Volume 11 | Issue 49 | Number 1 | Article ID 4045 | Dec 08, 2013 The Asia-Pacific Journal | Japan Focus

Marines, Missiles, and the Iron Lady: The Military Leg in Japan’s Ocean Strategy 海兵隊、ミサイル、そして鉄の女 日本の 海洋政策における軍事的選択肢

Alex Calvo

management strategy. This paper seems to examine these factors, on the understanding that developments in the military sphere are only part of Tokyo’s foreign policy towards The complex situation in East Asia and the East-Asia. wider Pacific-Indian Ocean Region is prompting governments to deploy a full range of tools, Recent amphibious drills offer a glimpse into from economic diplomacy to humanitarian Tokyo's strategy to deter and avoid armed relief operations to declarations of exclusive air conflict with China. The goal is to prevent space, in their search for a balance between giving the impression that limited force could what they consider to be their key national succeed in securing a foothold in contested interests and their shared wish to avert open islands, with Japan either unable (for lack of conflict. Tokyo is one of these actors who feel military capabilities) or unwilling (due to compelled to defend their national interests insufficient domestic support or international while at the same time recognizing that war opposition) to counterstrike. The security would imply harsh costs, to itself and the component in Japanese strategy consists of at region, at many levels, from the human to the least six legs: the development of specialized economic to the political. While many Asian Marine-like units, the holding of regular drills, leaders have expressed the wish to see tensions the deployment of shore-based anti-ship ease and differences settled without recourse missiles, the incorporation of the memory of to violence, all understand the high risk of conflict and look to higher levels of military Margaret Thatcher and the 1982 preparedness to enhance their position. Japan into standard political discourse, better and is no exception. Japan is unique, however, in deeper relations with Russia, and a moving to reinforce military capabilities despite strengthening of the alliance with the US and a restrictive legal and constitutionalof wider defense and security agreements with framework. The development of an amphibious other democracies such as India, Australia, and capability by the SDF (Self-Defense Forces), ASEAN member states including Vietnam. This their latest drills featuring among others shore- article will examine the first four factors, while based anti-ship missile deployment, more also referring to the wider Japanese search for frequent joint exercises with the US and a security and defense identity, an image, a appeals to Washington for a firmer position in brand, which leaves behind both Article 9 the Pacific, a push for constitutional change idealism and unbalanced defense treaties while involving the reinterpretation or formalavoiding suspicions from the international amendment to Article 9, and repeated public community in general, and the United States in references to the late Margaret Thatcher, particular. Japan today is a country looking not former British prime minister, illuminate the only for security but also an international military leg in Tokyo’s conflict prevention and identity.

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The large-scale amphibious drills in early King's College's Alessio Patalano notes that it November constitute a major step forward in comprises “a surface component more than deterrence strategy, putting on display Japan’s twice the size of Britain’s ’s and a ability both to reconquer an island and to submarine force twice that of the French prevent the passage through key straits of Navy”. He concludes that “Japan really is hostile shipping. This follows Prime Minister becoming the Britain of the Far East” since she Abe Shinzo 's repeated references to the “allocates naval means to achieve strategic Falklands in his speeches, an indirect yet ends against an austere economic climate, unequivocal way of warning China that an seeking to maintain a range of capabilities to invasion of the Senkaku Islands (Diaoyu for effectively defend its own core interests and Beijing, Diaoyutai for Taipei) would be met with wider bilateral and ad hoc partnerships. Like an amphibious counterstrike. This was crowned Britain, Japan endorses a maritime strategy in by his meeting in early October with Falklands which the safeguard of crucial sea lanes sits at veteran the Duke of York. On the political and the heart of national security”.1 The Center for diplomatic side the drills are designed to show Strategic Studies of Catalonia's Pol Molas that Tokyo is not standing alone should war stresses the MSDF's “training (of both sailors occur. Japan has succeeded in getting the and officers), organization (very much focused United States to state that the bilateral security on anti-submarine warfare but at the same time treaty covers the Senkaku Islands in the event balanced, and the quality of its hardware (be it of a Chinese attack. The next step is to show of domestic design or purchased abroad and that Japanese and US forces are interoperable upgraded”.2 In an overview of the most and could work together in such a campaign important navies in the Indo-Pacific, US Naval while developing a Japanese amphibious War College's James R. Holmes ranks the capability. Japan deployed, as part of the drills, MSDF second in terms of “their capacity to anti-ship missiles with which to close the First execute the missions national leaders entrust to Island Chain to Chinese shipping in the event of them” and describes it as “modest in size yet hostilities. The potential of such missiles is well-equipped, sporting Aegis , light another lesson learned from the South Atlantic, aircraft carriers, and an elite diesel submarine where HMS Glamorgan suffered extensive force”.3 damage at the hands of an improvised shore- launched missile, in an episode not Japan's goal in beefing up her amphibious forgotten by military officers on either side of forces is to develop a capability to deploy the East China Sea. sufficient force in contested islands in the event of a crisis, and to retake them if necessary. Japan's growing amphibious capability. The Current Japanese policy is not to deploy a creation of specialized amphibious units and permanent land force, or even a permanent facilities is one aspect of Japan's defense civilian presence, in those same islands.4 With reorientation following the end of the Cold War that end in view, Tokyo, mentored by the US and the growing might of the Chinese Navy. Navy and Marine Corps, set out to develop a Japan's Maritime Self-Defense Forces (MSDF) specialized force,. The force will comprise are significant in size and capabilities.contingents from the Ground, Air, and Maritime Although they may not sport some weapons Self-Defense Forces (SDF), and include systems deemed to be offensive and therefore different units covering a range of capabilities, incompatible with Article 9 as officiallyfrom infantry to maritime transportation, and interpreted, they are still one of Asia's powerful including air support. This specialized force is navies. In an overview of the MSDF's historical seen as necessary, among others, because the origins, rationale, structure and capabilities, disputed territories are not only far from

2 11 | 49 | 1 APJ | JF existing military facilities, but from civilian the other hand, Colonel Grant Newsham, infrastructure able to support operations. 5 USMC liaison officer to the Japanese military, noted that “If the 20th century taught us Until 2012, Japan considered marines to be anything, it is that when democracies are able offensive in nature and thus precluded by and willing to defend themselves, it preserves Article 9 of the constitution. The current peace and stability”, adding that “Most Asian government interpretation of Article 9 is that it countries welcome--even if quietly stated--a allows defensive, but not offensive, weapons, a more capable (Japanese force) that is also distinction not always easy to make in practice. closely allied to U.S. forces”. Kerry Finally, last year the cabinet came to the Gershaneck, from the Pacific Forum-Center for conclusion that Japanese law allowed marines Strategic & International Studies, described units to be created and deployed. The unit Japan’s progress in amphibious warfare as selected to serve as the core of this amphibious “hugely significant” and noted that, given the capability was the Western Army Infantry United States’ treaty commitment to defend Regiment (WAIR), based in Nagasaki. This Japanese territory, “We cannot ask young location facilitates quick embarkation on MSDF American Marines to fight and die doing a job (Maritime Self-Defence Forces) ships atthat Japanese forces cannot, or will not, do”, Nagasaki/Sasebo or on V-22 Ospreys from adding that “The U.S. Marines will help, but nearby air bases at Nyutabaru and Tsuiki. From they must have a capable partner”.8 this core, Japanese amphibious capabilities are expected to expand. There have also been Despite its name, the WAIR is, broadly reports of discussions on the possible creation speaking, of battalion size. It is made up of at of a further specialized amphibious unit.6 least three infantry companies. Its table of equipment is that of a light infantry unit, with In any case, an important step was Japan’s weapons no heavier than 84mm Carl Gustav participation earlier this year in the Dawn Blitz recoil-less rifles (employed by the Royal 2013 exercise in California, a US-ledMarines against ARA Guerrico in the defense of multinational military drill which also featured South Georgia on 3 April 1982 9) and French troops from New Zealand and Canada.MO-120-RT 120mm towed mortars. Tokyo Described as “historic” by a USMC officer, announced recently that it would be buying up Tokyo’s participation was notable not only to six AAV-7A1 amphibious assault vehicles. because of the scale of forces travelling to the Previously, the WAIR's only vehicles were light US, some 1,000 military personnel plus three trucks. 10 warships (two of them amphibious assault ships), but because Japanese troops practiced Concerning air support, up to now the WAIR island assaults side by side with their American has not had at its disposal any dedicated, counterparts.7 specialized, collocated (that is, based on the same facilities), air unit. Hitherto, it has relied These drills took place in the face of Beijing’s on helicopters from the 1st Aviation Brigade, protests, not officially confirmed but noted by a with headquarters near Tokyo. For example, number of observers. Tai Ming Cheung, an during the June 2013 Dawn Blitz drills, which analyst of Chinese and East Asian security took place in Southern California, this brigade affairs and director of the Institute on Global provided AH-64 Apache and CH-47 Chinook Conflict and Cooperation at the University of helicopters. Now Tokyo is pondering the California, San Diego, said that “It's another possibility of purchasing organic air transport dot that the Chinese will connect to show this for her marines, in the shape of up to 20 V-22 significant expanding military cooperation”. On Ospreys. This could allow the WAIR to quickly

3 11 | 49 | 1 APJ | JF move to the Senkaku Islands in the event of a Washington appears to be interested not only crisis.11 The Ospreys remain, however,in helping Tokyo reinforce her military controversial in Japan, with opposition due to capabilities as a complement to her own “Pivot past accidents. Pol Molas considers them to be to the Pacific”, which rests in no small measure “expensive and mechanically troublesome”.12 It on a strengthening of the naval capabilities of remains to be seen whether their deployment key allies and partners such as the Philippines in the Philippines, in the Allied humanitarian and Japan, but also in pressing for a Japanese operations in the wake of Typhoon Haiyan / contribution to US-led amphibious operations. Yolanda,13 improves their image. This was stressed by Kyle Mizokami in his recent analysis of “Japan’s Amphibious Although the decision to develop specialized Buildup” for the United States Naval Institute marine units is rather recent, Japan has long News. Mizokami wrote, “Under the tutelage of enjoyed a sizable capability in amphibious the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps, Japan is ships. We could cite here the MSDF’s three slowly but surely building up a credible, flexible Oosumi class vessels, more than a dozen amphibious force capable of responding to landing craft, and the Hyuga class, officially national emergencies. Highly trained with a described as “helicopter destroyers” but similar high level of mobility, it could eventually in capabilities to light carriers.14 become the equal of both. The force will not only be highly useful in Japan’s territorial Each Hyuga class helicopter can disputes, it will likely be an excellent partner carry up to 14 or 16 helicopters, and it for their American counterparts in joint probably would not be too difficult to convert operations”.16 them to operate VTOL (vertical take-off and landing) planes like the F-35-B which the UK is Writing in the Asahi Shimbun, Koji Sonoda buying for her Queen Elizabeth Class carriers, explained that according to Japanese Defense currently under construction. The same could Ministry sources “The creation of a Japanese be said about its successor, the Izumo (22DH) version of U.S. Marines will be included in the class, which is even more capable, but still National Defense Program Guidelines to be labelled as “helicopter destroyers”. Ships like compiled in December”, adding that “The the Izumo are a reminder of the diverse range amphibious force will be set up as early as of tools in the hands of Tokyo, since in the fiscal 2015”. Sonoda said that these sources words of Alessio Patalano “it can be used in the had revealed the target size of the force to be defense of offshore islands, to rescue nationals 3,000. Four of the specialized craft mentioned overseas and as a command ship inearlier would be purchased in the current fiscal expeditionary or relief missions”, adding that year, and the remaining two in Fiscal 2014.17 “In relief operations after the March 2011 earthquake and tsunami, for example, the The interim report by Japan’s Defense Posture helicopter destroyer Hyuga was deployed Review Commission made it clear that building precisely in that type of function”.15 up amphibious capabilities was one of the priorities for defense planners. The report We can thus see how, of the three pillars of stated that one of the “areas to be emphasized Tokyo's amphibious forces, the maritime one is for defense buildup” was the capability to probably the strongest. The land component is “respond to attacks on remote islets”. This currently under development, and there is still requires an ability to “rapidly deploy troops as a lack of specialized air units and equipment, the situation unfolds”, requiring a “mobile with Tokyo pondering the purchase of V-22 deployment capability” and an “amphibious Ospreys. capability”. The mobile deployment capability is

4 11 | 49 | 1 APJ | JF to rest on “joint transport” and “civilian they would involve “live-firing”. The “air-sea- transport capacity”, while also requiring land drill” would be held from 1 to 18 “supply bases”.18 November, comprising “amphibious landings on the uninhabited atoll of Okidaitojima, 400 Concerning the emerging Japanese amphibious kilometres southeast of the main Okinawan force, retired Vice Admiral Koda Yoji,island”. In a statement, the SDF joint staff said commander in chief of the Maritime Self- that the drill was aimed at “maintaining and Defense Force’s Self-Defense Fleet from 2007 improving the joint operational abilities of the to 2008, has termed it “one of the biggest Self-Defense Forces in armed-attack challenges the SDF has faced since it was situations”, adding that it would feature “a established”. Concerning its shape, Koda series of actions in defending islands” including explained this summer that Japan needed some combined operations in landings.21 10 units, with 200 to 300 personnel each, in order to enjoy the necessary flexibility to The number of troops involved is indicative of defend the different islands in the Okinawa the significance of the drills, which looms chain. The admiral believes that these units larger when one recalls that one year earlier should all combine land, air, and seasimilar amphibious exercises were cancelled capabilities, while being self-sufficient, since in following protests from China, and that this the event of hostilities they could not expect time they included for the first time the any reinforcements.19 deployment of anti-ship missiles. If we add to this the entry into Japan’s narrative of the 1982 Although the SDF set up a Joint Staff Office in Falklands War, the message could not be 2006, tasked with coordinating jointclearer: Tokyo has the military means and the operations, significant obstacles to complete political will to retake islands in the event of an coordination of its three branches remain, for invasion22. We will later assess these two example in the form of different radio systems, factors. frequencies, and even lingoes. However, the issues go beyond standardization ofClosing the First Island Chain: the Long communications system among the three Shadow of HMS Glamorgan branches to coordination with its US counterparts. Commenting on this, Justin The deployment of shore-based anti-ship Goldman, a nonresident fellow at Pacific Forum missiles in the islands of Ishigaki and Miyako- CSIS, said that “An amphibious capability for jima was quickly noted by the media, despite rapid island defense is inherently joint”, adding the drills not including any live firing of such that “The three services within the SDF do not weapons. A report by Stratfor explained that have a long history of training and operating although the “Type 88 surface-to-ship missiles” together, a situation that critically needs to be would not be tested, “their deployment is addressed” 20 important because stationing batteries of Type 88 missiles in such a way would effectively put The latest drills: ships, jets, and 34,000 the entire passage between Okinawa-jima and troops. On 24 October, Japan's Defense Miyako-jima under the coverage of Japanese Ministry announced a large-scale military land-based surface-to-ship missiles”. Although exercise designed to bolster the country's Tokyo denied that the deployment was aimed at ability to protect remote islands claimed by anyone in particular, it noted that “the Chinese other nations. A Ministry official explained that navy is increasingly using the same passage the war games would feature “destroyers, through the first island chain and into the fighter jets and 34,000 troops”, adding that Pacific” and as a result “the deployment is sure

5 11 | 49 | 1 APJ | JF to send a strong message to Beijing”. The in conventional naval capabilities across the conclusion was that Japan's drills and anti-ship Taiwan Strait. missile deployments “show that, despite some Chinese military claims of having 'dismembered' the first island chain as an obstacle”, transiting it “in peacetime is entirely different from attempting the same feat during a conflict with Japan”.23

Map showing Ishigaki and Miyako Islands, part of Okinawa Prefecture.24 Map showing the distance between Ishigaki Island and other nearby land features.25 The significance of shore-based anti-ship missiles was clear in the closing stages of the 1982 Falklands War, when Argentinian forces Camouflaged shore-launched missiles give launched an improvised Exocet missile (taken ships under attack a much shorter reaction from the above mentioned ARA Guerrico and time. As a result, the scope for known as “ITB”) against the Royal Navy's HMS countermeasures is considerably smaller. It is Glamorgan, damaging her extensively and easier to detect hostile ships and planes from a taking her out of action.26 While not as well distance, in comparison with a hidden mobile known as the other two successful instances of missile launcher, which may only reveal itself Buenos Aires' use of this weapons system after having opened fire. While modern ships during that war, the air attack? on HMS tend to be equipped with close-range air Sheffield and SS Atlantic Conveyor was duly defence systems which HMS Glamorgan did not noted by both Chinese and Japanese naval have27, and these may well be capable of planners. Recent Filipino commentary on how destroying a missile in flight, the scope for to protect waters claimed by China has also doing this is small compared with missiles featured discussions of mobile shore-based launched from warships and military aircraft. missiles, possibly camouflaged in some of that Furthermore, mobile launchers can provide a country's extensive jungle areas. The Republic way out of the conundrum of how to defend a of China is also considering the potential of this shore after losing air superiority, overcoming kind of weapons system, one of thethe disadvantage of fixed static defences, which “asymmetrical” technologies that many are by definition are liable to be either bypassed or urging Taipei to adapt, given the growing gap destroyed by concentrated fire. We can expect

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Taipei to be paying close attention to Japanese moves in this area.

The British factor: A renewed Anglo- Japanese Alliance? Lessons from the South Atlantic go beyond the potential of shore- launched anti-ship missiles and also extend into the realm of politics and diplomacy, and to be more precise deterrence. While Japan is mainly relying on the United States for building up her amphibious capabilities, Tokyo’s narrative is increasingly inspired by the British experience. References to Margaret Thatcher and the Falklands have taken a discrete, yet significant, Abe's coded message to Beijing: shaking place in Prime Minister Abe Shinzo speeches. hands with Falklands veteran, His Royal 30 Tellingly, a two-day security conference at the Highness the Duke of York. Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security (RUSI)'s Tokyo Branch in early The 400th anniversary of UK-Japan relations October, featured the Duke of York, a veteran seems to be providing cover for Japan's of the 1982 War, with Abe as the keynote deterrence diplomacy. Next year, the 100 speaker. It is interesting to note how, within anniversary of the First World War, where the division of duties in the British Royal Japan and the UK fought together, may provide Family, the Duke of York is charged with export further opportunities for the Japanese prime and investment promotion. So, again we find minister to send subtle messages to China and what is fast becoming Abe's trademark to Tokyo's allies. In his keynote address at the combination of economic and security issues. RUSI conference, Abe noted how the Japanese The message was dual: working to increase Imperial Navy came to be known as “the trade and investment links with another guardian of the Mediterranean”. Can Japan advanced economy, and sending the signal combine a no-nonsense approach to national that, like the UK in 1982, force would be met security without incurring excessive military with force. All in the most deniable way of spending and/or prompting accusations of course, but the message was there. Something militarism at home and abroad? That is a key similar can be said about Lady Thatcher, question, and one on which the Japanese references to her figure and record can be seen Government seems to be looking to the UK as a as a coded message to Beijing, or as a mere possible role model, or at least recalling the appeal to the need to transform and quick start heydays of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance at the the Japanese economy, as the Iron Lady once dawn of the twentieth century, when Japan was did for her country. widely respected as a regional power without being seen as an outcast and a bully as in the 1930s. One of the main challenges is selling this to South Korea, a country clearly reluctant to see Tokyo play a stronger role in international, and particularly security, affairs.

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potential belligerents on the other, which in turn may help shape their diplomatic positions.

Among others, Tokyo is trying to reinforce economic and political relations with a wide range of actors. These include ASEAN member states, India, and Mongolia, just to mention a few. Prime Minister Abe Shinzo also seems to attach great importance to improved relations with Russia, and this is matched by a corresponding interest by Russian leader Putin. It is reinforced by both countries' needs for energy trade diversification, Russia as exporter and Japan as developer and importer. Moscow Truck carrying Type 88 missiles. Also and Tokyo show how territorial disputes and known as SSM-1 or Shibasuta, this missile historical mistrust are not necessarily an was developed by Mitsubishi Heavyobstacle to better relations, when the political Industries from the Air SDF Type 80 will and economic incentives are there on both 28 (ASM-1) air-to-surface anti-ship missile. sides. Japan has also been quick to assist the Philippines recover from Typhoon Haiyan / Conclusions. Increasing tensions in Asia make Yolanda, in a move made the more important it necessary to examine the different strategies since it is one of the countries that Imperial of the actors involved, Japan among them. Most Japan occupied during the Second World War. observers hope that some sort of diplomatic On the trade front, while facing a number of settlement will ultimately be reached. In obstacles, Tokyo is one of the actors clearly support of such a view they cite factors such as interested in a successful outcome to the Trans- the economic interdependence between the Pacific Partnership (TPP) negotiations. different countries involved, the high costs in material and human terms of an open conflict, and the fact that public opinion indicates ambivalence concerning resort to arms against neighbors. Diplomacy and military might, however, are not two completely unrelated spheres, and a country's weight in the former usually depends to some extent on the capabilities and credibility of the latter. This is why, although rearmament and the development of new military capabilities by Japan's SDF are only one of the legs in Tokyo's strategy to deal with tensions in Asia, defending her national interest while seeking to avoid open conflict, it is necessary to examine moves in this area. This may facilitate a clearer view of Japan's diplomatic options, as well as the perceptions by her neighbors, including Artistic rendering of the launch of an allies and partners on the one hand and Exocet by the ITB.29

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At the same time, however, Tokyo is reinforcing many of the characteristics that Japan is the SDF, as one of the pillars in its strategy to seeking, being an ally of the US with significant strengthen Japan’s position in the western military capabilities and substantial soft power. Pacific while striving to avoid an open conflict The sight of MSDF and Royal Navy warships with East Asia. Within this pillar, therushing to the Philippines to provide development of an amphibious capability is humanitarian aid is reinforcing this message of most significant, in particular when taken the two countries as benign naval powers. together with the entry into Japanese political discourse of references to the Falklands. Better Three challenges remain, though, for the amphibious capabilities, while necessary for reinforcement of the SDF to successfully take military deterrence, are also connected to other place and hopefully contribute to Japanese aspects of Japanese foreign policy, such as diplomacy and facilitating a peaceful humanitarian assistance. As shown recently in settlement to the different territorial disputes the Philippines, platforms such as amphibious in the Indian-Pacific Ocean Region. First of all, assault ships and light carriers are very useful accompanying this gradual “normalization” for rapid distribution of humanitarian aid and with a long-needed economic recovery. Unless providing medical attention to survivors in Japan’s economy advances, Abe could lose the areas with little or destroyed infrastructure and political goodwill that is enabling him to push transportation networks. forward his foreign and defense policies. Second, securing a broad range of support In this context, the SDF drills in earlyabroad. While the United States and the United November were significant, and not only due to Kingdom seem to be on board, together with the large number of personnel involved, but Asian countries like India, the Philippines, and above all because they signaled a clearVietnam, South Korea remains reluctant. determination to show the world, both allies Despite being a fellow maritime democracy and and potential foes, that Japan was back as a US ally, history remains a major obstacle to major naval power and was developing a fully normal bilateral relations and suspicions serious amphibious capability, together with abound. Last, but not least, Japan’s SDF is the ability to close off key maritime passages at preparing to train, and equip itself, not only a time of conflict. The skills andwith a view to conventional amphibious professionalism of the Japanese military are not operations but also to face the possibility of in doubt. Neither is Tokyo’s determination to unarmed invasions and mixed enemy expand their capabilities. Tokyo now seeks to operations involving military and unarmed integrate the securing of such objectives as the forces, while simultaneously expanding its defense of the Senkaku Islands with wider already impressive humanitarian support interests including maintaining freedom of capabilities, essential for promoting Japanese navigation and the peaceful solution tosoft power abroad and Tokyo's image as a territorial disputes. This is essential in order to benign first-rate naval power. secure the support, or at least the acquiescence, of other powers. Since becoming Alex Calvois an international law and prime minister for a second time Abe Shinzo international relations professor at European has devoted much time and effort to this goal, University, and guest professor at Nagoya and references to concepts such as “maritime University. democracies”, “freedom of navigation”, and “the rule of law at sea” have become a constant Recommended citation: Alex Calvo, "Marines, in his speeches. Growing links to the UK are Missiles, and the Iron Lady: The Military Leg in part of this strategy, since that country displays Japan's Ocean Strategy," The Asia-Pacific

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Journal, Vol. 11, Issue 49, No. 1, December 9, Buildup”, United States Naval Institute News, 9 2013. October 2013.

Notes 12 Private communication to the author, dated 15 November 2013. 1 Alessio Patalano “Japan: Britain of the Far East?”, The Diplomat, 18 January 2011. 13 “More Ospreys Deploy to Philippines for Typhoon Relief Missions”, American Forces 2 Private communication to the author, 5 Press Service, 13 November 2013. December 2013. 14 The MSDF's three Oosumi class vessels are 3 James R. Holmes “The Top 5 Navies of the considered to be Landing Ship, Tanks (LSTs) Indo-Pacific”, The Diplomat, 21 January 2013. and feature full-length flight decks and a well deck. Each can transport almost a battalion of 4 For a discussion on whether this may be infantry, plus tanks and other vehicles. Each of strategically destabilizing, see Alex Calvo “The these ships can carry two American-built Third Dimension of Warfare and Tactical Landing Craft Air Cushion (LCAC), Japan Stability in the Senkaku Islands”, Birmingham having six of them. Tokyo also has a dozen "'on War": The blog of the postgraduate medium-sized landing crafts, each able to students at the Centre for War Studies, transport around 30 tons of equipment or up to University of Birmingham, 9 January 2013. 80 marines from the ship to shore. Kyle Mizokami “Japan’s Amphibious Buildup”, 5 Kyle Mizokami “Japan’s Amphibious Buildup”, United States Naval Institute News, 9 October United States Naval Institute News, 9 October 2013. 2013. 15 Alessio Patalano “Japan’s new helicopter 6 Kyle Mizokami “Japan’s Amphibious Buildup”, destroyer, the imperial navy legacy and the United States Naval Institute News, 9 October power of a name”, Asahi Shimbun, 22 August 2013. 2013.

7 Zachary Keck “Japan Might Create Island 16 Kyle Mizokami Japan’s“ Amphibious Assault Unit”, The Diplomat, 15 June 2013. Buildup”, United States Naval Institute News, 9 October 2013. 8 “Japan holds unprecedented military exercise in U.S.”, Asahi Shimbun, 10 June 2013. 17 Koji Sonoda “Japan’s new defense guidelines to stipulate amphibious force”, Asahi Shimbun, 9 Max Hastings and Simon Jenkins, The Battle 12 October 2013. for the Falklands, (London: Pan Books, 2010), p. 94 and Lawrence Freedman and Virginia 18 The text also notes that “properly equipping Gamba-Stonehouse, Signals of War: The the new unit for the amphibious mission” will Falklands Conflict of 1982 (London: Faber and be necessary. Interim report by the Defense Faber, 1990), p. 120. Posture Review Commission, webiste of the Japanese Ministry of Defense, provisional 10 Kyle Mizokami Japan’s“ Amphibious translation into English. Buildup”, United States Naval Institute News, 9 19 October 2013. Ayako Mie and Mizuho Aoki “Nation’s troops long way from hitting the beaches: experts”, 11 Kyle Mizokami Japan’s“ Amphibious The Japan Times, 1 August 2013.

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20 Ayako Mie and Mizuho Aoki “Nation’s troops 25 Map taken from “China's Air Defense Zone long way from hitting the beaches: experts”, Announcement Angers and Alarms Japan”, The Japan Times, 1 August 2013. Foreign Confidential, 25 November 2013.

21 Shigemi Sato “Japan readies island war 26 I. Inskip, Ordeal by Exocet: HMS Glamorgan games amid YouTube PR push”, AFP, 24 and the Falklands War 1982, (London: October 2013. Frontline Books, 2012).

22 For a discussion on whether Japan should 27 Following the attack against HMS develop, as part of her Marine force, a police Glamorgan, the Royal Navy quickly installed capability to deal with landings by civilians or the Phalanx system in its ships. H. Bicheno, mixed landings by military and civilian forces, Razor's Edge. The Unofficial History of the please see Alex Calvo, "From ‘Three Blocks’ to Falklands War, (London: Phoenix, 2007), p. ‘Three Islands’", Small Wars Journal, 18 131. November 2013. 28 Source of the picture: here. 23 “Japan's Latest Military Exercise Sends a Message to China”, Stratfor, 25 October 2013. 29 Source of the picture: here.

24 Map taken from Eric Sayers “A day trip to 30 Picture taken from “Duke of York in Japan to Miyako-jima”, Information Dissemination, 18 speak at RUSI conference”, website of the UK January 2011. Government, 3 October 2013.

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