per second. After the presented on the middle of a computer memory or simple capacity), sequence is completed, the participant is screen. They refer to this process as (2) processing speed (a measure of asked to repeat the words in order. The mental rotation. The authors go on to the time to execute cognitive word series range from three-word to note that this mental rotation can be used operations), and (3) processing space nine-word combinations for 16 trials. as a measure of spatial representations (a measure of the executive function The complex task used was the Word- and processing and to explain failures of working memory or complex Span-Rhyme-New task (De Beni, and successes in directional consistency capacity). We will then measure simple Palladino, Pazzaglia, & Cornoldi, in perceptual memory. (e.g., letter rotation) and complex 1998). This is the same procedure as (i.e., syllogistic reasoning) reasoning the word span with a few additions. Trail making task (TMT). measures to determine which, if any, The presented words are now two-letter Stuss et al. (2001) note that the TMT of the aforementioned factors best words and after each word is presented, is one of the most widely accepted predicts performance. there is a second word presented at a and sensitive general indicators of the delay. The participant is asked to decide presence of brain dysfunctions. TMT,

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 55 Parts A and B require many cognitive Age and Reasoning Performance with a larger number of participants in processes including motor speed, There was a significant negative each age group. visual search, and visual perception. correlation between age and The Logical Reasoning task revealed Part B requires what the authors refer performance on the Word-Span-Simple a negative correlation between age to as cognitive alteration and an ability task r (26)=-.508, p < .005 (see groups and the mean number of correct to modify a plan of action, as well as fig. 1), indicating that with increased responses, r (26)=-.538, p < .005. There maintaining two strains of thought age, there is a decline in working- was a positive correlation between concurrently. Salthouse et al. (2000), memory performance. This negative participant’s performance on the Word- notes that the TMT is found to be of correlation was also found between Span-Simple task and the mean number some interest because it seems to reflect age and Word-Span-Rhyme-New task of correct responses on the Logical aspects of executive functioning. Activity r (26)=-.531, p < .005, and again with Reasoning task, r (27)=.559, p< .002. as factor in capacity: Hultsch, Small, increased age, there was a decreased There was an even stronger positive Dixon, and Roger (1999), concluded in working-memory performance. correlation between the Word-Span- their research that there is a relationship The Letter Rotation task yielded Ryhme-New task and the mean number between intellectual activity and unexpected results (see fig. 2 and 3). of correct responses on the Logical cognitive function change. The TMT, The control group was least likely to Reasoning task, r (27)=.754, p < .001. Part A requires the participant to draw identify correctly whether the letter A linear regression was performed to a line as quickly as possible joining the presented was in a mirrored or correct examine the extent to which processing numbers 1-25. The test is arranged on position. We believe that the control space and stimulation variables would an 8.5 x 11 inch page. Part B requires group pressed the paginated computer predict performance on simple and the participant to draw a line as quickly keys as quickly a possible to end the complex tasks. Subject performance as possible joining the letters and testing session resulting in their poor on the complex working memory task numbers arranged on the same sized performance. This notion was supported (i.e., Word-Span-Ryhme-New task) page (1-A-2-B-3…) (Stuss et al., 2001). with the examination of the latencies of predicted 56% of the variance on the control group F (2, 23)=22, p<. 01. the complex reasoning task (logical Cognitive Tasks: Complex The control group took less time reasoning; b=.75, p< .001). There were A syllogistic reasoning task was making their decisions on the position no other significant relations between chosen to examine complex reasoning. of the letter, which was shown by the problem-solving performance and the Syllogisms (i.e., categorical syllogisms) latencies in milliseconds. As expected, amount of cognitive stimulation in one’s have two premises and a conclusion. the middle-age group outperformed environment (all p’s >.10). Subjects were given 32 syllogisms and the elderly group in correct responses were asked to evaluate the conclusion F (2, 23)=8.9, p<. 05. Unexpectedly, Discussion as either “valid” or “invalid.” Syllogistic the elderly group had shorter response What factors predict cognitive declines reasoning was chosen because latencies in decision-making than did due to aging? Previous research had it requires significant processing the middle-age group, though this suggested two factors: decreases in resources, drawing heavily on the difference was not significant, capacity and cognitive inactivity. Our central executive portion of working F (2, 23) = .9, p>.10. We believe these results support the capacity hypothesis memory (Johnson-Laird, 1999). results might be unrepresentative of the but do not support the inactivity general population of elderly adults due hypothesis. Our results demonstrate Results to the small and uneven sample size. that the best predictor of performance Of the 26 participants sampled in The Trail Making task was analyzed on reasoning tasks was the measure this study, 14 were used as a control with a 2 X 2 ANOVA, age of participant of complex working memory, which group, seven were used as the middle- X mean number of correct executions, is a measure of executive function. age group, and five were used as the (see fig. 4). As expected, the control This measure was a particularly good elderly group. Because of an unequal group outperformed both the middle- predictor for complex tasks (i.e., logical distribution of age and generally small age group and the elderly group, reasoning). While our results did not sample size, care should be taken F (2, 23)=10.1, p<. 01 on the mean support the inactivity hypothesis, evaluating cognitive declines across number of correct executions of the we do not believe that these results age groups. Trail Making task. Again, we believe that necessarily provide evidence against the these results would be more accurate hypothesis. Many factors could have

56 Use It Or Lose It? What Predicts Declines produced this null result, including low Figure 1. Age and working-memory and mean number of correct words recalled on Word- sample size, poor cognitive stimulation Span Complex and Word-Span Simple survey, and poor problem-solving measures. Moreover, we believe that 0.6 it is very important that people do not discontinue their involvement in 0.5 cognitively stimulating activities simply because it has not been proven to be an accurate indicator of problem- 0.4 solving abilities. It is also possible that level of cognitive activity is what is driving changes in working-memory 0.3 space. Future research should address this possibility. The results show, as has been 0.2 Word Span Simple Word Word Span Conflict Word shown in previous findings, that Proportion correct with increased age there is a decrease 0.1 in working-memory performance. This decline, however, was not well represented in performance on simple 0 problem-solving tasks (i.e. Trail Young Adult Middle-Age Elderly Making and Letter Rotation tasks). This decline was significantly related to performance on the complex task (i.e. Logical Reasoning task). The results Figure 2. Letter rotation task and the mean number of correct responses per age-group of this study indicate that complex young adult, middle age, and elderly working-memory performance (i.e., executive function) is a good predictor Letter Rotation of age-related decline in cognitive 15 performance in elderly adults.

10

5

Mean number correct Mean number 0 Young Adult Middle-Age Elderly

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 57 Figure 3. Letter rotation task and latency of responses by milliseconds per age group young adult, middle age, and elderly

Letter Rotation Latencies 5000

4000 3000

2000

Milliseconds 1000

0 Young Adult Middle-Age Elderly

58 Use It Or Lose It? What Predicts Declines References Campbell, J. I. D., & Charness, N., (1990). Age-related declines in working-memory skills evidence from a complex calculation task. Developmental Psychology, 26(6), 879-888.

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De Beni, R., Palladino, P., Pazzaglia, F., & Cornoldi, C. (1998). Increases in intrusion errors and working memory deficit of poor comprehenders. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology, 51A, 305–320.

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Hultsch, D. F., Small, C., Dixon, B. J., & Roger, A., (1999). Use it or lose it engaged lifestyle as a buffer of cognitive decline in aging? Psychology and Aging, 14(2), 245-263.

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GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 59 60 Dysfunctional Cognitions: Associations with Perfectionistic Thinking Utilizing the Positive and Negative Perfectionism Construct

ABSTRACT Cognitive distortion can lead to low Historically, perfectionism has been self-esteem, depression, and high associated with symptomatologies such as anxiety levels (Burns, 1980); when depression, anxiety, and procrastination cognitive distortion is combined (Hewitt & Flett, 1991). However, a newer with perfectionism it can severely construct expands and includes both positive decrease quality of life (Blatt, 1995). and negative aspects to perfectionism (Flett, Blatt points out that perfectionism, Russo, & Hewitt, 1994; Frost, Marten, in conjunction with self-scrutiny and Lahart, & Rosenblatt, 1990; Hamachek, self-judgment, can lead to depression, 1978; Norman, Davies, Nicholson, Cortese, suicide, and decreased satisfaction with & Malla, 1998; Terry-Short, Owens, accomplishments. The combination of Slade, & Dewey, 1995). Maximization cognitive distortion and perfectionism has been defined by tendencies similar to can be devastating. negative perfectionism. Cognitive distortion Cognitive distortions, including older has been associated with depression conceptualizations of perfectionism, and anxiety; however, little research has have been linked to chronic stress, evaluated cognitive distortions in relation anxiety, and depression (Brown, to perfectionism. This study examines Hammen, Craske, & Wickens, 1995; associations of positive and negative Chang, 1997; Chang, & Sanna, 2001). Jennifer E. Nyland perfectionism, cognitive distortion, and Cognitive distortions, especially McNair Scholar maximization. A distinction is made excessive striving to be perfect, have between positive and negative perfectionism been recognized as contributions to as well as connections between negative perfectionism (Ellis, 2002). This study perfectionism, maximization, and explores the relationship between cognitive distortions. cognitive distortions and the cognitions of perfectionists, especially those of positive perfectionists. Perfectionism has traditionally been viewed as maladaptive. It has been linked to many psychopathologies including depressive symptomatologies, anxiety, interpersonal problems, problems expressing emotions–especially anger, neuroticism-characterized by an inability to acceptably handle stress, anxious and apprehensive behaviors, and proneness to worry (Blankstein, Flett, & Hewitt, 1993; Ferrari, 1995; Flett, Hewitt, & Dyck, 1989; Flett, Hewitt, Endler, & Tassone, 1995; Flett, Hewitt, Garshowitz, & Martin, 1997; Hewitt & Flett, 1991, 1993; Hill, Zrull, & Turlington, 1997; Mitchelson & Burns, 1998; Norman, Davies, Nicholson, Cortese, & Malla, 1998). Lawrence R. Burns, Ph.D. However, a different perspective Faculty Mentor emerges when the perfectionism construct is expanded to include a positive component, supported by the correlation found between

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 61 normal and adaptive behaviors to do not increase stress for satisficers maximization is believed to be related to perfectionism (Burns, Dittman, Nguyen, because satisficers are able to ignore cognitive distortion, regret, depression, & Mitchelson, 2000; Burns & Fedewa, additional options. anxiety, and a low satisfaction with in press; Flett, Russo, & Hewitt, 1994; Regardless of stature, maximizers life, which is also expected of negative Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblatt, tend to be unsatisfied with their perfectionism. This will give sufficient 1990; Hamachek, 1978; Norman, et decisions. The interaction between evidence that maximization is an al., 1998; Terry-Short, Owens, Slade, maximizing and choice causes alternative construct of perfectionism. & Dewey, 1995). Positive perfectionists regret, depression, and self-blame. It is expected that reappraisal as a strive for high achievement and can Maximization is negatively related to means of emotional regulation will gain a sense of satisfaction even when a happiness, self-esteem, and satisfaction be negatively related to negative goal is not perfectly met. They feel free with life, while positively correlated perfectionism and positively related to to be less precise if need be, set realistic to depression and regret. This study positive perfectionism. It is expected expectations, and are able to derive aims to explore the properties of that suppression as a means of pleasure from the act of striving for a maximization to establish a correlation emotional regulation will be goal. Contrarily, negative perfectionists between maximizers and perfectionists. positively related to negative consistently set unattainable goals and Another method of determining perfectionism and negatively related to are driven only by the fear of failing to cognitive dysfunction is measuring positive perfectionism. attain these goals (Terry-Short, et al., emotional regulation. Theories of self- 1995). Self-acceptance and the retention regulation and emotion suggest that Method of self, even in the face of failure, set some forms of emotional regulation Participants positive perfectionism apart from may have unintended consequences The participants in our sample were negative perfectionism (Hamachek). for cognitive functioning. Two 149 male and 195 female introductory Therefore, affective and cognitive issues methods of emotional regulation are psychology students at a Midwestern may reflect important differences in considered in this study: suppression university receiving credit points for perfectionistic tendencies. and reappraisal. Emotional suppression their participation. The mean age of Because of the striking resemblance involves concealing outward signs of our sample was 19.6 years old between maximization and cognitive emotion; emotional reappraisal entails (SD=2.7). The racial/ethnic composition distortions, maximization is explored in changing how we think about an event of our sample was reported to be this study to identify maximization as to neutralize its emotional impact 89.8% Caucasian, 4.5% African a possible adjunctive conceptualization and is thought to leave cognitive American, 1.7% Asian American, 2% of perfectionism. Previous research functioning intact. Hispanic, 0.6% American Indian, and by Schwartz, et al. (2002) determined It is hypothesized that negative 1.4% not provided. that, when faced with a complex perfectionism will be positively related decision, some individuals seek to depression, trait anxiety, and regret Procedure adequate or good outcomes, while while displaying a negative relationship Distribution of materials was arranged others find it necessary to seek the with satisfaction with life. Positive through introductory psychology best possible outcome. Maximizers perfectionism is hypothesized to have courses. Informed consent was continue to search for the best outcome negative relationships with depression, obtained and all participants were that is available, while satisficers trait anxiety, and regret, and it is offered credit for the completion of all have set preferences and search for expected to be positively related to of the measures. Upon completion, all an acceptable outcome to meet these satisfaction with life. It is hypothesized participants were fully debriefed and preferences. Added options pose that negative perfectionism will be thanked for their participation. problems to maximizers because it positively associated with cognitive T-tests revealed significant differences is often impossible to examine all distortions, and positive perfectionism in gender for three subscales: the alternatives before making a decision. will be negatively associated to reappraisal subscale of the ERQ (t=2.62, As options increase, the likelihood of cognitive distortions. p< .01), the suppression subscale of achieving the goal of maximization It can be hypothesized that the ERQ (t=-3.44, p< .001), and the decreases. On the contrary, the goal negative perfectionism will have more performance evaluation subscale of the of the satisficers is to find an option correlations to maximization than DAS (t=2.32, p< .05). However, due that is “good enough.” Added options positive perfectionism will. Also, to a lack of significant differences in

62 Dysfunctional Cognitions: Associations With Perfectionism any of the variables of primary interest, life, (4) relationships, and (5) self. The Landreth, et al., 2002) including job subsequent analyses were conducted on measure is designed using a 5-point related attitudes, maladaptive behaviors, the combined group. Likert-style scale where subjects indicate and self-esteem/neurotic thinking. their level of agreement with the 25 The Cronbach’s alpha for the ATQ is Measures individual statements. The general reported as 0.96. Positive and Negative Perfectionism life subscale was taken from Diener, Scale (PNP) Emmons, Larsen, and Griffen (1985). The Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale (DAS) This scale assesses perfectionism from Due to our specific interest, only the The DAS (Weisman & Beck, 1979) a functional or behaviorist perspective. general 5-item satisfaction with life evaluates cognitive disturbances, There are two subscales: (1) positive subscale was used. The coefficient which are believed to be the systematic perfectionism, believed to be a type of subscales range from 0.85 to 0.97 for errors in information processing that perfectionism resulting from linking all subscales, including the general are involved with depression. This positive reinforcements with antecedent satisfaction with life subscale self-report 20-item measure has seven perfectionistic behaviors and (2) (Allison et al., 1991). basic postulates that are characteristic negative perfectionism, theorized of depressed patients. The seven to be directly linked to negative The Center for Epidemiological Studies postulates are approbation, love, reinforcements. The PNP (Terry-Short Depression Scale (CES-D) success, perfectionism, allowing oneself et al., 1995) consists of 40 Likert scale The CES-D short form inventory is an rights, demands or obligations, and questions with responses ranging from 11-item self-report questionnaire for omnipotence or autonomy (Legeron, strongly disagree=1, to strongly agree=5. general depressive symptoms. The 1997). A general scoring was used as Scores were obtained by summing a CES-D short form has four factors well as two factor scales of “Performance coded set of 18 questions representing including depressed affect, positive Evaluation” and “Approval by Others” positive perfectionism and 22 questions affect, somatic complaints, and (Cane, Olinger, Gotlib, & Kuiper, 1986). depicting negative perfectionism. interpersonal problems (Kohout, The Cronbach’s alpha for this general Cronbach’s alphas obtained from our Berkman, Evans, & Cornoni-Huntley, scale is reported as 0.89. The sample were 0.83 and 0.85 for the 1993). This allows for the assessment of Cronbach’s alphas for Performance positive perfectionism and the negative current depressive affect and mood. The Evaluation and Approval by Others are perfectionism subscales, respectively. Cronbach’s alpha for the short form of 0.66 and 0.82, respectively. the CES-D is reported as 0.79. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-SF) Emotional Regulation Questionnaire The STAI-SF is a 6-item questionnaire Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (ERQ) that measures the long-standing quality (ATQ) The ERQ is a 10-item questionnaire of “trait anxiety” (Spielberger, Gorsuch, The ATQ is a 30-item measure used to determine a subject’s method & Lushene, 1970). This study used developed by Hollon and Kendall of emotional regulation. The ERQ uses a shortened version of the STAI-SF (1980) to measure the frequency a Likert scale ranging from strongly designed by Marteau and Bekker (1992), of negative thoughts or cognitions disagree=1, to strongly agree=7. It which consisted of only six trait items. experienced in relation to depression. was designed using items that reflect The shorter form maintains results Four facets of depression are taken into two major subscales: (1) emotional comparable to the full version and account: (1) personal maladjustment reappraisal and (2) emotional remains sensitive to different degrees of and desire for change, (2) negative self suppression. The ERQ-R (reappraisal) anxiety. The Cronbach’s alpha for the concept and negative expectations, uses items such as “I control my shortened version of the STAI is 0.82. (3) low self esteem, and (4) helplessness. emotions by changing the way I think Scores differentiate depressed from about the situation.” The Cronbach’s The Extended Satisfaction With Life non-depressed groups. Scores can alpha for the ERQ-R is 0.82. The ERQ-S Scale (ESWLS) range from 30 (no depression) to (suppression) uses statements such as “I The ESWLS (Allison, Alfonso, & Dunn, 150 (severe depression). Hollon and control my emotions by not expressing 1991) is a 25-item scale designed Kendall extracted four components that them.” The Cronbach’s alpha for the to measure a person’s perception of cumulatively accounted for 58.9% of ERQ-S is reported as 0.78. subjective well-being in five areas: (1) the variance in the scale (Netemeyer, general life, (2) social life, (3) sexual Williamson, Burton, Biswas, Jindal,

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 63 Regret and Maximization Scale Table #1. Means, Cronbach’s alphas, and correlations between positive and negative The regret and maximization scale perfectionism (Schwartz et al. 2002) is an 18-item Criterion PP NP Alpha M SD questionnaire that uses a 7-point Likert PP ----- .14** .83 68.8 7.7 scale to measure five items focusing NP .14** ----- .85 61.0 11.3 on regret and thirteen items focusing ERQ-R .04 -.11* .82 28.0 6.3 on maximization. The measure has ERQ-S -.04 .28*** .78 13.3 5.0 four factors: (1) regret, (2) behavioral REGT .05 .50*** .79 22.7 5.4 maximization, (3) shopping behaviors, ATQ -.07 .53*** .96 51.4 17.5 and (4) high self standards. For the DAS-B -.03 .59*** .89 81.5 18.8 purposes of this study, only behavioral DAS-F1 .06 .45*** .66 18.1 4.7 maximization and regret will be DAS-F2 -.03 .57*** .82 26.4 8.0 analyzed. The Cronbach’s alphas for MAX .22** .42*** .70 4.0 0.8 the regret subscale and the behavioral CESD -.01 .42*** .79 17.3 4.2 maximization scale are reported as 0.67 SWL .16** -.37*** .85 17.6 4.7 and 0.71, respectively. STAI .02 .13* .82 8.1 4.2

Results Notes: PP, NP, ERQ, ATQ, DAS, CESD, SWL, and STAI all have N=344 REGT and MAX have N=176; It was expected that cognitive PP=Positive Perfectionism; NP=Negative Perfectionism; ERQ-R=Emotional Regulation-Reappraisal; ERQ- S=Emotional Regulation-Suppression; REGT=Regret; ATQ=Automatic Thoughts; DAS-B=Dysfunctional distortions would be related primarily to Attitudes; DAS-F1=Performance Evaluation; DAS-F2=Approval by Others; MAX=Maximization; negative perfectionism and also to other CESD=Depression; SWL=Satisfaction With Life; STAI=Trait Anxiety. negative symptomatologies. All findings *p< .05, **p< .01, ***p< .001 were consistent with our predictions. Positive perfectionism was found to have between positive perfectionism and the The positive and negative perfectionism no significant relationship with either ERQ-R (reappraisal) were found. Results scale revealed substantial differences, automatic thoughts or dysfunctional show that negative perfectionism and the indicating that the distinction between attitudes, which was expected. ERQ-R were negatively related positive and negative perfectionism It was hypothesized that negative (r=-.12, p< .05). Negative perfectionism is both theoretically and practically perfectionists would exhibit trait correlated positively with emotional meaningful. Our findings suggest that anxiety, high levels of regret, and suppression (r=.28, p< .001). positive perfectionists rely on more depressive symptomatologies while rational cognitions, possibly even the having a low satisfaction with life. Discussion same underlying cognitions that are Results were consistent with the Negative perfectionists were more likely used and exaggerated by negative predictions. As expected, no significant than positive perfectionists to display perfectionists. Positive perfectionists results were found between positive cognitive distortion, making cognitive set high goals and expectations for perfectionism and trait anxiety, regret, or distortions unique to the cognitive themselves, similar to maximizers depressive symptomatologies; positive functioning of negative perfectionists. and negative perfectionists; however, perfectionism was found to have a Negative perfectionists were also more their cognitions are more rational and positive correlation with satisfaction likely to use suppression as a means they are able to accept a decision after with life (r=.16, p< .01). of emotional regulation instead of the making it. Lacking cognitive distortions As predicted, negative perfectionism less detrimental option, reappraisal. such as self-doubt and need for approval correlated positively with maximization Negative perfectionists were more by others, positive perfectionists do (r=.42, p< .001). Results gave an likely to report higher levels of anxiety, not linger on the possibility that their unexpected positive correlation between regret, and depression, and lower decision was not the “best” choice. They maximization and positive perfectionism levels of satisfaction with life. Positive still have the desire to make the best (r=.22, p< .01). Results of maximization perfectionism correlated strongly with possible decision; however, they do were consistent with previous literature. satisfaction with life and was found to not second-guess themselves afterward. It was thought that positive perfection- have no significant relationship to regret, Maximizers are believed to possess only ists would rely on emotional reappraisal; depression, trait anxiety, emotional maladaptive traits; however, results however, no significant correlations suppression, and emotional reappraisal. found that positive perfectionists appear

64 Dysfunctional Cognitions: Associations With Perfectionism to be a group of maximizers that are perfectionism. Reappraisal was thought Cognitive distortions were found not problematic due to a lack of regret. to leave cognitive functionings intact, to be the cognitive processes of A distinct variation occurs between the and hence was expected to be related negative perfectionists, while positive cognitions of a positive perfectionist and to positive perfectionism; however, no perfectionists were found to have a lack a negative perfectionist, which further relationship was established between of cognitive distortion. indicates the importance of studying the reappraisal and positive perfectionism. This study is correlational, and due two separately. This implies, assuming reappraisal leaves to the limitations of a college sample, Many similarities were observed when cognitive functioning intact, that positive generalization and interpretation is comparing negative perfectionism to perfectionism must possess some level limited until further research confirms maximization. Automatic thoughts, of cognitive distortion, dysfunctionality, our findings. Results suggest further cognitive distortions, negative or possibly another means of cognitive research is warranted regarding the performance evaluation, and need processing. Negative perfectionists were distinction between positive and for approval are apparently cognitive unrelated to reappraisal because they negative perfectionism. More reliable functions that are shared by negative exhibit more cognitive distortion; their measures of cognitive distortion may perfectionists and maximizers alike. tendency to internalize problems gives be useful for further exploration of how With both possessing similar cognitions them more vulnerability to expressing positive and negative perfectionists react and similar outcomes, a reasonable negative emotion; however, the need differently to everyday life. explanation is that perfectionism and for approval by others keeps them from Positive and negative perfectionists maximization are two methods for displaying these negative emotions. do think and react differently in explaining the same phenomenon. According to the results, evidence is everyday life, and these cognitions Reappraisal as a means of emotional given to further identify positive and have contrasting consequences. These regulation was found to be unrelated to negative perfectionism as two separate differences have distinct implications for positive perfectionism, which is contrary entities. Negative perfectionism was further research and for behavioral and to the original hypothesis. However, as found to be similar to maximization cognitive treatments. expected, reappraisal was found to have due to similar outcomes of depression, a negative relationship with negative anxiety, regret, and cognitive distortions.

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GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 67 68 Cultural Influences on the Formation of Interpersonal Intentions

Abstract Introduction The formation of interpersonal intentions The formation of interpersonal has been a central theme in social- intentions has been a central theme psychological research for over twenty in social psychological research for years. Existing psychological models more than twenty years. An intention propose that attitudes, social norms, and is defined as a self-instruction to moral obligations often combine to form perform a specific behavior and is intentions. These models will be utilized usually measured as the estimate of the to develop individual indexes of the likelihood that a person will perform relative influence of attitudes, norms, and the behavior. Past research suggested moral obligations in forming intentions. that intentions could be measured These indexes will then be correlated through attitudes, although it is very with measures of locus of control, self- difficult to predict behavior with a monitoring, and individualism-collectivism single attitude score (Fishbein & Ajzen, in order to explore the extent to which 1975). Understanding how intentions personal and cultural factors influence the are formed, especially those about social intention-formation process. behavior, has been considered a major theoretical problem in social psychology because it is linked to the explanation of Susan Polanco interpersonal behavior. On the practical McNair Scholar side, the prediction of social behavior– especially behavior that is complex and needs to be reasoned through–cannot be accomplished without access to people’s intentions about the behavior. Fishbein and Ajzen’s model for attitudinal prediction of behavior suggests that behavior is influenced by a person’s intention to perform that behavior and that his/her intention, in turn, is influenced by two other variables: a personal or “attitudinal” factor and a social or “normative” factor (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). The central equation (1) is as follows:

B ~ BI = [Aact]w0 + [NB (Mc) ]w1 In this equation, B=overt behavior, BI=Behavioral Intention, Aact=attitude toward the act, NB=Normative Belief, Mc=Motivation to comply with the normative belief, and w0 and w1 are empirically determined weights. The behavioral intention in this theory refers to a self-instruction to perform a given action in a given situation; it is John Adamopoulos, Ph.D. the intention to perform the particular Faculty Mentor overt response that is to be predicted. A person’s attitude, or his/her evaluation towards a specific act (as opposed to their attitude towards the object),

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 69 is proposed to be a function of its of behavior. The second sequence person “ought” to do. Some past work perceived consequences and its value focuses on the determinants of an by psychologists (Davidson, Jaccard, to the individual (Ajzen & Fishbein, individual’s motivation to perform the Triandis, Morales, Diaz-Guerrero, 1976) 1973). The normative belief component behavior. The six major variables that has alluded to that, but for the most part measures the individual’s belief of the influence this component are attitudes, this problem has not been given a lot of likelihood that members of a social social norms, expectancies, self-concept, systematic attention. group expect him to perform the affect and emotional reactions, and The present study will focus on behavior in question. As the equation (1) self-efficacy. Demographic, biological, these three determinants of (or sources shows, the effect of the normative belief and other more distal variables are of influence on) intentions, and will is modified by the individual’s motivation believed to influence through these six examine how they may differentially to comply with that expectation. predictor variables. In addition, the affect the process of intention formation Triandis (1975) also developed a relative importance of the determinants in differing cultural contexts. In model for the prediction of behavior of behavior may also differ from one particular, this approach predicts similar to that of Fishbein and Ajzen population to another. that individualists will be influenced (1975). He believes that intentions are a It would appear from the work primarily by attitudes (affect, personal function of different social antecedents reviewed above that culture must play wishes) in forming intentions. According (S) including perceived norms, roles, a significant role in the formation to Triandis (1993), individualists have the self-concept, and interpersonal of intentions. After all, intentions, an independent self; they choose their agreements; the perceived affect according to the theories reviewed goals to fit their individual needs instead associated with the behavior (A); and above, are a function of, among other of the group’s; they behave according to the sum of the perceived consequences things, norms, which are influenced their attitudes, beliefs, and values; and associated with that behavior (Pc) by culture and various social factors. they base their relationships on a cost/ multiplied by the value of each In fact, intentionality itself is a benefit analysis of the relationship. He consequence (Vc). Different weights, psychological construct that must be at also suggests that collectivist individuals γ, δ, and ε, are applied to determine least partially determined by culture, are influenced more by “external” whether the person places more since culture makes a range of behaviors factors. They are more interdependent, emphasis on social influences, or S, (γ), available to us to perform. Despite this choose goals that are compatible with attitudes, or A, (δ), or consequences and connection, cross-cultural research their in-group, and emphasize norms their value to the person, or PcVc (ε). has not paid a lot of attention to this and relatedness versus rationality as The equation (2) is as follows: problem. determinants of their behavior. However,

I = γS + δA + ∑PcVc The present theory deals with the previous research has not differentiated There are several other approaches role culture plays in the formation of between different types of “external” to the prediction of behavior. In an intentions, at the group level, but more sources. In this study, we will explore effort to integrate the existing theories, importantly, at the individual level. this problem in depth. including the above mentioned, the As implied earlier, self-instructions Research participants will be asked National Institute of Mental Health must have one or more sources–what to indicate their intentions to perform sponsored a workshop in which traditional psychologists have called a number of different behaviors from a Fishbein and Ajzen, Triandis, and “attitudes.” The other source may variety of domains in their lives (e.g., many other researchers met to develop reveal an external influence–what social financial decisions, personal lives/ a common theoretical framework psychologists have called “norms.” relationships). They will also respond that integrated the core constructs of Further reflection, however, reveals that to a number of scales measuring the each theory (Jaccard, Litardo, & Wan, such “external” influences (filtered, of extent to which they are influenced by 1999). The model is organized into two course, through the individual’s own attitudes, norms, and moral obligations/ sequences, the first of which focuses on perceptual system) may themselves duty. Their responses will be analyzed the immediate determinants of behavior. be of different kinds. For example, at the individual level in order to create The four variables of this component “norms” may refer to community a personal “intention profile” for each include the individual’s knowledge and standards–what a person “should” do. subject. In other words, using multiple skills for behavioral performance, the In addition, however, there may be a regression techniques, we will form a motivation to perform the behavior, sense of duty or moral obligation that model showing the extent to which environmental constraints, and salience also drives people’s intentions–what a each subject’s intentions are generally

70 Cultural Influences on the Formation of Interpersonal Intentions influenced by attitudes, norms, moral in determining their intentions, Example: Attitude obligations, or a combination of the whereas collectivists will be Calling or talking to my family very three. In other words, the regression influenced by duty (Triandis, Ping, often while in college is weights will reflect the extent to which Chen, & Chan, 1998). However, good :_:_:_:_:_:_:_: bad attitudes, norms, or moral obligations contrary to previous research, we unimportant :_:_:_:_:_:_:_: important play a systematic role in determining the expect that norms will be just as wise :_:_:_:_:_:_:_: foolish intentions of a particular individual. likely to influence individualists Participants will also respond to as collectivists because all people Example: Subjective Norm a number of scales measuring stable are subject to the influence of Most people who are important to me dispositions: self-monitoring, locus of community standards. It is the think that I should call or talk to my control, and individualism-collectivism. role of duty that has emerged as family very often while in college. The self-monitoring scale measures a significant difference between agree :_:_:_:_:_:_:_: disagree the process of making sure that one’s individualists and collectivists in behavior conforms with the demands of recent cross-cultural research (e.g. Example: Moral Obligation the current social situation. The locus Miller, 1994). I feel a moral obligation or duty to call of control scale differentiates people or talk to my family very often while in who believe that they themselves are Method college. primarily responsible for what happens Participants agree :_:_:_:_:_:_:_: disagree to them from those who believe major Fourteen male and 15 female students events in their lives are determined from an Introductory Psychology Individualism-Collectivism Scale mainly by other people or forces course at Grand Valley State University This scale measures the degree to beyond themselves. The individualism- completed the surveys. They received which respondents are individualists collectivism scale measures the degree academic credit for their participation. or collectivists. Individualists are not to which people are fundamentally as integrated with others and with the independent vs. interdependent. Each Instruments social environment as are those who are scale will be used to test a different Intentions collectivists (Hui, 1988). They believe aspect of our approach: A list of 30 intentions and their they can survive independently and underlying components (attitudes, therefore define the self as separate from 1) For the self-monitoring scale, subjective norms, and moral the group. Collectivists see themselves we expect a correlation with the obligations) was generated following more as members of a group and define intention profile, such that low recommendations by Fishbein and the self as interdependent with others. self-monitors will be more likely Ajzen (1975) and Triandis (1976). An The scale consists of 29 items that are to determine their intentions from effort was made to sample intentions all measured on a 7-point agree/disagree their attitudes or personal wishes. from a variety of domains of people’s scale. An example of a scale item lives, including career/school, personal appears below: 2) For the locus of control scale, life/dating, family/marriage/children, we are looking for discriminant helping others, and finances/purchases. When another person does better than I validity. In other words, we will try Respondents rated the likelihood of the do, I get tense and aroused. to show that the intention profile statement on a 7-point likely/unlikely agree :_:_:_:_:_:_:_: disagree for each subject is different from scale. Examples of the measurement of simply a sense of having control attitudes, subjective norms, and moral Self-Monitoring Scale over one’s life. After all, one’s sense obligations for an intention involving This scale measures the degree to of personal self-instruction should family relationships follow: which respondents observe and be psychologically independent of control their self-presentation and being under the control of others. Example: Intention expressive behavior (Snyder, 1974). I intend to call or talk to my family very Those who score high on the scale are 3) For the individualism-collectivism often while in college. said to modify their self-presentation scale, previous research suggests likely :_:_:_:_:_:_:_: unlikely and their behavior according to the that individualists will be more social situation. Those who score low likely to be influenced by attitudes

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 71 behave more independently of the In this equation, I = Intention, A = Discussion social situation. The scale consists of 25 Attitude, SN = Social Norms, and Our hypothesis that individualists were items, and respondents have to answer MO = Moral Obligations. ω1, ω1, and going to score high on the attitude scale whether they consider the statement to ω1 are the standardized regression and the collectivists on the social norms be true or false. An example of a scale weights computed for each of the and moral obligations scales was not item appears below: three predictors. They were used in supported. In fact, though the results subsequent analyses as indexes of were still not significant, the opposite When I am uncertain how to act in a the importance of each of the three trend was found with the individualists social situation, I look to the behavior of predictors in the decision-making scoring higher on the moral obligations others for cues. T_____ F_____ process of every individual. scale. One reason for this outcome could One of the results we expected to be the small number of subjects that Locus of Control Scale find was that individuals who scored participated in the study. Another reason This scale measures the degree to high on the individualism scale would could be that the data were collected which respondents believe that they are also score high on the attitude scale from a sample in an area of high responsible for what happens in their as determinant of their intentions. We religiosity, and religion usually plays a lives or the degree to which they believe also expected that individuals scoring highly significant role in the formation of that external forces control their destinies high on the collectivism scale would an individual’s moral obligations. (Levenson, 1973). Those who score high also score high on social norms and The correlation between the self- believe that they are in control of their moral obligations scales. However, monitoring score and that of social lives, and those who score low believe correlations among the three predictors norms suggests that individuals who that chance, fate, and powerful others and the individual’s individualism and are high self-monitors–meaning that have more control over their destinies. collectivism scores were not significant. they adjust their behavior depending The scale consists of 24 items, measured The correlation between individualism on the social situation–also rely on on a 7-point agree/disagree scale. An and attitudes was r I, A = -.122, n.s. The social norms in their decision-making example of a scale item appears below: correlation between collectivism and process. This correlation was predicted

social norms was r COL, SN = -.127, n.s. because high self-monitors follow social To a great extent my life is controlled by Moreover, contrary to what we expected, norms in order to adjust their behavior accidental happenings. we found that the correlation between according to the demands of the current agree :_:_:_:_:_:_:_: disagree individualism and moral obligations social situation. was higher than that of collectivism and Another interesting result was

Five random orders will be generated for moral obligations, with r I,MO = .252, n.s. the higher correlation between the the items of the four scales to reduce any Correlations were also computed individualists and their “chance” score fatigue effects. Research participants will between the predictors and the self- from the Locus of Control scale. This be informed of the general purpose of the monitoring and locus of control scales. suggests that individualists tend to study and given one hour to complete the The self-monitoring score was correlated believe that chance plays a significant surveys. At the end of the experimental with the social norms score, with role in what determines the outcomes session, each participant will be debriefed r SM, SN = .409, p<.05; the correlations in their lives. We had predicted that about the nature of the study and given a between the attitudes score and that there would be no correlation between chance to ask questions. of social norms and moral obligations the locus of control scores and the

were r A, SN = -.458 and r A, MO = -.613, collectivism or individualism scores Results respectively. Moreover, we did not because one’s sense of personal self- A multiple regression was computed for expect to find any relationship between instruction should be psychologically each subject’s responses. The dependent the individuals’ scores on the locus of independent from being under the variable was the intention, and the control scale and any of the other scales. control of others. These results may predictors were the attitude, calculated Indeed the results were not significant, also be due to the small sample in our as the mean of three items, social norms, except for a marginally significant study. Further data collection in order to and moral obligations. The central correlation between the individualists explore these trends is indicated. equation of the theory is as follows: and their chance score (belief that what happens in their life is due to chance),

I = ω1 A + ω 2 SN + ω 3 MO (3) with r IND, CH = .345 p=.10.

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GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 73 74 The Metonymies of Unhappy Families

ABSTRACT “All happy families are alike; each The current study explores the use of unhappy family is unhappy in its certain writing devices that appear in the own way” (Tolstoy 1; pt.1, ch. I). works of Leo Tolstoy and Naguib Mahfouz. Despite the cultural background of The study develops an in-depth comparison any given family, one element always of how these two authors implement devices will remain universally the same: if the such as original similes; description of family is unhappy, they will share their characters through the narrator, other unhappiness with each other in a way characters, and themselves; interior that is uniquely their own. Both Leo monologue; and metonymy to create real Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina and Naguib characters in real situations. Though the Mahfouz’s The Cairo Trilogy address the reality of the two worlds differs because of phenomenon of the unhappy family, economic, geographical, social, and religious one essentially Russian and the other backgrounds, they both reveal the universal essentially Middle Eastern. Though in theme of family unhappiness, whether in comparison with one another, the two Russia or in Egypt. families appear culturally and, therefore, emotionally and socially different, both authors use the same stylistic writing devices to portray family unhappiness. Megan Staples The influence of Tolstoy’s writing style McNair Scholar upon Mahfouz’s own style of writing in the latter’s realistic period yet remains undiscovered territory, though many interviews and descriptions of Mahfouz’s writings claim a connection and direct influence on Mahfouz by such Russian realist authors such as Fedor Dostoevsky and Tolstoy. A cultural, emotional, geographical, and social comparison of the characters of these disparate novels logically cannot yield much of an in-depth and logical connection; the focus of comparison then shifts to how Mahfouz displays a striking affinity in the realistic novels of his Cairo Trilogy for various stylistic devices that Tolstoy employs in his works, especially in Anna Karenina. Both authors use their prototypes of unhappy families to highlight their own reality as they depict their respective cultures. What Sasson Somekh says about Mahfouz and his purpose of writing also applies to Tolstoy: “His main concern is to tell the story of his Christine Rydel, Ph.D. Majd Al-Mallah, Ph.D. own world, past and present, mundane Faculty Mentor Faculty Mentor and spiritual [ … ] he is fascinated above all by the process of that change” (112). All of Mahfouz’s characters have their own quirks that are realistic

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 75 enough to make them stand on their hospitable soul, like nightingales in a Vronsky cannot believe that Alexei own within their families. Yet these leafy tree” (Mahfouz 15; Palace Walk, is real until he encounters him and quirks maintain a harmony with other ch. 2) emphasizes the duality of the experiences a feeling that leaves a bad family members to the point that they family’s paterfamilias, Ahmad Abd Al- taste in his mouth. All of these similes still remain well-connected within their Jawad’s personality, and the split role express situations common to the element and do not reflect any influence of dictator and fun-loving friend he human race and thus emphasize the of characters from other Russian literary plays throughout the novel. Similes reality of the world of these characters periods except realism. The authors extend even to the womanizing aspect however unique they may be. portray characters one might find of his personality as “his affection for Tolstoy is the first to use another in real life, perhaps even the family Zubayda was starting to go bad, like a device which Mahfouz takes up in his next door. In this realistic portrayal fruit at the end of its season (Mahfouz descriptions of the mundane life and of the characters, Mahfouz creates 365; Palace Walk, ch. 51). The reader habits of his characters. Authors reveal memorable personages with an array of can easily compare these examples in the inner lives of their characters in a characteristics in a family dynamic. Mahfouz’s writing with earlier examples number of ways, for example through Before we become acquainted with by Tolstoy in Anna Karenina as when the descriptions of the food they eat or the both sets of unhappy families, we must young girl in love, Kitty, is torn between times in which the characters gather. become familiar with the specific devices the men in her life and the choice that These foods and the appetites these that Mahfouz seems to have in common ultimately decides her fate. Though not characters have for these foods can tell with Tolstoy. Both of these authors as frivolous an affection as Ahmad Abd a great deal about possible underlying famously use their similes to emphasize Al-Jawad’s, she nonetheless must find flaws of a character. For instance, Kamal, the unusual in the mundane when they the souring fruit of her season in order the youngest son and future scholar, has describe the characters in their novels. to make a decision. a sweet tooth, which often, at least in Both of these authors the beginning, forms the basis for his Between dinner and the beginning decisions. After all, his desire to visit a [m]ake as little use as possible of the evening, Kitty experienced local pastry store results in his mother’s of the commonplace images a feeling similar to that of a young becoming seriously injured. and instead try to forge his own man before battle. (Tolstoy 46; metaphor. This is especially evident pt. 1, ch. XIII) They were very slowly approaching in a great number of original the corner of al-Ghuriya. When similes…. Yet the great majority of Thus she further ponders the they reached it, his eyes fell on them convey a sharp observation relationships she has with her suitors a pastry shop, and his mouth and original viewpoint. Often and, like Abd Al-Jawad, must act watered. His eyes were fixed the components of a simile are according to how they make her feel. intently on the shop. He began in complete harmony with the In like manner, Vronsky, Anna’s future to think of a way to persuade context, situation or character lover, relies on his feelings when he his mother to enter the store described. The images for these encounters Anna’s husband, Alexei, and and purchase a pastry. He was similes are, generally speaking, tries to form his impressions of this still thinking about it when they drawn from personal observation of fresh-faced Petersburg native with the reached the shop, but before he daily life and natural phenomena. slightly curved back, round hat, and knew what was happening his (Somekh 135) sternly self-confident figure who stands mother had slipped from his hand. in the way of his and Anna’s love: (Mahfouz 182; Palace Walk, ch. 27) Each simile has a dual purpose: to draw the reader to the realistic elements …he believed in him and Kamal focuses his eyes solely and in the novel as well as to parallel experienced an unpleasant feeling, greedily on the pastry and pays no the realistic with the nature of the like that of a man suffering from attention to his mother, who rarely character. In their similes, Mahfouz thirst who comes to a spring and leaves her home to venture outside. and Tolstoy recreate sensual struggles finds in it a dog, a sheep or a pig He does not notice his mother’s needs through often overlooked and common who has both drunk and muddied and fears, which confuse her to such details of life. For example, the simile the water. (Tolstoy 105; pt. 1, an extent that she falls into traffic and “thus their tunes found shelter in his ch. XXXI) becomes seriously injured as a result of

76 The Metonymies of Unhappy Families his negligence. In addition, this event attracted only to the superficial in his women. An honest creature, he, too, foreshadows the adult Kamal, who relationships with women; he sees only describes himself as an animal: constantly shows his unwillingness to their outer appearance as a source of settle on the more substantial things of pleasure rather than explore their inner You’re the most beautiful creature life as he pursues the fleeting ephemera lives as a source of lasting love. ever to arouse my passion. Holding of philosophy instead of the stolid On the other hand, the literature your lip between mine…sucking substance of a government career as a people read in these novels can also on your nipple…. I’ll wait until source of income. uplift the souls and establish the real dawn. You’ll find me very docile. If The kinds of beverages people gather authority of the characters in their you want me to be the rear end of around and the times that are associated pursuit of the spiritual world. Kitty a donkey cart that you rock back with them also can tell much about the and Amina emerge as two examples and forth on, I’ll do it. If you want nature of a character. Dolly, Tolstoy’s of genuine spiritual authority in their me to be the ass pulling the cart, example of a long-suffering wife of a households. Kitty, raised in the Russian I’ll do that. (Mahfouz 260; womanizer and devoted mother and Orthodox Church and an avid believer Palace Walk, ch. 39) Mahfouz’s Egyptian counterpart, Amina, in the Gospels, represents the spiritual gather their families together around guide who proclaims life to the dead He, in fact, is “the ass pulling the cart” tea or coffee ceremonies (Tolstoy 75; and contributes to the realization of as he suggests because he is led by his pt. 1, ch. XXI; Tolstoy 290; pt. 3, ch. the meaning of life for her husband, passion and not by his logic. Finally, the XV; Mahfouz 57; Palace Walk, ch. 9; Levin (Tolstoy 496-500; pt. 5, ch. XIX- narrator attributes one more animalistic Mahfouz 69; Palace Walk, ch. 11). This XX; Tolstoy 811-12; pt. 8, ch. XVII). trait to Yasin: that of a bull elephant, social event is the only activity that As a living testament to the sayings of another fitting simile given the size of never fails to bring the family together the Quran and the daughter of an avid his body. and acts as the only stable force in scholar of the holy book (Mahfouz 221; changing lives. These two women’s Palace Walk, ch. 33), Amina studies Intoxicating desire swept through families and households revolve around with her son every night in order to his [Yasin’s] body, and he fell on them; without them and the gathering ensure his religious well-being. She her [Zanuba] like a bull elephant power they bring “to the table” that herself becomes excited at the shrines crushing a gazelle. (Mahfouz 270; represents the only lasting, established of the figures of her faith (Mahfouz Palace Walk, ch. 39) tradition on which they can rely, 71; Palace Walk, ch. 11; Mahfouz 181; the families’ stability founders and Palace Walk, ch. 27). Thus, both women Such descriptions emphasize not only eventually collapses. emulate the books from which they the sheer mass of Yasin’s body but also The books which the characters read take their wisdom as they educate those the animalistic tendencies that compose also tell much about their personalities. around them. his nature. Yasin, the oldest son of the family, What the narrator reveals about his Another amusing example of a provides a stunning example of this characters and what other characters character’s dialogue that describes his device of characterization. He first reveal about each other and themselves womanizing occurs in Tolstoy’s Anna encourages Kamal to read and love constitute other devices that Tolstoy and Karenina. Stepan, Anna’s charming books; however, the books which Mahfouz implement in their writings. brother and Dolly’s wayward husband, Yasin reads to Kamal mainly describe Some examples include Zanuba’s has a conversation with Levin in exploits. Exploits are an appropriate description of Yasin as a camel: “‘My which he tries to persuade him of his topic that displays adequately the camel, how would I know about own behavior toward women especially character of Yasin, who indulges passion?’ she asked” (Mahfouz 263; his wife. in numerous exploits with women Palace Walk, ch. 39). Her description of (Mahfouz 57; Palace Walk, ch. 9) and Yasin and his nature is quite accurate; ‘Why not? Sometimes a sweet roll may have led to his younger brother’s as big as a camel, he also can hold quite is so fragrant that you can’t help difficulty in grasping the substantial a large amount of liquor. But as a man, yourself…. No, joking aside,’ over the ephemeral. Yasin loves the he also demonstrates a huge capacity for Oblonsky went on. ‘Understand, superficial and reads books not for women; he nightly frequents the bars there’s this woman, a dear, meek, their educational value but rather as he seeks more and more liquor and loving being, poor, lonely, and for entertainment. He similarly is even more opportunities to encounter who has sacrificed everything.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 77 Now, when the deed is already of her husband comprises an entire (Somekh 118). He is powerfully tall, done—understand—how can I chapter dedicated to her innermost extraordinarily handsome, enormously abandon her? Suppose we part, so feelings. Not only does it reveal the vital, and robustly healthy; in addition as not to destroy my family; but intensity of Amina’s emotions, it also he sports a stream of gleaming black how can I not pity her, not provide helps to enhance and demonstrate the hair (Mahfouz 92; Palace Walk, ch. for her, not try to soften it?’ ‘Well, most vital social aspect of Mahfouz’s 14). These outward traits become you must excuse me. You know, for writings about the downtrodden women important because they contribute to me all women are divided into two of his society (Mahfouz 1209-13; Sugar his womanizing nature. Later on, these sorts…that is, no…rather: there Street, ch. 153). Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina looks begin to fade as Ahmad Abd Al- are women and there are…I’ve reflects not on the death of a loved one, Jawad begins to age and grow sickly; as never seen and never will see any but on her own impending suicide Mahfouz repeatedly draws the reader’s lovely fallen creatures, and ones like and the nature of death. Though some attention to the change in Al-Jawad’s that painted Frenchwoman at the may not consider Anna’s mourning as looks, to his loss of handsomeness, he counter, with all those ringlets— sublime as Amina’s because Anna causes simultaneously tracks his seeming loss they’re vermin for me, and all the her own suffering out of mistaken of purpose. At the end, Al-Jawad even fallen ones are the same.’ (Tolstoy jealousy and petulant selfishness, it begins to foreshadow Amina after she 40-41; pt. 1, ch. XI) may be even more profound. Amina loses him to death. Nevertheless, the loses her purpose in life when her duality of his nature seems to be more Stepan’s ludicrous description of women beloved husband dies; Anna may kill prevalent in Mahfouz’s descriptions of compares them to pastries and values herself out of a lack of purpose she only him, probably stemming from Al-Jawad’s the fallen women over the purity of perceives as missing from her existence. desire to cover up from his family his wife. His statement only reconfirms Tolstoy assigns several chapters to the sinfulness of his actions with the his love of the superficially sweet and her contemplation of death because disreputable ladies he visits. satisfying and his weakness for the of the complexity of her reasoning frivolities and cheap thrills of life—not and eventual end. Unfortunately, both The complexity of this character unlike Mahfouz’s Kamal. These similes examples of these interior monologues can be further demonstrated by become important in the context of the are too lengthy to quote here. the fact that he is a man of many figure of speech, metonymy, where the Of all the devices Mahfouz may have faces. He is one person at home (“a part stands for the whole. This device learned from Tolstoy, metonymy seems resolute, severe face”) and another remains Tolstoy’s favorite means of to be the figure of speech that appealed with his friends (“a smiling, radiant characterization. Both he and Mahfouz most to the Egyptian writer. As they use face”). He is, again, different when use metonymy as a recurring trait that this figure of speech, both authors assign facing his God (“a submissive face”). remains constant as the circumstances a particular trait—or particular traits— (Somekh 116) around the characters change. I shall to each character to help them stand return to this figure of speech later. out from the others. Because the specific Al Jawad’s whole motivation, besides One major device, interior trait remains constant throughout the luring women, is to keep up his façades, monologue, records the changes works, it acts as a reliable backdrop to which becomes a life long task for him characters undergo as well as their the events that change the circumstances even to the end of his life. Thus, both reflections on the vagaries of their lives. of the characters’ lives. All of the character descriptions help to connect This device offers a variety of clues into main characters possess a unique trait him to his family and the rest of the the inner thoughts of the characters and that will somehow contribute to the characters. His womanizing connects how they see themselves. Sometimes unhappiness of their families. Of all of him to Yasin and to a certain extent these personal thoughts may be as the main characters in Anna Karenina Kamal, who cannot ever settle down superficial as the characters; at other and The Cairo Trilogy, perhaps Ahmad to the substantial and even extends to times, they offer the most shocking Abd Al-Jawad causes the greatest the latter’s preferring the company of revelations. Of course, the level of amount of misery. prostitutes rather than an actual wife. profundity of the inner monologues Ahmad Abd Al-Jawad, the most Al-Jawad’s face of resolute severity also exists on the same hierarchic scale as the tyrannical figure of the two novels, helps to establish the reign of oppression depth or shallowness of the characters. “is among the few characters who he forces his family to endure which Amina’s interior monologue at the death are not passive in the face of events” leads to the death of his beloved middle-

78 The Metonymies of Unhappy Families son, Fahmi; to the gradual shrinking— He prays avidly not for his sins to elaborated background (again without and within—of his wife, Amina; be forgiven, but for an addition divorced parents; obsession with and to the destruction of his beautiful of piousness to his repertoire of his mother’s indecencies, etc.) is daughter, Aisha. One of the harshest personalities. not a deep character. All in all, if examples of his tyranny comes when he we accept E.M. Forster’s definition expels Amina from the household and Al-Sayyid’s portrait is not a static that the flat character is constructed jeopardizes the stability of the family one. The richness of his psychology round a single idea or quality, then as he separates her from her children and background motivations are Yasin is a flat character. The quality (Mahfouz 209-14; Palace Walk, ch. 31- not an end in themselves. They are around which Yasin is constructed 32). Eventually, he must reverse his instrumental in producing the tragic is sex obsession. ‘His temperament decision because of the intervention climax in which he is eventually made him crave the body of a of his children and the introduction of placed (Somekh 117). woman, neglecting her personality. several other characters who are to play Furthermore his attention is always a major role in the family’s future times His main characteristic of duplicity leads focused on certain parts of her of trouble (Mahfouz 228-41; Palace him astray instead of providing him the body, never the body as a whole.’ Walk, ch. 34-35). Al-Jawad often times strength and endurance he seeks. In (125- 26) reserves his face of smiling radiance the end he becomes as weak and frail for his friends and various ladies of as Amina, who recites the last religious Yasin represents what happens when entertainment and pleasure. Rarely does rites over him (Mahfouz 997; Sugar someone fails to balance self-control he bring this aspect into his household Street, ch. 117; Mahfouz 1204-08; Sugar with sensuality and lust. or into close proximity with his family. Street, ch. 152). Kamal’s features stand for the main Nonetheless, cases exist in which his Yasin follows most closely after his character flaw that contributes greatly to family happens to stumble upon his father, but to an extreme that is at times his overall unhappiness with life. He is expression of joy, such as during Aisha’s difficult to comprehend. Like his father, described as wedding. True enough, Ahmad Abd Al- Yasin is a womanizer. He stands out as Jawad is locked away in a room from a wild, lusting man who does not care not good-looking like his brothers. his family, a tyrant almost alone even at what a woman looks like, as long as she He was perhaps the one in the joyous events like a wedding; however, is a woman. Mahfouz hilariously portrays family who most resembled his he also enjoys pleasant and joyous this trait in the scene in Goldsmiths’ sister Khadija. Like hers, his face moments within his circle of friends Bazaar and reveals so much about Yasin’s combined his mother’s small contained inside the room. Kamal flawed character that Mahfouz surprises eyes and his father’s huge nose, accidentally stumbles upon his father’s his audience with Yasin’s audacity and but without the refinements of other face in this very room (Mahfouz inappropriate humor (Mahfouz 77; Khadija’s. He had a large head 274; Palace Walk, ch. 40). Yasin also Palace Walk, ch. 12). His uncontrollable, with a forehead that protruded provides another example of undesirable lustful actions prove to be devastating noticeably, making his eyes seem consequences when the two realms for his family and result in the attempted even more sunken than they mix and the wrong face presents itself rape of the faithful house servant, Umm actually were. (Mahfouz 53; Palace (Mahfouz 265-70; Palace Walk, ch. 39; Hanafi (Mahfouz 297-99; Palace Walk, Walk, ch. 8) Mahfouz 337-38; Palace Walk, ch. 46). ch. 41), as well as in many marriages The only respite Ahmad Abd Al-Jawad and divorces. Somakh sums up Yasin’s Mahfouz perhaps uses Kamal’s big finds from his two faces resembles his character in one very accurate paragraph: head to emphasize the inflated intellect submissive visage before his God. that ultimately gets Kamal nowhere His three marriages (and two in life. Instead of using his intellect He is a genuine and naïve believer, divorces), his assaults on two to provide a living, he prefers the idle even though he would not refrain different aged servants in his life of an intellectual. Also, his head from committing numerous acts father’s house, his constant pursuit merely seems to provide a comic relief which, he knows very well, cannot of big women—such scenes are for others and induce struggles with be approved by his Maker. very enjoyable at first but their himself and those around him (Mahfouz (Somekh 116) repetition is frivolous. In all, Yasin 53; Palace Walk, ch. 8; Mahfouz 751- notwithstanding his carefully 52; Palace of Desire, ch. 89). Kamal’s

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 79 head, like his sweet tooth, leads him grown slightly larger. In addition to for every detail of her appearance nowhere. The character with the most their customary look of submission, made this clear. (Mahfouz 147; potential remains the least fulfilled, and her eyes now revealed a mournful Palace Walk, ch. 22) ultimately the least significant. absent-mindedness. Her anguish over the changes that had befallen Her looks became the basis for every Undoubtedly the most important her was considerable, although at experience in her life, both joyous and female character in the whole novel first she had welcomed them as an sorrowful. Her beauty lures a police is Amina. She is the first character expression of her grief. (Mahfouz officer to defy time-honored traditions to appear in the novel, and her 538; Palace of Desire, ch. 72) to steal forbidden glances at her through death marks its end. her window (Mahfouz 28-29; Palace (Somekh 126) In relation to her husband’s frivolous Walk, ch. 5). Her marriage also results aging that results from fleeting time and when her beauty catches the eye of the Her importance in the novel lies in her profligate behavior, Amina’s senescence rich Shawkat family who chooses her role as an anchor and stabilizing force provides a devastating example of her to be the bride of Khalil (Mahfouz 244; for the family; all the household and weakness and pain. And just as Yasin Palace Walk, ch. 36). Her concentration family revolve around her. Thus, her may become a younger version of on the superficial exemplified by her attributes and metonymies become vital his father so, too, does the hideously “intense solicitude for every detail of in understanding the environment and grieving Aisha become her mother’s her appearance” (Mahfouz, 147; Palace atmosphere of the family. Yet her traits extreme parallel. Walk, ch. 22) extend into her family life, shrink her until she eventually becomes Aisha’s case often remains quite especially into a controversy that sparks a gray, somewhat taciturn old woman, puzzling. She is known for her the jealous Khadija to condemn the mainly because of the death of one of beauty, a typical European beauty pleasure-seeking lifestyle in which Aisha her children with whom she is always but an atypical beauty for her and Khalil allow their family to indulge. associated. Mahfouz describes Amina culture. Mahfouz uses her looks in a Aisha’s daughter, Na’ima, dances; her not by her looks, but by what she does metonymical fashion. Unfortunately, husband, Khalil, smokes his pipe; and and thus emphasizes the serving nature she is all too proud of flaunting these Aisha herself sings. All is indeed well of her personality and the depth she extraordinarily good looks. and superficially tranquil, until sickness contributes to the family. This depth sweeps away Khalil and their two boys often times sharply contrasts with Whenever Aisha looked at herself from Aisha’s arms. At this point, Aisha’s the frivolities of the men and shows in the mirror, she was immensely beauty begins to fade prematurely on who really wields the authority in the pleased with what she saw. her own accord revealing her weakness household. Mahfouz discusses Amina’s Who else from her illustrious and showing a side of her that surprises looks only in relationship to the death family, indeed from the whole the reader. Her “fading” even surpasses of Fahmi in order to capture her own neighborhood, was adorned by her mother’s. self-induced shrinking and slow loss of golden tresses and blue eyes like purpose that culminates with the death hers? Yasin flirted openly with her, Amina’s body had withered, of Ahmad Abd Al-Jawad. Years after and Fahmi, when he spoke to her and her hair had turned white. Fahmi’s death, Mahfouz confronts the about one thing or another, did Although barely sixty, she reader with an even more downtrodden not neglect to give her admiring looked ten years older, and her Amina which rivals her struggles of the glances. Even little Kamal did not transformation was nothing previous novel. want to drink from the water jug compared to Aisha’s decline and unless her mouth had moistened disintegration. It was ironic or She sat there as usual, but time had the lip. Her mother spoiled her pathetic that the daughter’s hair changed her. She had grown thin, and said she was as beautiful as the was still golden and her eyes and her face seemed longer, if only moon, although she did not conceal blue, when her listless glance because her cheeks were hollow. her anxiety that Aisha was too thin gave no hint of life and her pale The locks of hair that escaped from and delicate…. Aisha herself was complexion seemed the symptom her scarf were turning gray and perhaps more conscious of her of some disease. With a protruding made her seem older than she was. extraordinary beauty than any of bone structure and sunken eyes The beauty spot on her cheek had the others. Her intense solicitude and cheeks, her face hardly

80 The Metonymies of Unhappy Families appeared that of a thirty-four-year- Aisha, had been—or even more Khadija seemed to surpass even old woman. (Mahfouz 985; Sugar captivating—but as insubstantial Yasin in the flabby abundance of Street, ch. 116) as a shadow. Her eyes had a gentle, flesh and saw no reason to claim dreamy look suggesting purity, she was anything by happy about Aisha no longer exemplifies the kind and innocence, and otherworldliness. that. She was delighted with her caring woman she once had been. Instead, She nestled against her mother’s sons, Abd al-Muni’m and Ahmad, her personality transforms into a similar, side, as though unwilling to be as well as with her generally yet more vindictive personality trait that alone even for a moment. (Mahfouz successful marriage, but to ward resides in Khadija. Aisha’s new portrait 985-86; Sugar Street, ch. 116) off the evil eye of jealousy never is one of a smoking, embittered bluish let a day go by without some shell of woman who has gathered all her Na’ima presents the strongest case for complaint. Her treatment of Aisha hope in one weak vessel of a daughter, a metonymy charting the progress of had undergone a total change. Na’ima (Mahfouz 987; Sugar Street, a character through the novel. Aisha During the last eight years she had ch. 116). Aisha, the great pride of the still leans on superficiality of beauty, not addressed a single sarcastic or family, now becomes its greatest burden but now on the beauty of her daughter, harsh word to her younger sister, and forces them to walk on eggshells to whom Naguib Mahfouz describes as not even in jest. In fact, she bent accommodate her debilitated state in life. “insubstantial as a shadow” (Mahfouz over backwards to be courteous, 985; Sugar Street; ch. 116). There affectionate, and gracious to Aisha, Gazing sadly at Aisha, she saw the remains nothing to Aisha but a dream since she was touched by the personification of shattered hopes. of beauty that is pure, innocent, widow’s misery, frightened that fate When she looked at this unhappy otherworldly, and unable to survive in might deal her a comparable blow, face, which seemed to have lost this world. This revelation slowly kills and apprehensive that Aisha would all its vitality, Amina’s soul was Aisha and she becomes, in the end, compare their lots…This oversight overcome by sorrow. Apprehensive merely a flat character who revolves did not keep Khadija from lavishing about distressing her daughter, she around the ideal of beauty. enough affection, sympathy, and had learned to greet Aisha’s rude However, Khadija provides the compassion on Aisha to seem a answers and harsh comments with exception to this family’s cycle of second mother for her younger affectionate forbearance. (Mahfouz unhappiness. Although she, too, sister. (Mahfouz 1005; Sugar Street, 988; Sugar Street, ch. 116) does not break the cycle of death and ch. 118) torment that plagues her family, she Aisha’s tragic story parallels to an extreme does not shatter like all the others. The tables have turned in these sisters’ the devastation of Amina just as Yasin She remains strong when she, too, lives, as they do in most families, and a parallels to an extreme the corruption of loses her son—but to prison, not to surprising role reversal ensues. his father. This cyclical pattern helps to death. Khadija, known mostly for her If Mahfouz became a master of establish the unhappiness of the family large nose and ill-temper, reflects the metonymy, he may well have learned the that can be passed down from generation brashness and abruptness of her first lesson of its use from Tolstoy. Although to generation with each new cycle greater reactions. Yet, she is also known to the characters of Anna Karenina and than the next. balance this temperament with a deep The Cairo Trilogy should be widely Aisha’s weary resting on her weak love for her family and a keen sense of dissimilar because of time, place, and daughter, Na’ima, further establishes the motherly protectiveness. Thus, though custom, tantalizing similarities between mother’s tragedy and her own personal she never acquires beauty, her looks the two emerge, especially in the use of reliance on beauty. do not fade; her temperament softens metonymy. Tolstoy’s novel begins with a as the others’ harden. She balances her “womanizing” husband in an unhappy Na’ima stood out in this group like gruff temperament when her sense of family, but this time in a Russian a rose growing in a cemetery, for motherly devotion surfaces. Perhaps context: Stepan Arkadyich, Anna she had developed into a beautiful she is more prepared for Aisha’s bitter Karenina’s brother. Tolstoy describes young woman of sixteen. Her head responses in the end because she Stepan as a handsome, rosy cheeked enveloped by a halo of golden hair indulged in them from the man with vitality similar to that of and her face adorned by blue eyes, very beginning. Ahmad Abd Al-Jawad. He also exhibits she was as lovely as her mother, in his face a restrained radiance that is

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 81 similar to the one that plays in Anna’s with a double chain and seals into he is expected to become. He has no life eyes, one that begs to be let out; this his pockets with an accustomed outside of this society and thus, unlike image describes a force barely in check, gesture, and, having shaken out his Abd Al-Jawad, remains a rather flat one that can burst onto the scene in a handkerchief, feeling himself clean, character throughout the novel as his matter of moments (Tolstoy 33; pt. 1, fragrant, healthy, and physically life revolves around a world of changing ch. X). His rosy cheeks and handsome cheerful despite his misfortune, fads and fashions. façade only point to his sensual nature went out, springing lightly at each In contrast to her husband’s rich which cherishes women, wine, food, step, to the dining room, where outward appearance, thinning hair and and all the finer things of life. In fact, in coffee was already waiting for him, a nervous cheek twitch embody Dolly, his opening descriptions, Tolstoy almost and, next to the coffee, letters and Stepan’s wife. Perhaps Dolly has faded wallows in the marvelous luxury that papers from the office. (Tolstoy 6; because of his lack of responsibility to surrounds Stepan. pt. 1, ch. III) himself and to his family (Tolstoy 10- 11; pt. 1, ch. IV). The family and daily On the third day after the Stepan is so preoccupied with the little cares that force themselves upon her quarrel, Prince Stepan Arkadyich tasks of his life that he neglects the create a terrible strain on someone not Oblonsky—Stiva, as he was called feelings of his wife. However, his actions entirely strong by nature. She, in turn, in society—woke up at his usual demonstrate his priorities, in which neglects the reconciliation with her hour, that is, at eight o’clock in the his wife, Dolly, is not high on his list. husband because of housework and the morning, not in his wife’s bedroom He justifies his negligence of matters needs of the family. but in his study, on a morocco dealing with his wife with thoughts that sofa…. And, noticing a strip of he is a relatively young, handsome, and Meanwhile Darya Alexandrovna, light that had broken through the amorous man who should no longer having quieted the child and side of one of the heavy blinds, he feel obliged to feel tenderness toward understanding from the sound of cheerfully dropped his feet from the the mother of his five children, since the carriage that he had left, went sofa, felt for his slippers trimmed she is no longer attractive. In this way, back to the bedroom. This was with gold morocco that his wife he foreshadows the justification Abd her only refuge from household had embroidered for him (a present Al-Jawad offers for his nightly activities cares, which surrounded her the for last year’s birthday)… ‘We’ll see and rendezvous (Tolstoy 3; pt. 1, ch. moment she stepped out. Even later on,’ Stepan Arkadyich said to II). Superficiality exudes from Stepan’s now, during the short time she had himself and, getting up, he put on personality and later becomes the root of gone to the children’s room, the his grey dressing gown with the his money troubles; but the descriptions English governess and Matryona light-blue silk lining, threw the of his views of life first emphasize the Filimonovna had managed to ask tasseled cord into a knot…(Tolstoy extent to which a certain metonymy of her several questions that could not 1-4; pt. 1, ch. I-II) wealth governs his life. be put off and that she alone could answer…(Tolstoy 13; pt. 1, ch. IV) So much of the description focuses on Stepan Arkadyich chose neither the luxury and good looks of Stepan his tendency nor his views, but If Stepan parallels Ahmad Abd Al-Jawad that it does not even refer to the these tendencies and views came to in his womanizing, then Dolly most argument that Stepan has with his wife; him themselves, just as he did not closely parallels Amina as the anchor of in fact, he does not even remember choose the shape of a hat or a frock her family. Dolly’s life revolves around her it until Tolstoy finishes his long coat, but bought those that were in children. She worries if they are morally description. In reality, he does not even fashion. And for him, who lived in corrupt (Tolstoy 271-72; pt. 3, ch. X) and treat the matter with the seriousness that a certain circle, and who required even takes time to attend to their lessons it requires and does everything except some mental activity such as usually (Tolstoy 567; pt. 6, ch. VI). Though reflect on reconciliation with his wife. develops with maturity, having Dolly fails to be as calm as Amina in views was as necessary as having a the supervision of her household, as an After dressing, Stepan Arkadyich hat. (Tolstoy 7; pt. 1, ch. III) aristocratic Russian woman she does sprayed himself with scent, all she can to hold her family together adjusted the cuffs of his shirt, put Societal whims and outside appearances despite the unhappiness a frivolous and cigarettes, wallet, matches, a watch dictate to this man who he is and what womanizing husband causes.

82 The Metonymies of Unhappy Families Dolly’s younger sister, Kitty, holds the life of a peasant. Levin’s nature Pokrovskoe? To buy land? To join her family together quite nicely toward refuses to conform to society, and thus a community? To marry a peasant the end of the novel when the narrator his character is often set in fields and woman? How am I to do it?’ he presents a more mature version of her. hunting grounds around his estate. asked himself again, and found no However, her ascension to the role of Ironically enough, though he associates answer. ‘However, I didn’t sleep all contented, Christian mother and loving, himself more with the peasant style of night and can’t give myself a clear wise wife was not an easy one. Tolstoy living, he never fully understands them accounting.’ (Tolstoy 275-76; pt. 3, most closely associates Kitty in her early as his brother Sergei does (Tolstoy 244- ch. XII) years with little feet and beautiful legs, 47; pt. 3, ch. III). At certain times, he which represent her lack of confidence. even contemplates becoming one of His thoughts continually portray a She totters around in the beginning them and marrying a peasant woman, fogginess of thought that resembles the trying to find whom she is to marry, but something in his musings always wavering of Kitty and the decisions she how her household will be set up, alerts him to the fact that the fields are must make for her future. This point and what society demands of her as a not his place. furthers ties Kitty and Levin together, woman. A skating rink, where she is making their match evident and almost wobbly on her skates, sets the scene for Levin had often admired this life, a natural course of events to the reader. her developing feelings for her suitor, had often experienced a feeling of Balding and bad teeth characterize Levin. envy for the people who lived this Vronsky, Levin’s early rival for Kitty life, but that day for the first time, and Anna’s eventual love. These He felt the sun approach him. She especially under the impression of two images invoke a sense of decay, was turning a corner, her slender what he had seen in the relations which could reflect the decay of feet at a blunt angle in their high of Ivan Parmenov and his young his relationships with Kitty, society, boots, and with evident timidity wife, the thought came clearly and more importantly, with Anna. was skating towards him. (Tolstoy to Levin that it was up to him The deterioration of his relationship 28; pt. 1, ch. IX) to change that so burdensome, with Anna arises mostly from his idle, artificial and individual life declarations of his rights for manly As she newly enters the realm of he lived into this laborious, pure independence. Several times he tries to courtship, she already shows shakiness and common, lovely life…All assert his need for independence, and in her relationship with men. those thoughts and feelings were each time he pushes Anna a little closer A curious use of metonymy unites divided into three separate lines of to the edge of paranoia, loss of control, Kitty, Aisha, and Na’ima. Like Aisha, argument. One was to renounce and death. Kitty is compared with a heavenly body. his old life, his useless knowledge, Where Aisha is the moon in The Cairo his utterly needless education. This Vronsky had come to the elections Trilogy, Kitty is the sun (Tolstoy 28; pt. renunciation gave him pleasure and because he was bored in the 1, ch. IX). Also where Na’ima is a rose was easy and simple for him. Other country and had to assert his right among thorns, Kitty is a rose among thoughts and notions concerned to freedom before Anna, and in nettles (Tolstoy 28; pt. 1, ch. IX). Both the life he wished to live now. order to repay Sviyazhsky with images invoke a sense of beauty and The simplicity, the purity, and the support at the elections for all the purity, yet ethereal, changing qualities legitimacy of this life he felt clearly, trouble he had taken for him at characterize the heavenly bodies and and he was convinced that he the zemstvo elections, and most of weakness characterizes a rose among would find in it that satisfaction, all in order to strictly fulfill all the hostile objects. repose, dignity, the absence of responsibilities of the position of Levin, Kitty’s ardent admirer, acts which he felt so painfully. But nobleman and landowner that he like a bear in peasant clothing; Kitty’s the third line of argument turned had chosen for himself. (Tolstoy childhood nickname is “little bear.” around the question of how to 662; pt. 6, ch. XXXI) These metaphors provide a stylistic basis make this transition from the old for the eventual matching of these two life to the new. And here nothing In this case, Vronsky begins to include people. Nonetheless, the metonymy clear presented itself to him. ‘To in his activities reasons to be away from that links Levin with peasants describes have a wife? To have work and Anna and thus begins to establish a him best; in fact, Levin longs to live the necessity to work? To leave life of his own apart from her. Vronsky

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 83 establishes his plan and true intentions lively as well (Tolstoy 1, 6; pt. 1, ch. passage, her eyes seem to be satisfied for getting Anna used to his male I, III). Stiva uses his sensual, corporal that she has caught Vronsky’s attention independence. grace to lure women, while Anna uses when she should be looking for her hers subconsciously to attract men. brother. In addition, although Anna And so, without challenging her to She does not actively use her looks tries to extinguish the light and vitality a frank explanation, he went off to for such purposes at first; but later in her eyes, they betray her as her lips the elections. It was the first time events in the novel make the reader subliminally transfer a smile to Vronsky. since the start of their liaison that painfully aware of her luring, sensual Most of her descriptions like “her full he had parted from her without effect on men, especially when Anna shoulders and bosom, as if shaped from talking it all through. On the finally meets Levin. The sensuality old ivory” (Tolstoy 79; pt. 1, ch. XXII) are one hand, this troubled him; on that she exudes, albeit unconsciously, very sensual in nature and aid the reader the other, he found it better this in the initial train scene later plays an in understanding her future choices. way. ‘At first it will be like now, important part in her eventual downfall Anna’s curls also betray her inner something vague, hidden, but then from righteousness. The initial image sensuality and lack of control. she’ll get used to it. In any case, I foreshadows her later lack of control in can give her everything, but not my all aspects of her life. On her head, in her black hair, male independence,’ he thought. Another symbol Tolstoy associates her own without admixture, was (Tolstoy 645; pt. 6, ch. XXV) with Anna represents her uncontrollable a small garland of pansies, and sensuality expressed in the vitality that there was another on her black Here the first cracks of separation begs to be let free from her eyes. ribbon sash among the white lace. begin to appear in this unhappy family Her coiffure was inconspicuous. Vronsky and Anna have created. This is Her shining grey eyes, which Conspicuous were only those the first time that the reader begins to seemed dark because of their willful little ringlets of curly hair see Vronsky as he tries to release himself thick lashes, rested amiably and that adorned her, always coming from the amorous nets in which he attentively on his face, as if she out on her nape and temples. feels he is trapped. He deplores them, recognized him, and at once Around her firm, shapely neck was especially since he feels Anna is setting wandered over the approaching a string of pearls. (Tolstoy 79; pt. 1, them. Vronsky resents her whenever crowd as though looking for ch. XXII) he is in her presence (Tolstoy 643; pt. someone. In that brief glance 6, ch. XXV). Thus, when he refuses Vronsky had time to notice the Only the curls that are breaking free to come home from his mother’s at restrained animation that played seem to be her most conspicuous Anna’s request, he begins the process of over her face and fluttered between feature. These unruly curls come to breaking free from her ever tightening her shining eyes and the barely be associated not only with sensuality, reins, an action that ultimately leads to noticeable smile that curved her but with the play between control and Anna’s death and his complete decay red lips. It was as if a surplus of willfulness. Though she cannot control (Tolstoy 775; pt. 8, ch. II). something so overflowed her being her curls, she later tries to control The several images Tolstoy uses to that it expressed itself beyond Vronsky, who ultimately wants his hint at Anna Karenina’s true nature her will, now in the brightness of independence, as he demonstrates when each represent a part of her that cannot her glance, now in her smile. She he willfully refuses to answer to her be controlled. Tolstoy first portrays deliberately extinguished the light beck and call and return early from his Anna’s full body that she carries on in her eyes, but it shone against her mother’s home. her light gait (Tolstoy 61-62; pt. 1, will in a barely noticeable smile. Anna develops a telling habit in ch. XVIII). The easy way in which she (Tolstoy 61; pt. 1, ch. XVIII) which she slides her wedding ring moves surprises Vronsky because of its on and off her finger. Though an sensuality. Almost as soon as Vronsky Anna’s features seem to flirt unconscious act, it helps to demonstrate sees Anna, her body begins to tempt subconsciously with Vronsky and give the discontent she harbors for her him away from his duties to his mother. him hidden invitations that she could marriage to Karenin and the loose The reader notices that this fullness not knowingly propose. This sensuality bonds that connect her and her is a family trait because, though Stiva betrays her real purpose of looking for husband. Tolstoy also describes her also has a full body, his step is quite her brother at the train station. In the rings easily coming off her fingers. She

84 The Metonymies of Unhappy Families gives them to Dolly’s children at play, as artificial light and shows through in Literary devices illustrate the main though love were merely a game. sharp contrast with the purity implied in characters’ unique personalities and the white of her sleeve. how they contribute to the conflict that Something like a game was set up Anna’s final degradation into a brings unhappiness to their families. among them, which consisted in corrupted woman resulting from her Were it not for the conflict between sitting as close as possible to her, uncontrollable sensuality leads to her the womanizing of men such as Yasin, touching her, holding her small suicide as she throws herself under a Ahmad Abd Al-Jawad, and Stepan and hand, kissing her, playing with her train. The irony of her character lies in the resulting strain put on the wives, ring or at least touching the flounce her desire to control another when she Amina and Dolly, their stories would of her dress…. ‘I suppose it will cannot even control herself. Anna dies merely turn into bland recollections of be impossible not to go. Take it,’ because of her feeling of helplessness; perfect events that hardly reflect the she said to Tanya, who was pulling even before she plunges to her death, realities of life. The added interest in the easily slipped-off ring from her she experiences her last moment these novels lies also in their ability to white, tapering finger. (Tolstoy 72; of helplessness when she wishes to capture the universality of the unhappy pt.1, ch. XX) save herself, yet finds it to be too late family yet maintain each nation’s (Tolstoy 768; pt. 7, ch. XXXI). Anna’s cultural integrity. Amina’s reaction to the The rings in the first part of the quotation story thus ends where it began—at a weight of the household presents a more act merely as a part of the description train station. She arrives in Moscow to orderly and calm approach than that associated with her and hold no more try to help her brother contain his lust of Dolly’s frantic and strained control real importance than the flounce of her and dies in St. Petersburg when she of household affairs. Yet, each woman dress. In the second part of the quotation, cannot control her own. in her own way suffers from the strain however, Anna further emphasizes a Unhappiness runs rampant in the of being the anchor of the household. certain lack of importance she associates pages of Anna Karenina and The Cairo Tolstoy and Mahfouz transcend the with the rings Tanya is easily able to Trilogy and each main character plays boundaries of time and place as they pull from Anna’s finger and which a role in either alleviating or creating use specific devices to portray fictional Anna eventually gives to her. Perhaps the chaos that causes the misery they characters as real people caught up in this action foreshadows how easily she endure. Tolstoy pointedly states in a the universality of unhappiness. gives up her husband and allows him passage of Anna Karenina that there to fall into the hands of such women as needs to be a balance in all Countess Lydia Ivanovna, a manipulating unhappy families. hypocrite. Later, when an Anna, pregnant with Vronsky’s child, discusses the In order to undertake anything in unhappiness of her situation—caught in family life, it is necessary that there a loveless marriage while receiving her be either complete discord between lover only in her husband’s absence— the spouses or loving harmony. But her ring shines under a lamp and is when the relations between spouses contrasted with the whiteness of her are uncertain and there is neither sleeve (Tolstoy 361; pt. 4, ch. III). Anna the one nor the other, nothing can has lost her purity and has consequently be undertaken. (Tolstoy 739; pt. 7, tainted her marital vows. The wedding ch. XXXI) ring gleams only under the glow of an

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 85 Works Cited

Mahfouz, Naguib. “Palace Walk, Palace of Desire, Sugar Street.” The Cairo Trilogy. Trans. William Maynard Hutchins, Olive E. Kenny, Lorne M. Kenny and Angele Botros Samaan. New York: Everyman’s Library, 2001.

Somekh, Sasson. The Changing Rhythm: A Study of Naguib Mahfouz’s Novels. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973.

Tolstoy, Leo. Anna Karenina. Trans. Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky. New York: Penguin Books, 2000.

86 The Metonymies of Unhappy Families Investigating the Relationship between Parenting Styles and Delinquent Behavior

ABSTRACT Introduction Although numerous studies have examined Parenting is a complicated occupation the connection between delinquent behavior that requires many different skills that and parenting styles in children and work in concert to influence a child’s adolescents, limited research has been behavior. It can be argued that parents done to determine if there is an ongoing start developing their parenting style relationship between these variables in the even before their first child is born. It is college population. This study included within the first year or two that parents 38 college students and examined the begin to attach to a parenting style that relationship between parenting styles; works best for them. Many researchers families studied were authoritative, have noted that it isn’t the specific authoritarian, indulgent, and uninvolved. It discipline practices that are important was predicted that authoritarian parenting in predicting child welfare but rather practices would be highly correlated with the overall pattern of parenting (Darling delinquent behavior, particularly for & Steinberg, 1993). When researchers students with a difficult temperament and attempt to describe these patterns most low family cohesion. rely on Diana Baumrind’s concept of parenting styles. In her view, “parenting style is used to capture normal Danielle J. Terry variations in parent’s attempts to control McNair Scholar and socialize their children” (Baumrind, 1991a, p. 349). There are two points that are crucial in understanding her definition of parenting styles. First, the parenting style typology doesn’t include deviant parenting, such as abusive and/or neglectful homes. Second, it is assumed that the primary role of the parents is to influence, teach and control their children. Baumrind’s parenting styles are focused on two main elements of parenting: parental responsiveness and parental demandingness. Parental responsiveness, also referred to as parental supportiveness and warmth, refers to “the extent in which parents intentionally foster individuality, self- regulation, and self-assertion by being attentive, supportive, and compliant to children’s needs and demands” (Baumrind, 1991b, p. 62). Parental demandingness, also referred to as behavioral control, refers to “ the claims parents make on children to Andrea Rotzien, Ph.D. become integrated into the family Faculty Mentor whole, by their maturity demands, supervision, disciplinary efforts and willingness to confront the child who disobeys” (Baumrind, 1991b,

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 87 p. 61-62). Categorizing parents might include both rejecting-neglecting to decide what is correct, and often lack according to whether they are high or and neglecting parents. This parenting spontaneity and intellectual curiosity. low on parental responsiveness and style is viewed as the worst of the four. Sons show more difficulties than demandingness creates four parenting Parents in this style do not establish daughters, and sons are more likely to styles: authoritarian, authoritative, rules nor do they even care in which show anger and defiance towards people indulgent, and uninvolved. direction the child’s behavior is headed in authority. Children of authoritative (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). parents tend to be more self-reliant, Parenting Styles In order to fully understand the self-controlled, willing to explore, and Authoritarian parents are highly difference in parenting styles, an content than other groups. Daughters controlling in the use of authority example from Maccoby and Martin are more independent than sons; sons and rely on punishment but are not (1983) indicates how each parent are more socially responsible than responsive. They value obedience demonstrates how they would react to a daughters and associated with better and do not tolerate give and take situation. In the situation, Sally age eight school performance in high school. relationships with their children. is playing with Kelly age nine, and Sally Children of indulgent parents tend to: Authoritarian parents do not expect gets on Kelly’s bike without permission be relatively immature, exhibit poor their children to express disagreement and rides away. impulse control, and have difficulty with their decisions and rules and accepting responsibility for their own do expect them to obey without An authoritarian parent would say, actions and acting independently. explanation (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). “Come back this second and give Children of uninvolved parents tend to Authoritative parents are warm Kelly back her bike immediately.” lack social competence in many areas, and communicate well with their An authoritative parent uses the be overly independent, have difficulty children; they are both demanding opportunity to teach the child and determining right and wrong behavior, and responsive. Parents of this style says, “The bicycle belongs to Kelly. and experience school problems are able to stay in authority and expect I know you want to ride it, but (academic and behavioral). maturity from their children. They why don’t you talk it over with respect their children’s opinions and her and try to work out a system Previous Studies independence while also maintaining so that you can have a turn.” An When considering parenting styles their own positions. This parenting indulgent parent would believe that and child behavior, there is ample style permits children enough freedom Sally should be allowed to express research to indicate that parenting styles of expression so that they can develop her impulses freely and does not are related to delinquent behavior in a sense of independence but know the use the opportunity to solve the children and adolescents. However, boundaries of rules and obey them. Both problem. An uninvolved parent there is little research that questions authoritative and authoritarian parents would simple overlook the whole the relationship between parenting have high expectations of their children situation. (p. 48-51) styles and delinquent behavior in but use control in different ways college students. A study done by Weiss (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Parenting Styles and Behavior and Schwartz (1996), based on the Indulgent parents are warm and Baumrind’s parenting styles have been four typologies, consistently yielded accepting but their main concern is not found to predict child well being in results indicating that parenting styles to interfere with their children’s creativity terms of social competence, academic can enhance or diminish acceptable and independence; these parents are performance, psychosocial development, behavioral outcomes in children. In more responsive than demanding. They and problem behavior. Research using previous studies, authoritative parenting demand little in terms of obedience parent interviews, teacher interviews, has been associated with positive and respect for authority. They are and child report consistently finds these behavioral outcomes including increased nontraditional and lenient, do not require characteristics associated with each competence, autonomy, and self esteem mature behavior, allow considerable parenting style (Baumrind, 1991a). as well as better problem solving skills, self-regulation, and avoid confrontations Children of authoritarian parents tend to better academic performance, more (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). lack social competence in dealing with self-reliance, less deviance, and better Uninvolved parents are both low in other children, frequently withdraw peer relations (Barnes, 2002; Baumrind, responsiveness and demandingness. from social contact and rarely take their 1991b; Bystritsky, 2000; Linder, In extreme cases, this parenting style own initiative, look to outside authority Hetherington & Reiss, 1999; Lomeo,

88 Parenting Styles And Delinquent Behavior 1999; Petito & Cummings, 2000; (Harris, 1998; Revie-Pettersen, 1998), college students aged 18 and older and Steinberg, Darling, & Fletcher, 1995). religiosity (Feinman, 2001; Lindner their parents or primary caregivers. In contrast, the authoritarian style has & Hetherington, 1999), and family Hypotheses of the study were as been linked with negative behavioral structure or cohesion (Bystritsky, 2000; follows: (1) delinquent behavior and outcomes including aggressive behavior, Webster-Stratton & Hammond, 1999). psychological problems would be higher decreased emotional functioning, Delinquent behavior stems from in students who report experiencing depression and lower levels of self- several factors including: poor academic authoritarian and indulgent parenting confidence (Barnes, 2002; Beyers & achievement, low self esteem, lack of styles; (2) difficult child temperament Goossens, 2003; Pychyl, Coplan, & acceptance from peers, and unstable would be related to negative parenting Reid, 2002; Scales, 2000). family environments. These factors styles; (3) gender would also impact The indulgent parenting style has not only influence a person during the outcomes: males would react more been related to future delinquency transition to adolescence but during the negatively to authoritarian parenting and aggression. Poor supervision, transition into college as well. College whereas females would react more neglect, and indifference are all is seen as a life journey that many negatively to indulgent and uninvolved indulgent parental practices that play face during the end of adolescence. If parenting; (4) student perception of a crucial role in engaging in future parenting styles have an influence on parenting style would have more of delinquency. Adolescents from indulgent the delinquent behavior of children an impact on behavior than parent homes report a higher frequency of and adolescents, then it seems likely perception of parenting style. involvement in deviant behaviors, such that they impact the behavior of college as drug use and alcohol use, school students as well. Hickman, Bartholomae, Method misconduct and emotional, impulsive, and McKenry (2000) found this to be Participants nonconforming behaviors (Durbin, true when looking at college students. The sample included 38 participants Darling, Steinberg, & Brown, 1993; This study found that students with both male (17) and female (21) students Miller, DiOrio, & Dudley, 2002). authoritative parents demonstrated and 18 parents. The mean age of the With an uninvolved parenting style, greater levels of academic competence, students was 23 with a range from 18- children tend to look for acceptance more self-control, and better adjustment. 43. The students were recruited from in other places and associate with peer Students of authoritarian and permissive psychology and sociology classes at groups with similar family backgrounds parents demonstrated poor academic Grand Valley State University. At least (Mounts, 2002). Also, if family grades, poor college adjustment, and one parent of each participant was also environments fail to provide structure, lower self-esteem. The same study asked to participate. then child conduct problems are more also indicated that children who have likely to be maintained or worsen. authoritative parents engage in less Instruments While many researchers have found aggressive behavior than their peers who The student and parent each completed a clear relationship between parenting have experienced other parenting styles. a demographic questionnaire that style and the behavioral outcomes of In addition, harsh childhood discipline included questions about the number children, other studies have found is strongly associated with the later of parents in household, number of that there is no clear relationship development of delinquent behavior. children in home, socio-economic between parenting style and child The purpose of this research was status (SES), and religious involvement. psychopathology (Havill, 1996; to further examine the relationship The parent demographic questionnaire Olafsson, 2001; Revie-Petterson, 1998). between parenting styles and delinquent also included questions about past Thus, it is important to note that the behavior in college students in an effort delinquency in the parent, as well influence of parenting style is often to replicate previous findings. This as family history of emotional and moderated or mediated by a number research project attempted to improve behavioral problems. In addition, the of variables such as temperament on the existing literature by controlling parent demographic questionnaire (Owens-Stively et al., 1997), gender for a number of variables such as age, inquired about the parent’s perception (Beyers & Goossens, 2003), the child/ gender, socioeconomic status, religiosity, of the child’s temperament, as well teen’s perception of the parenting family structure, temperament, and the as problem behaviors noted in the style (Paulson, 1994; Slicker, 1998), different parenting style perceptions of child prior to attending college. The socioeconomic status and ethnicity the parents and students. To control student demographic questionnaire (McCarthy, 1995), the age of the child for age effects, participants included also included questions about the

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 89 student’s history of delinquency, and any and Nylander (2003) indicated that the to return all documents within 10 days history of family problems. Emotional seven-factor model is valid and reliable. in order to be entered into two raffles and behavioral problems were further The health in one’s family of origin for $50 gift certificates to Grand Valley explored using the Achenbach Adult was measured through the Family of State University’s bookstore. Behavior Checklist (Achenbach, 1991), Origin Scale (Hovestadt, Anderson, which the parent completed on the Piercy, Cochran, & Fine, 1985). This Results child/student and the Achenbach measure contains 125 questions that Preliminary Analyses Self Report (Achenbach), which was use a 5-point Likert scale (5=strongly The purpose of the demographic survey completed by the student. Both of these agree to 1=strongly disagree) that was to help measure delinquency that measures have approximately 172 items asks for information about how well wasn’t being reported in the Adult Self- and use open-ended questions and the family of origin functioned. The Report and to collect information such questions that are answered on a three- Family of Origin Scale has a good as age, school classification, GPA, and point scale (0=not true, 1=somewhat internal consistency and good validity gender. On this form, delinquency was or sometimes true and 3=very true or (Hovestadt et al., 1985). measured categorically. The participants often true) and both render standardized marked “1” for yes and “2” for no. The scores on several scales including: Procedure responses for each item were summed; Total Problem Score, Internalizing The participant’s identity remained therefore a higher number meant less Behavior Score, Externalizing Behavior confidential; each parent and student reported delinquency. The total possible Score, Anxious/Depressed, Withdrawn, pair was assigned a research number points were 50. Delinquency rates Somatic Complaints, Thought Problems, and informed consent documents were were low. For past delinquency M=45, Attention Problems, Aggressive Behavior, stored separately. When the students SD=4.44. For present M=45, SD=2.6. Rule-Breaking Behavior, and Intrusive. came in to participate, they first The average GPA was also higher than Reliability and validity information completed the informed consent form expected M=2.97, SD= .58. In this available from the manual (Achenbach document. Then the students completed study, the only two parenting styles & Rescorla, 2003) indicate that these are the questionnaires (the student that were found among our student acceptable measures. demographic survey, child’s version to the participants were authoritarian (17) and Parenting styles were evaluated using Parental Authority Questionnaire, The authoritative (21). the Parental Authority Questionnaire Temperament and Character Inventory, Of the 18 parents who responded, (Buri, 1991). The Parental Authority The Family of Origin Scale, and the half were male and half were female. Questionnaire (PAQ) is composed of Adult Self-Report), which took about two Seventeen parents indicated that 30 questions geared to identify the hours to complete. After each student they were authoritative and one was parenting styles used in the home. It finished the questionnaire packet, he or authoritarian. The mean number of includes a five-point scale (1=strongly she was given a parent packet and asked children in the home was 2.83, SD=.10, disagree to 5=strongly agree) and the to place his or her code number on each and about half of the parents reported individual gives an opinion for each form and address the envelope. Each that the student was the first-born and statement. Results of several studies student received course credit for his or the other half third-born. The mean (Buri, 1991) have supported the PAQ her participation. Each student received a income was between $46,000 and as a psychometrically sound and debriefing form, which further explained $55,000 annually. Religious affiliation valid measure of Baumrind’s parental the nature of the study and the influence was reported as Catholic (7), Protestant authority prototypes. Both the parent of parenting styles. (9), or not participating (1). The average and the student completed the PAQ. Using the information provided by church attendance was reported as twice The Temperament and Character the student, the parent questionnaire a month to twice a week. Students self- Inventory (Cloninger et al., 1994) is packet was mailed to the parent. This reported higher levels of delinquency in a 226 item, true-false questionnaire packet included an informed consent childhood and adolescence than parents that measures seven dimensions of form, a self-addressed stamped envelope reported on the student. Parent reports personality: novelty seeking, harm to return the material, the parents of their own delinquency indicated avoidance, reward dependence, demographic survey, the Adult Behavior higher levels than reported for children. persistence, self-directedness, Checklist, the parent’s version of the The most common incidents included cooperativeness, and self-transcendence. Parental Authority Questionnaire, and a shoplifting, unprotected sex, underage A recent study by Brandstrom, Richter, debriefing form. The parents were asked drinking, truancy, and drug use.

90 Parenting Styles And Delinquent Behavior The number of stressors experienced Hypothesis Three out behavior in college. Students who by the family, as reported by the Hypothesis three was not supported at reported experiencing an authoritarian parents, was relatively low. About 22% all. There were no gender differences parenting style report more problems. of the sample reported a history of found on the Temperament and These students also report having more illness, job loss, job change, financial Character Inventory, the Adult Self- difficult temperaments. worries, death, learning problems, Report, or the demographic survey. Attempts to examine cause and anxiety, or depression. effect relationships and moderating When comparing the student reports Hypothesis Four or mediating variables were largely of parenting style to the parent reports, No significant differences were found unsuccessful due to a small sample size. only half of the 18 pairs agreed on using parent data and student ASR For example, many of the mediating the style (8 pairs authoritative, 1 pair scores. Thus, parent reports of past variables were assessed only on the authoritarian). The other half included delinquency, temperament, socio- parent data sheet (socio-economic status, students who reported authoritarian economic status, religion, family stress, stressor, childhood temperament, and parents and parents who self-identified and parenting style did not significantly religion) and only 18 parents responded. as authoritative. impact the students self-report of In addition, only two parenting styles problem behaviors. were represented: authoritative and Hypothesis One authoritarian. Although the student Since only two parenting styles Additional Analysis sample was approximately equally were found among our participants, In an effort to examine variables that divided among these variables, the hypothesis one was only partially tested. moderate or mediate the relationship parent sample was skewed toward A one-way ANOVA of the Parental between parenting style and college authoritative. In fact, most student- Authority Questionnaire and Adult Self- students behavior, family cohesion was parent pairs did not agree on parenting Report revealed a significant difference examined. Table 1 includes the means style. Therefore, it still remains unclear (F (1, 36) =16.83, p<.00). Figure 1 shows and standard deviations for the two what impact parent perception of the adult self-report score for both groups on each scale. Higher scores parenting style has on adult behavior. parenting styles. As the graph displays, means better cohesion. The authoritative However, previous studies have found those participants who reported families have consistently higher scores. that as children age their impressions experiencing an authoritarian parenting Table 2 summaries the result of a have a greater impact (Paulson, 1994; style had a higher delinquency score series of one-way ANOVAS. Respect, Slicker, 1998). Of note are the other than the authoritative group. responsibility, feelings, conflict, and discrepancies that existed between empathy were significant at the p≤ parent and child reports. The parents Hypothesis Two .05 level. Clarity and openness were seem largely unaware of the delinquent A one-way ANOVA (TCI score x significant at the p≤.10 level. To behaviors their children engaged in PAQ) revealed that the most difficult examine the relationship between during childhood and adolescence temperaments were associated with parenting style and problem behavior and, in some cases, they appear to the authoritarian parenting style (see while controlling for family cohesion be unaware of current problems their fig. 2). The three scales that showed a partial correlation analysis was children are having. The parents that did a significant difference were novelty conducted. The results indicated respond tended to be intact families with seeking (F (1, 36)=9.1, p=.01), self- a significant relationship between college age children who reported few directiveness (F (1, 36)=6.8, p=.01) and parenting style and problem behavior. problems. The families were middle class cooperation (F (1, 36)=16.9, p<.00). Authoritative parenting style is and regular church attendees. Therefore, The figure also shows that authoritative negatively correlated with problem there was little variability in the parent parenting style was correlated with the behavior r=-.56, p<.00. data which may have contributed to the more positive items (cooperation and lack of significant results. self-directiveness) and the authoritarian Conclusions and Limitations The other finding of note was style was correlated with the more The results of the study indicate that the significant relationship between negative items (novelty seeking and there is a relationship between the parenting style and family cohesion. harm avoidance). student’s perception of parenting Authoritative parenting is related style and the student’s self-report of to high levels of family cohesion. psychological problems and acting However, parenting style has a powerful

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 91 relationship with adult behavior even parents as permissive or parents may sample, it is possible that profiles when family cohesion is removed. be reluctant to admit these practices could be developed. Perhaps children This and the other results must be because they may “seem” uncaring. with authoritarian parents will have a interpreted with caution given the small It may be that children of permissive difficult temperament that is inhibited sample and limited variability. parents do not attend college in large and anxious along with relationship This study coincides with previous numbers. Again, additional studies are difficulties that include dependency research (Hickman, Bartholomae, needed to examine this phenomenon. and lack of trust; whereas, permissive & McKenry, 2000) in that parents Further research should include larger parenting style results in volatile or children reported no permissive more geographically and ethnically and impulsive character styles in parenting style. This is an interesting diverse samples while continuing to their children. The measures used finding and should be further explored. control for the potential mediator and in this study could yield much more Perhaps children rarely perceive their moderator variables. With a larger information with a larger sample.

92 Parenting Styles And Delinquent Behavior Figure #1. Adult Self-Report Score (ASR) vs. Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ)

Note: A higher ASR score represents more psychological problems.

Figure #2. The Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) vs. Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ)

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 93 Table #1. Statistical Descriptive (FOS) N Mean Std. Deviation Clarity Authoritarian 16 13.5625 3.26535 Authoritative 21 15.1429 1.93095 Total 37 14.4595 2.67285 Responsibility Authoritarian 16 12.1250 2.52653 Authoritative 21 14.0000 2.38747 Total 37 13.1892 2.59099 Respect Authoritarian 16 13.2500 3.53082 Authoritative 21 15.5714 2.20389 Total 37 14.8919 3.04175 Openness Authoritarian 16 13.8750 3.38378 Authoritative 21 15.6667 2.15252 Total 37 14.8919 2.85564 Acceptance Authoritarian 16 14.4375 4.27346 Authoritative 21 15.2381 2.54764 Total 37 14.8919 3.37296 Feelings Authoritarian 16 14.3750 3.36403 Authoritative 21 16.3810 2.37647 Total 37 15.5135 2.97790 Mood Authoritarian 16 15.6250 3.96443 Authoritative 21 16.9048 2.58660 Total 37 16.3514 3.26782 Confl ict Authoritarian 16 12.3125 3.55375 Authoritative 21 14.6667 2.26569 Total 37 13.6486 3.08415 Empathy Authoritarian 16 13.6250 3.79254 Authoritative 21 15.7143 2.53264 Total 37 14.8108 3.26461 Trust Authoritarian 16 02.7500 2.75000 Authoritative 21 02.6838 2.68328 Total 37 02.6964 2.65634

Table #2. ANOVA (FOS) Sum of Mean Squares df Square F Sig Clarity Between Groups 22.680 1 22.68 3.385 0.074 Within Groups 234.509 35 6.70 Total 257.189 36 Responsibility Between Groups 31.926 1 31.92 5.327 0.027 Within Groups 209.750 35 5.99 Total 241.676 36 Respect Between Groups 48.938 1 48.93 6.028 0.019 Within Groups 284.143 35 8.11 Total 333.081 36 Openness Between Groups 29.150 1 29.15 3.859 0.057 Within Groups 264.417 35 7.55 Total 293.568 36 Acceptance Between Groups 5.821 1 5.82 0.505 0.482 Within Groups 403.747 35 11.53 Total 409.568 36 Feelings Between Groups 36.541 1 36.54 4.524 0.041 Within Groups 282.702 35 8.07 Total 319.243 36 Mood Between Groups 14.873 1 14.87 1.409 0.243 Within Groups 369.560 35 10.55 Total 384.432 36 Confl ict Between Groups 050.328 1 50.32 6.030 0.019 Within Groups 292.104 35 8.34 Total 342.432 36 Empathy Between Groups 39.640 1 39.64 4.033 0.052 Within Groups 344.036 35 9.83 Total 383.676 36 Trust Between Groups 4.292 1 4.29 0.584 0.450 Within Groups 257.437 35 7.35 Total 261.730 36

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96 Parenting Styles And Delinquent Behavior Psychopaths in the Courtroom: A Preliminary Report on Judicial Sentencing for Violent Offenses

ABSTRACT Introduction Every day, judges are faced with making Given the central position that a judge decisions about a defendant’s potential assumes in the criminal justice system, risk as it relates to setting bail, sentencing, as the gatekeeper of the civil rights of and a variety of other contexts. In making the accused as well as the guardian of these decisions, judges must balance issues public safety, it is paramount for them of fairness and protection of the individual to rely on the most effective methods rights of the accused with protection of possible when sentencing an offender. society from dangerous predators who may In Michigan, the state legislature commit future acts of physical or sexual provides guidance to judges in the form violence. As professionals who are not of “sentencing guidelines” to standardize specifically trained in violence assessment, the sentences for criminal offenses. At judges must rely on others, including the same time, recognizing that special probation agents, attorneys, and expert circumstances may warrant exceptional witnesses, for information to assist in their handling of a particular case, the law decision-making. Through expert witnesses permits judges to “depart” from the and up-to-date training of criminal justice guidelines either giving a sentence that professionals, judges should have access to is more lenient or more strict. However, a significant body of knowledge regarding offenders who commit a particular crime John Traxler the risk factors that are known to be related are not equally likely to commit that McNair Scholar to future violence, particularly risk factors same crime, or to commit additional such as psychopathy which has been found crimes, in the future. Particularly in the to be the single best predictor of future case of violent offenders, it would seem violence in a wide variety of populations. reasonable for judges, in their decisions A preliminary study was carried out about appropriate sentence length in western Michigan counties using and whether or not to depart from the transcripts from sentencing hearings of sentencing guidelines, to consider those violent offenders convicted of rape, felonius risk factors which indicate that assault, or homicide/attempted homicide a given offender is at high risk for to determine whether known risk factors future violence. influenced judges’ decisions regarding For the past two decades, scientists sentencing and whether such information in the field of risk assessment have impacted a judge’s decision to depart from been developing the scientific basis the Michigan sentencing guidelines. Results to more precisely estimate the degree suggest that risk factors are often not of recidivism risk posed by a given mentioned during the sentencing hearings offender for future violence (Hanson & and that when they are, they rarely appear Bussiere, 1998; Quinsey, Harris, Rice, to influence judicial decisions. In particular, & Cormier, 1998). In particular, there no mention of the term psychopathy or have been significant advancements in of expert testimony related to risk or identifying variables that show high of the names of scientifically validated correlations with violent and sexual instruments for assessing violence risk recidivism as well as in the development was found in all transcripts reviewed. of standardized tests and instruments Implications of these results for professional that are scientifically validated to training and improvement in judicial measure these variables. Anton Tolman, Ph.D. sentencing are discussed. Among the hundreds of risk factors Faculty Mentor studied as possible predictors of future violent behavior, psychopathy has emerged as the single most valuable predictor variable among widely

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 97 differing populations (Monahan et al., predictions of violence only one out the concept of psychopathy is used 2001; Rice & Harris, 1997; Cornell et of three times. Despite these scientific in trial court decisions, specifically al., 1996). For example, in a study of concerns, the courts emphatically in western Michigan. Further, it is male forensic inmates, instrumental indicated that this type of information important to understand the basis for (premeditated) offenders could be was very important in making judicial testimony regarding psychopathy or reliably distinguished from reactive decisions, particularly those related risk and to determine how often judicial (provocational) offenders on the basis to sentencing where the judge must decisions are based on scientifically of violent crime behavior and on degree balance civil rights with public safety sound assessment methods such as the of psychopathy when group differences (Barefoot v Estelle, 1983). More recently, Hare Psychopathy Checklist–Revised could not be attributed to participant in the landmark decision of Daubert (PCL-R) and the Hare Psychopathy age, race, length of incarceration, v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals (1993), Checklist–Screening Version (Hart, Cox, or extent of prior criminal record the U.S. Supreme Court clearly placed & Hare, 1995) versus more primitive (Cornell et al, 1996). Psychopathy the role of gatekeeper for scientific and biased forms of assessment such is a pervasive personality style that expert testimony on trial court judges. as unsupported opinion. It is also consists of interpersonal (manipulative, Given the responsibility indicated equally important to see what type of deceitful), emotional (lack of remorse, in Daubert and the current status professional (psychologist, psychiatrist, callousness, superficial emotions of the science of risk assessment, social worker) is addressing the issue of and relationships), and behavioral particularly of psychopathy as a risk psychopathy as a risk variable because (aggressive and impulsive behavior, variable, one would expect that judges the administration of the instruments lack of future plans, parasitic lifestyle) would routinely make use of expert requires specialized training and a high factors (Hare, 2003). Frequently information related to risk in a wide degree of professional judgment. Only confused by both mental health variety of contexts including both civil by understanding current practices professionals and legal professionals and criminal proceedings. Unfortunately, can progress be made in developing a with the psychiatric diagnosis of available information suggests that plan to address existing problems and Antisocial Personality Disorder, this is not the case. Both the personal enhance the ability of the justice system psychopathy represents a distinct, but experience of one of the authors as to manage violent offenders. This study overlapping construct (Hare, 2003). well as a recent study of clinical versus may also convey a sense of whether Over the past decades, a primary forensic psychologists (Tolman & or not psychopathy is becoming more scientifically validated measurement Mullendore, 2003) and also a study of recognized in court and whether or of psychopathy has emerged: the Hare circuit court judges in Michigan (Tolman not expert testimony concerning the Psychopathy Checklist–Revised (PCL-R) & Buehman, 2004) suggest that both possible psychopathy of an offender is (Hare). Various other risk assessment mental health and legal professionals considered admissible. instruments have also been developed are often unaware of the scientific for assessing the possibility of an meaning of the term “psychopath” and Method offender’s future risk; these instruments are even more unaware of the existence Case Selection have been published (Quinsey et al., of scientifically validated instruments to Given the time allotted for the 1998; Webster, Douglas, Eaves, & Hart, measure the construct of psychopathy completion of this research project, 1997) and are available to professionals and to evaluate potential risk. Adding this preliminary investigation was held who are in a position to provide to this disconnect, roughly 50% of to a rather limited jurisdiction. The relevant information to the courts faced the judges surveyed by Tolman and goal was to obtain from trial courts in with making sentencing decisions for Buehman confused psychopathy with Ottawa, Muskegon, and Kent counties a violent offenders. psychosis, which can exist concurrently stratified random sample of sentencing This current state contrasts markedly with psychopathy but is a distinctly transcripts of three types of offenses that with an evaluation of the field separate diagnosis and disorder. often are associated with psychopathic conducted by Loftus and Monahan Given the potential value to society offenders: criminal sexual conduct in the (1981) over 20 years ago. At that and the courts of identifying the risk first and third degree, felonius assault, time, Monahan concluded that mental factor of psychopathy along with and homicide or attempted homicide. health professionals assessing risk of other known factors that increase County court clerks were contacted in future violence based solely on their an offender’s risk for violence, this each jurisdiction and provided with a experiential opinions were accurate in study proposes to evaluate how often description of the rationale for random

98 Psychopaths In Court selection and a subset of random example, the variable “prior criminal considered “high risk” for future numbers to use in selecting cases. They history” was scored 0 if the offender violent offending. were requested to randomly select did not have a criminal history, 1 if the Substance abuse is a key risk factor five cases of each type and to obtain offender had a non-violent criminal related to future violence. In the majority the transcripts of those cases. Only history, 2 if the offender had a violent of cases (68%) prior substance abuse adult cases were selected because these criminal history, 3 if the offender had was not mentioned in the transcript; constitute records open and available to both, and 9 if criminal history was four offenders (21%) were reported the public. Across all cases reviewed the not mentioned in the transcript. The to have prior possession charges; and mean offender age was 35.1 years, sentencing information section was two offenders (10%) were described as ranging from 19 to 56, with a standard concerned specifically with the judge’s having no prior substance charges. deviation of 11.6. All offenders sentencing decision and was scored With regard to a history of prior sentenced in this study were male. similar to the offender history section to sexual offending, once again it was A random list of cases of each type improve the reliability of data scoring found that the majority of the cases was generated by the Kent County decisions. An example of an item from (63%) did not mention this risk factor Office of Community Corrections, section three would be whether or not while seven of the offenders (37%) had but the report from the county clerk the transcript referred to psychopathy or been sentenced for prior sexual offenses. indicated that the majority of them did the psychopathy assessment instruments However, it is important to note that not have a trial transcript. Efforts are (PCL-R or PLC-SV) in consideration of of the seven criminal sexual conduct currently underway in order to expand sentencing; if so it was scored a 1, if not offenders, four (57%) manifest behavior the number of cases reviewed for the it was scored a 0. that would be considered indicators of study. At the time of this report, only sexual deviance (victim was below legal 2 cases had been obtained from Kent Procedures age of consent or the same sex as the County; one case was a transcript of a The transcripts of the sentencing offender). This is important because homicide case and one transcript was of hearings were scanned for references or sexual deviance is a key risk factor for a sexual assault. Given the low return at arguments that indicated the presence of future sexual offending (Hanson & the time of this report, no attempt was known risk factors for future violence. Morton-Bourgon, 2004). The sample made to evaluate potential differences in These references could have been made group of six homicide offenders was how jurisdictions handled these cases. by either attorney, by the judge, or by the only group where history of sexual All results presented in this study are explicit reference to the Pre-Sentence offense was not mentioned for any of based on the total aggregate summary of Investigation report (PSI). All such the individuals. transcripts (n=19). references were then scored according to A past history of mental illness was the scoring instrument. noted in less than half of the cases Data Collection Instrument (47%); of these cases, only one person Each transcript was read and scored Results had been hospitalized for mental using a data collection instrument Offender History disorders, a known risk factor for future developed for this study. A copy of the For almost half of the cases reviewed violent offending (Hodgins & Janson, instrument is included in the Appendix. (43%), offender history was not 2002). None of the offenders was The instrument was divided into three mentioned in the course of the reported to have been found not guilty sections: general information, offender sentencing hearing. In those instances by reason of insanity in a prior charge. history, and sentencing information. where it was described, four offenders The general information section (21%) were noted to have both a Sentencing Information was composed of items assessing history of non-violent and violent prior For all nineteen transcripts reviewed, the the offenders’ ages, charges, and offenses; two offenders (10%) were judge departed from the recommended jurisdictions. The offender history described with only violent histories; sentencing guidelines only once. section summarized the offenders’ three offenders (16%) were reported This case involved an offender with a histories by scoring the variables that to have exclusive non-violent criminal history of mental illness and resulted were related to violence risk. The histories; and two offenders (10%) had in the judge departing to issue a lower scoring for items in this section ranged no reported criminal history. The six sentence than was recommended by from 0 to 3 with a 9 given if the variable offenders (32%) reported to have prior the probation agent. Only four of the was not mentioned in the transcript. For histories of violence would likely be cases (21%) indicated evidence that

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 99 the judge’s final sentence was affected Discussion harm” to himself and to society. As by the presence of one or more of the The sample described in this noted above, serious mental illness risk factors mentioned in section two preliminary report was too small and is associated with increased rates of of the instrument although they were did not have enough samples from criminality and violence (Hodgins & not sufficient enough for the judge to different counties in western Michigan Janson, 2002), so the rationale for a depart from the sentencing guidelines. to make significant conclusions about downward departure in this case is Although risk factors had been the overall pattern of judicial use of unclear, but may reflect a tendency mentioned during the hearing, there risk information in sentencing decisions toward leniency to a person who was no evidence that this information in Michigan or even west Michigan. was seen as having suffered from his affected sentencing in seven of the cases This was due mainly to the manner illness and who needed treatment. In (37%), and potential risk factors from in which the trial court cases, and any case, given the literature on risk section two were not mentioned at all particularly transcripts of sentencing factors and future violence, one would in eight of the cases (42%). Of the four hearings, were organized and stored expect judges to carefully consider cases in which risk variables affected the by the various jurisdictions studied. offender histories of significant mental judge’s overall sentencing decision, the The different systems in place in each illness in their consideration of the sentence was increased in two cases and county for organizing and storing this appropriateness of a sentence. decreased in the other two. type of information create a significant Further, the fact that there were so Of the nine cases (47%) in which the barrier to research on the nature of few departures for these individuals offender had a reported criminal history, sentencing decision-making and would convicted of violent crimes raises two this history was referred to by the judge also presumably hinder access of the important issues. First, although the in only three of the sentences (33%). public to cases that may be of interest Supreme Court clearly charged the trial In these three incidences, the judge still to a variety of interested parties (e.g. judges as “gatekeepers” for scientific sentenced within the recommended victims, victim advocacy organizations, information (Daubert v. Merrell Dow, guidelines, neither exceeding nor news reporters). If studies of the type 1993), the role of the probation reducing the amount of time that the presented in this report are of interest agent who prepared the Pre-Sentence offender would serve in jail or prison. to legal and mental health professionals Investigation in these cases was critical. Only one case (5%) involved expert and the public, it may be useful for Judges largely appeared to accept at testimony; a clinical psychologist the state to consider establishing more face value the PSI conclusions regarding testified concerning an offender’s consistent systems for information the appropriate sentence based on the competency to stand trial. No experts storage and retrieval. This would also offender’s history. In Michigan, probation were used to assess potential future benefit researchers interested in studying agents calculate an abbreviated risk risk for violence in any of the cases criminal activity based on specific types assessment as part of the PSI based studied. As one would expect, there of offenses. upon a formula that was developed were no references made to the PCL-R, The authors intend to continue the in an internal study conducted by PCL-SV, or any other type of actuarial study to expand the sample, perhaps the Department of Corrections over a risk assessment tool during any of the including additional counties in western decade ago. This study and the formula, sentencing hearings. Michigan, in order to address the central to our knowledge, were never cross- None of the cases mentioned were questions of the study. validated nor subjected to peer review. concerned with dynamic risk factors. Michigan legislators would probably As indicated in the Introduction, the Hanson and Harris (2001) define be pleased to note that judges field of risk assessment has made dynamic risk factors as those that can rarely departed from the sentencing significant strides in the past decade change and are thought to be linked guidelines. In fact, departure occurred in improving knowledge, technology, to acute increases in violence risk. only once (5% of cases), and that case and instruments for assessing risk of Examples of this type of risk factor was a downward departure (a lesser physical, and especially sexual, violence. include association with criminal peers, sentence than recommended) due These instruments have been rigorously impulse control, social skills, use of to the defendant’s history of mental tested and evaluated across populations, substances, specific contexts that are illness. The judge’s reasoning from time, and offense type. In contrast, there related to criminal behavior, compliance the transcripts was unclear, but he was no indication that the formula used with psychotherapy or other treatment, specifically stated that the offender’s by probation agents has been updated and taking medications. behavior had caused “significant or reviewed since it was created, and at

100 Psychopaths In Court this point it should not be considered a recidivism. Otherwise, one would & Buehmann, 2004) have indicated that reliable source of risk information. assume that the attorneys (particularly there are significant differences between In addition, the personal experience the prosecuting attorney) would have “clinical” and “forensic” psychologist of the first author suggests that while raised the issue during the negotiations. experts in their ability to provide to the probation agents are doing the best they As mentioned in the Introduction, for courts useful information related to risk can with the information they have been the same type of crime (e.g. felonius for violence and that both courts and given, they are sorely undertrained in assault, or even a sex offense), a set non-forensic clinicians often assume the very areas one would hope they of offenders may have significantly that risk issues are clinical, not forensic, would be knowledgeable about: static different individual risk for committing questions. Perhaps for that reason, they (historical) and dynamic risk factors that that same crime or another crime in do not consider the utility of forensic relate to a given offender’s potential for the future. The interests of fairness, as experts, trained in doing these types of future criminal and violent behavior. well as the concern with public safety, evaluations (i.e. they do not see the need Obviously, these areas of knowledge are would suggest the need to consider the for “clinical” input in many of these critical to decisions about sentencing risk context of each offender in order types of cases). length and feasibility of community to best protect society while protecting Third, because the authors did not supervision. The Department of individual rights and reducing the review the actual PSI reports in these Corrections does not currently require burden on our societal resources. cases, it is possible that these reports any background or expertise in this There are several potential reasons did, in fact, provide detailed information area when agents are hired, and it does why these sentencing hearings about known risk factors for criminal, not appear that agents are provided may have been so sparse in their violent, and sexual recidivism and sufficient training to be aware of major consideration of important risk factors that such evidence was so compelling advances in these areas. This last for future violence (in only 21% of the that questions did not arise during condition reflects an ongoing barrier 19 cases were risk factors explicitly negotiations regarding the sentencing that exists, in general, to incorporate considered). First, while judges and guidelines and were essentially current scientific findings into the legal other criminal justice professionals, stipulated to by all parties. For the process. Thus, judges are left to rely on including attorneys and probation reasons given above, this explanation risk information reports comprised from agents, are accustomed to dealing seems unlikely but cannot be totally an outdated instrument and prepared by with issues of risk in general, available ruled out. persons who are not aware of the most evidence (Tolman & Buehmann, 2004) Fourth, it is possible that many of the critical findings in the area. suggest that these professionals are not risk factors for potential violence were It was typical for negotiations to aware of advances in the understanding included in the PSIs and that judges occur during the sentencing hearing of specific risk factors and how they considered that evidence but did not between the defense attorneys and the relate to violence; likewise, they appear see fit to comment on it because they prosecuting attorneys over the issue to be unaware of the development of did not believe the information was of the accuracy of the scoring used in risk-specific instruments that have sufficient to justify a departure from the PSI which has implications for the been scientifically validated. Thus, the the sentencing guidelines. Although recommended sentence. Again, the relative lack of consideration of these Michigan law is somewhat vague on judge’s final decision for sentence is factors in sentencing decisions may not when judges may depart from the based in part upon the outcome of these be surprising. guidelines, it indicates that a departure negotiations. However, the facts that no Second, one could argue that even if can occur when the judge believes there mention was made in any transcripts judges were unaware of these advances is a significant reason to do so and about the term “psychopathy”, there in science, they could rely upon experts when that departure can be justified was no use of experts to provide at least to provide that information to the court. by the available evidence. As was clear a risk screening, and the high rate of However, the presence of experts in from the lack of input of specialized hearings where key risk factors were the court is usually contingent upon forensic experts and the use of not even discussed or mentioned at all the court, or the attorneys involved specialized risk instruments in the cases suggest that the attorneys involved in in the case, recognizing the need to studied, judges may have felt that there these discussions were likewise unaware engage such experts and knowing were insufficient reasons to consider of the importance of known risk which experts to use. Recent studies departure or to enable justification of factors for criminal, sexual, and violent (Tolman & Mullendore, 2003; Tolman such a position. Apart from the issue of

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 101 judicial knowledge of violence risk and evaluating the sentencing options that within one’s boundaries of competence. accurate risk assessments, it is probably would best be used to protect society Doing so would make experts in court very important to better understand from future crimes. more credible to the courts and would judicial reasoning regarding sentencing Obviously, these issues are important enhance the ability of the courts to trust departures and how judges view the both to defendants in the criminal their judgments. impact of scientific evidence during justice system and to the public. If This study should be completed considerations of future risk. judges and other professionals in the by finishing the data collection or As an example of some of the criminal justice system are relatively perhaps by expanding it to include a above issues, consider the issue of unaware of the importance of these more representative sample of western sexual deviance. Half of the cases in findings in forensic psychology, then Michigan counties. This would enable this sample involving sexual offences it behooves us as a society to ensure the analysis to determine if there presented evidence of sexually deviant that they receive adequate training that are significant differences between arousal patterns. Not all persons who would enable them to differentiate the jurisdictions or if the issues noted in commit a sexual offense have patterns types of experts and testimony most this report are commonplace. Research of deviant sexual arousal; those that do likely to be useful or at least to know is also needed to better understand the represent a subgroup of offenders who what instruments to look for and what training, strategic thinking, and use of raise greater concern for public safety. risk factors to consider in sentencing expert testimony by attorneys who are Previous research (Rice & Harris, 1997) violent offenders. If there are system often the professionals that drive the has found that deviant sexual offenders barriers, including legal theory, case law, presentation or lack of presentation of sexually recidivated even faster and and sentencing guideline policies, to the this type of information in the court. to a greater degree than non-deviant use of this information, then it would Finally, research into understanding psychopathic offenders. Furthermore, be helpful to work with policy-makers the barriers that exist between science using survival curve analyses, Rice to educate them so that better policies and the application of that science to and Harris found that the group could be developed to protect the rights the criminal justice system is sorely of sex offenders at greatest risk for of the accused while making society needed. If we can better understand the committing another sex offense (several safer. There are also problems within the elements that constrain our ability to times the rate of all other sex offenders professional fields themselves (Tolman make better decisions, we may be able combined) were individuals who & Mullendore, 2003); those involved in to move closer to a vision of a safer, yet were both psychopathic and sexually professional training need to do a better fair, society. deviant. The interaction of these two job in teaching new professionals about dimensions is a good example of how the boundaries between clinical and both factors should be considered in forensic expertise and the need to work

102 Psychopaths In Court References

Barefoot v. Estelle. (1983). 697 F.2d 593

Cornell, D., Warren, J., Hawk, G., Stafford, E,. Oram, G., & Pine, D. (1996). Psychopathy in instrumental and reactive violent offenders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(4), 783-790.

Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals. (1993). 509 U.S. 579.

Hanson, R.K., & Bussiere, M.T. (1998). Predicting relapse: A meta-analysis of sexual offender recidivism studies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(2), 348-362.

Hanson, R.K., & Morton-Bourgon, K. (2004). Predictors of sexual recidivism: An updated meta-analysis. A report to the Department of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Canada. Retrieved September 27, 2004, from http://www.sgc.gc.ca

Hare, R.D. (2003). Hare psychopathy checklist–Revised, Technical Manual (2nd Ed). Toronto, Ontario: MultiHealth Systems.

Hart, S.D., Cox, D.N., & Hare, R.D. (1995). The Hare PCL:SV Psychopathy Checklist: Screening version technical manual. Toronto, Ontario: MultiHealth Systems.

Loftus, E.F., & Monahan, J. (1981). “The psychologist as an expert witness”: Reply to Sokal. American Psychologist, 36(3), 316-317.

Monahan, J., Steadman, H.J., Silver, E., Appelbaum, P.S., Robbins, P.C., Mulvey, E.P., Roth, L.H., Grisso, T., & Banks, S. (2001). Rethinking risk assessment: The MacArthur study of mental disorders and violence. Journal of Psychiatry and Law, 30(4), 593-596.

Tolman, A.O. & Buehman, E. (2004). Judicial perceptions of expert risk testimony. Paper presented at the 4th Annual Conference of the International Association of Forensic Mental Health Services, Stockholm, Sweden, June 6-9, 2004.

Tolman, A.O., Mullendore, K. B., (2003). Risk evaluation for the courts: Is service quality a function of specialization? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 34(3), 225-232.

Quinsey, V.L., Harris, G.T., Rice, M.E., & Cormier, C.A. (1998). Violent offenders: Appraising and managing risk. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Rice, M.E. & Harris, G.T. (1997). Cross-validation and extension of the Violence Risk Appraisal Guide for child molesters and rapists. Law and Human Behavior, 21(2), 231-241.

Webster, C.D., Douglas, K.S., Eaves, D., & Hart, S.D. (1997). HCR-20: Assessing risk for violence (Version 2). Burnaby, British Columbia: Mental Health, Law, and Policy Institute, Simon Fraser University.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 103 Appendix

Trial Court Scoring Instrument Case ID # ______Sentencing Decisions x Future Risk of Violence

Variable names are in ALL CAPS; instructions are in italic

Section 1: General Information

AGEOFF: Age of Offender: ______

OFFTYP: Circle the correct type Offense: (1) Criminal Sexual Conduct ⇒ If CSC, indicate type: CSCTYP (1)st Degree (2)nd Degree (3)rd Degree (2) Felonius Assault (3) Homicide/Murder 1st Degree

JURISD: Circle correct location Jurisdiction: (1) Kent County (2) Ottawa County (3) Muskegon County

Section 2: Offender History Information - circle the correct information according to the record For ALL variables, score 9 if the record does not mention the issue at all.

PRIVIO: Prior Criminal History: (3) Both types (2) Violent (1) Non-violent (0) None “Violent” includes convictions for offenses causing physical or emotional harm exclusive of sexual offenses and substance charges. This category includes assault, arson, kidnapping, any crime with a weapon, domestic violence, and stalking. “Intent” crimes such as attempted murder ARE considered to be violent. “Nonviolent” are convictions for crimes that do not involve direct contact with a victim or the causing of physical harm, e.g. trespassing, theft or B&E without confrontation, fraud, vandalism, technical probation or parole violation, escape, etc.

PRISUB: Substance Abuse: (2) Distribution (drug pusher) (1) Possession (0) No Hx This category includes prior convictions for substance related offenses. If the convictions were only for possession or use of substances, score 1. If the convictions included more serious use of substances including marketing or distribution or intent to distribute, score 2.

PRISEX: Sex Offenses: (3) Both Types (2) Contact Offenses (1) Non-contact offenses (0) None This category scores prior convictions for sexual offenses of any type. Sexual offenses that do not involve physical contact with the victim would be scored 1 (e.g. trespass at night/voyeurism, exposure, exhibitionism, obscene phone calls, possession of child pornography, public indecency, gross indecency). Offenses that involve penetration or direct contact with the victim would be scored 2 (e.g. CSC 1st or 3rd, creation of child pornography, rape. etc). Offenders with a history of both types of offenses would score 3. Convictions for prostitution-related charges would NOT be counted. “Intent” crimes such as attempted rape or intent to commit rape, WOULD count.

SEXDEV: Sexual Deviance: (1) Yes (0) No Score a 1 if there is any evidence that the defendant has a history of deviant sexuality including sexual attraction to children, same-sex victims of sexual offenses. If the defendant has only committed sexual offenses against opposite sex adult victims (e.g. rape), score 0.

104 Psychopaths In Court MHHX: Past Mental Illness: (3) Hx of psychosis (2) Hx of hospitalization (1) Outpatient only (0) No mental health history Score 3 if there is any evidence that the defendant has been previously diagnosed with some type of psychotic disorder such as schizophrenia, Schizophreniform, delusional disorder, paranoia, psychotic disorder NOS or if the defendant has taken antipsychotic medications (e.g. Haldol, Thorazine, Olanzapine, Seroquel, etc.). If the defendant has NOT been diagnosed with a psychotic disorder, but has been previously hospitalized (whether voluntary or not), score 2. If the person has been diagnosed and treated only on outpatient, score. Otherwise, score 0.

NGIHX: ⇒ History of prior acquittal via Not Guilty by Reason of Insanity? (1) Yes (0) No

Section 3: Sentencing Information; as with Section 2, score all records where there is no information as 9.

PRIHXCON Is there evidence that the judge considered the defendant’s prior risk factors? (1) Yes (0) No Only score 0 if 1 or more risk factors were present (you scored it in the above list in Section 2) and the judge did not mention it in his/her reasoning. If there is evidence the judge DID consider risk factors that were present, score 1. If no risk factors were evident in the transcript and the judge did not raise any, score 9.

EXPTEST: Was expert testimony or a report referred to by the judge or attorneys? (1) Yes (0) No If Yes, answer the following: EXPCRED: Credentials of expert: (4) MD (3) Ph.D./Psy.D. (2) SW (1) Other (0) None If the credentials are unknown (e.g. Dr. X), then score 1 and keep a tally on how many “Dr” credentials are mentioned. If the “expert” was a probation or parole agent, then score 1 (e.g. Presentence Investigation Report PSI).

PSYPTHY: Was reference made to psychopathy or to the PCL-R or PCL-SV? (1) Yes (0) No

OTHRISK: Was reference made to other known risk instruments? (1) Yes (0) No Include: HCR-20, SVR-20, Static-99, RRASOR, VRAG, MnSOST-R. Do NOT include instruments like the MMPI-2, DSM, or other diagnostic instruments.

DYNRISK: Was reference made to any dynamic risk factors? (1) Yes (0) No Dynamic risk factors are those that change over time and that may be susceptible to change such as: criminogenic needs, impulse control, social skills, use of substances, specific contexts that are related to criminal behavior, psychotherapy or other treatment, taking medications, etc.

SENTRISK: Is there evidence that the judge’s final sentence was affected by the presence of any of the risk factors in Section 2? (2) Presence increased sentence (1) Presence decreased sentence (0) No effect Score this item according to available information in the transcript; in his justification of sentence, did the judge refer to these risk factors as shaping the decision?

SENTEXP: Is there any evidence that the judge’s final sentence was affected by any expert testimony or report used? (2) Presence increased sentence (1) Presence decreased sentence (0) No effect Do NOT count PSI reports. Same scoring criteria as for SENTRISK.

OTHBAS: Indicate (freehand) any other basis given in the transcript of factors that influenced the judge’s sentencing decision (such as Presentence Investigation Report, victim statement, etc.). Compile this information in another word document called Trial Ct Other Basis.doc

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 8, 2004 105 About the TRiO Programs

To fight the war on poverty, our nation made a commitment to provide education for all Americans, regardless of background or economic circumstances. In support of this commitment, Congress established several programs in 1965 to help those from low-income backgrounds and families with no previous college graduates (first generation). The first three programs established were Talent Search, Upward Bound, and Student Support Services. Thus, they are known as the TRiO Programs. Since then, other programs have been added, including Upward Bound Math and Science, Educational Opportunity Center, The Training Authority, and in 1989, The Ronald E. McNair Post-Baccalaureate Achievement Program. The goal of all of the programs is to provide educational opportunity for all. The Ronald E. McNair Post- Baccalaureate Achievement Program is designed to prepare highly talented undergraduates to pursue doctoral degrees. In addition, the goal is to increase the number of students from low-income backgrounds, first generation college students, and under-represented minorities on college and university faculties.

Copyright This is the official journal of the Ronald E. McNair Post-Baccalaureate Achievement Program, A TRiO Program, at Grand Valley State University. It is funded through the United States Department of Education (A TRiO Program) and Grand Valley State University. Copies of this publication may be obtained by contacting Advising Resources and Special Programs, TRiO McNair Scholars Program, Grand Valley State University, 1 Campus Drive, 230 Student Services Building, Allendale, MI 49401-9403; (616) 331-3441; e-mail [email protected]. The manuscripts are the property of Grand Valley State University and the Grand Valley State University McNair Scholars Program. All copyrights are owned by Grand Valley State University. Reproduction of this material is authorized provided that it is not sold, only used for educational purposes, and the source and author of the material is clearly acknowledged.

106 TRiO Programs