Source Book for Linguistics

William Cowan Jaromira Rakušan Carleton University, Ottawa

John Benjamins Publishing Company Amsterdam / Philadelphia TM The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of

8 American National Standard for Information Sciences — Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cowan, William. Source book for linguistics / William Cowan, Jaromira Rakušan. -- 3rd rev. ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Linguistics--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Linguistics--Problems, exercises, etc. I. Rakušan, Jaromira. II. Title. P121.C62 1998 410--dc21 98-41604 isbn 978 90 272 2162 9 (eur) / isbn 978 1 55619 516 7 (us) (Pb; alk. paper) © 1998 – John Benjamins B.V. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publisher. John Benjamins Publishing Company • P.O. Box 36224 • 1020 me Amsterdam • The Nether- lands John Benjamins North America • P.O. Box 27519 • Philadelphia PA 19118-0519 • USA

Table of Contents

Introduction vii

Phonetic Symbols xii

1. Phonetic Illustrations 1

Consonants 1

Vowels 11

Tests 18

2. Structural Phonology 21

English Vowels 42

3. Phonemic Alternations 45

4. Morphology 63

5. Structural and Functional Syntax 84

6. Semantics 123

7. Sound Change 144

8. Grammatical and Lexical Change 163

9. Historical Reconstruction 181

Solutions to the Exercises 197

Bibliography 245

Language Index 251

vi Introduction

This is a revised and expanded version of the ﬁrst edition of Source Book for Linguistics, published by John Benjamins in 1985. We have added two new sections, on Semantics and on Grammatical and Lexical Change, and have added many new exercises to the already existing sections. The earlier version contained 333 exercises; this present version contains 472 exercises. We have corrected a number of mistakes and misprints, and have made basic changes in the format. It is hoped that this new version will allow teachers and language scholars to bring a wealth of examples to bear in their exposition and development of the basic tenets of linguistics. The data have been drawn from a selection of 93 different languages and dialects, both Indo-European and non-Indo-European. The exercises have been designed to provide examples of various types of language structure for instructors using any standard textbook, or using none. It is hoped that this format has enough ﬂexibility to allow the book to be used with a variety of different approaches to linguistics. We have found that the large number of exercises allows the student to continue practice in problem solving to whatever extent is necessary to master the techniques of linguistic analysis, both in terms of internal structure of language elements (their form) and in terms of the varied use of these language elements (their function). The large number of exercises also makes it possible to continue using the book in second year and higher level courses such as phonology, grammatical analysis, historical linguistics, typology, and others. A number of the features of this book should be brought to the reader’s attention:

1. In all sections, the exercises begin with and are drawn in large measure from languages other than English. Since the book is designed for use primarily by speakers of English, we feel that student presuppositions about English, whether from school traditions or the popular press, as well as those features of language beyond a speaker’s consciousness, would obscure or impede a student’s initial comprehension of many features of language structure SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

if those features and methodologies were introduced by examples drawn from English. However, since we also feel that no English-speaking student should come away from an introductory course in linguistics without some appreciation of the linguistic structure of English, we have included at the end of each basic section a number of exercises demonstrating how the principles of that particular section apply to English. In effect, after the student has learned the basics of phonetics, or phonology or syntax, we then show how these basics can also be used to analyze English, just as they can be used to analyze Spanish or French or Russian or any of the other languages used earlier in the section. 2. The languages used for exemplification and exercises are, in the main, relatively representative and accessible, well-known and well-described, with standard grammars and dictionaries, and available native speakers. We have made an effort to keep our data within this framework for two basic reasons: first, so our data can be investigated, checked, and verified by either instructors or students. The second reason is that this choice of available languages gives instructors and students the opportunity to extend the data if desired. If our demonstrations and exercises are not sufficiently long to prove a point, more examples can be sought in grammar books, dictionaries, or from native speakers. 3. Many of the illustrative sets and exercises are short and treat only one point to be proven or have only one feature to be discovered. For a pedagogical text of this nature we have tried to establish a balance between the maximum data necessary and the minimum features to be highlighted. Other exercises contain a large amount of data. We have included these to give the student opportunity to manipulate large amounts of data so that he or she can get an appreciation of the realities of actual field work, which typically includes such large amounts of data.

In compiling the material we have tried to insure that the instructor would feel free to use the exercises as he or she sees ﬁt. However, we have the following suggestions for those who wish to know how we envision the use of the book:

1. Phonetic Illustrations. This section contains demonstrations, not problems to be solved. A page of phonetic preliminaries gives the phonetic symbols with which we present our examples, both in this section and throughout the book. The illustrations themselves are generally written in a transcription that is narrow for the feature under discussion, but broad for any other features. We do not illustrate all the sounds indicated in our list of phonetic

viii INTRODUCTION

symbols, but only those that are worthwhile pointing out to English-speaking students. All the examples have been recorded by native speakers of the languages concerned and are available on tape from the authors. The ﬁnal ten exercises in the phonetics section are a series of dictation exercises in a variety of languages, designed to be use as test material. They are also on tape, recorded by native speakers. The text contains only the English gloss; the transcriptions are to be found in the answers at the back of the book.

2. Structural Phonology. The material in the initial exercises displays different allophones of one phoneme, and the problem is to state the conditioning factors for these different allophones. Our answers are given in structural notation, but instructors who wish to use other notations, like distinctive features, are free to translate our notation into theirs. Later exercises are of a more elaborate nature, sometimes consisting of a series of problems on related phonemic features. This section also includes several exercises concentrating on the use of phonemic features for the purposes of describ- ing natural classes and phonetic and phonological processes. The section ends with a set of ten exercises of words of increasing length and phonemic complexity to assist in learning to make phonemic transcriptions of English words.

3. Phonemic Alternations. The data of this section illustrate phonemic alternations in individual morphemes. The format is similar to that of the previous section: a series of relatively easy sets of words that can be used as demonstrations of phonological processes or as exercises to be done by the students. The instructions in this section are of a very general nature to enable the instructor to use a variety of approaches to the problems.

4. Morphology. The data in this section have been chosen to illustrate wide typological as well as individual language differences in inﬂectional and derivational or word-forming systems. Most of the exercises require a simple

analytic procedure which yields a statement of the morphemic content of the words. Other exercises require considerations of the functional aspects of individual morphemes, thus reaching beyond the traditional descriptive analysis.

5. Syntax. This section consists of a series of sentence sets from a variety of languages. The exercises in the ﬁrst part illustrate various ways of expressing predication, agreement, and government. In some cases the student is led to establish a word order pattern and contrast this with English. In the second part, exercises from various languages involve descriptive analysis of

ix SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

constituent structure. The third section presents sets of sentences designed to teach the student how to formulate phrase structure rules and simple transformations. The English sentences at the end of the section are designed for practising elementary transformational processes.

6. Semantics. This section consists of a series of exercises that call upon the student to supply semantic explanations for grammatical and lexical features of a variety of languages. In addition, technical terms for semantic analysis are introduced and exercises involving them are included, giving the students the opportunity to practice recognition of different types of meaning and semantic relations. Due to the nature of semantics, which requires a greater competence and deeper understanding of a language than other types of linguistic analysis, most of the exercises in this section are in English.

7. Sound Change. The examples in this section follow the format of word sets to be used either as demonstrations or as exercises, depending on the instructor’s method of presentation. In all cases earlier and later forms of the same item are presented side by side, and the student learns what sound changes are responsible for the differences between the earlier and the later forms. An important feature of this section is that for every set of forms exhibiting a change under one set of conditions, a contrasting set of forms with either no change or a different change under a differing set of conditioning factors is also presented. Students are expected to determine what these conditioning factors are. A less extensive series of exercises requires more complex solutions.

8. Grammatical and Lexical Change. This section contains a number of exercises dealing with change other than sound change, among them analogy, paradigmatic leveling, obsolescence and replacement, lexical change, and the like. The student is presented with earlier and later forms and directed to provide a historical explanation of how the change has come about.

9. Comparative Reconstruction. The exercises consist of a set of cognate forms in two or more related languages. The student is asked to posit proto- phonemes, and to justify the phonemic analysis that leads to their solution. Most exercises are not intended to be complete enough to allow the student to reconstruct all the phonemes in all the words. In fact, due to the exigencies of ﬁnding suitable forms at an introductory level, in many cases one has to ignore some parts of the forms in order to satisfy the reconstruction. In some of the exercises, cognate sets illustrating a proto-phoneme under one condition are followed by other cognate sets with different conditions, thus

x INTRODUCTION

providing the contrast necessary to solve the problem. Several exercises provide data sufﬁcient to reconstruct entire lexical items.

10. Key to the Exercises. We have tried to suggest solutions for most of the exercises in order to allow the student to work independently. Individual users may ﬁnd different solutions, or different ways of expressing the solution, in a number of cases. We have tried to phrase our solutions in such a way as to leave open the matter of theoretical orientation, thus allowing the instructors to use the material in a way they choose. We hope that our solutions are ﬂexible enough to to adapted to this variety.

We would like to extend our most heartfelt thanks to the many students who used this material and helped us in formulating the way in which we presented and used the material. We would also like to thank our many colleagues who have used this material and have been kind enough to offer suggestions for improvement, as well as the native speakers who provided and checked much of the data. We would also like to thank the generous support given to us by the School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies, Carleton University, in the preparation of the printed version of this book.

William Cowan Jaromira Rakusanˇ

School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6 Canada

xi Phonetic Symbols Vowels i higherhighfrontunrounded u higherhighbackrounded I lower high front unrounded U lower high back rounded e highermidfrontunrounded o highermidbackrounded ε lower mid front unrounded ¡ lower mid back rounded

æ low front unrounded ¢ low back rounded u¨ highfrontrounded a´ primary stress or high tone o¨ highermid front rounded a` secondarystressorlowtone ¡¨ lower mid front rounded a¯ longormidtone i highcentralunrounded a:,aa long

£ higher mid central unrounded a˘ short ¤

lower mid central unrounded a,˜ a¥ nasalized ¦ a lowcentralunrounded i,u¦ non-syllabic § high back unrounded Consonants p voiceless bilabial stop ¨ voiced pharyngeal spirant

t voicelessdentalstop © voiced glottal spirant k voicelessvelarstop pf voiceless bilabial affricate q voiceless uvular stop c voiceless alveolar affricate glottal stop cˇ voiceless palatal affricate

b voiced bilabial stop voiced alveolar affricate d voiceddentalstop jˇ voiced palatal affricate g voicedvelarstop m bilabialnasal voiceduvularstop n dentalnasal φ voiceless bilabial spirant n˜ palatalnasal

f voiceless labio-dental spirant velar nasal θ voiceless interdental spirant l dental lateral

s voiceless alveolar spirant palatal lateral sˇ voiceless prepalatal spirant ł velar lateral c¸ voiceless palatal spirant r [a variety of r-like sounds] x voiceless velar spirant r˜ alveolar trill voiceless uvular spirant rˇ palatal trill h. voiceless pharyngeal spirant velar trill h voiceless glottal spirant y front unrounded off-glide β voicedbilabialspirant w backroundedoff-glide v voicedlabiodentalspirant ph aspirated stop voiced interdental spirant ty palatalized stop z voicedalveolarspirant kw velarized stop zˇ voicedprepalatalspirant d. retracted consonant

γ voicedvelarspirant c¦ advanced consonant

voiceduvularspirant b,a devoiced consonant or vowel

xii 1

Phonetic Illustrations

Consonants

1. French: [p] The following items illustrate the unaspirated voiceless bilabial stop [p] of French. 1. step pa 6. to speak parle 2. father pεr 7. apple p m 3. louse pu 8. feather plum¨ 4. pure pur¨ 9. price pri 5. worse pir 10. chicken pul

2. Chinese: [ph] The following items illustrate the aspirated voiceless bilabial stop [ph] of Chinese. 1. slope pho¯ 6. plate phan´

h h ¢ 2. run p auˇ ¡ 7. side p a´ h h

3. all p uˇ 8. rain p ei` ¡ 4. fear pha` 9. store phu` 5. known ph`ı 10. skin ph´ı

¤ h 3. Chinese: [p] £ [p ] The following items illustrate the contrast between the unaspirated voiceless bilabial stop [p] and the aspirated voiceless bilabial stop [ph] of Chinese. h

1. trumpet pa¯ 6. wear p ei` ¡ h 2. strip p aˇ 7. scatter pe` ¢

h ¢ 3. weeds pai` ¡ 8. collide p e` h

4. branch p ai` ¡ 9. compare pˇı h

5. back pei` ¡ 10. indigestion p ˇı

1 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

4. Spanish: [t] The following items illustrate the unaspirated voiceless dental stop [t] of Spanish.

1. I have te´ ¢ go 6. bull toro´

2. plank ta´βla 7. all to´ ¥ o 3. ceiling te´coˇ 8. sad tr´ıste 4. tiger t´ıγre 9. you tu´ 5. chalk t´ıθa 10. tutor tutor´

5. Vietnamese: [th] The following items illustrate the aspirated voiceless dental stop [th] of

Vietnamese. ¦ 1. building th ¦ p 6. fragrant th m

2. letter th § 7. tax thue ¦ h ¦ h 3. poetry t 8. domestic t u ¢ 4. coal than 9. embroider theu 5. autumn thu 10. boat thuien

¤ h 6. Hindi: [t] £ [t ] The following items illustrate the contrast between the unaspirated voiceless dental stop [t] and the aspirated voiceless dental stop [th] of Hindi. 1. third t´ısra 6. dish thali´ 2. tired thaka´ 7. pluck tor´ .n.a 3. body t ¦´n 8. little thor´.a 4. station thana´ 9. three t´ın 5. key tali´ 10. bag thε´la

7. Hindi: [t.] The following items illustrate the unaspirated voiceless retroﬂex stop [t.] of Hindi. 1. hit t.akrana´ 6. broken t.ut´.a

2. leg t.a´ ¢ 7. hindrance t.ok´ 3. cap t.opi´ 8. basket t.okri´ 4. mound t.´ıla 9. twig t.ε´hni

5. piece t.U´kr.a 10. support t.ikana´ ¤ 8. Hindi: [t.] £ [t] The following items illustrate the contrast between the unaspirated retroﬂex

2 PHONETIC ILLUSTRATIONS

dental stop [t.] and the unaspirated plain dental stop [t] of Hindi.

1. mark t.´ıka 6. then t ¦´b

2. triangular tikona´ 7. Tagor t.ægor´ ¢ 3. horsecart t.a´ ga 8. ready tei¡ar´ 4. arrow t´ır 9. cap t.opi´ 5. coin t. ¦´ka 10. parrot tota´

9. Russian: [ty] The following items illustrate the palatalized voiceless dental stop [ty] of Russian.

1. quietly ty´ıx ¦ 6. bale tyuk´ 2. shadow tyen´ y 7. prison tyuryma´

3. body tyε´l ¦ 8. darkness tyma´

4. they pull tyanut´ 9. test tyε´st ¦ 5. aunt tyotk´ ¦ 10. draught tyag´

¤ y 10. Russian: [t] £ [t ] The following items illustrate the contrast between the plain voiceless dental stop [t] and the palatalized voiceless dental stop [ty] of Russian.

1. thus tak´ 6. Turks tyurki´ ¦ 2. burden tyag´ ¦ sty 7. only tol´ yk

3. you t´ı 8. heifer tyolk´ ¦

4. yew tree ty´ıs 9. pumpkin t´ıkv ¦

5. here tut´ 10. to tick ty´ık ¦ ty

y ¤ 11. Russian: [t ] £ [c] The following items illustrate the contrast between the palatalized voiceless

dental stop [ty] and the voiceless alveolar affricate [c] of Russian. ¦

1. body tyε´l ¦ 6. to clatter cok´ ty ¦ 2. complete cε´l ¦ 7. to chop tyuk´ ty 3. undershirt tyel´ ynyik 8. peel cukat´

4. goal cel´ y 9. chopper tyapk´ ¦

y ¦

5. warm t opli´ ¡i 10. hoe capk´

12. Hungarian: [dy] The following items illustrate the palatalized voiced dental stop [dy] of Hungarian.

3 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

1. factory dya:r´ 6. lawn dyε´p 2. match dyufa´ 7. coward dya:va´ 3. quickly dyor´ sˇ 8. win dyo:z¨´ 4. child dyε´rεk 9. meeting dyu:le:¨´ sˇ 5. be cured dyo:d´ yul 10. suspect dyanu:´

¤ y 13. Czech: [d] £ [d ] The following items illlustrate the contrast between the plain voiced dental stop [d] and the palatalized voiced dental stop [dy] of Czech. 1. smoke d´ı:m 6. devil dya:bel´ 2. I say dy´ı:m 7. thanks dy´ı:k 3. plank deska´ 8. porcupine d´ıkobras 4. horrible dyesni:´ 9. Nadja (acc.) nad´ yu

5. further da:le´ 10. I ﬁnd nai´ ¡du

14. Russian: [k] The following items illustrate the unaspirated voiceless velar stop [k] of Russian.

¦ y y

1. capitalism k p it ¨ l ´ızm 6. who kto´ ¦

2. pencil k r ¨ nda´sˇ 7. whip knut´

y ¦ y ¨ 3. picture k ¨ rt ´ın 8. quartet kv rt et´

4. cemetary kladbi´ sˇciˇ 9. when k ¨ gda´ 5. circle kruk´ 10. dwarf karl´ yik

15. Chinese: [kh] The following items illustrate the aspirated voiceless velar stop [kh] of Chinese.

h h ¦ ¡ 1. wipe k ai¯ 6. mouth k ˇu¡

2. look at khan` 7. polite kh ¦ cˇh`ı

` §

3. lesson kh ` 8. guest kh ¦`rεn

§ §

h ¦ h ¡ 4. but k ˇs ` 9. chopsticks k u¡ai`

h h ¢ 5. broad k u¡an¯ 10. afraid k uˇ pa`

¤ h 16. Korean: [k] £ [k ] The following items illustrate the contrast between the unaspirated voiceless velar stop [k] and the aspirated voiceless velar stop [kh] of Korean. 1. meat kogi 3. fold kεda 2. nose kho 4. dig out khεda

4 PHONETIC ILLUSTRATIONS

5. ﬁrmly kujˇi 8. loudly kh § gε

h § 6. big k n 9. study ko ¢ bu 7. sense kamgak 10. how tall khi

17. Hindi: [bh] The following items illustrate the aspirated voiced bilabial stop [bh] of Hindi. 1. devotee bhakt´ 6. send bhej´ˇna

h h ¦ 2. sweeper b a´ ¢ gi 7. good b ´la h h

3. alms b ´Iksaˇ 8. brother b ai´ ¡ h h 4. brown b ura´ 9. hemp b a´ ¢ 5. forget bhulna´ 10. burden bhar´

¤ h 18. Hindi: [b] £ [b ] The following items illustrate the contrast between the unaspirated voiced bilabial stop [b] and the aspirated voiced bilabial stop [bh] of Hindi. 1. large bar´.a 6. disagree bhε´d 2. heavy bhari´ 7. twenty-two ba´ıs 3. without b´ına 8. buffalo bhε˜´s 4. crowd bh´ır 9. father bap´ 5. sackcloth bori´ 10. part bhag´

h ¤ h 19. Hindi: [p ] £ [b ] The following items illustrate the contrast between the aspirated voiceless bilabial stop [ph] and the aspirated voiced bilabial stop [bh] of Hindi. 1. foam phen´ 6. bright bhar´.kila h h 2. hemp b a´ ¢ 7. bird p U´dki

3. month phalg´ Un 8. god bh ¦ gwan´

h h ¦ 4. Bhal b al´ 9. handful p ´ ¢ kil 5. felt phar´.ka 10. nephew bhanj´ ˇa

20. Classical Arabic: [q] The following items illustrate the voiceless uvular stop [q] of Classical

Arabic.

1. he said qa:la 6. Koran alqUr a:n

2. section qIsm 7. standing qa: Im 3. kettle qIdr 8. law qa:nu:n

4. measure qi:i¡a:s 9. he killed qatala

5. strength qu:u¡a 10. judge qa:d.i:

SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS ¤

21. Classical Arabic: [k] £ [q] The following items illustrate the contrast between the voiceless velar stop [k] and the voiceless uvular stop [q] of Classical Arabic.

1. dog kalb 6. sanctity qUds 2. heart qalb 7. noble kari:m 3. meatloaf kUbba 8. near qari:b 4. dome qUbba 9. sack ki:s 5. heap kUds 10. measured qi:sa

22. Lebanese Arabic: [ ]

The following items illustrate the glottal stop [ ] of Lebanese Arabic.

1. he said æ:l´ 6. read! ´I ra

2. he stayed b´I i 7. wealth r´IzI

3. road t.ar´ı: 8. tribes ara:i´ ¡Ib

4. apartment sˇ´I a 9. minute d ´ı: a

5. apartments sˇU´ a 10. above fau´ ¡

£ 23. Lebanese Arabic: [ ] [ ] The following items illustrate the contrast between the presence and absence

of glottal stop [ ] in Lebanese Arabic.

1. there is f´ı: 6. barber h.allæ:´

2. wake up f´ı: 7. behind wara´

3. what sˇu:´ 8. paper wara´

4. market su:´ 9. evil sˇar´

5. he sweetened h.allæ:´ 10. east sˇar´

24. German: [c] The following items illustrate the voiceless alveolar affricate [c] of German.

1. time cai´ ¡t 6. for it dacu:´ ¦ 2. room c´Im ¦ r 7. cat kac´

3. anger c ´rn 8. complete ganc´

4. tongue cU´ ¢ 9. wood h´lc

5. to sit z´Ic ¦ n 10. sentence zac´

25. Canadian French: [ © ] The following items illustrate the voiced alveolar affricate [ © ] of Canadian French.

PHONETIC ILLUSTRATIONS ©

1. say © ir 6. diverse ivεr

2. God ¡io¨ 7. hard ur¨

3. expensive Ispa˜ ¡io¨ 8. of the u¨ ©

4. tithe © Im 9. quilt uv¨ ε

5. eighteen izu¡It 10. dynamite inamIt

26. Japanese: [φ] The following items illstrate the voiceless bilabial spirant [φ] of Japanese.

1. wipe φuku 6. winter φui¡u §

2. deep φukai¡ 7. two φutac

3. bathroom φuroba 8. Fujiyama φujˇii¡ama

4. old φurui¡ 9. French φuransugo 5. door φusuma 10. couple φuφu

27. Spanish: [β] The following items illustrate the voiced bilabial spirant [β] of Spanish. 1. Cuba ku´βa 6. speaks a´βla

2. bean a´βa 7. poor po´βre ¡ 3. egg u¡e´βo 8. to divide dezβiar´ 4. wolf lo´βo 9. evasive eβas´ıβo 5. level niβel´ 10. to move moβer´

28. German: [c¸] The following items illustrate the voiceless palatal spirant [c¸] of German.

1. I Íç 6. church kÍrç ¦ 2. honey ho:n´ Iç 7. dagger d ´lç 3. milk mÍlç 8. me mÍç 4. always e:v´ Iç 9. light lÍçt 5. genuine ć¸t 10. correct rÍçtIç

29. Castillian Spanish: [x] The following items illustrate the voiceless velar spirant [x] of Castillian Spanish.

1. cavalryman xinete´ 6. judge xu¡e´θ

2. Jesus xesus´ 7. garden xar ¥ ´ın 3. ham xamon´ 8. money order x´ıro 4. George xorxe´ 9. general xeneral´

5. to play xuγar´ 10. party xu¡er´ γa

SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS ¤

30. German: [c¸] £ [x] The following items illustrate the contrast between the voiceless palatal spirant [c¸] and the voiceless velar spirant [x] of German.

1. self z´Ic¸ 6. high ho:x´

2. oh! ax´ 7. justice g ¦ r´Ic¸t

3. sight zÍçt 8. smoke rau´ ¡x 4. eight axt´ 9. not nÍçt 5. pike hεć¸t 10. night naxt´

31. Spanish: [γ] The following items illustrate the voiced velar spirant [γ] of Spanish. 1. do! a´γa 6. tiger t´ıγre

2. follow! s´ıγa 7. margarine marγar´ına ¡ 3. blind θie´γa 8. water a´γu¡a 4. rope so´γa 9. I go out sal´ γo

5. juice xu´γo 10. lawyer aβoγa´ ¥ o ¤

32. Egyptian Arabic: [g] £ [γ] The following items illustrate the contrast between the voiced velar stop [g] and the voiced velar spirant [γ] of Egyptian Arabic. 1. he brought gæ:b´ 6. other than γe:r´ 2. he was absent γæ:b´ 7. newspaper gar´ı:da

3. permission gæ:i´ ¡Iz 8. strange γar´ı:b 4. expensive γæ:li´ 9. side g´Iha 5. pocket ge:b´ 10. mistaken γ´IlIt.

33. Czech: [ ]

The following items illustrate the voiced glottal spirant [ ] of Czech.

1. voice las´ 6. terrible rozni:´

2. head lava´ 7. pear rU´skaˇ

y y

3. brown n edi:´ 8. star v ezda´

4. farmer ospoda:´ rˇ 9. disaster po´ roma

5. castle rat´ 10. Prague pra´ a

34. Spanish: [n]˜ The following items illustrate the palatal nasal [n]˜ of Spanish. 1. year ańo˜ 3. child n´ıno˜ 2. little pekeńo˜ 4. fist puńo˜

8 PHONETIC ILLUSTRATIONS

5. vinyard b´ına˜ 8. wedge kuńa˜ 6. rock peńa˜ 9. kidney rinõn´

7. incompetent n˜o´no˜ 10. to add ana˜ ¥ ´ır

¤ £ 35. Spanish: [n]˜ [ni¡] The following items illustrate the contrast between the palatal nasal [n]˜ of

Spanish and the sequence of [n] followed by [i¡].

1. Mino˜ m´ıno˜ 6. negative ion ani¡on´

2. lead oxide m´ıni¡o 7. canal aθe´na˜

3. ﬁngernail un˜on´ 8. small shrub θeni´ ¡a

4. union uni¡on´ 9. he bathed ban˜o´

5. aged an˜oso´ 10. handiwork mani¡o´βra

36. Castillian Spanish: [ ]

The following items illustrate the palatal lateral [ ] of Castillian Spanish.

1. key a´βe 6. street ka´ e

2. arrives e´γa 7. ﬂattens p´ı a

3. cries ora´ 8. chair s´ı a

4. rain u´β¡ia 9. paella pae´ a

5. full eno´ 10. she e´ a

£ 37. Castillian Spanish: [ ] [li¡]

The following items illustrate the contrast between the palatal lateral [ ] of

Castillian Spanish and the sequence of [l] followed by [i¡].

1. to ﬁnd a ar´ 6. (plant name) poli´ ¡o

2.toally ali¡ar´ 7. open wound a´γa

3. obstacle esko´ o 8. shrub name ali¡a´γa

4. clariﬁcation eskoli´ ¡o 9. carries e´βa 5. chick po´ o 10. hare li¡e´βre

38. Spanish: [r] The following items illustrate the voiced alveolar ﬂap [r] of Spanish. 1. look m´ıra 6. will be sera´ 2. chorus koro´ 7. pure puro´

3. father pa´ ¥ re 8. drama drama´ ¥ 4. burning ar ¡iente´ 9. crystal kristal´ 5. clear klaro´ 10. male baron´

9 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

39. Spanish: [r]˜ The following items illustrate the voiced alveolar trill of Spanish.

1. branch rãma´ 6. land ti¡εra˜ ¥ 2. net r˜e´ 7. saw si¡εra˜ 3. rhyme r˜´ıma 8. brown marõn´ 4. maple rõ´βle 9. mistake εrõ´r˜

5. Russian r˜uso´ 10. destroy dεri˜ βa´r˜ ¤

40. Spanish: [r] £ [r]˜ The following items illustrate the contrast between the voiced alveolar ﬂap [r] and the voiced alveolar trill [r]˜ of Spanish. 1. for para´ 6. cart ka´ro˜ 2. vine pa´ra˜ 7. Moor moro´ 3. but pero´ 8. snout mo´ro˜

4. dog pε´ro˜ 9. various bari´ ¡os

5. dear karo´ 10. districts ba´ri˜¡os

41. French: [ ]

The following items illustrate the voiced uvular spirant [ ] of French.

1. regret g εt 6. laugh i

2. bank iv 7. king u¡a

3. street u¨ 8. to break ˜p

4. rule εgl 9. red uzˇ

5. oar am 10. stream u¨¡iso ¤

42. Italian: [C] £ [CC] The following items illustrate the contrast between single and double consonants of Italian. 1. veil velo´ 6. I hunt kaćˇcoˇ 2. fleece vε´llo 7. clay tufo´ 3. groansˇ jeme´ 8. dive tuffo´ 4. gemsˇ jεmme 9. fate fato´ 5. cheese kaćoˇ 10. done fatto´

10 PHONETIC ILLUSTRATIONS Vowels

43. French: [i] The following items illustrate the higher high front unrounded vowel [i] of French. 1. yew tree if 6. worse pir 2. to isolate iz le 7. net ﬁlε

3. ivory ivu¡ar 8. cry kri 4. book livr 9. thanks mεrsi

5. mystery mistεr 10. daughter ﬁi¡

44. Canadian French: [I] The following items illustrate the lower high front unrounded vowel [I] of Canadian French.

1. Phillip fIlIp 6.maritime marIn 2. technique tεknIk 7. easy fasIl 3. plausible plozIb 8. free lIb 4. sporty sp rcIf 9. thousand mIl

5. quickly vIt 10. sad trIs ¤

45. Canadian French: [i] £ [I] The following items illustrate the contrast between the higher high front unrounded vowel [i] and the lower high front unrounded vowel [I] of Canadian French.

1. life vi 6. fast vIt 2. lively vIf 7. African afrikε˜ 3. energy enεrziˇ 8. Africa afrIk 4. energetic enεrzˇIk 9. civility sivilite 5. speed vitεs 10. civil sivIl

46. Spanish: [e] The following items illustrate the higher mid front unrounded vowel [e] of Spanish.

1. I know se´ 6. ﬁsh peska´ ¥ 2. chest pe´coˇ 7. guest u¡espe´ 3. cheese keso´ 8. to think pensar´ 4. head kaβe´θa 9. extensive estenso´

5. I come be´ ¢ go 10. I bought kompre´

SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

¤ £ 47. Spanish: [e] [ei¡] The following items illustrate the contrast between the higher mid front

unrounded vowel [e] by itself and the sequence of [e] followed by [i¡].

1. sesame sesamo´ 6. he combs pei´ ¡na

2. six sei´ ¡s 7. trap θepo´

3. him le´ 8. (plant name) θei´ ¡βo

4. law lei´ ¡ 9. reindeer r˜eno´

5. punishment pena´ 10. reign r˜ei´ ¡no

48. Hungarian: [ε] The following items illustrate the lower mid front unrounded vowel [ε] of Hungarian. 1. you tε´ 6. it rains ε´sikˇ 2. the east kε´lεt 7. soup lε´vεsˇ 3. pocket zˇε´b 8. my hand kε´zεm 4. he trains ε´ © 9. not sˇε´m

5. brush kε´fε 10. eat ε´nni ¤

49. French: [e] £ [ε] The following items illustrate the contrast between the higher mid front vowel [e] and lower mid front vowel [ε] of French. 1. spoken parle 6. ready prε 2. spoke parlε 7. by, at seˇ 3. summer ete 8. oak sˇεn 4. was etε 9. key kle 5. meadow pre 10. salt sεl

50. Hungarian: [u]¨ The following items illustrate the high front rounded vowel [u]¨ of Hungarian. 1. he bakes sˇut¨´ 6. grey surk¨´ ε 2. beech tree buk¨´ 7. patience tur¨´ εlεm 3. despair cˇugg¨´ εd 8. holiday ud¨´ ul¨ 4. ear ful¨´ 9. separate kul¨´ on¨

5. send kuld¨´ 10. parent sul¨´ o:¨ ¤

51. French: [u] £ [u]¨ The following items illustrate the contrast between the high back rounded vowel [u] and the high front rounded vowel [u]¨ of French.

12 PHONETIC ILLUSTRATIONS

1. wheel ru 6. log bu¨sˇ 2. street ru¨ 7. deaf sur 3. crazy fu 8. sure sur¨ 4. he was fu¨ 9. mill mulæ˜ 5. mouth busˇ 10. mule mul¨ ε

52. German: [o]¨ The following items illustrate the higher mid front rounded vowel [o]¨ of German.

1. cave hol¨´ ¦ 6. king ko:n¨´ Ic¸

2. nice sˇo:n¨´ 7. to loosen lo:z¨´ ¦ n ¦ 3. evil bo:z¨´ ¦ 8. furniture mo:b¨´ l

4. to drone dro:n¨´ ¦ n 9. oil o:l¨´ ¦ 5. to kill to:t¨´ ¦ n 10. to disturb stˇ o:r¨´ n

53. French: [ ¨] The following items illustrate the lower mid front rounded vowel [ ¨] of

French.

1. fear p ¨r 6. young zˇ¨n

2. eye ¨ ¡i 7. mouth g¨l

3. beef b ¨f 8. they can p¨v

4. heart k ¨r 9. hour ¨r

5. work ¨vr 10. fury fur¨ ¨r

54. French: [o]¨ £ [¨] The following items illustrate the contrast between the higher mid front rounded vowel [o]¨ and the lower mid front rounded vowel [ ¨] of French.

1. eggs o¨ 6. furniture m ¨bl 2. egg ¨f 7. knot no¨

3. fast zˇon¨ 8. new n¨f 4. young zˇ ¨n 9. blue blo¨ 5. millstone mol¨ 10. their l ¨r

55. Rumanian: [i] The following items illustrate the high central unrounded vowel [i] of Ru-

manian. ¦

1. laugh r´ıd 3. close l´ı ¢ g 2. Rumanian rom´ın 4. throat g´ıt

13 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

5. when k´ınd 8. summit v´ırf ¦

6. river r´ıu¡ 9. young t´ın r ¦ 7. old man b ¦ tr´ın 10. I eat m n´ınk

56. Rumanian: [ ¦ ]

The following items illustrate the higher mid central vowel [ ¦ ] of Rumanian.

¦ ¦

1. the books k ¦´rcile 6. without f´r

¦ ¦ ¦

2. we buy kump ¦ r´m 7. bird pas´ r

¦ ¦

3. benches b´ncˇ 8. bad r´u¡ ¦

4. apple m ¦´r 9. puppy k cel´ ¦ 5. pear p ¦´r 10. house kas´

57. British English: [ ¨ ]

The following items illustrate the lower mid central unrounded vowel [ ¨ ] of

British English. ¨

1. cut k ¨´t 6. much m´cˇ

¦ ¨

2. son s ¨´n 7. wonder w´nd ¨

3. young y ¨´ ¢ 8. sully s´lI ¨

4. blood bl ¨´d 9. tough t´f ¨ 5. does d ¨´z 10. country k´ntrI

58. Rumanian: [a] The following items illustrate the low central unrounded vowel [a] of Ru- manian.

1. about kam´ 6. table mas´ ¦ 2. I fall kad´ 7. salt sare´ 3. bed pat´ 8. meat karne´ 4. the house kasa´ 9. large mare´

5. valley vale´ 10. girl fat´ ¦

59. French: [u] The following items illustrate the higher high back rounded vowel [u] of French. 1. taste gu 6. buckle bukl 2. wolf lu 7. to flow kule 3. you vu 8. arch vute 4. August u 9. rascal marufl 5. all tu 10. fly musˇ

14 PHONETIC ILLUSTRATIONS

60. Canadian French: [U] The following items illustrate the lower high back rounded vowel [U] of Canadian French.

1. route rUt 6. pod gUs 2. all (fem) tUt 7. yoke zˇUg 3. roll rUl 8. breath sUf 4. crowd fUl 9. shower dUsˇ

5. cup kUp 10. ﬂy mUsˇ ¤

61. Canadian French: [u] £ [U] The following items illustrate the contrast between the higher high back rounded vowel [u] and lower high back rounded vowel [U] of Canadian French.

1. all (masc) tu 6. soup sUp 2. all (fem) tUt 7. wolf lu 3. to push puse 8. otter lUt 4. thumb pUs 9. blow ku 5. to dine supe 10. cup kUp

62. Spanish: [o] The following items illustrate the higher mid back rounded vowel [o] of Spanish.

1. all to´ ¥ o 6. shoulder ombro´ 2. voice bo´θ 7. eye oxo´ 3. no no´ 8. sonorous sonoro´ 4. monkey mono´ 9. elm olmo´ 5. he spoke aβlo´ 10. monotonous monotono´

63. German: [ ]

The following items illustrate the lower mid back rounded vowel [ ] of

German.

1. village d ´rf 6. head k´pf

2. full f ´l 7. hole l´x

3. gold g´lt 8. position p´st ¦ n

4. rye r´g ¦ n 9. pate sˇ´pf

5. wood h´lc 10. to want v´l ¦ n

SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

64. Italian: [o] £ [ ] The following items illustrate the contrast between the higher mid back rounded vowel [o] and the lower mid back rounded vowel [ ] of Italian.

1. where dove´ 6. bull t ´ro 2. lobe l ´bo 7. he shows mostra´

3. throat gola´ 8. death m ´rte

4. throne s´ o 9. bubbles bolle´

5. hole foro´ 10. soft m ´lle

65. American English: [a] £ [ ] The following items illustrate the contrast between the low central unrounded vowel [a] and the lower mid back rounded vowel [ ] of American English.

1. cot kat´ 6. hawk h ´k 2. caught k ´t 7. Shah sˇa´

3. Don dan´ 8. Shaw sˇ ´

4. dawn d´n 9. dodder dad´ ¦ r

5. hock hak´ 10. daughter d´d ¦ r

66. British English: [ ]

The following items illustrate the low back rounded vowel [ ] of British

English.

1. pot p ´t 6. stock st´k ¢

2. dock d ´k 7. long l´

3. God g ´d 8. soft s´ft

4. lodge l ´jˇ 9. yacht y´t 5. Don d ´n 10. doll d´l

67. Japanese: [ § ]

The following items illustrate the high back unrounded vowel [ § ] of Japan-

ese. §

1. pig b § ta 6. cloud k mo

§ §

2. physics b § t ri 7. blind mek ra

§ §

3. animal dob § t 8. mouse nez mi

§ §

4. warship g § nkan 9. search sag r § 5. entrance irig § ti 10. horn t no

PHONETIC ILLUSTRATIONS

¤ §

68. Vietnamese: [u] £ [ ] The following items illustrate the contrast between the higher high back

rounded vowel [u] and the high back unrounded vowel [ § ] of Vietnamese. §

1. religious vow tu 6. famous tr za ¢

2. fourth t § 7. old ku

3. guard thu 8. abstain k §

4. try th § 9. area xu

5. shelter tru 10. hold tight x §

69. French: [V]˜

The following items illustrate the nasal vowels of French.

1. year ˜ 6. good b˜

2. tooth d ˜ 7. one ¨˜

3. wine væ˜ 8. brown br ¨˜

4. far lu¡æ˜ 9. shade ˜br

5. no n ˜ 10. each sakˇ ¨˜ ¤

70. Czech: [v] £ [v:] The following items illustrate the contrast between the long and short vowels of Czech. 1. railroad dra:ha´ 6. man (acc) mu´zeˇ 2. dear draha:´ 7. Mila m´ı:la 3. loge lo:´ zeˇ 8. washed (fem) m´ıla 4. bed lo´zeˇ 9. summer le:to´ 5. he can mu:´ zeˇ 10. this year letos´

71. Chinese: [V]¯ The following items illustrate the high level tone [V]¯ of Chinese. 1. mother ma¯ 6. eight pa¯ h

2. autumn cˇ ¯ıu¡ 7. mountain san¯ h

3. visit ku¡an¯ 8. he t a¯ ¦

4. drink x¯ 9. ﬂy fei¯ ¡

h ¡ 5. drive k ai¯ 10. ﬂower xu¡a¯

72. Chinese: [V]´ The following items illustrate the high rising tone of Chinese.

1. hemp ma´ 3. river x ¦´ h

2. tea cˇ a´ 4. come lai´ ¡

17 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

5. zero l´ı ¢ 8. grasp na´

6. there is not mei´ ¡ 9. person rε´n 7. door mε´n 10. chat than´

73. Chinese: [V]ˇ The following items illustrate the low falling-rising tone of Chinese.

1. horse maˇ 6. beautiful meˇI 2. pen pˇı 7. you nˇı

3. give keiˇ ¡ 8. woman nu¨ˇ 4. well xaoˇ 9. I w ˇ 5. how many cˇˇı 10. also yεˇ

74. Chinese: [V]` The following items illustrate the falling tone of Chinese.

1. scold ma` 6. speech xu¡a`

h ¦

2. newspaper pau` ¡ 7. lesson k `

3. not pu` 8. slowly man` ¦

4. cooked rice fan` 9. meat r`u¡

5. enough kau` ¡ 10. ask wε`n

75. Chinese: tones The following items illustrate the four tones of Chinese. 1. mother ma¯ 5. skin fu¯ 2. hemp ma´ 6. fortune fu´ 3. horse maˇ 7. axe fuˇ 4. scold ma` 8. woman fu`

Tests

The following phonetic dictation exercises are designed as tests. There are ten such exercises, each consisting of twenty items. The items are read in English, and then each item is followed by the equivalent read twice in the language concerned. The English glosses are listed here; the phonetic transcription is given in the answers in the back of the book.

18 PHONETIC ILLUSTRATIONS

76. Greek: 1. much 6. blunder 11. shawl 16. cheap 2. now 7. vaccine 12. spear 17. pain 3. comma 8. name 13. mouth 18. tabs 4. blind 9. fox 14. invisible 19. simple 5. duty 10. places 15. you will say 20. grandma

77. Swahili: 1. to write 6. to teach 11. head 16. child 2. cold 7. ﬁfty 12. Swahili 17. bird 3. food 8. this 13. ﬁrst 18. meat 4. medicine 9. to sing 14. today 19. together 5. to continue 10. eye 15. vegetables 20. key

78. Persian: 1. wine 6. work 11. alleyway 16. warm 2. director 7. cow 12. foreign 17. you 3. healthy 8. pots 13. mouse 18. evening 4. day 9. dear 14. sweet 19. name 5. yellow 10. ancient 15. child 20. Persian

79. Hebrew: 1. sir 6. need 11. intersection 16. very 2. we 7. road 12. Hebrew 17. ofﬁce 3. girls 8. country 13. dog 18. pleasant 4. approximately 9. big 14. before 19. head 5. for me 10. cheese 15. I speak 20. months

80. Rumanian: 1. step 6. asks 11. good 16. wolves 2. eight 7. land 12. day 17. stone 3. horse 8. window 13. the throat 18. when 4. key 9. salt 14. Rumanian 19. weather 5. eye 10. grief 15. wolf 20. bread

19 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

81. Portuguese: 1. uncle 6. January 11. weak 16. mine 2. glass 7. yellow 12. book 17. eight 3. money 8. soft 13. this one 18. no 4. apple 9. ring 14. east 19. much 5. box 10. white 15. woman 20. dust

82. Turkish: 1. head 6. bird 11. you know 16. lady 2. desert 7. milk 12. teacher 17. corner 3. tooth 8. girl 13. please 18. knife 4. arm 9. six 14. to ﬂy 19. rotten 5. hand 10. person 15. sir 20. thanks

83. Gujerati: 1. woman 6. pastry 11. robbery 16. ten 2. brother 7. Lal 12. tomorrow 17. eight 3. your 8. saliva 13. mother 18. three 4. liquor 9. name 14. father 19. wisdom 5. sin 10. money 15. ﬁve 20. India

84. Yoruba: 1. to meet 6. peak 11. to reduce 16. cold 2. to alight on 7. to lower 12. to pay 17. to ﬁnish 3. to reject 8. to see 13. to watch 18. there 4. to write 9. to kill 14. to give 19. accident 5. to hang up 10. to lift 15. to beat 20. six

85. Polish:

1. belt 6. sister 11. you whistle 16. black 2. to show 7. eight 12. often 17. alive 3. when 8. bread 13. trumpet 18. winter 4. ﬁsh 9. squirrel 14. people 19. trash 5. wide 10. bell 15. Mass 20. comrade

20 2

Structural Phonology

86. Cree: [p] and [b] Consider the sounds [p] and [b] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones,

state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast.

1. pahki partly 6. u a:bame:u he sees him

2. ni:sosa:p twelve 7. na:be:u man

3. ta:nispi: when 8. a:bihta:u half

4. pasku a:u prairie 9. nibimohta:n I walk 5. asaba:p thread 10. si:si:bak ducks

87. Biblical Hebrew: [p] and [f] Consider the sounds [p] and [f] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast. 1. pε mouth 6. af even

2. pol bean 7. lifnei before 3. pil elephant 8. sεfεr book 4. paθah. to open 9. kεsεf money 5. mispahaˇ family 10. yafε beautiful

88. Biblical Hebrew: [t] and [θ] Consider the sounds [t] and [θ] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast. 1. tesaˇ ¡ nine 4. tannur stove 2. tafar sew 5. tamid always

3. staiˇ m two 6. baθ daughter

21 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

7. oθax you 9. iθi withme 8. safoθ languages 10. raiθa you saw

89. Cree: [t] and [d] Consider the sounds [t] and [d] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast. On the basis of the results of problem 86, what do you expect the status of [k]

and [g] will be in Cree?

1. tahki always 6. me:dau e:u he plays 2. mihce:tˇ many 7. kodak another 3. nisto three 8. adim dog 4. tagosin he arrives 9. adihk caribou

5. mi:bit tooth 10. iskode:u ﬁre

90. Brazilian Portuguese: [t] and [c]ˇ Consider the sounds [t] and [c]ˇ and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the compelementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast. 1. te´nu˜ I have 6. cˇ´ıvi I had

2. tal´ such 7. cˇ´ıu uncle 3. natu´ born 8. pacinˇ ar´ to skate

4. ku atru´ four 9. par´ ciˇ party 5. ut˜ ar´ to anoint 10. pe˜´ciˇ comb

91. Brazilian Portuguese: [d] and [jˇ] Consider the sounds [d] and [jˇ] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast.

1. dadu´ given 6. jˇin˜ei´ ru money

2. madr´ına˜ godmother 7. oj´ˇi u hatred 3. modernu´ modern 8. vε´rjˇi green 4. un´ıdu united 9. vεrdaj´ˇi truth ´ 5. gu arda´ guard 10. graj˜ˇi big

92. Korean: [s] and [s]ˇ Consider the sounds [s] and [s]ˇ and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast.

22 STRUCTURAL PHONOLOGY

1. son hand 6. sihapˇ game

2. s ¢ m sack 7. silsuˇ mistake

3. sos £ l novel 8. sipsamˇ thirteen 4. sεk colour 9. sinhoˇ signal 5. us upper 10. masiˇ delicious

93. Cree: [c]ˇ and [jˇ] Consider the sounds [c]ˇ and [jˇ] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones,

state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast.

1. ci:baiˇ ghost 6. u i:jˇihe:u he helps

2. me:gu a:cˇ meanwhile 7. a:jˇimou he tells

3. namu a:cˇ no way 8. mijˇihci:ˇ hand

4. ci:ma:nˇ canoe 9. kojˇi:u he tries

5. mi:jˇiu in food 10. ma:jˇiu he hunts

94. Cree: [k] and [g] Now consider the sounds [k] and [g] and form a hypothesis about their status before you examine the data of this problem (see problems 86, 89 and 93). Then solve this problem to see whether you are correct or not. Make a generalization about the status and importance of voicing in Cree phonology as compared to English. 1. ki:ba soon 6. ma:ga but

2. ki:i a you 7. ke:ga:cˇ almost

3. kojˇi:u he tries 8. ci:gahiganˇ axe

4. maskisin shoe 9. ki:siga:u day

5. masku ak bears 10. ospua:gan pipe

95. Biblical Hebrew: [k] and [x] Consider the sounds [k] and [x] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast. 1. kol all 6. barux blessed

2. kεn yes 7. ei x how £ 3. k nisa entrance 8. axsauˇ now 4. kεlεv dog 9. bexor ﬁrst born 5. kaf palm (hand) 10. masax curtain

23 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

96. German: [γ] and [g] Consider the sounds [γ] and [g] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones,

state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast. £

1. va:γ £ n car 11. zi:g n to conquer £

2. ta:γ £ days 12. bεrg mountains £

3. na:γ n to nibble 13. fo:glai¨ n bird

£ £

4. tau γ nic¸ts idler 14. mo:g¨ n to be able £

5. fu:γ £ n to ﬁt together 15. re:g n rain

£ ¤ £

6. au γ n eyes 16. gI n went ¤

7. gεﬂo:γ £ n ﬂown 17. ga gεs Ganges ¤ 8. bo:γ £ n arch 18. U garn Hungary

9. zoγ £ n to crystallize 19. zIgna:l signal

£ ¢ 10. ia:γ n to hunt 20. gr k grog

97. Serbo-Croatian: [c ] and [c]ˇ

Consider the sounds [c ] and [c]ˇ and determine whether they are two allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the

contrast. ([c ] is an apico-dental palatalizated fricative.)

1. bacacˇ thrower 11. kuc a house

2. cegaˇ what (gen) 12. dac a tax

3. caiˇ tea 13. c aca daddy

4. rucakˇ lunch 14. cekicˇ hammer

5. caˇ saˇ glass 15. c ebe blanket

6. covekˇ man 16. c ef caprice

7. clanakˇ article 17. c ipta merchant

8. navecerˇ evening 18. srec om fortunately

9. cimˇ as soon as 19. c orda sable

10. corbaˇ soap 20. c urka turkey

98. Turkish: [r] and [r¥]

Consider the sounds [r] and [r¥] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two separate phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast. 1. rijˇa request 4. trasˇ shave 2. cˇur¨ uk¨ spoiled 5. kIbrIt match

3. surmek¨ to rub on 6. bir¥ one

STRUCTURAL PHONOLOGY ¥

7. demir¥ iron 9. hazir ready ¥ 8. mud¨ ur¨ ¥ director 10. buhar steam

99. Korean: [l] and [r] Consider the sounds [l] and [r] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two separate phonemes. If allophones, state the commplementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast. 1. tal moon 6. kirim picture

2. talda sweet 7. ke:ri distance ¢ 3. lmana how much 8. norai song 4. sul wine 9. irure reaches

5. solhu a legend 10. saram person

100. Lebanese Arabic: [i] and [I] Consider the sounds [i] and [I] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the commplementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast.

1. btæ:kli you eat 6. ¦ Intu you (pl) 2. kUrsi chair 7. bInt girl

3. ¦ Inti you (sing) 8. mItIl like ¡

4. ma i with me 9. ¦ Ili tome

5. ﬁ there is 10. bI ¦ i he stayed

101. Turkish: [i] and [I] Consider the sounds [i] and [I] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast.

1. bilet ticket 8. kIbrIt match 2. kira rent 9. Isteˇ here 3. kitap book 10. bIr one 4. sinema movies 11. hanI you know 5. sahife page 12. taksI taxi 6. benIm mine 13. efendI master 7. dIl tongue 14. evlI married

102. Polish: [ § ] and [z]

Consider the sounds [ § ] and [z] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast.

25 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

y 1. odra § acˇ to advise 11. zegarek watch

2. sa § a soot 12. kazacˇ to command § 3. no e foot (dat) 13. iezik˜ language

4. § ban jug 14. zvani called y 5. ka § en e ﬂattery 15. zator ice y 6. § von bell 16. zvolacˇ to call

7. bar § o very 17. groza threat y 8. dovo § icˇ to justify 18. łza tear y 9. vi § ov e audience 19. egzamin exam y 10. vo § e reins 20. dovozicˇ to deliver

103. Spanish: [e] and [ε] Consider the sounds [e] and [ε] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast.

1. pero´ but 8. ti ε´ra˜ land ¤ 2. be´ go I come 9. iε´ro˜ iron 3. kompre´ I bought 10. θε´ro˜ peak 4. pe´coˇ chest 11. lε´xos far

5. si empre´ always 12. orε´xa ear 6. pε´ro˜ dog 13. ε´xe axle 7. gε´ra˜ war 14. dε´xo I leave

104. Slovak: [l] and [ly] Consider the sounds [l] and [ly] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast. 1. lak varnish 11. lyahnu:ty to lie down 2. otstrel blast 12. polyka Polish woman 3. lavica bench 13. zemlˇ ya bun 4. uholni: basic 14. lyak scare 5. mul mule 15. lyu:bity to love 6. za:pal inflamation 16. klyu:cˇ key 7. polka polka 17. velya very 8. posol messenger 18. hlyadaty to seek 9. lu:ka meadow 19. polye field 10. liko fiber 20. strelyba shooting

26 STRUCTURAL PHONOLOGY

105. Lebanese Arabic: [u] and [U] Consider the sounds [u] and [U] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones,

state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast. ¦ 1. ¦ Izuˇ they came 6. UtrUk leave! 2. ktæ:bu his book 7. bUdrUs I study

3. suˇ what 8. kUtUb books ¡

4. ta u come! 9. tUshˇ Ur months ¡ 5. Ud.u member 10. lUbnæ:n Lebanon

106. Turkish: [u] and [U] Consider the sounds [u] and [U] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast.

1. kulak ear 8. bUlmak to ﬁnd 2. tuhaf strange 9. odUn ﬁrewood 3. ujˇUz cheap 10. kUrtarmak to save 4. uzak far 11. bU this 5. muhakkak sure 12. sU water 6. bUz ice 13. sUclˇ U culprit 7. cojˇ ˇUk child 14. havlU towel

107. Spanish: [b] and [β] Consider the sounds [b] and [β] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the constrast. 1. bra´θo arm 13. buskar´ to look for 2. ri˜ βera´ river bank 14. moβer´ to move 3. blokear´ to blockade 15. klaβar´ to nail

4. b´ıno he came 16. nu e´βo new 5. diβ´ıno divine 17. bolsa´ pocket 6. ka´βo end 18. beka´ scholarship 7. bastante´ enough 19. brotar´ to sprout

8. faβor´ favour 20. proβar´ totest ¨ 9. goβ ierno´ government 21. bi ete´ ticket 10. u´βa grape 22. baxo´ under

11. tu´βo he had 23. bokal´ vowel ¤ 12. ¨ a´βe key 24. bla´ ko white

27 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

25. bentana´ window 27. lo´βo wolf

26. sa´βio wise 28. bu estra´ your

108. Turkish: [c]ˇ and [jˇ] Consider the sounds [c]ˇ and [jˇ] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast. 1. jˇep pocket 11. cekiˇ cˇ hammer 2. jˇava Java 12. cojˇ ˇuk child 3. jˇami mosque 13. catalˇ fork 4. ajˇi bitter 14. cekmekˇ to send 5. birinjˇi chief 15. acmakˇ to open 6. jˇan soul 16. bahceˇ garden 7. finjˇan cup 17. acikˇ deficit 8. kalinjˇa thickly 18. ciˇ cekˇ flower 9. kilicˇ sword 19. acˇ hungry 10. sijˇak hot 20. ucakˇ airplane

109. Spanish: [b] and [β] Consider the sounds [b] and [β] again. In the light of these examples, modify the statements you made about exercise 107. In what other positions do these two sounds occur? Are they allophones of the same phoneme or do they represent two different phonemes?

1. aβ © ikar´ to abdicate 15. poβre´θa poverty

2. aβneγaθ ion´ abnegation 16. alβr´ıθias reward 3. ambos´ both 17. dezβlokar´ to unblock 4. klu´β club 18. sombra´ shadow

5. al´ βa dawn 19. simberγu en´ θa shameless 6. do´βle double 20. sor´ βa sip 7. pol´ βo dust 21. a´βla he speaks 8. so´βra excess 22. dezβroθar´ to strip bark 9. xo´β Job 23. suβter˜aneo´ subterranean 10. lumbre´ light 24. s´ımbolo symbol 11. ombre´ man 25. ezβelto´ thin

12. oβxeto´ object 26. ar´ βol tree

13. oβsesi on´ obsession 27. suβraiar´ to underline

14. oβtener´ to obtain 28. imbi erno´ winter

28 STRUCTURAL PHONOLOGY

110. Malay: prenasalized consonants Observe the phonological structure of Malay words and make a statement concerning the distribution of consonants and vowels in them. Note that [mp], [nd], etc. are prenasalized stops. In view of your statement, decide which phonemic interpretation, prenasalized stops or clusters of nasal plus stop, is more suitable. 1. baru/baru new 8. kain/kain clothing

n n £ 2. h £ dak/h ndak wish 9. li tah/lintah leech 3. hampir/hampir near 10. landak/landak porcupine

m ¤

4. buro ¤ /buro bird 11. sa pir/sampir blade ¤ 5. anak/anak child 12. ta gal/ta gal deep

n ¤ 6. bi kas/bi kas back up 13. ga dar/gandar lever

£ £ ¤ 7. ra pak/rampak shady 14. t gek/t gek winnow

111. Slovak: [f], [v], and [u ]

Consider the sounds [f], [v] and [u ] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two or three different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast. 1. vatra camp ﬁre 16. fa:dni monotonous y

2. vedro bucket 17. dofai citˇ to ﬁnish smoking

3. vi era faith 18. felciˇ ar healer 4. krava cow 19. nafta gas 5. vrx top 20. nafu:kani: conceited

6. vlk wolf 21. splau sluice-gate

y y y

7. zvln it to make waves 22. xl ieu cowshed

8. vnada charm 23. na:zou title

9. cerviˇ worms 24. pru ﬁrst

10. vdova widow 25. d ieu caˇ girl y y

11. frkat to spatter 26. n emru sa! don’t move!

12. farba paint 27. kriu ka curve

13. difte:riia diphtheria 28. stou ka one hundred

14. ﬁrma ﬁrm 29. obuu footwear

15. ﬁlozof philosopher 30. kru blood

112. Malay: [t], ty], and [c]ˇ Consider the sounds [t], [ty], and [c]ˇ and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two or three different phonemes.

29 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrasts. y 1. tarek pull 8. k £ t ut shrivelled m 2. k £ til pinch 9. caˇ pah tasteless y 3. pit £ r disk 10. ket ek pampering 4. lawat visit 11. batya steel

5. carekˇ rip 12. k £ cilˇ small 6. ketyil small 13. comelˇ cute 7. tyampah tasteless 14. tyarek rip

113. Czech: [a] and [a:] Consider the sounds [a] and [a:] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast. 1. kava:rna coffee house 11. ra:no morning 2. kapatyi to drop 12. la:va lava 3. palanda bunk bed 13. ma:ta mint 4. ranyen wounded 14. pada:nyi: falling 5. lano rope 15. kra:desˇ steal 6. padafka fruit 16. dobra: good 7. rada advice 17. ka:va coffee 8. maso meat 18. ka:pi: hood 9. sedadlo seat 19. pa:li: he burns 10. lavice bench 20. sa:dlo lard

114. Japanese: [t], [c], and [c]ˇ Consider the sounds [t], [c], and [c]ˇ and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two or three different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrasts. 1. tambo rice paddy 8. kucu shoe 2. te hand 9. cuku arrive

3. to door 10. cumetai cold

4. takai high 11. ciˇ blood 5. ita board 12. cikaraˇ strength 6. curi ﬁshing 13. cizuˇ map 7. macu pine tree 14. haciˇ bee

30 STRUCTURAL PHONOLOGY

115. Spanish: [d] and [ © ]

Consider the sounds [d] and [ © ] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast.

1. drama´ drama 13. opera © or´ operator

2. du e´na˜ duena 14. dolor´ pain © 3. ka´ © a each 15. kru´ o raw

4. sent´ı © o felt 16. deθ´ır to say ©

5. ﬁ © el´ faithful 17. la´ o side ©

6. kom´ı © a food 18. ke o´ he stayed © 7. dar´ to give 19. estu iante´ student

8. dan˜ar´ to harm 20. dul´ θe sweet © 9. o´ io hatred 21. d´ıme tellme

10. dexo´ I leave 22. di e´θ ten

11. durar´ to last 23. dos´ two © 12. nu´ © o naked 24. bo´ a wedding

116. German: [c¸], [s],ˇ and [x] Consider the sounds [c¸], [s]ˇ and [x] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two or three different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrasts.

1. Ic¸ I 16. tIsˇ table

2. manc¸ many 17. mεnsˇ £ n people

3. dUrç through 18. spi:lˇ £ n to play £ 4. t ¢¨çt r daughter 19. ste:nˇ to stand 5. me:tçεn girl 20. sta:tˇ state

6. rεc¸n £ n to count 21. bu:x book ¢ 7. kIrc¸ £ church 22. k x cook

8. fIc¸t £ pine 23. dax roof £ 9. mεnc¸ £ n little man 24. nax n boat

10. dIc¸ you 25. laxst you laugh ¢ 11. bu¨sˇ £ bushes 26. n x still

12. tUsˇ £ ink 27. tu:x scarf £ 13. nasˇ £ n to nibble 28. ku:x n cake

14. kIrsˇ £ cherry 29. ax oh!

15. fIstˇ £ ﬁshed 30. axa:t agate

31 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

117. Turkish: [u] and [u]¨ Consider the sounds [u] and [u]¨ and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast. 1. bavul trunk 11. turk¨ Turk

2. ui umak to sleep 12. u¨cˇ three 3. bozukluk change 13. urk¨ utmek¨ to cause 4. bucukˇ half 14. ust¨ top

5. bu sefer this time 15. iuz¨ uk¨ ring 6. jˇuma Friday 16. sut¨ milk 7. usta mechanic 17. oks¨ ur¨ uk¨ cough 8. uzak far 18. uz¨ um¨ grape

9. tuz salt 19. iuz¨ unj¨ ˇu¨ hundredth 10. suˇ that 20. ol¨ cˇul¨ u¨ moderate

118. Malay: [k], [t], and [ ¦ ]

Consider the sounds [k], [t] and [ ¦ ] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two or three different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the

contrasts.

£ ¦ 1. kapa ¦ axel 8. g la laugh

2. buka open 9. takpi but ¦ 3. kara ¤ reef 10. tapa palm (hand)

4. laut sea 11. k £ ran rough £

6. t £ goh ﬁrm 13. pit r disk ¦ 7. pantas agile 14. k £ ta fold

119. Spanish: [g] and [γ] Consider the sounds [g] and [γ] and formulate a hypothesis about their phonemic status before doing the problem (see problems 107, 109, and 115). Then examine the data of this problem to see whether your hypothesis is correct or not.

1. seγun´ according to 7. a´γo I do ¨ 2. e´γo I arrive 8. embri aγar´ to get drunk 3. golpe´ a blow 9. goθar´ to enjoy

4. neγo´θ io business 10. galan´ gallant 5. gato´ cat 11. glandula´ gland 6. m´ıγa crumb 12. gloβal´ global

32 STRUCTURAL PHONOLOGY

13. gεri˜ ¨ ero´ guerrilla 21. ﬁγura´ aspect

14. gita´ra˜ guitar 22. santi a´γo Santiago 15. guθman´ Guzman 23. gritar´ to shout 16. seγar´ to mow 24. gusto´ taste

17. leγal´ legal 25. gra´θ ias thanks

18. ´ıγa © o liver 26. gε´ra˜ war

19. g´ısa manner 27. a´γu a water 20. naβeγar´ to navigate 28. test´ıγo witness

120. Hungarian: [n] and [ny] Consider the sounds [n] and [ny] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast. 1. ne:met German 11. nyom press 2. se:natarto: hack 12. ra:nyom imprint 3. nun¨ uke¨ oil-beetle 13. se:panya great grandmother 4. panas complaint 14. nyito: opening 5. novel¨ increase 15. tala:ny riddle 6. ra:nc wrinkle 16. panyva:z lasso 7. pa:nce:l mail 17. foldn¨ yoma:sˇ pressure 8. tunde¨ ethereal 18. nyugati western 9. napta:r calendar 19. nyu:g¨ o¨sˇ peevish 10. ki:n pain 20. fole:n¨ y superior

121. Spanish: [g] and [γ] Consider the sounds [g] and [γ] again. In what other positions do they occur? What modiﬁcations will you have to make in the statement that you made about these two sounds in exercise 119? Make a general statement about the relationship between voiced stops and voiced fricatives in Spanish.

1. aγrikultura´ agriculture 11. gr´ı ¤ go gringo

2. ane´γ © ota anecdote 12. kolγar´ to hang

3. a´ ¤ gulo angle 13. ale´γre happy ¤ 4. are˜ γla´ © o arranged 14. te´ go I have

5. sa´ ¤ gre blood 15. iγnorante´ ignorant

6. s´ıγlo century 16. orγaniko´ organic

7. xu © γa´ o courtroom 17. aγra a´βle agreeable © 8. do´γma dogma 18. mai ora´ γo primogeniture

9. eγzamen´ examination 19. po´ ¤ go I put 10. eγzotiko´ exotic 20. seγmento´ segment

33 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

21. al´ γo something 25. r˜az´ γo trait 22. e´γzito success 26. bar´ γas Vargas

23. te´γnika technique 27. be ¤ gan´ θa vengeance ¤ 24. le´ gu a language 28. d´ıγno worthy

122. Russian: [k], [kw], and [ky] Consider the sounds [k], [w] and [ky] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two or three different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrasts. 1. kak´ how 11. ky´ıt whale

2. z kas´ order 12. ruk´ hand (gen. pl) w y 3. k ukl´ £ doll 13. k ε´m whom y y 4. k £ l iso´ wheel 14. tk ot´ weaves (3sg)

w w y y £ 5. p k upk´ purchase 15. k os´ t bone

w y y £ 6. k o´skˇ £ cat 16. kap´ Il k drop

y y £ 7. krask´ £ paint 17. m n Ik ur´ manicure

w y

£ £ 8. k o´skˇ window 18. k axt´ Kyakhta

9. p klon´ bow 19. sk upoi´ stingy 10. rok´ fate 20. kyury´ınci Caucasian

123. Turkish: [k], [ky], [g], [gy] Consider the sounds [k], [ky], [g], and [gy] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two, three or four different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distributions; if phonemes, state the contrasts. 1. kilibik husband 14. ciˇ cekˇ y ﬂower 2. cojˇ ˇuk child 15. kyim who 3. kavun melon 16. kyopek¨ y dog 4. bakan minister 17. tekylif proposal 5. kibris Cyprus 18. askyerliky military y

6. ioksa otherwise 19. ik injˇi second 7. kojˇa husband 20. kyom¨ ur¨ coal 8. koku smell 21. gam grief

9. muvafak successful 22. tugai brigade 10. dokuzunjˇu ninth 23. bulgar Bulgarian y y

11. k urek¨ oar 24. dui gu feeling 12. erkyen early 25. gargara gargle 13. cˇunk¨ yu¨ because 26. kangal coin

34 STRUCTURAL PHONOLOGY

27. pii ango lottery 34. g un¨ day 28. sargi bandage 35. gyostermek¨ y to show y

29. iorgun tired 36. hang i which 30. manga section 37. gyergyef frame 31. gyozl¨ uk¨ y eyeglasses 38. sevgyili darling 32. gyuzel¨ beautiful 39. cingˇ yene gypsy 33. gyezmeky to stroll 40. gyecˇ late

124. Russian: [x], [xw], [xy] Consider the sounds [x], [xw], and [xy] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two or three different phonemes. If allophones, state the distribution; if phonemes, state the contrasts.

1. xat´ £ hut 8. p x ot´ campaign

£ 2. x £ r sˇo´ good 9. x ot´ hunt w 3. g rox´ peas 10. x u´ziˇ worse y 4. xlop´ £ ti troubles 11. dux´ I spirits y y 5. por´ £ x powder 12. p Itux ´ı roosters 6. muxa´ ﬂy 13. pux´ yı fur (loc) w y 7. x ol´ £ t cold 14. dux ´ı scent

125. Czech: [r],ˇ [rˇ¥], and [r]

Consider the sounds [r],ˇ [rˇ¥], and [r] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two or three different phonemes. If allophones, state the distribution; if phonemes, state the contrasts.

1. bri:zaˇ birch 10. tva:rˇ¥ face

2. riˇ stˇ e playground 11. forˇ¥t forester

3. rmi:ˇ it thunders 12. krˇ¥ivi: crooked 4. repaˇ beet 13. riba ﬁsh

5. varbuxtaˇ idler 14. brou k beetle

6. rˇ¥kouce saying 15. dort cake

7. trˇ¥i three 16. dar present

8. kourˇ¥ smoke 17. rop grave 9. kra:l king 18. dra:t wire

126. Hungarian: [a] and [a:] Consider the sounds [a] and [a:] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast.

35 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

1. cafatol tear 11. a:g branch 2. fεlad give up 12. a:da:z furious 3. oldal side 13. ra:k crayﬁsh 4. kortina curtain 14. a:bra illustration 5. rak put 15. olda:sˇ solution 6. bamba:n foolishly 16. aga:r greyhound 7. tavas spring 17. cimborafa beam 8. holta posthumously 18. ado:sˇ in debt 9. ba:mul wonder 19. ca:pa shark 10. ca:ˇ to the right 20. fεla:za:sˇ soaking up

127. Russian: [ε], [e], and [æ] Consider the sounds [ε], [e], and [æ] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two or three different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast. 1. tyε those 16. etyi these 2. fsyε all 17. sesˇ yty six y y 3. d εl £ affair 18. cel aim y y y 4. v εr £ belief 19. l en laziness 5. yεl he ate 20. tyeny shadow y y

6. iεst eats 21. m æt to crumple y y 7. εt £ t this 22. p æt ﬁve 8. sˇεst pole 23. syæty sit down!

y y £ 9. εr £ era 24. d æd uncle 10. zˇεst gesture 25. tyænyIt pulls out y y y

11. iel ﬁr tree 26. z æt brother-in-law y y y

12. ies t there is 27. m æcˇ ball 13. dvyery door 28. cˇyæsyty part y y y y y y 14. d en day 29. p Isˇ sˇ æt to squeak y y y y 15. p et to sing 30. n æn £ nanny

128. Canadian French: [i] and [I] Consider the sounds [i] and [I] and determine whether they are allophones of the same phoneme or represent two different phonemes. If allophones, state the complementary distribution; if phonemes, state the contrast.

1. abIm abyss 4. sˇIk chic 2. avi advice 5. vId empty

3. kat ¢ lIk Catholic 6. enεrziˇ energy

36 STRUCTURAL PHONOLOGY

7. fras˜ In Francine 16. rIsˇ rich § 8. k ¢˜pri included 17. i said 9. vi life 18. si saw 10. li lily 19. zˇIg shank 11. lIn˜ line 20. lIs smooth

12. pIp pipe 21. sp ¢ rcIf sporty 13. plozIb plausible 22. ekIp team 14. vIt quickly 23. mεrsi thanks 15. rezˇIm regime 24. fIl wire

129. Canadian French: [i] and [I] Consider [i] and [I] again, and in the light of the following examples, modify the statement you made in exercise 128. In what other positions do these sounds occur?

1. akcIf active 17. ami friend 2. afrIk Africa 18. gId guide 3. sεriz cherry 19. viv lively 4. egliz church 20. pizˇ measures

5. sId cider 21. ¢ blizˇ obliges ¢ 6. arzˇIl clay 22. f ¢ t graﬁ photograph

7. v £ nir to come 23. mi placed 8. riv riverbank 24. zoliˇ pretty 9. dac˜ Ist dentist 25. prε˜sIp principle 10. ε˜vi desire 26. trIst sad

11. § Isk disk 27. abri shelter 12. eklIps eclipse 28. sIn˜ sign 13. facIg fatigue 29. fIs son

14. fav ¢ ri favourite 30. espri spirit 15. fIlm ﬁlm 31. sIlf sylph 16. fIlt ﬁlter 32. sir wax

130. Canadian French: [i] and [I] Examine [i] and [I] one more time. Are there any more modiﬁcations you must make of your previous statements? Restate a complete analysis based on this and the two previous exercises.

1. admire to admire 4. sIﬂe to blow 2. bisIklεt bicycle 5. sˇIfre to calculate

3. biz ¢˜ bison 6. sima˜ cement

37 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

7. sinema cinema 20. bizuˇ jewel 8. site city 21. viva˜ living

9. sivIl civil 22. mi § i noon

10. livre to deliver 23. ¢ blizeˇ to oblige

¢ ¢

11. § Iktaf n dictaphone 24. bliztˇ εl does she oblige? §

12. isIpline disciplined 25. pεrmisi o˜ permission ¢

13. § izzˇ˜kcIf disjunctive 26. ﬁlIp Philip

¢ ¢

14. § Ista˜ distant 27. sizm l ziˇ seismology ¢ 15. ﬁle to draw out 28. s si alizm socialism

16. fiseˇ to drive in 29. § izεn about ten 17. eklIpse to eclipse 30. virzinalˇ virginal 18. vide to empty 31. brizva˜ windshield 19. ε˜firm infirm 32. ivεr winter

131. Canadian French: [u] and [U] Consider the sounds [u] and [U] and formulate a hypothesis about their phonemic status before doing the problem. Refer to problems 128, 129, and 130. Is there a parallelism here? Make a general statement about these vowels.

1. bluz blouse 8. tUt all (fem) 2. bu mud 9. kUpl couple 3. pruv proof 10. pUs thumb 4. ruzˇ red 11. rUl rolls 5. puse pushed 12. dUbl double 6. kupe cut 13. kUp cup 7. kur course 14. bUsˇ mouth

132. English: consonants The following list of words shows English consontantal phonemes. List them in phonemic transcription and put each into its proper place in the chart (next page) of articulatory features. 1. boat 7. seal 13. pie 19. jell 2. note 8. shy 14. zeal 20. will 3. thigh 9. till 15. vote 21. mill 4. ﬁll 10. yell 16. lie 22. hell 5. goat 11. kill 17. dill 23. pleasure 6. real 12. chill 18. thy 24. sing

38 STRUCTURAL PHONOLOGY

mannner bilab lab-den interden alveo-pal velar laryngeal stops vls stops vd spirants vls spirants vd affricates vls affricates vd nasals laterals retroﬂex glides

133. Turkish: vowels The following list of words shows Turkish vocalic phonemes. Put each into its proper place in the chart of articulatory features. 1. kip voice 5. jˇan soul 2. kol arm 6. ucˇ point 3. kel ringworm 7. kiz girl 4. dort¨ four 8. u¨cˇ three

height front unr front rnd back unr back rnd high low 134. English: vowels The following list of words shows English vocalic phonemes. Rewrite them in phonetic transcription. Draw a chart of the articulatory features of these vowels and put each vowel in its proper place. 1. nit 4. let 7. hot 2. caught 5. rode 8. rat 3. cut 6. book 9. roses

39 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

135. Segments: distinctive features Circle the phoneme or phonemes in each line which is or are characterized by the plus value of the distinctive feature listed. 1. +coronal g t x m cˇ

2. +anterior b θ zˇ d h © 3. +strident ¤ f k cˇ 4. +back i i u¨ e æ

5. +low o¨ e a ¢ o © 6. +continuant s ¦ v p

7. +sonorant b l f ¦ i

8. +rounded o¨ u i e 9. +delayed release θ cˇ t z d

10. +lateral h k l m ¨

136. Segments: distinctive features Circle the phoneme or phonemes which is or are characterized by the minus

value of the distinctive feature listed. ©

1. continuant sˇ p θ x §

2. delayed release cˇ k c jˇ ¤ 3. sonorant i n r d

4. strident chs zˇ j

5. anterior γ f v m b ¦ 6. consonantal β l u¨ v

7. coronal x t d cˇ c ¢

8. back u o o¨ a £ 9. syllabic i u g ε

10. high i u w I æ

137. Segments: distinctive features What distinctive feature in its plus value differentiates the segments in each of the following pairs. 1. θ s 6. d z

2. u u¨ 7. t k £ 3. i 8. l l 4. l r 9. f v 5. o¨ e 10. t p

138. Turkish: syllables Divide the following Turkish words into syllables and label each part of

40 STRUCTURAL PHONOLOGY

each syllable as onset, if present, nucleus, and coda, if present. Indicate which syllables are closed and which are open. Observe the following principles and constraints: a. Both onsets and codas are optional. b. Onsets may not consist of more than one segment. c. Codas may consist of either one or two segments. If two segments, they must consist either of a fricative and a stop (e.g., ft), or a sonorant and a stop (e.g., rp). d. A nucleus consists of a vowel. 1. siˇ smanˇ fat 6. oretmen¨ teacher 2. iskemle chair 7. turk¨ Turk 3. inanmak to believe 8. defter note-book 4. kapi gate 9. ahenk harmony 5. mamaﬁh nevertheless 10. penjˇereler windows

139. Czech: stress Consider the following items and determine whether stress is phonemic or not. If not, then state the stress rules. 1. kny´ıhovny`ıce librarian 6. na:mah´ a` effort 2. v´ı:la fairy 7. pu:vap´ charm 3. otporn´ `ı: repulsive 8. l´ı:pa linden tree 4. v´ıreˇ sˇ`ıtyi resolve 9. tat´ yi:k daddy 5. v´ıla villa 10. nama:h´ a:se` tries hard

140. Russian: stress Consider the following items and determine whether stress is phonemic or not. If not, then state the stress rules. 1. zamok´ castle 6. muka´ suffering y y 2. polo`zˇ´ıt el no positively 7. golov` a´ head 3. ucˇen` ´ık pupil 8. stran` a´ country 4. zam` ok´ lock 9. cela´ complete

5. kakov` a´ stran` a´ what country 10. zˇoltii´ yellow

141. Lebanese Arabic: stress Consider the following items and determine whether stress is phonemic or not. If not, then state the stress rules.

1. h.allæ:´ ¦ barber 3. kutubu´ his books 2. walad´ boy 4. zˇæ:mi´ ¡ mosque

41 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

5. h.al´ı:b milk 8. darast´ I studied 6. fa:t´ .ima Fatima 9. by´ıstiˇ γil he works 7. madrasi´ school 10. sæfˇ u:kun´ they saw you

English Vowels

There are many different phonemic interpretations for the vowels of English.

One of the most frequently used is the Trager-Smith system. Another system, the

Fries-Pike system, does not recognize the diphthongal nature of [ii], [ei], [uu ], and ¢ [ou ], and transcribes these as single vowels distinct from [I], [ε], [U], and [ ]. The following chart shows most of the vocalic nuclei — vowels and diphthongs — recognized by the two interpretations, and gives a characteristic English word containing the nucleus.

English Phonetic Trager-Smith Fries-Pike

beat [ii ] iy biyt i bit bit [I] i bit I bIt

bait [ei ] ey beyt e bet bet [ε] e bet ε bεt

bat [æ] æ bæt æ bæt

£ £ £ £ but [ £ ] b t b t god [a] a gad a gad

boot [uu ] uw buwt u but good [U] u gud U gUd

boat [ou ] ow bowt o bot

¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ bought [ ¢ ] b t b t

bite [ai ] ay bayt aI baIt

bout [au ] aw bawt aU baUt

¢ ¢ ¢ Boyd [ i] oy boyd I b id

142. English: spelling Re-write in phonological transcription. State how many letters and how many sound segments the following words contain. Comment on the dis-

crepancy. Example: thumb / θ m/ 5 vs. 3 1. sought 6. foam 11. lie 16. age 2. hood 7. retch 12. chick 17. nod 3. Lloyd 8. say 13. lug 18. does 4. mass 9. tool 14. mouth 19. put 5. ﬁght 10. time 15. now 20. leg

42 STRUCTURAL PHONOLOGY

Transcribe the English words in the following ten exercises using a standard phonemic transcription. (The solutions are in the Trager-Smith system.) 143. English: transcription 1. sought 6. foam 11. lie 16. age 2. hood 7. retch 12. chick 17. nod 3. Lloyd 8. say 13. lug 18. does 4. mass 9. tool 14. mouth 19. put 5. ﬁght 10. time 15. now 20. leg

144. English: transcription 1. true 6. drive 11. cram 16. slime 2. stick 7. stow 12. frayed 17. twitch 3. pride 8. please 13. ﬂuke 18. glib 4. close 9. strip 14. grass 19. few 5. bloke 10. grill 15. quick 20. cream

145. English: transcription 1. strong 6. etched 11. wives 16. fort 2. crimp 7. aisles 12. pants 17. oaks 3. walked 8. boast 13. ox 18. lilt 4. mined 9. lumped 14. can’t 19. large 5. asks 10. paths 15. jogged 20. stamps

146. English: transcription 1. record 6. ivy 11. tally 16. suitor 2. tattle 7. sofa 12. foible 17. Swedish 3. going 8. sauna 13. liquor 18. howler 4. city 9. gallant 14. choral 19. matches 5. houses 10. solo 15. hussy 20. hooking

147. English: transcription 1. stranger 6. mortise 11. darkness 16. gangway 2. bondage 7. lengthy 12. Saxon 17. oyster 3. punster 8. gasping 13. lightly 18. princely 4. action 9. portion 14. kingdom 19. masking 5. mystery 10. breastworks 15. priesthood 20. cartwheel

43 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

148. English: transcription 1. rely 6. relax 11. mirage 16. resent 2. emit 7. tonight 12. allowed 17. collide 3. guitar 8. Marie 13. balloon 18. resume 4. corral 9. malign 14. rejoice 19. skidoo 5. remote 10. peruse 15. regale 20. repeal

149. English: transcription 1. quadrille 6. cartoon 11. survey 16. destroy 2. genteel 7. absolve 12. despoil 17. curtail 3. technique 8. despair 13. observe 18. respect 4. endear 9. supreme 14. partake 19. eclipse 5. restrain 10. bespoke 15. reveal 20. lampoon

150. English: transcription 1. correlate 6. heroic 11. enchanted 16. translation 2. languishing 7. prediction 12. forbearance 17. symbolize 3. proceeding 8. parachute 13. workmanship 18. rubbery 4. privateer 9. brigadier 14. universe 19. punctual 5. harpsichord 10. certitude 15. cosmetic 20. mummify

151. English: transcription 1. remarkable 6. Rosicrucian 11. salamander 16. helicopter 2. halitosis 7. capitalize 12. socialistic 17. innovative 3. bibliophile 8. repudiate 13. habitual 18. Neanderthal 4. charismatic 9. mercenary 14. isometric 19. maladjusted 5. decathlon 10. dramaturgy 15. gargantuan 20. compensated

152. English: transcription 1. choreography 8. malapropism 15. unprofessional 2. decapitation 9. reconcilation 16. dilapidated 3. qualiﬁcation 10. Trinitarian 17. monogenesis 4. principality 11. underdeveloped 18. auditorium 5. interrogative 12. productivity 19. nationalizing 6. haberdashery 13. electrolysis 20. Presbyterian 7. indefatigable 14. impossibility

44 3

Phonemic Alternations

153. Yoruba: nasals In the following problem, separate the progressive morpheme from the verb stem. Consider the variation in the stem and account for it. What phonological process is illustrated here? pres. prog. pres. prog. 1. ba´ mb´ a´ to meet 9. d´ıkpo` nd´ ´ıkpo` to replace 2. bε mb´ ε to cut off 10. dur´ o´ nd´ ur´ o´ to stand 3. bεru` mb´ εru` to fear 11. ka´ ´ka´ to fold 4. bo` mb´ o` to cover 12. kan` ´kan` to touch

5. bu` mb´ u` to cut 13. ko´ ´ko´ to gather

¡ 6. da` nd´ a` to pour 14. k ¡` ´k` to reject 7. de´ nd´ e´ to arrive 15. ku` ´ku` to remain 8. d`ı nd´ `ı totie

154. Latin: ﬁnal obstruants In the following problem, separate the morphemes meaning nominative case and genitive case from the noun stems. Consider the variation in the noun stems and account for them. What phonological process is illustrated here? nom. gen. nom. gen. 1. reks¯ regis¯ king 10. lanks¯ lankis¯ plate 2. leks¯ legis¯ law 11. traps trabis beam

3. greks gregis ﬂock 12. urps urbis city ¢ 4. coni¢uks coniugis spouse 13. hiems hiemis winter 5. striks strigis groove 14. her¯ os¯ her¯ ois¯ hero 6. duks dukis leader 15. stirps stirpis root 7. paks¯ pakis¯ peace 16. grus gruis crane 8. piks pikis pitch 17. sus¯ suis¯ pig 9. neks nekis death 18. inops inopis helpless

45 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

155. Icelandic: vowels In the ﬁrst part of the problem, separate the morphemes meaning inﬁnitive and past participle from the verb stems; in the second part, separate the morphemes meaning nominative case and dative plural case from the noun stems. Consider the variations in the stems and account for them. What phonological process is illustrated here? inf. p.part nom.sg. dat.pl.

1. taka tekin take 8. matr m ¡ tum food

¡ £ 2. draga dregin drag 9. sta r st £ um place 3. vaksa veksin grow 10. harmr h ¡ rmum sorrow

4. aka ekin drive 11. salr s ¡ lum hall

¡ £

5. va £ a ve in wade 12. armr rmum arm ¡

6. gefa geﬁn give 13. h ¡ gg h ggum blow ¡ 7. vega vegin lift 14. gr ¡ f gr fum pit

156. Spanish: vowels In the following items, separate the morphemes meaning inﬁnitive and third person singular from the verb stems. Consider the variations in the stems and account for them. What phonological process is illustrated here? inf. 3rd.sg. inf. 3rd.sg. 1. deber´ debe´ to owe 6. pensar´ piensa´ to think 2. benθer´ ben´ θe to conquer 7. kerer´ kiere´ to want 3. kreθer´ kre´θe to grow 8. perder´ pierde´ to lose 4. beber´ bebe´ to drink 9. ben´ır biene´ to come 5. entrar´ entra´ to enter 10. tener´ tiene´ to have

157. Spanish: vowels In the following items, separate the morphemes meaning inﬁnitive and third person singular from the verb stems. Consider the variations in the stems and account for them. What phonological process is illustrated here? inf. 3rd.sg. inf. 3rd.sg. 1. goθar´ go´θa to enjoy 6. sonar´ suena´ to sound 2. korrer´ korre´ to run 7. mor´ır muere´ to die 3. komer´ kome´ to eat 8. dorm´ır duerme´ to sleep 4. korter´ korta´ to cut 9. poder´ puede´ to be able 5. romper´ rompe´ to break 10. kontar´ kuenta´ to tell

158. German: ﬁnal obstruants In the following problem, separate the various morphemes meaning plural

46 PHONEMIC ALTERNATIONS

from the noun stems. The fact that the plural morphemes vary among themselves is not relevant to the problem. Consider the variations in the stems and account for them. What phonological process is illustrated here?

sg. pl. sg. pl. ¤

1. sulpˇ sulpˇ ¤ n cuttlebone 10. felt feld r ﬁeld ¤

2. tu:p¨ tu:p¨ ¤ n type 11. gelt geld r coin ¤

3. lump lump ¤ n scoundrel 12. ait aid r oath ¤

4. hi:p hi:b ¤ blow 13. fink fink n finch ¤

5. di:p di:b ¤ thief 14. ﬂek ﬂek n stain ¤

6. zi:p zi:b ¤ sieve 15. druk druk hardship ¤

7. a:rt a:rt ¤ n kind 16. ta:k ta:g day ¤

8. flu:t flu:t ¤ n flood 17. berk berg mountain ¤ 9. gestaltˇ gestaltˇ ¤ n shape 18. staikˇ staigˇ footpath

159. Turkish: sufﬁxes In the following items, separate the locative sufﬁx from the noun stem. Con- sider the variations in the stems and account for them. What phonological process is illustrated here? nom. loc. nom. loc. 1. lokanta lokantada restaurant 9. salˇ saldaˇ shawl 2. bina binada building 10. pul pulda stamp 3. kapi kapida door 11. basˇ bastaˇ head 4. rakam rakamda number 12. kitap kitapta book 5. oda odada room 13. koltuk koltukta armchair 6. son sonda end 14. ot otta grass 7. onlar onlarda them 15. taraf tarafta side 8. randevu randevuda appointment

160. Turkish: vowels In the following items, separate the plural sufﬁx from the noun stems. Con- sider the variation in this plural sufﬁx and account for it. What phonological process is illustrated here? sg. pl. sg. pl. 1. basˇ baslarˇ head 6. yil yillar year 2. zan zanlar opinion 7. but butlar thigh 3. dost dostlar friend 8. sucˇ suclarˇ crime 4. yol yollar road 9. ders dersler lesson 5. kiz kizlar daughter 10. esˇ eslerˇ mate

47 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

11. gun¨ gunler¨ day 14. gol¨ goller¨ pond 12. yuz¨ yuzler¨ face 15. ip ipler string 13. soz¨ sozler¨ word 16. jˇin jˇinler genie

161. Turkish: objective case In the following problem separate the sufﬁxes indicating objective case from the noun stems. Consider the variation in this morpheme and formulate the rules for attachment of each form. What phonological process is illustrated here? nom. obj. nom. obj. 1. el eli hand 9. aksamˇ aksamiˇ evening 2. koy¨ koy¨ u¨ village 10. son sonu end 3. ev evi house 11. banliyo¨ banliyoy¨ u¨ suburb 4. gejˇe gejˇeyi night 12. tarla tarlayi ﬁeld 5. ol¨ cˇu¨ ol¨ cˇuy¨ u¨ measure 13. hal hali case 6. deniz denizi sea 14. rol rolu role 7. disˇ disiˇ tooth 15. mevzu mevzuly topic 8. gun¨ gun¨ u¨ day

162. Cree: stems In the following problem, separate the morphemes meaning plural and obviative from the noun stems. Consider the variations in the noun stems and account for them. What phonological process is illustrated here? Singular Plural 1. si:si:p si:si:pak duck 2. mi:kis mi:kisak bead 3. astis astisak mitten 4. asa:m asa:mak snowshoe 5. ayo:skan ayo:skanak raspberry 6. atim atimwak dog 7. amisk amiskwak beaver 8. mo:s mo:swak moose 9. pi:sim pi:simwak sun 10. mostos mostoswak buffalo

prox. obv. 11. atim atimwa dog 14. mi:kis mi:kisa bead 12. si:si:p si:si:pa duck 15. mo:s mo:swa moose 13. amisk amiskwa beaver

48 PHONEMIC ALTERNATIONS

163. Cree: prefixing In the following problem, separate the possessive prefix from the noun stems; also separate the future prefix from the verb stems. Consider the variation in the possessive prefix and account for it. What phonological process is illustrated here? (noun) my (noun) 1. ci:ma:nˇ nici:ma:nˇ canoe 2. so:niya:w niso:niya:w money 3. wiya:sˇ niwiya:sˇ meat 4. te:htapiwin nite:htapiwin chair 5. maskisin nimaskisin shoe 6. e:mihkwa:n nite:mihkwa:n knife 7. astotin nitastotin hat 8. ospwa:kan nitospwa:kan pipe 9. aspa:p nitaspa:p thread 10. amisk nitamisk beaver he (verb) he will (verb) 11. akime:w ta:kime:w count 12. apiw ta:piw sit 13. ohpine:w taohpine:w lift 14. ite:w taite:w say

164. Afrikaans: stems In the following problem, separate the morpheme meaning ‘one who does’ from the preceding stem. Consider the variations in the stems and account

for them. What phonological process is illustrated here?

¤ ¤ 1. f ¤ s ﬁsh f s r ﬁsherman

2. bak bake bak ¤ r baker

3. stof dust stof ¤ r duster

¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ 4. b ¤ dr ix threaten b dr ix r threatener

5. skets sketch skets ¤ r sketcher

¤ ¤

6. a:nr ¤ x cause a:nr xt r causer

¤ ¤

7. a:nst ¤ x instigate a:nst xt r instigator

¤ ¤ 8. bεtw ¤ s contest bεtw st r contestant

9. æytros¨ equip æytrost¨ ¤ r outﬁtter

10. klax complaint klaxt ¤ r complainer

49 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

165. Persian: stems In the following problem, separate the morpheme meaning plural from the noun stems. Consider the variations in the noun stems and account for them. What phonological process is illustrated here? sg. pl. sg. pl. 1. zæn zænan woman 9. ahu ahuan gazelle 2. læb læban lip 10. hamele hamelean pregnant 3. hæsud hæsudan envious 11. bacˇceˇ bacˇceganˇ child 4. bæradær bæradæran brother 12. setare setaregan star 5. bozorg bozorgan big 13. bænde bændegan slave 6. mæleke mælekean queen 14. azade azadegan freeborn 7. valede valedean mother 15. divane divanegan mad 8. kæbire kæbirean great

166. Maltese: stems In the following items, separate the morpheme meaning third person plural from the verb stem. Consider the variations in the stems and account for them. What phonological process is illustrated here? 3rd.sg. 3rd.pl. 3rd.sg. 3rd.pl. 1. kien kienu was 6. mes messu touched

2. sa:m sa:mu fasted 7. ar arru carried ¥ 3. die ¥ die u tasted 8. sen sennu sharpened

4. za:r za:ru visited 9. hak hakku scratched ¥ ¥ 5. bies biesu kissed 10. saˇ ¥ saˇ u cracked

167. Greek: stems In the following problem, separate the morphemes meaning nominative and genitive from the noun stems. Consider the variations in the noun stems and account for them. In the last two items there is a vowel length variation that is not relevant to the problem and should be ignored. What phonological process is illustrated here? nom. gen. nom. gen. 1. phulaks phulakos guard 7. elpis elpidos hope 2. sarks sarkos ﬂesh 8. hellas hellados Greece 3. klo:ps klo:pos thief 9. pais paidos child 4. ero:s ero:tos love 10. hri:s hri:nos nose 5. phos photos light 11. mala:s melanos black 6. kharis kharitos charity 12. tala:s talanos wretched

50 PHONEMIC ALTERNATIONS

168. Classical Arabic: stems In the following problem, the verb has been derived from the noun by the addition of a discontinuous morpheme. Separate that morpheme from the verb stem. Consider the variations in the resulting stems and account for them. What phonological process is illustrated here? In order to make the solution more transparent, the long vowel has been transcribed /aa/ instead of /a:/. noun verb 1. katb kataba write 9. nawm naama sleep

2. radm radama ﬁll up 10. kawn kaana be ¦ 3. d.arb d.araba strike 11. ¦ aysˇ aasaˇ live

4. lah.z. lah. az.a look at 12. qayd. qaad. a cleave ¦ 5. jˇahd jˇahada strive 13. bay ¦ baa a sell 6. qawl qaala say 14. sayr saara go 7. mawt maata die 15. mayl maala incline 8. xawf xaafa fear

169. Iraqi Arabic: stems In the following problem, separate the possessive sufﬁx from the noun stem. Consider the variations in the stems and account for them. What phonological process is illustrated here? (noun) my (noun) (noun) my (noun)

1. walad waladi son 6. baγal baγli mule ¦ 2. qalam qalami pencil 7. saˇ ¦ ar saˇ ri hair 3. jˇaras jˇarasi bell 8. lah.am lah. mi meat

4. balad baladi town 9. taxat taxti bench ¦ 5. tanak tanaki tin 10. saˇ ¦ ab saˇ bi people

170. Iraqi Arabic: stems In the following problem, separate the possessive sufﬁx from the noun stems. Consider the variations in the stems and account for them. What phonological process is illustrated here?

(noun) my (noun) (noun) my (noun) ¦

1. binit binti daughter 5. si ¦ ir si ri price ¥

2. rijˇil rijˇli leg 6. ¥ ibil ibili camels

¥ ¥ ¥

3. ¥ isim ismi name 7. uxut uxti sister £ 4. ciˇ £ ib ciˇ bi lie 8. suˇ γul suˇ γli work

51 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

9. xubuz xubzi bread 11. kusukˇ kuskiˇ cabin ¦ 10. ¦ umur umri age 12. kutub kutubi books

171. Fijian: stems In the following problem, separate the morpheme meaning transitive aspect from the verb stems which are used for the intransitive aspect. Consider the variations in the stems and account for them. What phonological process is illustrated here? intrans. trans. intrans. trans.

1. lako lakova fetch 7. tau taura take

2. si a si ana dry 8. soli solia give

3. ndambe ndambe £ a sit 9. kere kerea ask

£ 4. £ aa aata dislike 10. bili bili a push 5. kila kilaa know 11. sau sauma repay 6. lewa lewaa decide 12. toro toroya shave

172. Swahili: nasals In the following problem, separate both the singular and plural preﬁxes from the noun stems. Consider the variations in both these preﬁxes and account for them. What phonological processes are illustrated here? sg. pl. sg. pl.

1. ubale mbale strip 7. ugimbi gimbi beer 2. ubugu mbugu cord 8. ugono gono intercourse 3. ubisiˇ mbisiˇ argument 9. ugwe gwe string 4. uduvi nduvi shrimp 10. waraka naraka˜ document 5. udago ndago weed 11. wenzo nenzo˜ roller 6. udui ndui pustule 12. wimbo nimbo˜ song

173. Egyptian Arabic: vowels In the following problem, separate the morpheme meaning ‘us’ from the verb. Consider the variation in the shapes of the verb and account for it. What phonological process is illustrated here? he (verb) he (verb) us he (verb) he (verb) us 1. saafˇ safnaˇ saw 6. saalˇ salnaˇ carried 2. gaab gabna brought to 7. faad fadna beneﬁtted 3. h. aasˇ h.asnaˇ hindered 8. laam lamna rebuked 4. zaar zarna visited 9. saab sabna leave 5. haan hanna mistreated 10. γaaz. γaz.na vex

52 PHONEMIC ALTERNATIONS

174. Egyptian Arabic: vowels In the following problem, separate the possessive sufﬁx from the nouns. Consider the variations in the noun stems and account for them. What phonological process or processes are illustrated here?

(noun) our (noun) (noun) our (noun) ¦ 1. taag tagna crown 9. ¦ uud udna lute 2. baab babna door 10. beet bitna house 3. gaar garna neighbour 11. deen dinna debt 4. biir birna well 12. seef sifna sword 5. diin dinna religion 13. door durna turn 6. kiis kisna sack 14. gooz guzna husband 7. nuur nurna ﬁre 15. toom tumna garlic 8. fuul fulna beans

175. Hungarian: plural In the following problem, separate the plural sufﬁx from the noun stems. Consider the variations in this sufﬁx and account for them. What phonological process is illustrated here? sg. pl. sg. pl. 1. astal astalok table 6. madyar madyarok Hungarian 2. ember emberek man 7. ez ezek this 3. doboz dobozok box 8. semuveg¨ semuvegek¨ eyeglasses 4. dob dobok drum 9. ing ingek shirt 5. kor korok age 10. hit hitek belief

176. Hungarian: plural In the following problem, consider the plural sufﬁx once more. On the basis of the solution to the previous problem, account for the variation in the plural sufﬁx itself, as well as any variation you may observe in the noun stems in this problem. sg. pl. sg. pl. 1. tanulo: tanulo:k pupil 6. ta:bla ta:bla:k blackboard 2. ayto: ayto:k door 7. sa:rgaˇ sa:rga:kˇ yellow 3. rigo: rigo:k robin 8. surke¨ surke:k¨ grey 4. fo:¨ fo:k¨ chief 9. bogre¨ bogre:k¨ mug 5. soll¨ o:¨ soll¨ o:k¨ grape 10. fa fa:k tree

53 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

177. Slovak: gender In this problem, separate the sufﬁxes for masculine, feminine, and neuter from the noun stems. Consider the variation in the sufﬁxes and account for it. What phonological process is illustrated here? masc. fem. neut. 1. kruti: kruta: krute: cruel 2. slovenski: slovenska: slovenske: Slovak 3. lyu:ti lyu:ta lyu:te merciless 4. zatyati: zatyata: zatyate: stubborn 5. druhi: druha: druhe: other

6. tata:rski tata:rska tata:rske Tartar

§ § 7. ri: § i ri: a ri: e genuine 8. hlu:pi hlu:pa hlu:pe stupid 9. tisi:ci tisi:ca tisi:ce thousandth 10.mali: mala: male: small

178. Slovak: gender In this problem, separate the sufﬁxes for masculine, feminine and neuter from the noun stems again. Consider the variation in the sufﬁxes and account for it. What additional phonological process is illustrated here? masc. fem. neut. 1. uosmi uosma uosme eighth 2. yasni: yasna: yasne: clear 3. novi: nova: nove: new 4. bieli biela biele white 5.mili: mila: mile: dear 6. buolni buolna buolne painful 7. mierni mierna mierne peaceful 8. hravi: hrava: hrave: playful 9. priestvitni: priestvitna: priestvitne: transparent 10. cierniˇ ciernaˇ cierneˇ black

179. Slovak: plural In the following problem, all the forms are in the genitive plural. All the noun stems end in a consonant. Separate the genitive plural sufﬁx morpheme from the noun stems. Consider the variation in this sufﬁx and account for it. What phonological process is illustrated here?

54 PHONEMIC ALTERNATIONS

1. latiek planks 12. la:tok materials 2. cipiekˇ laces 13. ciapokˇ hats 3. mariek marks 14. hra:cokˇ players 4. hraciekˇ toys 15. kuostok pits 5. tabuliek tables 16. dialyok distances 6. plaviek swimsuits 17. pla:rok mushrooms 7. oblieciekˇ kidneys 18. robotni:cokˇ workers 8. studentiekˇ students 19. kuostok pits 9. ociekˇ eyes 20. slov:cokˇ words 10. boleriek vests 21. rebierok ribs 11. cediliek strainers 22. cielokˇ foreheads

180. Czech: prepositions In the following problem, consider the final consonants of the prepositions. Account for the variations of these final consonants. What phonological process is illustrated here? 1. pod oknem under the window 6. z ohnye with the fire 2. pod zidli:ˇ under the chair 7. v oblastyi in the region 3. pot strexowˇ under the roof 8. s tebow with you 4. f pekle in Hell 9. v dolex in the mines 5. z delegaci: with the delegation 10. od otce from the father

181. Hebrew: prefixes In the following problem, separate the reflexive prefix from the verb stems in the first ten items. Using this as the norm, account for the forms of both prefixes and noun stems in the second ten items. Variation in the vowels is not relevant to the problem. What phonological process is illustrated here? act. refl. act. refl. 1. kibel hitkabel accept 11. silek histalek remove

2. konen hitkonen prepare 12. sipek histapek satisfy 3. lavasˇ hitlavesˇ dress 13. siyem histayem ﬁnish 4. nigasˇ hitnagesˇ collide 14. sidekˇ histadekˇ marry 5. gileax hitgaleax shave 15. sinaˇ histanaˇ change 6. pina hitpana remove 16. sibeaxˇ histabeaxˇ praise 7. raxec hitraxec wash 17. ciref hictaref join 8. rasamˇ hitrasemˇ mark 18. cidek hictadek justify 9. xipes hitxapes seek 19. carax hictarex consume 10. mina hitmana appoint 20. sigeaˇ histageaˇ drive crazy

55 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

182. French: stems In the following problem, consider the masculine and feminine forms of the adjectives morphemically different. What is the morphemic composition of each form? Which form can be considered basic and which form is derived? What phonological process is illustrated here? fem. masc. fem. masc. 1. vεrt vεr green 11. bas ba low 2. grad˜ gra˜ big 12. dus du sweet 3. bla˜sˇ bla˜ white 13. tut tu all 4. gros gro heavy 14. ε˜tεlizˇat˜ ε˜tεlizˇa˜ intelligent

5. ot o high 15. kurt kur short ¡

6. ¡¨roz¨ ¨ro¨ happy 16. almad˜ alma˜ German ¤ 7. p ¤ tit p ti small 17. agl˜ εz agl˜ ε English 8. frεsˇ frε fresh 18. fos fo false

9. movεz movε bad 19. frεsˇ frε fresh ¡ 10. f ¡ rt f r strong 20. famoz¨ famo¨ famous

183. Welsh: prefixes In the following problem, separate the three different possessive prefixes from the noun stems. Consider the resulting variation and account for it. Which morpheme, noun stem or possessive prefix, will contain the conditioning factor? What phonological process is illustrated here? (noun) their (noun) his (noun) her (noun) 1. pen ipen iben ifen head 2. porva iporva iborva iforva pasture 3. porθ iporθ iborθ iforθ door 4. pluen ipluen ibluen ifluen feather 5. tad itad idad iθad father 6. trev itrev idrev iθrev town 7. tafol itafol idafol iθafol scales 8. tal ital idal iθal forehead 9. ki iki igi ixi dog 10. kalon ikalon igalon ixalon deer

11. korn ikorn igorn ixorn horn

¤ ¤ ¤ 12. kef ¤ l ikef l igef l ixef l horse

184. Polish: stem vowels In the following problem, separate the inﬂectional morphemes from the noun stems. Consider the variation in the noun stems and account for it.

56 PHONEMIC ALTERNATIONS

What phonological process or processes is or are illustrated here? nom.sg. gen.sg. acc.sg. nom.pl. 1. dop˜ debu˜ dop˜ debi˜ oak 2. błot˜ błedu˜ błot˜ błedi˜ mistake 3. krok˜ kregu˜ krok˜ kregi˜ circle 4. lok˜ legu˜ lok˜ legi˜ brooder 5. zop˜ zebu˜ zop˜ zebi˜ tooth 6. yek˜ yeku˜ yek˜ yeki˜ cry 7. kes˜ kesu˜ kes˜ kesi˜ piece 8. krek˜ kreku˜ krek˜ kreki˜ vertebra 9. lek˜ leku˜ lek˜ leki˜ scare 10. skret˜ skretu˜ skret˜ skreti˜ braid

185. Turkish: vowels In the following problem, separate the infinitive morpheme from the verb stem. Consider the variation in this infinitive morpheme and account for it. Some of the forms have a third morpheme. What is it, and what variation does it show? What phonological process or processes are illustrated here? 1. yikamak to wash 10. soyunmak to undress oneself 2. yemek to eat 11. sevinmek to be happy 3. giyinmek to dress 12. yenmek to be eaten 4. gor¨ unmek¨ to be seen 13. gormek¨ to see 5. soylenmek¨ to tell oneself 14. bulunmak to find oneself 6. soymak to undress 15. giymek to wear 7. sevmek to love 16. dovmek¨ to beat 8. bulmak to find 17. soylemek¨ to tell 9. yikanmak to wash oneself 18. dovunmak to lament

186. Bulgarian: stem vowels In the following problem, separate the plural morpheme from the noun. Consider the variations in the noun stems and account for them. What phonological process is illustrated here? sg. pl. sg. pl.

1. bob´ ¤ r bobri´ beaver 6. beglec´ beglec´ı fugitive

¤ ¤ 2. lav´ ¤ r lavri´ laurel 7. pr´ıd x pr´ıd xi aspiration

3. pesen´ pesni´ song 8. xrabrec´ xrabrec´ı brave man ¤ 4. kutel´ kutli´ mortar 9. k ¤ drec´ k drec´ı curly head

5. kos´ ¤ m kosmi´ hair 10. poboy´ poboy´ı beating

57 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

11. teat´ ¤ r teatri´ theater 15. stubel´ stubli´ source

12. zˇez´ ¤ l zˇezli´ sceptre 16. kopen´ kopn´ı haystack

¤ ¤

13. ¤´g l gl´ı corner 17. oven´ ovn´ı ram ¤ 14. v ¤´zel v´zli knot 18. psalom´ psalm´ı psalm

187. Bulgarian: stem consonants In the following problem, separate the morphemes for secondary plural and nominative plural from the noun stems. Consider the variations in the noun stems and account for them. What phonological process or processes is or are illustrated here? nom.sg. sec.pl. nom.pl. 1. tebesirˇ tebesirˇ a´ tebesˇ´ıri chalk 2. bukvar´ bukvara´ bukvari´ dictionary 3. buket´ buketa´ buketi´ bouquet 4. stra´sˇ stra´zaˇ stra´ziˇ guard 5. izvar´ izvara´ izvari´ cheese 6. rak´ raka´ raci´ crayﬁsh 7. znak´ znaka´ znaci´ sign 8. zvuk zvuka´ zvuci´ sound 9. nalok´ naloga´ nalozi´ tax 10. vrak´ vraga´ vrazi´ (arch.) enemy 11. kozˇux´ kozˇuxa´ kozˇusi´ fur coat 12. siromax´ siromaxa´ siromasi´ poor man

188. Finnish: consonants In the following problem, separate the genitive morpheme from the noun stems. Consider the variation in the noun stems and account for it. What phonological process is illustrated here? nom. gen. nom. gen. 1. kukka kukan ﬂower 6. loppu lopun end 2. tukki tukin log 7. kauppa kaupan shop 3. hoikka hoikan slender 8. oppi opin wisdom 4. heikko heikon weak 9. katto katon roof 5. pappi papin priest 10. tutt¨ o¨ tut¨ on¨ girl

189. Finnish: consonants In the following problem, separate the first person singular morpheme and the infinitive morpheme from the verb stems. Consider the variations in the verb stems and account for them. Also consider the infinitive morpheme

58 PHONEMIC ALTERNATIONS

itself and account for the variations. What phonological processes are illustrated here? 1st.sg. inf. 1. menettelen menetellæ to behave 2. læmmittelen læmmitellæ to warm oneself 3. yuttelen yutella to narrate 4. næyttelen næytellæ to show 5. ayattelen ayatella to think 6. tavoittelen tavoitella to try to seize 7. supattelen supatella to tattle 8. kikattelen kikatella to giggle

190. Finnish: consonants In the following problem, separate the inﬂectional morpheme for Form II from both the nominal and the verbal stems. Consider the variation in the stems and account for them. What phonological process is illustrated here? form I form II 1. huonompa huonomman bad 2. ampu ammun to shoot 3. isoimpa isoimman great 4. læmpo¨ læmmon¨ warmth 5. isæntæ isænnæn host 6. kunto kunnon condition 7. rakenta rakennan to build 8. kuuntelen kuunnella to listen 9. virta virran to chirp 10. murta murran to break 11. kerta kerron to narrate 12. lavertelen laverrella to chatter 13. ilta illan evening 14. haltu hallun possession 15. kelta kellan yellow 16. kimaltellen kimallella to sparkle

191. Czech: verb stems In the following problem, separate the inflectional morphemes for first person, third person, and the infinitive, which is /-tyi/. Consider the variation in the verb stems and account for it. Ignore the variation in vowel quality and length. What phonological process is illustrated here?

59 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

1st.sg. 3rd.sg. inf. 1. metu mete me:styi sweep 2. vedu vede ve:styi lead 3. pletu plete ple:styi knit 4. svedu svede sve:styi seduce 5. matu mate ma:styi confuse 6. kradu krade kra:styi steal 7. kvetu kvete kve:styi bloom 8. preduˇ predeˇ pri:stˇ yi weave 9. kladu klade kla:styi lay 10. hudu hude howstyi play

192. Modern Greek: verb stems In the following problem separate the preﬁx indicating past particple from the verb stem. Consider the variation in this morpheme and account for it. What phonological process is illustrated here? inf. p.part. inf. p.part. 1. sozo´ sesoka´ 6. mieo´ mem´ıika initiate 2. l´ıo lelika´ 7. pieo´ pep´ıika create 3. θ´ıo te´θ´ıka 8. perao´ peperaka´ pass

4. θn´ısko te´θnika 9. ﬁtevo´ pef´ıtefka plant £ 5. n´ıko nen´ıkika 10. pe £ evo´ pepe´ efka educate

193. Turkish: stress In the following problem, separate the objective morpheme from the stem. Consider the variations in the stems and account for it. What phonological process is illustrated here? nom. obj. 1. isim ismi name 6. hak hakki right 2. adil adli justice 7. had haddi limit 3. kisim kismi part 8. kul¨ kull¨ u¨ totality 4. akil akli intelligence 9. af affi pardon 5. metin metni text 10. temas temassi contact

194. English: vowels In the following problem, consider the alternations undergone by the stressed vowel in the ﬁrst form when it occurs in the second form and account for them. What phonological process is illustrated here?

60 PHONEMIC ALTERNATIONS

1. various variety 6. Canada Canadian 2. moral morality 7. photograph photography 3. decorum decorous 8. sober sobriety 4. super superior 9. able ability 5. restore restoration 10. divine divinity

195. English: consonants In the following problem, consider the ﬁnal consonant in the ﬁrst form and the corresponding consonant in the second form and account for this variation. What phonological process is illustrated here? 1. relate relation 6. elide elision 2. lactate lactation 7. decide decision 3. discreet discretion 8. divide division 4. submit submission 9. erode erosion 5. permit permission 10. corrode corrosion

196. English: consonants In the following problem, consider the final consonant in the first form and the correspondent consonant in the second form and account for the variation there. What phonological process is illustrated here? 1. regress regression 6. please pleasure 2. race racial 7. revise revision 3. office official 8. enclose enclosure 4. grace gracious 9. expose exposure 5. Laos Laotian 10. braze brazier

197. English: consonant clusters In the following problem, consider the stem-final consonant clusters in the first form and the corresponding stem-final consonants in the second form and account for this variation. What phonological process is illustrated here? 1. signal sign 7. crumble crumb 2. benignant benign 8. thimble thumb 3. malignant malign 9. oft often 4. phlegmatic phlegm 10. moist moisten 5. clamber climb 11. soft soften 6. limber limb 12. fast fasten

198. English: negative preﬁx In the following problem, consider the variation in the form of the negative

61 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

preﬁx and account for it. What phonological process is illustrated here? 1. impossible 6. ingrate 2. imbalance 7. illiterate 3. interminable 8. illegal 4. intemperate 9. irrational 5. incapable 10. irregular

199. English: plural In the following problem, consider the plural morpheme and account for the variations there. What phonological process is illustrated here? 1. hips 7. lads 2. cats 8. caves 3. ticks 9. wedges 4. cliffs 10. bruises 5. clubs 11. lasses 6. dogs 12. churches

200. English: plural In the following problem, consider the variations in both the plural morpheme and the noun stem and account for them. What phonological process is illustrated here? 1. knife knives 5. wife wives 2. leaf leaves 6. calf calves 3. elf elves 7. life lives 4. yourself yourselves 8. hoof hooves

201. English: past tense In the following problem, consider the past tense morpheme and account for the variation there. What phonological process is illustrated here? 1. walked 6. lived 2. lurched 7. hummed 3. hissed 8. decided 4. laughed 9. added 5. hugged 10. knitted

62 4

Morphology

202. Egyptian Arabic: verb forms Analyse the following data into morphemes. List the morphemes, their meanings, and positions of occurence. The ﬁrst column lists the positive statement; the second column lists the corresponding negative. pos. neg. 1. xabbar ma xabbarsˇ he told 2. xabbarak ma xabbaraksˇ he told you(masc) 3. xabbarik ma xabbariksˇ he told you(fem) 4. xabbarkum ma xabbarkumsˇ he told you(pl) 5. xabbarhum ma xabbarhumsˇ he told them 6. h.amal ma h.amalsˇ he carried 7. h.amalak ma h.amalaksˇ he carried you(masc) 8. h.amalik ma h.amaliksˇ he carried you(fem) 9. h.amalkum ma h.amalkumsˇ he carried you(pl) 10. h.amalhum ma h.amalhumsˇ he carried them

11. xadamak ma xadamaksˇ he served you(masc)

12. sama ik masama iksˇ he heard you(fem)

13. taba kum ma taba kumsˇ he followed you(pl)

14. ragga hum ma ragga humsˇ he returned them

203. Czech: verb forms Determine the morphological boundaries and state the meaning of preﬁxes, sufﬁxes, and roots. 1. nesu I carry 6. priplaveˇ sˇ you will swim here 2. ponese he will carry 7. priyedouˇ they will drive here 3. povedete you(pl) will lead 8. odvedeme we will lead away 4. poplavu I will swim 9. odyede he will drive away 5. plaveme we will swim 10. poyede he will drive

63 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

11. nesou they carry 18. odnesou they will carry away 12. plavou they swim 19. otplavete you(pl) will swim away 13. yedu I drive 20. poplaveme we will swim 14. ponesu I will carry 21. prinesemeˇ we will bring here 15. yede he drives 22. prineseˇ he will bring here 16. nese he carries 23. odvedu I will lead away 17. vedeme we lead 24. odnesesˇ you carry away

204. Lebanese Arabic: verbs What are the morphemes and their meanings? sleep say love slap

1. na:m ¡ u:l h.ibb kiff I

2. tna:m t ¡ u:l th. ibb tkiff you(masc)

3. tna:mi t ¡ u:li th. ibbi tkifﬁ you(fem)

4. yna:m y ¡ u:l yh.ibb ykiff he

5. tna:m t ¡ u:l th. ibb tkiff she

6. nna:m n ¡ u:l nh.ibb nkiff we

7. tna:mu t ¡ u:lu th. ibbu tkiffu you(pl)

8. yna:mu y ¡ u:lu yh.ibbu ykiffu they

205. Cree: verb forms Analyse the following Cree forms and identify the Cree morphemes that are the equivalents for the English personal pronouns. The pronoun (it) is between parentheses because it has no direct representation in the pronominal elements in these forms. see(it) cut(it) sit 1. niwa:pahte:n nima:ciˇ se:nˇ nitapin I 2. kiwa:pahte:n kima:ciˇ se:nˇ kitapin you 3. niwa:pahte:na:n nima:ciˇ se:na:nˇ nitapina:n we 4. kiwa:pahte:na:wa:w kima:ciˇ se:na:wa:wˇ kitapina:wa:w you(pl)

206. Swahili: verbs Analyse the following data and identify the morphemes. What are their meanings and in what order do they occur? 1. ninasoma I read 5. mnasoma you(pl) read 2. unasoma you read 6. wanasoma they read 3. anasoma he reads 7. nitasoma I will read 4. tunasoma we read 8. utasoma you will read

64 MORPHOLOGY

9. atasoma he will read 17. mtarudi you(pl) will return 10. tutasoma we will read 18. watarudi they will return 11. mtasoma you(pl) will read 19. ninaponda I crush 12. watasoma they will read 20. untoka you go out 13. ninarudi I return 21. anakubali he agrees 14. unarudi you return 22. tutajˇibu we will answer 15. anarudi he returns 23. mtacukuaˇ you(pl) will carry 16. tutarudi we will return 24. wataﬁka they will arrive

207. Swahili: verbs Analyse the following data and identify the morphemes. What are their meanings and in what order do they occur? 1. anapenda he likes 10. aliwapenda he liked them 2. atapenda he will like 11. alimona he saw him 3. alipenda he liked 12. alimsaidia he helped him 4. amependa he has liked 13. alimpiga he hit him 5. alinipenda he liked me 14. alimcukuaˇ he carried him 6. alikupenda he liked you 15. alimua he killed him 7. alimpenda he likes him 16. ananitazama he looks at me 8. alitupenda he liked us 17. atakusikia he will hear you 9. aliwapenda he liked you(pl) 18. alitupanya he cured us

208. Hebrew: verbs Analyse the following data and identify the morphemes. What are their meanings and in what order do they occur? arrived studied saw told 1. higati lamadeti raiti siparti I 2. higata lamadeta raita siparta you(masc) 3. higat lamadet rait sipart you(fem) 4. higanu lamadenu rainu siparnu we 5. higatem lamadetem raitem sipartem you(masc.pl) 5. higaten lamadeten raiten siparten you(fem.pl)

209. Hungarian: numbers Consider the following vocabulary of Hungarian number morphemes: edy one ti:z ten ke:t (ketto)¨ two hu:s twenty ha:rom three harminc thirty ne:dy four nedyven forty

65 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

ot¨ ﬁve otven¨ ﬁfty hat six hetven seventy he:t seven sa:z hundred nyolc eight ezer thousand kilenc nine Using the above vocabulary, write the English equivalent of the following Hungarian numbers: 1. harmincedy 9. ezernyolcsa:z nedyvennyolc 2. hatvan 10. husonhe:t 3. otvened¨ y 11. sa:zezer 4. ke:tsa:z 12. harmincha:rom 5. ti:zezer 13. tizenkilenc 6. ezerotsa:ztizenne:d¨ y 14. husonketto¨ 7. nedyvenne:dy 15. hatvankilenc 8. nyolcvan 16. hetvenot¨

210. Italian: verbs Analyse the following data and identify the morphemes. What are their meanings and in what order do they occur? 1. parlo I speak 7. porto I carry 2. parli you speak 8. compri you buy 3. parla he speaks 9. usa he uses 4. parliamo we speak 10. ascoltiamo we listen 5. parlate you(pl) speak 11. mandate you(pl) send 6. parlano they speak 12. trovano they ﬁnd

211. Italian: verbs Analyse the following data and identify the morphemes. What are their meanings and in what order do they occur? 1. parlavo I spoke 7. trovavo I found 2. parlavi you spoke 8. mandavi you sent 3. parlava he spoke 9. ascoltava he listened 4. parlavamo we spoke 10. usavamo we used 5. parlavate you(pl) spoke 11. pagavate you(pl) paid 6. parlavano they spoke 12. portavano they carried

212. Lebanese Arabic: verbs Analyse the following data and identify the morphemes. What are their

66 MORPHOLOGY

meanings and in what order do they occur? 1. h. amalt I carried 10. d.arabt I hit 2. h. amal he carried 11. d.araba he hit her 3. h. amaltak I carried you(masc) 12. d.arabni he hit me 4. h. amaltik I carried you(fem) 13. d.arabak he hit you(masc) 5. h. amaltu I carried him 14. d.arabik he hit you(fem) 6. h. amalta I carried her 15. d.arabu he hit him 7. h. amaltkun I carried you(pl) 16. d.arabna he hit us 8. h. amaltun I carried them 17. d.arabkun he hit you(pl) 9. d. arab he hit 18. d.arabun he hit them

213. Classical Arabic: derivation Observe the ways in which different verbs are derived from a common triconsonantal root in Classical Arabic. Identify the roots and the afﬁxes. What kinds of morphological processes are illustrated here? 1. alima he knew 2. allama he taught, caused someone to know 3. ta liim the act of teaching 4. ta allama he learned, caused himself to know 5. ta allum the act of learning 6. saru a he was fast 7. sarra a he urged someone on, caused someone to be fast 8. tasrii the act of urging someone on 9. tasarra a he hastened, caused himself to be fast 10. tasarru the act of hastening

11. ¢ akara he remembered

12. ¢ akkara he reminded, caused someone to remember

13. ta ¢ kiir memento, the act of reminding someone

14. ta ¢ akkara he kept in mind, caused himself to remember

15. ta ¢ akkur recollection, the act of remembering 16. salima he was safe 17. sallama he handed over something to someone 18. tasliim the act of handing over 19. tasallama he obtained, had something handed over to him 20. tasallum the act of acquiring something 21. silf a loan 22. sallafa he lent 23. tasliif the act of lending

67 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

24. tasallafa (try to determine the meaning of this form) 25. tasalluf (try to determine the meaning of this form)

214. Persian: future tense Examine the following verbal forms and identify the individual morphemes and their meanings. pos. neg. 1. xaham xarid naxaham xarid I will buy 2. xahi xarid naxahi xarid you will buy 3. xahad xarid naxahad xarid he will buy 4. xahim xarid naxahim xarid we will buy 5. xahid xarid naxahid xarid you(pl) will buy 6. xahand xarid naxahand xarid they will buy

The verb /xahad ra £ / means ‘he will paint’. How do you say in Persian ‘I will paint’, ‘they will paint’, and ‘we will not paint’?

215. Cree: possessive Analyse the following Cree forms and ﬁnd an equivalent for each English possessive pronoun. Do not overlook the difference between singular and plural possessor. Identify the morphemes, their meanings, and what the order of their occurence is. knife berry 1. mo:hkoma:n mi:nis knife/berry 2. mo:hkoma:na mi:nisa knives/berries 3. nimo:hkoma:n nimi:nis my knife/berry 4. nimo:hkoma:na nimi:nisa my knives/berries 5. kimo:hkoma:n kimi:nis your knife/berry 6. kimo:hkoma:na kimi:nisa your knives/berries 7. nimo:hkoma:nina:n nimi:nisina:n our knife/berry 8. nimo:hkoma:nina:na nimi:nisina:na our knives/berries 9. kimo:hkoma:niwa:w kimi:nisiwa:w your(pl) knife/berry 10. kimo:hkoma:niwa:wa kimi:nisiwa:wa your(pl) knives/berries 11. omo:hkoma:n omi:nis his knife/berry 12. omo:hkoma:na omi:nisa his knives/berries 13. omo:hkoma:niwa:w omi:nisiwa:w their knife/berry 14. omo:hkoma:niwa:wa omi:nisiwa:wa their knives/berries

68 MORPHOLOGY

216. Egyptian Arabic: verbal forms Examine the following data and identify the morphemes. What are their meanings and in what order do they occur? pos. neg. 1. zurt ma zurtisˇ you(masc) visited 2. zurna ma zurna:sˇ we visited 3. zurti ma zurti:sˇ you(fem) visited 4. zurtu ma zurtu:sˇ you(pl) visited 5. zurna:ha ma zurnaha:sˇ we visited her 6. zurti:ha ma zurtiha:sˇ you(fem) visited her 7. zurtu:ha ma zurtuha:s you(pl) visited her 8. zurna:ki ma zurnaki:sˇ we visited you(fem) 9. zurti:ni ma zurtini:sˇ you(fem) visited me 10. zurtu:ni ma zurtuni:sˇ you(pl) visited me

11. sufnaˇ we saw 12. ma sufnaki:ˇ sˇ (translate into English) 13. ruh.tu you(pl) went 14. ma ruh.tu:sˇ (translate into English) 15. xufti you(fem) were afraid 16. ma xuftini:sˇ (translate into English) 17. gibti:ha you(fem) brought her 18. ma gibnaha:sˇ (translate into English)

217. Persian: verbs Analyse the following data and identify the morphemes, their meanings and the order in which they occur. pos. neg. 1. xaridam naxaridam I bought 2. xaridi naxaridi you bought 3. xarid naxarid he bought 4. xaridim naxaridim we bought 5. xaridid naxaridid you(pl) bought 6. xaridand naxaridand they bought 7. mixaridam namixaridam I was buying 8. mixari namixari you are buying 9. bexarad naxarad he may buy 10. bexarand naxarand they may buy

69 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

218. Turkish: derivations Isolate the derivational sufﬁxes and determine their meaning and function. Stems: 1. adam man 11. kapi door 2. ana mother 12. kardesˇ brother 3. asker soldier 13. kara black 4. akil intelligence 14. kiymet value 5. bekar bachelor 15. kosuˇ race 6. denis sea 16. mezar grave 7. edep good breeding 17. yol road 8. guzel¨ beautiful 18. sut¨ milk 9. hasta sick 19. sulu moist 10. cojˇ ˇuk child Derivations: 1. yoljˇu traveller 18. kardeslikˇ brotherhood 2. denizjˇi sailor 19. analik motherhood 3. karanlik blackness 20. bekarlik celibacy 4. sutl¨ uk¨ dairy 21. sulujˇa watery 5. guzelik¨ beauty 22. hastalik sickness 6. kardesˇceˇ brotherly 23. cojˇ ˇukluk childhood 7. cojˇ ˇukcaˇ childish 24. akilsiz stupid 8. adamjˇa properly 25. kiymetsiz valueless 9. anasiz motherless 26. edepsiz ill-bred 10. kapijˇi gate-keeper 27. guzelj¨ ˇe fairly 11. kosujˇ ˇu runner 28. yolsuz irregular 12. mezarlik graveyard 29. askerlik draft 13. askerjˇe militarily 30. akiljˇa cleverly 14. denizjˇilik aquatics 31. edepceˇ mannerly 15. kapijˇilik gate-keeping 32. sut¨ cˇu¨ milkman 16. mezarjˇi gravedigger 33. hastabakijˇi nurse 17. cojˇ ˇuksuz childless 34. karajˇi highwayman

219. Cree: verbal afﬁxes Find the Cree equivalents — single morphemes or combinations of morphemes — for the English pronouns indicating subject and object. seehim seeit 1. niwa:pama:w niwa:pahte:n I 2. kiwa:pama:w kiwa:pahte:n you(sg)

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3. wa:pame:w wa:pahtam he 4. niwa:pama:na:n niwa:pahte:na:n we 5. kiwa:pama:wa:w kiwa:pahte:na:wa:w you(pl) 6. wa:pame:wak wa:pahtamwak they keep him keep it 7. nikanawe:lima:w nikaname:lihte:n I 8. kikanawe:lima:w kikaname:lihte:n you(sg) 9. kanawe:lime:w kanawe:lihtam he 10. nikanawe:lima:na:n nikanawe:lihte:na:n we 11. kikanawe:lima:na:wa:w kikanawe:lihte:na:wa:w you(pl) 12. kanwe:lima:wak kanawe:lihtamwak they

220. Czech: nouns The following nouns belong to four types, according to their inflectional behaviour. Group the nouns according to their inflectional type and specify the criteria used for the grouping. nom.sg. gen.sg. acc.sg. nom.pl. 1. pa:n pa:na pa:na pa:nove: Mr. 2. musˇ muzeˇ muzeˇ muziˇ man 3. mi:cˇ mi:ceˇ mi:cˇ mi:ceˇ ball 4. kosˇ koseˇ kosˇ koseˇ basket 5. le:karˇ le:kareˇ le:kareˇ le:kariˇ doctor 6. hrop hrobu hrop hrobi grave 7. se:fˇ se:faˇ se:faˇ se:fove:ˇ boss 8. ku:l ku:lu ku:l ku:li post 9. dux duxa duxa duxove: ghost 10. tesarˇ tesareˇ tesareˇ tesariˇ carpenter 11. nerf nervu nerf nervi nerve 12. stroy stroye stroy stroye machine 13. boy boye boy boye fight 14. korenˇ korenuˇ korenˇ koreniˇ root 15. sin sina sina sinove: son 16. taksi:k taksi:ku taksi:k taksi:ki taxi 17. da:n da:na da:na da:nove: Dane 18. nu:sˇ nozeˇ nu:sˇ nozeˇ knife 19. lha:rˇ lha:reˇ lha:reˇ lha:riˇ liar 20. uvadyecˇ uvadyeceˇ uvadyeceˇ uvadyeciˇ usher

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221. Hungarian: verbs Determine the verb stems and the suffixes, and comment on the distribution of the allomorphs. 1. e:rtek I understand 11. repult¨ ok¨ you(pl) fly 2. ul¨ he sits 12. e:rtunk¨ we understand 3. seretnek they love 13. mondas you say 4. tudok I know 14. tudnak they know 5. repul¨ ok¨ I fly 15. uls¨ you sit 6. serettek you(pl) love 16. ult¨ ok¨ you(pl) sit 7. tuds you know 17. repul¨ he flies 8. mondotok you(pl) say 18. seret he loves 9. seretunk¨ we love 19. repulnek¨ they fly 10. ul¨ ok¨ I sit 20. mond he says

222. Turkish: declension Observing the rules of vowel harmony, ﬁll in the missing forms. The ﬁrst set of forms gives four cases; the second set gives two more and the English gloss. nom. gen. dat. obj. 1. ev evin evi 2. at atin ata 3. gul¨ gule¨ gul¨ u¨ 4. yol yolun yola yolu 5. ickiˇ ickininˇ ickiyiˇ 6. oda odanin odaya odayi 7. kopr¨ u¨ kopr¨ un¨ un¨ kopr¨ uye¨ kopr¨ uy¨ u¨ 8. palto paltoya paltoyu 9. jˇep jˇebin jˇebe jˇebi 10. son sonun sona 11. otobus¨ otobus¨ un¨ otobuse¨ otobus¨ u¨ 12. karakolun karakola karakolu 13. kedi kediye kediyi 14. para paranin paraya parayi 15. sur¨ u¨ sur¨ un¨ un¨ sur¨ uy¨ u¨ 16. koku kokunun kokuya 17. kalem kalemin kaleme kalemi 18. vatanin vatana vatani 19. gun¨ gun¨ un¨ gun¨ u¨ 20. horoz horozun horoza

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21. mefki mefkiye mefkiyi 22. elmanin elmaya elmayi 23. koyl¨ u¨ koyl¨ un¨ un¨ koyl¨ uye¨ koyl¨ uy¨ u¨ 24. piyango piyangonun piyangoya piyangoyu

abl. instr. 1. evden evle house 2. attan atla horse 3. gulden¨ gulle¨ rose 4. yolla journey 5. ickidenˇ ickiyleˇ drink 6. odayla room 7. kopr¨ uden¨ bridge 8. paltodan paltoyla coat 9. jˇepten pocket 10. sondan sonla end 11. otobusle¨ bus 12. karakoldan karakolla station 13. kediden kediyle cat 14. paradan money 15. sur¨ uden¨ sur¨ uyle¨ herd 16. kokudan kokuyla smell 17. kalemden kalemle pencil 18. vatandan vatanle fatherland 19. gunden¨ gunle¨ day 20. horozdan horozla rooster 21. mefkiden mefkiyle class 22. elmadad elmayla apple 23. koyl¨ uden¨ peasant 24. piyangoyla lottery

223. Czech: derivation In the following examples of positive, comparative, and superlative forms of different adjectives, identify each morpheme and indicate the afﬁxes used. pos. comp. sup. 1. novi: novyeysi:ˇ neynovyeysi:ˇ new 2. nevini: nevinyeysi:ˇ neynevinyeysi:ˇ innocent 3. mora:lnyi: mora:lnyeysi:ˇ neymora:lnyeysi:ˇ moral

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4. u:plni: u:plnyeysi:ˇ neyu:plnyeysi:ˇ complete 5. nadani: nadanyeysi:ˇ neynadanyeysi:ˇ gifted

224. Tagalog: derivation In the following examples identify each morpheme and indicate the afﬁxes used. The past tense is indicated by two different morphemes which are lexically determined. (verb) he (verb) 1. bilih bumbilih bought 2. gradwet grumadwet graduated

3. bagsak bumagsak failed

¡ ¡ ¡ 4. pa ¡ upo pina upo sat

5. talikod tumalikod turned his back ¡

6. ¡ ibig inibig loved ¡

7. pag ¡ aral pinag aral studied ¡ 8. ¡ akyat umakyat climb

225. Latvian: derivation Examine the following data and identify morphemes, meanings, and order. 1. ma:ci:t teach ma:ci:ta:ys teacher 2. skuoluot educate skuoluota:ys pastor

3. braukt go brauce:ys driver ¤ 4. ¤ ieda:t sing ieda:ta:ys singer 5. kalt forge kale:ys blacksmith 6. skuola school skuolni:ks pupil 7. saime household saymni:ks host 8. veykals shop veykalni:ks shopkeeper 9. pilse:ta town pilse:tni:ks townsman 10. da:rs garden da:rzni:ks gardener

226. German: derivation Examine the following data and identify the morphemes, their meanings, and in what order they occur.

inf. p.part. inf. p.part.

¥ ¥ ¥

1. film ¥ n g filmt film 5. lob n g lopt praise

¥ ¥ ¥

2. fra:g ¥ n g fra:kt ask 6. stekˇ n g stektˇ pierce

¥ ¥ ¥

3. kox ¥ n g koxt cook 7. hab n g hapt have ¥ 4. spi:lˇ ¥ n g spi:ltˇ play

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227. Classical Arabic: derivation Examine the following data and identify the morphemes, their meanings, and the order in which they occur. 1. kataba he wrote 11. darasa he studied 2. kitaabun book 12. dars lesson 3. maktuubun letter 13. madrasatun school 4. kaatibatun secretary 14. diraasatun study 5. maktabatun library 15. mudarrisun teacher 6. salima he was safe 16. saˇ γala he preoccupied 7. salaamun peace 17. masˇγuulun busy 8. muslim Moslem 18. saˇ γγaalun hard-working

9. ¡ islaamun Islam 19. suˇ γlun job

10. saalimun safe 20. ¡ istiˇ γaalun occupation

228. Various Languages: grammatical relations Examine the following pairs of expressions. In what way is the relationship between the pairs expressed? Is this a morphological problem? Russian: 1. xorosiyˇ good lucˇseˇ better 2. ploxoy bad xuzeˇ worse 3. celovˇ yek person lyudyi people 5. rebyonok child dyetyi children

Arabic: ¡ 4. mar ¡ atun woman nisa: u women 5. yaku:nu he is laysa he is not Spanish: 6. ir to go voy I go 7. malo bad peor worse 8. bueno good mejor better French: 9. aller to go je vais I go 10. mal bad pire worse 11. bon good mieux better German: 12. gut good besser better Italian: 13. buono good migliore better

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Latin: 14. fero¯ I carry tuli¯ I carried English: 15. good better 16. bad worse 17. to go went 18. to be was 19. we our 20. she her

229. Tagalog: diminutives Examine the following data and identify the morphological process involved in deriving the diminutive adjectives from the regular adjectives.

Adjective Diminutive

£ £ 1. ta £ kad´ mata kadta` kad´ tall

2. gandah´ magandagand` ah´ beautiful

¡ ¡ 3. ba ¡ ´ıt maba `ıtba ´ıt kind 4. tal´ınoh matal`ıtalinoh´ intelligent 5. berdeh´ maberdeberd` eh´ green 6. preskoh´ mapreskopresk´ oh´ cool

230. Tagalog: verbs Examine the following data and identify the morphological process involved in formation of tenses from the verb stem. Stem he (verb)s he will (verb)

1. trabahoh´ magtrabahoh´ magtatrabahoh´ work

¡ £ ¡ ¡ £ ¡ ¡ 2. ¡ isda´ ma sda´ ma i ida´ ﬁsh

3. bigay´ maipabigay´ maipabibigay´ give

¡ ¡

4. ¡ awit´ magi awit´ magsisi awit´ sing

¡ ¡ 5. ¡ aral´ magpaka aral´ magpapaka aral´ study

231. Turkish: verbal pairs Observe the following pairs of Turkish verbs and their English equivalents. Analyze the Turkish verbs into morphemes, determine the meaning of the /-t/ sufﬁx, and comment on the expressive means used in English in order to communicate a similar meaning. 1. dinlemek to listen dinletmek to attract attention 2. anlamak to understand anlatmak to explain

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3. darilmak to feel offended dariltmak to annoy 4. duzelmek¨ to get better duzeltmek¨ to arrange 5. hatirlamak to remember hatirlatmak to remind 6. kuc¨ ¸ulmek¨ to become small kuc¨ ¸ultmek¨ to belittle 7. uzamak to stretch uzatmak to prolong 8. soylermek¨ to speak soyletmek¨ to make one speak 9. oturmak to sit oturtmak to seat Provide English equivalents for the missing member of the pair: ayirmak to separate ayirtmak

232. Estonian: kinship terminology In the ﬁrst section, there is a vocabulary of primary kin terms with English glosses. In the second section, there is a list of secondary kin terms without glosses. Determine the English translation of the secondary kin terms and identify the morphological process involved. Note that the items are given in the traditional Estonian orthography, which is phonemic. I. Primary kin terms: nom. gen. 1. vent venna brother 2. ode˜ oe˜ sister 3. onu onu uncle 4. tadi¨ tadi¨ aunt 5. poeg poya son 6. tutar¨ tutre¨ daughter II. Secondary kin terms: 1. poyapoek 7. tadit¨ utar¨ 2. vennatutar¨ 8. tutrepoek¨ 3. tadipoek¨ 9. poyatutar¨ 4. onupoek 10. vennapoek 5. oet˜ utar¨ 11. oepoek˜ 6. onututar¨ 12. tutret¨ utar¨

233. Estonian: word building In the following examples, the Estonian word is given a literal translation, followed by the English equivalent. Identify the morphological process involved as well as the internal relationship of morphemes within each word.

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1. poiss-me:s boy–man bachelor 2. tutar-laps¨ daughter–girl young girl 3. raut-te: iron–road railroad 4. post-kontor post–ofﬁce post ofﬁce 5. sea-pra:t pig–roast pork roast 6. aya-kiryanik time–writer journalist 7. vabriku-to¨ factory–work assembly line 8. yaste-aet children–fence kindergarten

234. Czech: word building In the following examples, the Czech word is given a literal translation, followed by the English equivalent. Identify the morphological process involved as well as the internal relationship of morphemes within each word. 1. vodo-vod water–lead water tap 2. spolu-pra:ce together–work cooperation 3. velko-myesto large–town city 4. cito-slovce emotion–word interjection 5. lido-yed human–eat cannibal 6. veselo-hra cheerful–play comedy 7. zivoto-pisˇ life–write biography 8. pozoru-hodni: attention–worthy remarkable

235. Czech: word building In the following examples, the Czech word is given a literal translation, followed by the English equivalent. Identify the morphological process involved as well as the internal relationship of morphemes within each word. 1. vrtyi-xvost wag–tail ﬁdgety person 2. vyetro-plax wind–chase unreliable person 3. stras-pitelˇ scare–bag cowardly person 4. holo-bra:dek bare–chin inexperienced person 5. tluc-hubaˇ pound–mouth braggart 6. rozum-brada wise–chin wiseacre 7. traso-ˇ ritkaˇ shake–rear end swaggerer 8. brixo-pa:sekˇ stomach–feed fat person

236. Estonian: word building In the following examples, the Estonian word is given a literal translation, followed by the English equivalent. Identify the mophological process in-

78 MORPHOLOGY

volved as well as the internal relationship of morphemes within each word. 1. kana-pea hen–head easy drunk 2. koba-kæpp fumble–paw clumsy person 3. kapsa-pea cabbage–head forgetful person 4. arg-puks¨ shy–trousers timid person 5. loba-suu twaddle–mouth indiscrete person

6. po:i¦k-pea crosswise–head stubborn person 7. tu:le-tallaya wind–walker aimless person 8. loll-pea stupid–head fool

237. Czech: word building In the following example, the Czech word is given a literal translation, followed by the English equivalent. Identify the morphological process involved as well as the internal relationship of morphemes within each word. 1. cerveno-modro-bi:la:ˇ red–blue–white tricolour 2. kafe-brawn-do-zelena coffee–brown-in-green khaki colour 3. sem-tam here–there both ways 4. volki nevolki willing–not willing willy-nilly 5. horem-pa:dem from above–fall by hastily 6. lexko-tyeskoˇ easy–difﬁcult so-so 7. ma:m-nema:m should I–shouldn’t I indecisive 8. siroko-dalekoˇ wide–far at a distance

238. Turkish: word building In the following examples, the Turkish word is given a literal translation followed by the English equivalent. Identify the types of compounds (endocentric, exocentric, copulative). 1. bas-parmakˇ head–ﬁnger thumb 2. okur-yazar read–write literate

3. baba-ane father–mother paternal grandmother 4. ankara yolu Ankara road road to Ankara 5. ic-yˇ uz¨ interior–face inside story 6. orta-caˇ middle–epoch Middle Ages 7. deniz-alti sea–underside submarine 8. kapti-kactiˇ it snatched–it ﬂed small bus 9. bas-bakanˇ head–minister prime minister 10. on-ayak¨ front–leg pioneer

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239. German: word building In the following examples, two morpheme bases are given with English glosses. Identify the word-forming afﬁxes in the compounds and account for the occurring morphophonemic change in the ﬁrst items.

1. awg ¥ eye arct doctor

2. ta:k day rayz ¥ trip 3. u:r hour kasten case 4. ta:k day lixt light

5. li:b ¥ love bri:f letter 6. froynt friend krays circle

7. maws mouse fal ¥ trap

1. awg ¥ narct eye doctor ¥

2. ta:g ¥ rayz day trip ¥ 3. u:r ¥ nkast n clock case

4. ta:g ¥ zlixt daylight

5. li:b ¥ zbri:f love letter

6. froynd ¥ skrays circle of friends ¥ 7. mawz ¥ fal mousetrap

240. English: morphological structure Identify the morpheme structure of the following pairs of words. 1. ﬁsh(sg) ﬁsh(pl) 2. sheep(sg) sheep(pl) 3. deer(sg) deer(pl) 4. head(sg) head(pl) (cf. six head of cattle) 5. dollar(sg) dollar(pl) (cf. a two-dollar ticket) 6. better(adj) better(verb) 7. empty(adj) empty(verb)

241. English: word structure Subdivide the following words into morphemes and indicate the types of morphemes, using the following terminology: root, stem, derivational affix, inflectional affix, prefix, and suffix. 1. friend 6. friendlier 11. headed 16. heady 2. friendly 7. befriends 12. heading 17. beheaded 3. unfriendly 8. head 13. headless 18. hand 4. unfriendliness 9. headache 14. headline 19. handbag 5. friendship 10. header 15. headliner 20. handed

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21. handedness 27. smartness 33. devil 39. intake 22. handful 28. smartaleck 34. devilish 40. taken 23. handily 29. smartalecky 35. deviltry 41. taker 24. handiness 30. smarty 36. bedevil 42. taking 25. smart 31. smarter 37. take 43. tie 26. smartly 32. outsmart 38. takable 44. untie

242. English: prefixes Distribute the following three groups separately into two subgroups, each using the functions of their prefixes as criteria. Group I: 1. unfair 4. insane 7. disconnect 10. decode 2. non-smoker 5. defrost 8. immoral 11. unhorse 3. untie 6. disloyal 9. asymmetrical 12. discolour Group II: 1. misinform 4. superman 7. malodorous 10. infrared 2. maltreat 5. subhuman 8. pseudonym 11. underdo 3. pseudoscience 6. overdress 9. misconduct 12. archduke Group III: 1. superfix 4. international 7. ex-wife 10. sub rosa 2. foretell 5. interpose 8. pre-marital 11. undercut 3. subway 6. post-classical 9. transcity 12. pre-war

243. English: noun sufﬁxes Indicate the functions of the sufﬁxes in the following nouns. 1. gangster 11. friendship 21. kitchenette 2. booklet 12. panelling 22. kingdom 3. democracy 13. mouthful 23. Israelite 4. engineer 14. auntie 24. Chinese 5. waitress 15. slavery 25. nunnery 6. Londoner 16. princeling 26. Johnnie 7. daddy 17. cowardly 27. republican 8. usherette 18. machinery 28. violinist 9. teenager 19. stardom 29. communism 10. boyhood 20. ownership 30. dictatorship

244. English: sufﬁxes In the following examples, determine which derived words (derivatives)

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are formed from verbs (deverbatives) and which are formed from nouns or adjectives (denominatives). Which sufﬁxes are nominalizers (noun-forming) and which are verbalizers (verb-forming)? 1. driver 11. youngish 21. daily 2. useful 12. crabwise 22. readable 3. cowardly 13. dismissal 23. backwards 4. sanity 14. employee 24. attractive 5. drainage 15. inhabitant 25. idealism 6. childless 16. violinist 26. Darwinian 7. disinfectant 17. happiness 27. building 8. actor 18. ﬂannelette 28. balconied 9. sadden 19. organization 29. spillage 10. criminal 20. amazement 30. popularize

245. English: word formation Examine the following examples and identify which one of the following processes is used in their derivations: acronyms, derivation, conversion, borrowing, compounding, reduplication, clipping. 1. insane 21. dressmaking 41. USSR 2. NATO 22. enslave 42. glad-hand 3. tick-tock 23. self-control 43. vivacious 4. untie 24. ﬂu 44. non-smoker 5. misinform 25. booklet 45. chutney 6. playboy 26. robot 46. UK 7. phone 27. wishy-washy 47. youngish 8. doubt 28. bus 48. lymphoma 9. oxygen 29. gangster 49. wrap 10. malodorous 30. prof 50. thongs 11. bilateral 31. kingdom 51. walk 12. love 32. loveseat 52. sputnik 13. blitz 33. isocracy 53. tip-top 14. photo 34. Chinese 54. turn 15. seesaw 35. sari 55. backwards 16. bewitch 36. dorm 56. barbecue 17. laser 37. bigamy 57. deaf-mute 18. cheat 38. employee 58. crabwise 19. radar 39. C.O.D. 59. GHQ 20. bee-sting 40. childless 60. baby-sit

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246. English: conversion In the following examples, the items change their word-class without the addition of an afﬁx. Indicate the direction of the conversion for each item.

E.g. release V § N (the noun release has been derived from the verb release). 1. doubt V N 16. walk V N 2. daily N A 17. mail N V 3. bottle N V 18. dirty A V 4. laugh N V 19. knife N V 5. cheat N V 20. turn N V 6. comic A N 21. dry V A 7. throw V N 22. bore V N 8. love V N 23. cash N V 9. calm A V 24. cripple V N 10. peel V N 25. answer V N 11. nurse V N 26. wet V A 12. warm A V 27. married N A 13. retreat N V 28. hate N V 14. corner N V 29. cover N V 15. mask N V 30. coat V N

247. English: compound nouns In the following examples indicate the syntactic relations of the compounding elements using paraphrases according to the following example: sunrise, the sun rises: subject + verb. 1. playboy 11. sun-bathing 2. call-girl 12. sleepwalking 3. brainwashing 13. cutpurse 4. earthquake 14. hangman 5. daydreamer 15. homesick 6. windmill 16. loudmouth 7. ﬂashlight 17. snowﬂake 8. bloodstain 18. handwriting 9. gamekeeper 19. dressmaking 10. headache 20. purse-snatcher

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Structural and Functional Syntax

248. Malay: morphosyntax Gloss every Malay word with its English equivalent. Identify the grammatical morphemes and explain their functions.

1. dia m lihat rumah bapana˜ itu

He looks at the house of his father.

2. bapa itu m lihat anak l lakina˜

The father looks at his son.

¡ 3. anak l laki itu cintakanˇ s ora ¡ p rempuan ya cantikˇ dan miskin

The son loves a beautiful and poor girl.

¡ ¡ 4. bapa i ¡ in anak l lakina˜ m kahwini s ora p rempuan yan kaya

The father wants his son to marry a rich girl.

5. p rempuan ya ¡ cantikˇ itu m njˇadi marah

The beautiful girl gets angry.

¡ 6. dia b rcadaˇ ¡ untuk m ni kari bapana˜

He decides to disobey his father.

7. kakak l laki itu b rcadaˇ ¡ untuk m mbunuh p rempuan itu The boy’s sister decides to kill the girl. 8. dia m njˇerit She screams.

¡ 9. kakak ya ¡ marah itu m ni galkan rumah itu

The angry sister leaves the house.

10. bapa itu b rcadaˇ ¡ untuk m nampunkan anak l lakina˜ dan p rempuan

ya ¡ miskin itu The father decides to forgive his son and the poor girl.

249. Malay: nouns Gloss every Malay noun with its English equivalent. Explain the formation of singular and plural. Are there any Malay equivalents for the English articles?

84 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL SYNTAX

Singular

1. di pada ¡ itu s ekor l mbu There is an ox in the ﬁeld. 2. saya ada s ekor ayam

I have a hen.

3. saya b li s ekor kuci ¡

I bought a cat.

4. saya ada s ekor anjˇi ¡ I have a dog. 5. saya nampak s ekor kuda

I see a horse.

¡ 6. s ora ¡ murid m hadiri s kolah itu

A pupil attends the school.

¡ 7. s ora ¡ p kerjˇa s da b kerjˇa

A worker is working.

¡ 8. s ora ¡ ibu s da b rihat di taman itu

Mother is relaxing in the garden.

9. ada s ora ¡ pelajˇar di dalam s kolah itu

There is one student in the school.

¡ 10. ada s ora ¡ p lakun seda b rlakun There is one actor performing.

Plural

¡ 11. di pada ¡ itu ada ba ak l mbu There are many oxen in the ﬁeld.

12. saya ada ba ¡ ak ayam

I have many hens.

¡ 13. saya b li ba ¡ ak kuci I bought some cats.

14. saya ada ba ¡ ak anjˇin I have some dogs.

15. saya nampak ba ¡ ak kuda

I see some horses.

16. ramai murid-murid m ¡ hadiri s kolah itu

Many pupils attend the school.

17. p kerjˇa-p kerjˇa s da ¡ b kerjˇa

Workers are working.

18. ramai ibu-ibu s da ¡ b rihat di taman itu

Many mothers are relaxing in the garden.

19. p lajˇar-p lajˇar s da ¡ b lajˇar Students are studying.

SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

20. ramai p lakun-p lakun s da ¡ b lakun Many actors are performing.

250. Latin: inflections Identify the following morphemes: noun stems; verb stems; conjunctions; prepositions; noun suffixes; verb suffixes. State the rule for word order. Translate into English: nauta¯ f¯ıliam reg¯ınae in cameram portat. Translate into Latin: The sailors’ daughters see the forest and the waters.

1. agricola arat The farmer ploughs. 2. agricola puellas¯ terret The farmer frightens the girls. 3. puellae aquam portant The girls carry water. 4. femina¯ puellam portat The woman carries the girl. 5. silvae feminam¯ terrent The forests frighten the woman. 6. femina¯ et agricolae aquam portant The woman and the farmers carry water. 7. reg¯ ¯ına f¯ıliam habet The queen has a daughter. 8. nautae femin¯ as¯ habent The sailors have wives. 9. habetne nauta f¯ıliam? Does the sailor have a daughter? 10. f¯ıliae nautae aquam portant The daughters of the sailor carry water. 11. puella nautam vocat The girl calls the sailor. 12. viam videmus¯ We see the road. 13. puellae vias¯ vident The girls see the roads. 14. nauta agricolas¯ terret The sailor frightens the farmers. 15. reg¯ ¯ınam et f¯ıliam reg¯ ¯ınae portamus¯ We carry the queen and the queen’s daughter. 16. aratne agricola? Does the farmer plough?

86 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL SYNTAX

17. videntne feminae¯ f¯ılias?¯ Do the women see the girls? 18. aquam in cameram portant They carry water into the room. 19. femina¯ et agricola arant The woman and the farmer plough. 20. silvae aquam habent The forests have water. 21. videmusne¯ cameras¯ reg¯ ¯ınarum?¯ Do we see the rooms of the queens? 22. f¯ıliae agricolarum¯ agricolam laudant The daughters of the farmers praise the farmer. 23. reg¯ ¯ına femin¯ as¯ et puellas¯ laudat The queen praises the women and the girls. 24. feminae¯ nautarum¯ aquam portant The wives of the sailors carry water. 25. aqua terret femin¯ as¯ et puellas¯ The water frightens the women and the girls. 26. videmusne¯ f¯ılias¯ agricolarum?¯ Do we see the daughters of the farmers? 27. femina¯ et agricola cameras¯ habent The woman and the farmer have rooms. 28. puellae in silvas¯ aquam portant The girls carry water into the forest. 29. vocantne f¯ıliam nautae? Do they call the daughter of the sailor? 30. terretne reg¯ ¯ınam? Does he frighten the queen?

251. Estonian: sufﬁxes Gloss every Estonian word with its English equivalent. Identify verbal and nominal sufﬁxes and explain their functions. Note that the Estonian is written in the standard orthography, which is phonemic. What are the three meanings of the Estonian word on? If utlema¨ means ‘to say’, what are the meanings of utleb¨ and utlevad¨ ? Translate into Estonian: The girl’s doll is in the store. The boy wants the black cover.

1. poiss mangib¨ klaverit A boy is playing the piano. 2. klaver on restoranis The piano is in the restaurant.

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3. ari¨ on vaga¨ suur The store is very large. 4. poisi onututred¨ mangivad¨ nukkudega The boy’s cousins are playing with dolls. 5. onututrel¨ on kaks nukku The cousin has two dolls. 6. teisel onututrel¨ on uks¨ nukk The other cousin has one doll. 7. yutu pealkiri on meie tudruk¨ The title of the story is “Our Girl”. 8. raamat on suur The book is big. 9. raamatu kaan on pruun The cover of the book is brown. 10. poisi onututred¨ on tartus The boy’s cousins are in Tartu. 11. mariya ya poiss mangivad¨ porandal Maria and the boy are playing on the floor. 12. ema loeb raamatut Mother is reading a book. 13. raamatud on klaveril Some books are on the piano. 14. siin on restoran Here is a restaurant. 15. tudrukul¨ on teised raamatud The girl has the other books. 16. onututar¨ loeb The cousin is reading. 17. ta toötab¨ postkontoris She works in the post office. 18. mu arve on uks¨ kroon My bill is one crown. 19. poiss tahab klaverit The boy wants a piano. 20. klaver on kohvikus The piano is in the coffee house. 21. mu arve on kaks krooni ja kolm senti My bill is two crowns and three cents. 22. kaan on raamatul The cover is on the book.

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23. poisil on suur must raamat The boy has a large black book. 24. kaan on must The cover is black. 25. ta elab advokaadiga She lives with a lawyer. 26. tema justus on kolm poissi There are three boys in her story. 27. siin ongi my isa ari¨ Here now is my father’s store. 28. mu kaks venda to¨otavad¨ fordi autovabrikus My two brothers work in the Ford factory. 29. tema isa on aris¨ Her father is in the store. 30. ta elab tartus He lives in Tartu.

252. Bulgarian: deﬁnite article Gloss every Bulgarian word with its English equivalent. Identify grammatical morphemes and explain their functions. State the rules for word order,

and comment on the use of the deﬁnite article.

1. rodinata na b lgarite ye b lgariya The country of the Bulgarians is Bulgaria. 2. soﬁya ye stolicata na b lgariya Sophia is the capital of Bulgaria. 3. yazovir t ye blizo do zavoda The dam is near the plant. 4. zavodat ye do grada The plant is in the city. 5. rozata raste v rozovata gradina

The rose grows in the rose garden.

6. b lgariya ye rodinata na b lgarite Bulgaria is the country of the Bulgarians. 7. stolicata na b lgariya ye soﬁya The capital of Bulgaria is Sophia. 8. zavod t ye blizo do yazovira

The plant is near the dam.

9. b lgari ziveyatˇ v b lgariya Bulgarians live in Bulgaria.

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10. dunav t se namira v dolinata The Danuba is situated in the valley. 11. soﬁya ne ye na dunava Sophia is not on the Danube. 12. grad t se ne namira na dunava The city is not situated on the Danube. 13. soﬁya ye grad Sophia is a city. 14. grad t na rozite ye blizo The city of roses is near. 15. gradinata ye blizo The garden is near. 16. mariya bila v golyamata gradina Maria was in the large garden.

253. Hebrew: pronouns Gloss every Hebrew word with its English equivalent. Comment on what are translated as verbs in English. What seems to be their grammatical status in Hebrew? 1. hu gar baarec 11. atem garim baarec He lives in Israel. You(masc.pl) live in Israel. 2. ani gar baarec 12. aten garot baarec I(masc) live in Israel. You(fem.pl) live in Israel. 3. hi gara baarec 13. ani xadasˇ bexayfa She lives in Israel. I(masc) am new in Haifa. 4. ani gara baarec 14. at xadasaˇ bexayfa I(fem) live in Israel. You(fem) are new in Haifa. 5. anaxnu garim baarec 15. atem xadasimˇ bexayfa We(masc) live in Israel You(masc.pl) are new in Haifa. 6. anaxnu garot baarec 16. hen xadasotˇ bexayfa

We(fem) live in Israel. They(fem) are new in Haifa. 7. hen garot baarec 17. hu muxrax laruc They(fem) live in Israel. He must go. 8. hem garim baarec 18. hi muxraxa laruc They(masc) live in Israel. She must go. 9. ata gar baarec 19. aten muxraxot laruc You(masc) live in Israel. You(fem.pl) must go. 10. at gara baarec 20. hem muxraxim laruc You(fem) live in Israel. They(masc.pl) must leave.

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254. Hindi: grammatical morphemes Gloss every Hindi word with its English equivalent. Find Hindi expressions for the following grammatical notions: progressive aspect; 3rd person singular present tense; possessive. What is the function of hai/hai˜ ? Make a statement on Hindi morpheme and word order.

1. lar.ke bag¯ me˜ khel rahe hai˜ The boys are playing in the garden. 2. bag¯ bahut bara¯ hai The garden is very large. 3. ek lar.ka¯ kitab¯ parh raha¯ hai The boy is reading a book. 4. vo roz kitab¯ parhta¯ hai He reads a book every day. 5. lar.ke aur lar.kiya˜ roz skul¯ jate¯ hai˜ The boys and girls go to school every day. 6. bag¯ me˜ per. hai˜ There are trees in the garden. 7. bacˇcˇa¯ dud¯ h p¯ı raha¯ hai The child is drinking milk. 8. ma˜ ram¯ ko rot¯ı det¯ı hai Mother gives Ram the bread. 9. rot¯ı ram¯ ke lie hai The bread is for Ram. 10. lar.k¯ıs¯ı rah¯ı hai The girl is sewing. 11. vo ek bhai¯ ke lie kam¯ız s¯ı rah¯ı hai She is sewing a shirt for one brother. 12. kam¯ız ka¯ kapr.al¯ al¯ hai The cloth of the shirt is red. 13. lar.k¯ı ka¯ nam¯ mal¯ a¯ hai The girl’s name is Mala. 14. ma¯ baz¯ ar¯ se kapr.a¯ khar¯ıdit¯ı hai Mother buys the cloth from the bazaar. h 15. lar.kal¯ al¯ pata ¡ k ar¯ıd raha¯ hai The boy buys a red kite. 16. ram¯ ka¯ dost a¯ raha¯ hai Ram’s friend is coming. 17. ram¯ aur dost cˇai¯ p¯ı rahe hai˜ Ram and the friend drink tea.

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18. ve roz sat¯ h khelte hai˜ They play together every day. 19. cˇai¯ bahut garam hai The tea is very hot. 20. ve garam cˇai¯ ahist¯ a¯ p¯ı rahe hai˜ They are drinking the hot tea slowly. 21. lar.kiya˜ pan¯ ¯ı rahe hai˜ The girls are drinking water. 22. pan¯ ¯ı bahut t.han. d. a¯ hai The water is very cold.

255. Turkish: objective case Analyse the words into roots and sufﬁxes. Gloss each morpheme with its English equivalent. State the rule for word order. 1. caiˇ ictikˇ 11. cayiˇ ictikˇ We drank tea. We drank the tea. 2. bir kosujˇ ˇu gord¨ um¨ 12. adami gord¨ um¨ I saw a runner. I saw the man. 3. gozler¨ gord¨ um¨ 13. gozleri¨ gord¨ um¨ I saw some eyes. I saw the eyes. 4. kitablar sectikˇ 14. kahveyi ictimˇ We selected some books. I drank the coffee. 5. sut¨ ictimˇ 15. kitabi aldik I drank some milk. We took the book. 6. pasta yedim 16. pastayi yedim I ate some cakes. I ate the cakes. 7. adamlar gord¨ um¨ 17. kapiyi sectimˇ I saw some men. I selected the gate. 8. kahve sectimˇ 18. kosujˇ ˇuyu gord¨ uk¨ I selected some coffee. We saw the runner. 9. evler baktik 19. sut¨ u¨ sectikˇ I looked for some houses. We selected the milk. 10. bir ev aldik 20. kitablari sevdik We took a house. We loved the books.

256. Classical Arabic: sentences Analyse the words into morphemes. Gloss each morpheme with its English equivalent.

STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL SYNTAX ¢ 1. ¢ albaytu hinaa 13. alkitaabu ﬁi ljˇaruuri The house is here. The book is in the drawer.

2. huwwa ﬁi lbayti 14. haa £ aa ﬁi lkitaabi

He is in the house. This is in the book. ¤ 3. ra ¢ aytu lbayta 15. bi tu lkitaaba I saw the house. I sold the book.

4. baytuhu hinaa 16. kitaabuhu ¤ alaa lmaktabi His house is here. His book is on the desk.

5. huwwa ﬁi baytihi 17. ¢ alqis.s.atu ﬁi kitaabihi He is in his house. The story is in his book.

6. ra ¢ aytu baytahu 18. xas.artu kitaabahu I saw his house. I lost his book.

7. baytuhum hinaa 19. ¢ ummuhum ﬁi lmadrasati

Their(masc) house is here. Their(masc) mother is in the school.

¤ ¢ 8. huwwa ﬁi baytihim 20. ¢ alh. akiimu ma a ummihinna

He is in their(masc) house. The judge is with their(fem) mother. ¢ 9. ra ¢ aytu baytahum 21. sallamtu ummahunna I saw their(masc) house. I greeted their(fem) mother. 10. baytuhunna hinaa 22. zurtu madrasatahum Their(fem) house is here. I visited their(masc) school.

11. huwwa ﬁi baytihinna 23. ¢ uxtuhunna ﬁi lmadiinati

He is in their(fem) house. Their(fem) sister is in the city.

£ ¤ 12. ra ¢ aytu baytahunna 24. ahabtu ma a xaalihim I saw their(fem) house. I went with their(masc) uncle.

257. Classical Arabic: sentences Analyse the words into morphemes. Gloss each morpheme with its English equivalent.

1. d.arabta lwalada 6. d.araba lmu ¤ allimu lwalada You(masc) struck the boy. The teacher struck the boy. 2. d.arabti lwalada 7. d.arabnaa lwalada You(fem) struck the boy. We struck the boy. 3. d.arabaka lwaladu 8. d.arabakumu lwaladu The boy struck you(masc). The boy struck you(masc.pl) 4. d.arabaki lwaladu 9. d.arabaka waladun The boy struck you(fem). A boy struck you(masc). 5. d.araba lwaladu lkalba 10. d.arabta waladan The boy struck the dog. You(masc) struck a boy.

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11. d.arabtunna waladan 17. d. arabnaaki You(fem.pl) struck a boy. We struck you(fem). 12. d.arabti waladan 18. d. arabnaakum You(fem) struck a boy. We struck you(masc.pl). 13. d.araba waladunu lkalba 19. d. arabtum waladan A boy struck the dog. You(masc.pl) struck a boy. 14. d.araba waladun kalban 20. d. arabtumu lkalba A boy struck a dog. You(masc.pl) struck the dog.

15. d.arabnaa kalban 21. d. araba mu ¤ allimunu lwalada We struck a dog. A teacher struck the boy. 16. d.arabnaaka 22. d. arabkunna waladun We struck you(masc). A boy struck you(fem.pl).

258. Czech: agreement Isolate the inflectional suffixes from the stems. Classify the phrases according to the different inflectional patterns in which they occur. Observe the adjectives and try to establish what grammatical categories of their head nouns they reflect. 1. novi: du:m a new house 2. heski: musˇ a handsome man 3. hlowpi: xlapec a dull boy 4. nadani: student a gifted student 5. vyerni: pes a faithful dog 6. xitra: dyi:fka a clever girl 7. modra: za:styera a blue apron 8. nudna: predna:ˇ skaˇ a boring lecture 9. kozeni:ˇ kaba:t a leather coat 10. bi:la: kotya:tka white kittens 11. dobre: pero a good pen 12. velke: pi:smeno a capital letter 13. buclate: miminko a chubby baby 14. spiˇ cate:ˇ koleno a sharp knee 15. nove: slovo a new word 16. hesci: muziˇ handsome men 17. hlowpi: xlapci dull boys 18. vyernyi: psi faithful dogs 19. cernˇ yi: kosi black birds 20. kozene:ˇ kaba:ti leather coats

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21. nove: domi new houses 22. nadanyi: studentyi gifted students 23. dlowhe: dopisi long letters 24. xitre: dyi:fki clever girls 25. modre: za:styeri blue aprons 26. dobra: pera good pens 27. nova: slova new words 28. buclata: miminka chubby babies 29. spiˇ cata:ˇ kolena sharp knees 30. velka: pi:smena capital letters

259. Czech: gender patterns Analyse the words into morphemes. Gloss each morpheme with its English equivalent. Establish the agreement pattern between nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Feminine nouns 1. nova: ucitelkaˇ poma:hala The new teacher helped. 2. kovova: lampa svi:tyila The metallic lamp shone. 3. mlada: dyi:fka studovala The young girl studied. 4. bi:la: koza byezelaˇ The white nanny goat ran. 5. unavena: zenaˇ pracovala The tired woman worked. 6. mlade: kozi pili The young nanny goats drank. 7. unavene: dyi:fki plakali The tired girls cried. 8. stare: zeniˇ otpoci:valiˇ The old woman rested. 9. zlata: harfa hra:la The golden harp played. 10. dobre: ucitelkiˇ uciliˇ The good teachers taught. Masculine nouns 11. novi: pracovnyi:k studoval The new worker studied. 12. kovovi: svi:cen svi:tyil The golden candelstick shone.

13. dobri: kamara:t poma:hal The good friend helped. 14. stari: kozel pil The old billy goat drank. 15. mladi: pomocnyi:k hra:l The young helper played. 16. bi:li: kozli byezeliˇ The white billy goats ran. 17. novi: kamara:dyi hra:li The new friends played. 18. kovove: svi:cni svi:tyili The metallic candlesticks shone. 19. stare: obleki otpoci:valiˇ The old suits remained. 20. unavenyi: muziˇ pracovali The tired men worked. 21. nove: motori byezeliˇ The new engines ran.

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260. Czech: participles Observe the inﬂuence of the subject on the inﬂectional properties of the present participle and the l-participle (past tense). State the pattern.

1. zenaˇ piyi:c cayˇ psala dopis The woman wrote a letter while drinking tea. 2. matka ukli:zeyi:c yi:delnu poslowxala ra:diyo The mother listened to the radio while cleaning the dining room. 3. dyelnyi:k poslowxaye ra:diyo zametal halu The worker swept the hall while listening to the radio. 4. musˇ hledaye dyi:tye proselˇ celi: park. The man went through the whole park looking for the child. 5. zeniˇ a muziˇ piyi:ce caiˇ hovoriliˇ The men and women talked while drinking tea. 6. studentyi hovori:ceˇ o marksizmu pili vodku The students drank vodka while talking about Marxism. 7. dyi:fki misli:ce na pavla plakali The girls cried while thinking about Paul. 8. matki tusi:ceˇ nestˇ yestyi: vibi:hali na ulici The mothers ran out on the street expecting an accident.

261. Russian: partitives Explain the difference in the inﬂection of the Russian nouns indicating an unspeciﬁed amount and indicating a general reference. Notice that the Russian is in a standardized transliteration. 1. on nayelsya saxaru He ate a large amount of sugar. 2. devockaˇ syela vesy saxar The girl ate all the sugar. 3. ivan napilsa cayuˇ Ivan drank some tea. 4. kolxozniki virasˇcivaliˇ cayˇ The farmers grew tea. 5. rabociyeˇ privezli pesku The workers brought some sand. 6. mi nasipali pesok v yasˇcikˇ We put sand in the box. 7. segodnya nasipalo snegu It snowed a lot today. 8. vceraˇ vipal sneg Today is has snowed.

262. German: articles Examine the underlined noun phrases consisting of the deﬁnite article and a noun and explain the differences in the articles. Formulate the pertinent grammatical rules. Notice that the German sentences are presented in standard orthography.

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1. Wahrend¨ des Krieges schliefen wir in Bunkern. During the war we slept in bunkers. 2. Anstelle des Hutes trug ich eine Mutze.¨ Instead of the hat I put on a cap. 3. Ausserhalb des Kreises liegen Steine. Outside the circle lay some stones. 4. Der Hund rennt aus dem Haus. The dog ran from the house. 5. Heute ist die Mutter bei dem Onkel. Today my mother is at my uncle’s place. 6. Die Katze streitet mit dem Hund. The cat fought with the dog. 7. Der Garten sieht besser aus ohne den Baum. The garden looks better without the tree. 8. Die Frau wascht¨ fur¨ den Mann. The wife does the laundry for her husband. 9. Wir pﬂanzen die Blumen um den Tisch. We are planting ﬂowers around the table. 10. Zugunsten des Professors wird die Bucherie¨ mehr Bucher¨ kaufen. Because of the professor, the library will buy more books. 11. Anstatt des Traumes bevorzugen wir die Wirklichkeit. Instead of the dream we prefer the reality. 12. Die Familie geht durch den Wald. The family goes through the forest. 13. Die Kinder rennen gegen den Schnee. The children run against the snow. 14. Wir trocknen uns nach dem Sturm. We dry ourselves after the storm. 15. Der Fahrer fahrt¨ zu dem Bahnhof. The driver drives to the railroad station.

263. Turkish: word order Classify each Turkish word as either subject, object, verb, or adverbial. Comment on the behaviour of verbs from the point of view of their transi- tivity.

1. hasan ok¨ uz¨ u¨ aldi Hasan bought the ox. 2. kopek¨ disleriniˇ gosterdi¨ The dog showed his teeth.

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3. denizalti gemiyi batirdi The submarines sank the ship. 4. mud¨ ur¨ odasinda dir The director is in his room. 5. bakan ingiltereye gitti The minister has gone to England. 6. sultan sarayda serbetˇ ictiˇ The sultan drank sherbert in the palace. 7. kizkardesimˇ evlerini almak istedi My sister wanted to buy their houses. 8. dun¨ ahmet ankaraya gitti Yesterday Ahmed went to Ankara. 9. kizlara cayˇ verdim I gave the girls tea. 10. cojˇ ˇuklara elmalari verdim I gave the children the apples. 11. kizlari gord¨ um¨ I saw the girls. 12. bu kitabi arkadasiˇ niz ahmetten aldim I bought this book from your friend Ahmed. 13. bu otomobili babanizdan aldim I bought this car from your father. 14. evde cayˇ ictikˇ We drank tea in the house. 15. vapuru gord¨ uk¨ We saw the steamship. 16. isimizeˇ basladiˇ k We began our work 17. sigara almak istedi He wanted to buy cigarettes. 18. dun¨ aksamˇ sinemaya gitti Yesterday evening he went to the movies.

264. Russian: reflexive The reflexive suffix in Russian is represented by two forms: -sya and -sy. Comparing the Russian examples with their English translations and state what grammatical relationships are expressed by the reflexive suffix. Group the sentences according to these relationships. The Russian sentences are presented in a standardized transliteration.

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1. stariki vsye branyatsya The old men quarrelled all the time. 2. devuskaˇ moyetsya The girl washes herself. 3. ti odevayessyaˇ You are dressing yourself. 4. eta sobaka kusayetsya This dog bites. 5. gospozaˇ pricyesiˇ vayetsya The lady combs her hair. 6. on otravilsya He poisoned himself. 7. mi vstretilisy We met each other. 8. graﬁk rabot narusalsyaˇ The work plan has been disturbed. 9. losadˇ y lyagayetsya The horse kicks. 10. druzya obnyalisy The friends embraced each other. 11. dom stroilsya The house was being built. 12. eta koskaˇ carapayetsya This cat scratches. 13. ivan vesalsyaˇ Ivan tried to hang himself. 14. rozdenikiˇ pocelovalisy The relatives kissed each other. 15. poemi citalisˇ y vsemi The poems were read by everybody. 16. eta materiya ne rvyetsya This material will not tear. 17. devuskiˇ dogovorilisy The girls reached an agreement. 18. uroki pisalisy nocyuˇ The assignments were written at night. 19. eta provoloka gnyetsya This wire bends.

265. Czech: sentence perspective Observe the word order in the Czech and English answers to the questions. What changes in word order do you see in Czech? What changes do you see in English? Suggest a different way of translating the Czech answers into English. Note that the Czech sentences are presented in standard orthography.

1. Co dal professor Martinovi? What did the professor give Martin? 2. Professor dal Martinovi knihu. The professor gave Martin a book. 3. Kdo dal Martinovi knihu? Who gave Martin a book? 4. Knihu dal Martinovi professor. The professor gave Martin a book. 5. Komu dal professor knihu? Who did the professor give a book to? 6. Professor dal knihu Martinovi. The professor gave a book to Martin.

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7. Co vzala Marie se stolu? What did Marie take from the table? 8. Marie vzala se stolu nu˚z.ˇ Marie took a knife from the table. 9. Kdo vzal nu˚zˇ se stolu? Who took a knife from the table? 10. Nu˚zˇ se stolu vzala Marie. Marie took a knife from the table. 11. Odkud vzala Marie nu˚z?ˇ Where did Marie take a knife from? 12. Marie vzala nu˚zˇ se stolu. Marie took a knife from the table.

266. Turkish: word order Analyse the Turkish sentences into syntactic units (e.g. subject, direct object, etc.). Establish the normal word order. Formulate the rules specifying the position of the direct and indirect objects. Notice that the Turkish is in standard orthography. A close analysis and comparison between the Turkish sentences and the English translations will reveal the meaning of each vocabulary item of the Turkish.

1. Ressam geçen hafta Bebek’te bize resimlerini gosterdi.¨ The artist last week in Bebek showed us his pictures. 2. Ressam resimlerini bir gazeteciye gosterdi.¨ The artist showed his pictures to a journalist. 3. Anne geçen gun¨ Bahadire çore¨ gi˘ pis¸irdi. The mother yesterday baked a cake for Bahadir. 4. Osman bir kIza bir çore¨ gi˘ pis¸irdi. Osman baked a cake for a girl. 5. Bahadir Istambul’da resimlerini bir kIza gosterdi.¨ Bahadir in Istanbul showed his pictures to a girl. 6. Osman geçen hafta Ankara’ta size çorekleri¨ gosterdi.¨ Osman last week in Ankara showed cakes to you.

267. Iraqi Arabic: verbs The following sentences have a common constituent structure. Outline this structure and comment of the structure of Arabic verbs and the word order. 1. ilwalad yisuufˇ ilbeet The boy sees the house. 2. ilwalad yih.ibb ilbinit The boy loves the girl. 3. ilwalad yiktib ilmaktuub The boy writes the letter.

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4. ilbinit tisuufˇ ilwalad The girl sees the boy. 5. ilbinit tiktib iddars The girl writes the lesson.

268. Hebrew: direct objects The following sentences have a common constituent structure. Outline this structure and comment on the treatment of direct objects in Hebrew.

1. hayeled ra ¢ a et hakelev The boy saw the dog.

2. hatalmid ra ¢ a et hayeled The student saw the boy. 3. hakelev axal et habasar The dog ate the meat. 4. haxayat tafar et habeged The tailor sewed the garment. 5. haxayat siyem et hakutonet The tailor ﬁnished the shirt.

269. Spanish: deﬁnite article The following sentences have a common constituent structure. Outline this structure and comment on the shape and position of the deﬁnite article in Spanish. 1. el muchacho miro´ la fotograf´ıa The boy looked at the photograph. 2. el hombre compro´ el coche The man bought the car. 3. la vaca comio´ la hierba The cow ate the grass. 4. la luna dio´ la luz The moon gave light. 5. el carpintero construyo´ la casa The carpenter built the house.

270. French: articles The following sentences have a common constituent structure. Outline this structure and comment on the structure and position of both definite and indefinite article in French. 1. la mere` preparait´ le repas The mother prepared the meal. 2. une femme lavait la fille A woman washed the girl. 3. un homme lisait un livre A man read a book. 4. le garçon regardait une voiture The boy looked at a car. 5. un enfant mangeait le pain A child ate the bread.

271. German: pronouns The following sentences have a common constituent structure. Outline this structure and comment on the place and function of pronouns. 1. er ist hier He is here. 2. sie weint leise She cries softly. 3. ich lache laut I laugh loudly.

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4. er spielt herum He plays around here. 5. du bist drausen You are outside.

272. Iraqi Arabic: modal auxiliaries Outline the constituent structure of the following sentences and comment on the place and function of modal auxiliaries. Comment on the structure of the following verb. 1. ilwalad yidrus iddaris. The boy studies the lesson. 2. ilwalad raah. yidrus iddaris The boy will study the lesson. 3. ilwalad laazim yidrus iddaris The boy must study the lesson. 4. ilwalad mumkin yidrus iddaris The boy may be studying the lesson.

5. ilwalad laazim yiruuh. ¤ albeet The boy must go home.

273. Iraqi Arabic: verb phrases Outline the constituent structure of the following sentences and comment on the place and function of auxiliary verbs. Comment on the structure of the main verb. 1. ilbinit tistiriˇ ilkitaab The girl buys the book. 2. ilbinit tigdar tistiriˇ ilkitaab The girl can buy the book. 3. ilbinit triid tistiriˇ ilkitaab The girl wants to buy the book. 4. ilbinit tibtidi tidrus iddaris The girl begins to study the lesson. 5. ilbinit tibqa tidrus iddaris The girl continues to study the lesson.

274. Lebanese Arabic: verb phrases Outline the constituent structure of the following sentences and comment on the position and function of the b-preﬁx.

1. ilmara btiγsil il ¢ amiis The woman washes the shirt.

2. ilmara bitballisˇ tiγsil il ¢ amiis The woman begins to wash the shirt. ¢ 3. irrazulˇ byi ¢ dar yi ra ilkitaab The man can read the book.

4. il ¢ im btib a tiγsil ilwalad The mother continues to wash the boy. ¢ 5. il ¢ ab biyballisˇ yi ra ilkitaab The father begins to read the book.

275. Iraqi Arabic: demonstratives Outline the constituent structure of the following sentences and comment on the place and structure of the demonstrative adjectives.

1. is.s.abi raah. ¤ al beet The youth went home. ¤ 2. haa £ a is.s.abi raah. almasjˇad This youth went to the mosque.

3. ilmara raah. it ¢ al mustasfaˇ The sister went to the hospital.

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4. haay ilmara istaritˇ xubuz This woman bought bread.

5. £ aak irrajˇjˇaal maat That man died.

6. £ iicˇ ilmara maatit That woman died.

7. ha £ ool inniswaan masaakiin Those woman are poor. £ 8. ha £ ool is.s.ubyaan talaamii Those youths are students.

276. Egyptian Arabic: demonstratives Outline the constituent structure of the following sentences and comment on the position and structure of the demonstrative adjectives. 1. ilwalad da yigi ilmadrasa This boy comes to school. 2. ilbinti di tigi ilmadrasa This girl comes to school.

3. il ¢ awlaad dool yigu ilmadrasa These children come to school. 4. faat.ima tih.ibb ilwalad da Fatima loves that boy. 5. h.asan yih.ibb ilbinti di Hassan loves that girl.

277. Latin: adjectives Outline the constituent structure of the following sentences and comment on the case and gender agreement between Latin nouns and adjectives. 1. servus bonus est The servant is good. 2. puella bella est The girl is beautiful. 3. templum magniﬁcum est The temple is magniﬁcent. 4. hortus parvus est The garden is small. 5. via longa est Life is long.

278. Latin: case Outline the constituent structure of the following sentences and comment on the use of cases relative to the verb. 1. servus puellam videt The servant sees the girl. 2. puella servum videt The girl sees the servant.

3. servus hortum videt The servant sees the garden. 4. puella togam videt The girl sees the toga. 5. senex templum videt The old man sees the temple.

279. Classical Arabic: interrogatives Outline the constituent structure of the following sentences and comment on the position and function of the interrogative particle in Arabic.

1. d.araba ¢ ah. madu zaydan Ahmad struck Zeid.

2. hal d. araba ¢ ah. madu zaydan? Did Ahmad strike Zeid?

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3. sama ¤ a waladun kalban A boy heard a dog.

4. hal sama ¤ a waladun kalban? Did a boy hear a dog?

5. kataba sˇsaaˇ ¤ iru qas.iidatan The poet wrote an ode.

6. hal kataba sˇsaaˇ ¤ iru qas.iidatan Did the poet write an ode?

280. Turkish: interrogative particle Outline the constituent structure of the following sentences and comment on the position and structure of the interrogative particle in Turkish. 1. ahmet kitap aldi Ahmet bought a book. 2. ahmet kitab aldi mi? Did Ahmet buy a book? 3. yabanjˇi otel buldu mu? Did the foreigner ﬁnd the hotel? 4. asker du¨smanˇ old¨ urd¨ um¨ u?¨ Did the solder kill the enemy? 5. kopek¨ su ictiˇ mi? Did the dog drink the water?

281. English: phrase structure Outline the constituent structure of the following sentences. 1. She dreams. 2. Peter slept. 3. They have eaten. 4. Paula is crying. 5. He’ll suffocate. 6. Her eyes sparkle. 7. The boy ran. 8. My dog is barking. 9. A girl sleeps. 10. The students have been studying. 11. My white rabbit died. 12. The brave soldier was speaking. 13. The strong wind has stopped. 14. Her soft voice died out. 15. The youngest child stutters. 16. The big wolf from the deep forest waited. 17. The musicians from Bremen played. 18. The clock on the wall ticked. 19. The ﬂames in the ﬁreplace are crackling. 20. The people up in the hills have survived.

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21. Cinderella prayed at the grave under the tree. 22. My little brother suffered at school for his foolishness. 23. She crouched over the stove in the corner. 24. His face glowed from the heat in the ﬁreplace. 25. John spoke to the class in a low voice. 26. The young man walked her home. 27. They took the patient away. 28. My husband saw an accident this morning. 29. He believed her words completely. 30. The dog had frightened her badly. 31. His wife went with him gladly. 32. She must return to her ofﬁce immediately. 33. He glanced at her curiously. 34. My older sister always prepared for the next day. 35. Leila wept silently in her bedroom. 36. Betty turned her face to the wall. 37. The nurse carried him to the bed. 38. He watched her for a minute. 39. Thomas followed the boy with hesitation. 40. The policeman pushed him through the door. 41. John danced infrequently. 42. Her eyes sparkled brightly. 43. Ronnie is calling again. 44. They saw that instantly. 45. They wept bitterly. 46. The unicorn is a mythical beast. 47. The yellow sun is bright and hot. 48. Her lips curved soft and full. 49. The sweater seems blue. 50. She was John’s wife. 51. The little girl opened the door. 52. His wife dressed the children. 53. She felt little cold or dampness. 54. The prince was looking for a wife. 55. The plumber with twelve children won the Irish Sweepstakes.

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56. My partner has forseen the danger of a serious crash. 57. The miser saw the error of his ways. 58. She is a child of the 30s. 59. I saw the white ﬂowers in the meadows. 60. They admired his mane of white hair. 61. My grandfather is in the hospital. 62. He was browsing among the second hand books. 63. My uncle has been ill for many years. 64. We are ﬂying at an unknown altitude. 65. The wife of a rich man was on her deathbed.

282. English: simple sentences Outline the constituent structure of the following sentences.

1. Her playing was an entertainment for our friends. 2. She sang “The Yellow Rose of Texas”. 3. Girls should sing hymns. 4. She was married to a former mathematical prodigy. 5. Mary worked as a dietician. 6. Ironical observations are a habit with him. 7. I arranged it. 8. I am at a crucial point. 9. Dotty was afraid. 10. The house was on fairly low-lying ground. 11. The pump had to work most of the time. 12. We had a dark rainy January. 13. Hugo and I felt gloomy. 14. The sound of the pump had replaced Pam’s piano-playing. 15. Its entire cost went into our hydro bill. 16. It’s the best thing that could happen to it. 17. Tom blew smoke in her face. 18. People around us were looking stern and gratiﬁed. 19. It was the silence. 20. The quarrel between us subsided in the excitement of moving.

283. English: non-ﬁnite clauses In the following sentences, identify the non-ﬁnite clauses and comment on their structure. What syntactic functions do they perform?

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1. The best thing would be to tell everybody. 2. Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat. 3. Covered with confusion, I interrupted my lecture. 4. With the tree grown tall, we get more shade. 5. The best thing would be for you to leave the room. 6. Defeated, he slunk from the hall. 7. Her aunt having left the room, I declared my love for Celia. 8. Rather than have John do it, I’d prefer to give the job to Mary. 9. It would be better for me to disappear. 10. For her husband to carry the parcels was unbearable humiliation.

284. English: ﬁnite clauses Indicate the component parts of the following sentences. What syntactic functions do the ﬁnite clauses perform within the complex sentences?

1. That we need more equipment is obvious. 2. I know that she is nasty. 3. The point is that we’re leaving. 4. He gave whoever it was a cup of cocoa. 5. Because the soloist was ill, they cancelled the concert. 6. They went wherever they could ﬁnd work. 7. When I last saw you, you lived in Toronto. 8. I can’t imagine what made him do it. 9. He didn’t start to read until he was ten years old. 10. If you treat her kindly, she’ll do anything for you. 11. If she was awake, she certainly heard the noise. 12. I lent him the money because he needed it. 13. Just as a moth is attracted by a light, so was he fascinated by Sheila.

285. English: complex and compound sentences Analyse each sentence into clauses. Identify their type (head clause, subordinate clause). Identify the conjunctions and identify their type (coordinating, subordinating). What functions do the subordinate clauses perform within the complex sentence?

1. I know I am. 2. Hugo said I ought to phone the landlady.

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3. The truth is we both shrank from a confrontation with the proprietor. 4. In the middle of the night in the middle of a rainy week I woke up and wondered what had awakened me. 5. Just before Clea was born we moved to a house in North Vancouver belonging to some friends who had gone to England. 6. When I got to Lydia’s house she was frying chicken in the kitchen. 7. She kept her fork with her and laid it on the table cloth where it left a greasy stain. 8. He suggested she move out. 9. I admitted that I didn’t know you. 10. She had insisted I call my husband and ask him to bring the document over. 11. We had arranged to show some slides before we knew you were coming. 12. Those drones are the laziest devils you ever saw.

286. Spanish: objects Comment on the relationship between sentences with an object marker and those without. 1. el muchacho mira el retrato The boy looks at the portrait. 2. el muchacho mira a la profesora The boy looks at the teacher. 3. la chica ama la gatita The girl loves the cat. 4. la chica ama al soldado The girl loves the soldier. 5. la madre hallo´ la escoba The mother found the broom. 6. la madre hallo´ a la nina˜ The mother found the child.

287. Rumanian: articles Analyse the relationship between noun phrases with a definite article and those with an indefinite article. 1. omul spala˘ calul The man washed the horse. 2. un cal maninc˘ a˘ furajul A horse eats the fodder. 3. un om cumpara un vit¸el A man buys a calf. 4. ofit¸erul bea ceaiul The officer drinks the tea. 5. un ofit¸er deschida dulapul An officer opens the cupboard.

288. German: tense Account for the relationship between sentences with a present tense and those with a perfect tense.

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1. er sieht das Kind He sees the child. 2. er hat das Kind gesehen He has seen the child. 3. sie kocht das Ei She cooks the egg. 4. sie hat das Ei gekocht She has cooked the egg. 5. der Mann schreibt einen Brief The man writes a letter. 6. der Mann hat einen Brief geschrieben The man has written a letter.

289. Spanish: reﬂexives Account for the relationship between sentences with a reﬂexive pronoun and those without. 1. el muchacho lava el perro The boy washes the dog. 2. el muchacho se lava The boy washes himself. 3. la nina˜ mira el retrato The girl looks at the portrait. 4. la nina˜ se mira The girl looks at herself. 5. el medico´ cura al enfermo The doctor cures the sick person. 6. el medico´ se cura The doctor cures himself.

290. French: infinitive phrases Account for the relationship between sentences with infinitive phrases and those without. 1. il achete` la maison He buys the house. 2. il veut acheter la maison He wants to buy the house. 3. il parle français He speaks French. 4. il prefere` parler français He prefers to speak French. 5. il conduit la voiture He drives the car. 6. il sait conduire la voiture He knows how to drive the car.

291. Lebanese Arabic: possession Account for the relationship between sentences with possessed nouns and

those without. ¤ 1. il ¢ ibn raah. a beeruut The son went to Beirut.

2. ilwaziir raah. ¤ a beeruut The waziir went to Beirut. ¤ 3. ¢ ibn ilwaziir raah. a beeruut The son of the waziir went to Beirut. 4. ilbustaan kbiir The garden is big. 5. ilh. ayt. kbiir The wall is big. 6. h.ayt. ilbustaan kbiir The wall of the garden is big.

292. Lebanese Arabic: relative clauses Account for the relationship between sentences with relative clauses and

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those without.

1. ¢ ah. mad saafˇ ilwalad Ahmad saw the boy.

2. ¢ ah. mad saafuˇ Ahmad saw him.

3. ilwalad illi ¢ ah. mad saafuˇ hawn The boy that Ahmad saw is here. 4. faat.ima saafitˇ ilbint Fatima saw the girl. 5. faat.ima saafitaˇ Fatima saw her. 6. ilbint illi faat.ima saafitaˇ hawn The girl that Fatima saw is here.

293. Swahili: object markers Account for the relationship between sentences with object markers and those without. 1. mtoto alisoma kitabu The boy reads the book. 2. mtoto alikisoma The boy reads it. 3. mtoto alikula ndizi The boy eats the banana. 4. mtoto aliikula The boy eats it. 5. mke alipiga punda The mother beats the donkey. 6. mke alimpiga The mother beats him.

294. Swahili: adjectives Account for the relations between sentences with predicate adjectives and those with attributive adjectives. 1. kisu ni kidogo The knife is small. 2. kisu kidogo kinafaa The small knife is useful. 3. mti ni mdogo The tree is small. 4. mti mdogo unafaa The small tree is useful. 5. watu ni wadogo The men are small. 6. watu wadogo wanafaa Small men are useful.

295. French: negative Account for the relationship between positive sentences and the corresponding negative sentences. 1. je vois l’enfant I see the child. 2. je ne vois pas l’enfant I don’t see the child. 3. j’ai vu l’enfant I saw the child. 4. je n’ai pas vu l’enfant I didn’t see the child. 5. j’y suis alle´ I went there. 6. je n’y suis pas alle´ I didn’t go there.

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7. je peut le faire I can do it. 8. je ne peut pas le faire I can’t do it.

296. Spanish: negative Account for the relationship between positive sentences and the corresponding negative sentences. 1. veo algo I see something. 2. no veo nada I don’t see anything. 3. amo a alguien I love someone. 4. no amo a nadie I don’t love anyone. 5. canto siempre I always sing. 6. no canto nunca I never sing. 7. hay algun´ libro aqu´ı There’s some book here. 8. no hay ningun´ libro aqu´ı There’s no book here.

297. Spanish: subordinate clauses Account for the relationship between sentences with subordinate clauses and those without. 1. habla espanol˜ He speaks Spanish. 2. espero que hable espanol˜ I hope he speaks Spanish. 3. tiene dinero He has money. 4. dudo que tenga dinero I doubt that he has money. 5. canta siempre She always sings. 6. me gusta que cante siempre I like it that she always sings. 7. vive en paz He lives in peace. 8. ¡ojala´ que viva en paz! May he live in peace!

298. Latin: subordinate clauses Account for the relationship between sentences with direct and indirect statements. 1. m¯ılites¯ pugnant The soldiers are ﬁghting. 2. d¯ıcit m¯ılites¯ pugnare¯ He says that the soldiers are ﬁghting. 3. canes¯ latrant¯ The dogs are barking. 4. d¯ıcit canes¯ latr¯ are¯ He says that the dogs are barking. 5. custod¯ es¯ stant in templo¯ The guards are standing in the temple. 6. d¯ıcit custod¯ es¯ stare¯ in templo¯ He says the guards stand in the temple. 7. uxor¯ es¯ lacrimant The wives are weeping. 8. d¯ıcit uxor¯ es¯ lacrimare¯ He says that the wives are weeping.

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9. hostes¯ properant The enemies are hurrying. 10. d¯ıcit hostes¯ properare¯ He says the enemies are hurrying.

299. Polish: disjunctive questions Account for the relationship between declarative sentences and the corresponding interrogative sentences.

Declarative sentences 1. Kazimirski jest albo detektywem albo policjantem.

Kazimirski is either a detective or a policeman. ¥ 2. Nasza Maria albo czyta ksia¥ zke˙ albo pisze list. Our Maria is either reading a book or writing a letter. 3. Pan Kaler jest albo w biurze w albo domu.

Mr. Kaler is either in his ofﬁce or at home. ¥ 4. Maria ma albo lekcje¥ muzyki albo randke.

Maria has either a music lesson or a date. ¥ 5. Bydło hoduje sie¥ albo na mleko albo na mieso. The cow is grown either for milk or for meat. Interrogative sentences 6. Czy Kazimirski jest detektywem, czy policjantem?

Is Kazimirski a detective or a policeman? ¥ 7. Czy Maria czyta ksia¥ zke˙ , czy pisze list? Is Maria reading a book or writing a letter? 8. Czy pan Kalen jest w biurze, czy w domu?

Is Mr. Kaler in his ofﬁce or at home? ¥ 9. Czy Maria ma lekcje¥ muzyki, czy randke?

Does Maria have a music lesson or a date? ¥ 10. Czy bydło hoduje sie¥ na mleko, czy na mieso? Is the cow grown for milk or for meat?

300. German: indirect statements Make an analysis of the difference between direct statements and indirect statements in German. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of the verb in both sections and suggest transformations to account for the differences. Direct statements 1. Ich werde es vergessen. I will forget it. 2. Ich es versuchen. I will look for it. 3. Wir werden trinken. We will drink it. 4. werden es sehen. We will see it.

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5. Wir es kaufen. We will buy it. 6. Ich es nehmen. I will take it. 7. werde es machen. I will do it. 8. Wir werden es essen. We will eat it. 9. werde verlassen. I will leave it. 10. Ich es bringen. I will bring it.

Indirect statements 1. Er sagte, dass ich es vergessen wurde.¨ He said that I would forget it. 2. Er sagte, es versuchen wurde.¨ He said that I would look for it. 3. Er sagte, wir es trinken . He said that we will drink it. 4. Er sagte, dass . He said that I would see it. 5. Er sagte, es . He said that we would buy it. 6. Es sagte, dass ich es nehmen . He said that I would take it. 7. Er sagte, wir machen . We said that we would do it. 8. Er sagte, ich . He said that I would eat it. 9. Er sagte, wir es verlassen . He said that we would leave it. 10. Er sagte, wurde.¨ He said that I would bring it.

301. Bulgarian: tenses Account for the relationship between simple declarative sentences and the corresponding future, negative, interrogative, future interrogative and negative interrogative sentences. Declarative Future 1. az rabotya I work az sˇceˇ rabotya I will work 2. az xodya I walk az sˇceˇ xodya I will walk 3. az pisaˇ I write az sˇceˇ pisaˇ I will write 4. az svirya I play az sˇceˇ svirya I will play 5. az gubya I lose az sˇceˇ gubya I will lose

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Negative Interrogative 1. az nyama da roboyta I won’t work rabotya li do I work? 2. az nyama da xodya I won’t walk xodya li do I walk? 3. az nyama da pisaˇ I won’t write pisaˇ li do I write? 4. az nyama da svirya I won’t play svirya li do I play? 5. az nyama da gubya I won’t lose gubya li do I lose? Future interrogative Negative interrogative 1. az sˇceˇ rabotya li will I work? az nyama li da robotya won’t I work? 2. az sˇceˇ xodya li will I walk? az nyama li da xodya won’t I walk? 3. az sˇceˇ pisaliˇ willIwrite? aznyama li da pisaˇ won’t I write? 4. az sˇceˇ svirya li will I play? az nyama li da svirya won’t I play? 5. az sˇceˇ gubya li will I lose? az nyama li da gubya won’t I lose?

302. Czech: inﬁnitive clauses Account for the relationship between inﬁnitive sentences and subordinate clauses in Czech.

Infinitive clauses 1. doktor se rozhodl visetˇ ritˇ yanu The doctor decided to examine Jana. 2. eva xtyela studovat filozofiyi Eva wanted to study philosophy. 3. barbora odmi:tla varitˇ obyet Barbara refused to cook the lunch. 4. yan byezelˇ varovat sousedi Jan ran to warn the neighbours. 5. liskaˇ se snazilaˇ xityit zayi:ce The fox tried to catch the hare. Subordinate clauses 1. premluvilaˇ ysem doktora abi visetˇ rilˇ yanu I persuaded the doctor to examine Jana. 2. matka reklaˇ evye abi studovala filozofiyi Mother told Eve to study philosophy. 3. musˇ fska:zal barboreˇ abi uvarilaˇ obyet The husband sent a note to Barbara to cook the lunch. 4. kriˇ celiˇ ysme na yana abi varoval sousedi We shouted to Jan to warn the neighbours. 5. lofci podnyecovali liskuˇ abi xityila zayi:ce The hunters kept urging the fox to catch the hare.

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303. Czech: tense and aspect Account for the relationships between the sentences in each of the following groups. Present 1. hereckaˇ hraye ofeliyi The actress plays Ophelia. 2. ivan pluye k ostrovu Ivan sails to the island. 3. yan pi:seˇ dopis zenˇ ye Jan writes a letter to his wife. Future 1. hereckaˇ bude hra:t ofeliyi The actress will play Ophelia. 2. ivan bude plowt k ostrovu Ivan will sail to the island. 3. yan bude psa:t dopis zenˇ ye Jan will writea letter tohis wife. Desiderative 1. hereckaˇ xce hra:t ofeliyi The actress wants to play Ophelia. 2. ivan xce plowt k ostrovu Ivan wants to sail to the island. 3. yan xce psa:t dopis zenˇ ye Jan wants to write a letter to his wife. Completive 1. hereckaˇ dohraye ofeliyi The actress will finish playing Ophelia. 2. ivan dopluye k ostrovu Ivan will finish sailing to the island. 3. yan dopi:seˇ dopis zenˇ ye Jan will finish writing a letter to his wife.

304. Czech: negative Account for the relationship between positive sentences and their corresponding negatives. Positive 1. ivana zboznˇ yovala ﬁlmove: hvyezdi Ivana adored movie stars. 2. yan obyedval v restauraci Jan had lunch in a restaurant. 3. milan studoval hudbu Milan studied music.

Negative 1. nyigdo nezboznˇ yoval ﬁlmove: hvyezdi No one adored movie stars. 2. nyigdo neobyedval v restauraci No one had lunch in a restaurant. 3. nyigdo nestudoval hudbu No one studied music.

305. Czech: relative clauses Account for the relationships between the sentences in the following sections and explain the change in the order of the elements.

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1. to dyefceˇ uhodyila toho muzeˇ That girl hit that man. 2. ten musˇ potporoval to dyi:tye That man supported that child. 3. ta da:ma nosila paruku That woman wore the wig. 4. to dyefceˇ yey uhodyilo That girl hit him. 5. ten musˇ ye potporoval That man supported it. 6. ta da:ma yi nosila. That woman wore it.

306. English: auxiliaries and tense Account for the grammar of the verb phrases in the following sentences.

1. Amanda jogs. 2. The radicals protest again. 3. Amanda jogged in the park. 4. Paul has ﬁnished the work. 5. Amanda and Paul have written a book. 6. The student had protested. 7. The professors had marked the exams. 8. Paul is jogging. 9. The mice are eating the crumbs. 10. The deer was running. 11. The children were playing in the yard. 12. Paul has been exercising for two months. 13. The diplomats have been discussing the agreement. 14. Amanda had been jogging. 15. The chemicals had been contaminating the water. 16. Paul will come soon. 17. Amanda and Paul will exercise. 18. Ian would consider your suggestion. 19. The students would ﬁnish their studies. 20. The children will have been playing. 21. The mouse will have been eating the crumbs. 22. The doctor would have been treating the patient. 23. The doctors would have been curing everybody.

307. English: negative sentences. Account for the grammar of the following negative sentences.

1. You cannot choose your own name. 2. Lydia hasn’t changed at all. 3. The coffee is not always hot.

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4. Children musn’t talk with their mouths full. 5. The investigators were not equiped with tape recorders. 6. The picture has not been hanging there long. 7. The neighbours haven’t been to their cottage yet. 8. Robert won’t ever tan. 9. The weather is not getting better. 10. The men aren’t expecting any trouble.

308. English: questions Account for the grammar of the following interrogative sentences.

1. Has he had a letter from Lucy? 2. Are the women playing bridge this evening? 3. Must you go home now? 4. Can you see over the wall? 5. Will Laura have a daughter? 6. Will the garden-party take place anyway? 7. Haven’t you heard the news? 8. Isn’t she a beautiful child? 9. Won’t you help me? 10. Couldn’t you have written at least a postcard?

309. English: do auxiliary Account for the grammar of the following sentences containing do.

1. Did Laura brush her hair? 2. Don’t you feel anything for them? 3. Does she see the table in the corner? 4. Do I still copy my mother’s mannerisms? 5. Does her upbringing make her wonder about this? 6. Doesn’t Paul like her anymore? 7. I do want to stay here and help you. 8. His followers do have faith in him. 9. Don’t make any more mistakes! 10. Do visit us again!

310. English: tag questions Account for the grammar of the following sentences with tag questions.

1. You will hear the bell, won’t you? 2. She is a pretty good actress, isn’t she?

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3. Hugo does love his little sister, doesn’t he? 4. The children didn’t know her, did they? 5. My brother has gone home, hasn’t he? 6. You were in the shop yesterday, weren’t you? 7. Mrs. Sheridan joined them, didn’t she? 8. The telephone works, doesn’t it? 9. Mary doesn’t feel safe, does she? 10. His life won’t be ruined so easily, will it?

311. English: wh-questions Account for the grammar of the following questions.

1. What does Lucy say? 2. Why had he not greeted his teacher? 3. Where did Dr. Ferguson make the injection? 4. Which puppy fell into the pond? 5. How is the patient doing? 6. Why are you crying? 7. Which pattern has Leila chosen? 8. What do you ever see in him? 9. Where are the eggs? 10. Who was Harold’s favourite teacher?

312. English: passive Account for the grammar of the following passive sentences.

1. Georgiana was led over the red carpet. 2. The office was occupied by Aylmer Enterprises. 3. Great wonders have been achieved by our new cosmetic products. 4. The attempt should be made whatever the risk. 5. Until now she has not been made aware of his influence. 6. The window was broken by the heat of the fire. 7. This disease can be cured by any young intern. 8. The painting is being faded by the light. 9. Your life will be prolonged by this treatment. 10. In this vial is contained a most powerful liquid. 11. It is not well done.

313. English: reﬂexive pronouns Account for the grammar of the following sentences with reﬂexive pronouns.

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1. Sylvia will speak for herself. 2. John hurt himself badly. 3. The children felt sleepy and Sylvia herself felt sleepy. 4. The rabbit tore himself free. 5. We mustn’t deceive ourselves. 6. You and Ernie mustn’t deceive yourselves either. 7. No one should fool himself on this one. 8. Aunt Frederica was beside herself with rage. 9. I have never been there myself. 10. Would her grandmother not blame herself?

314. English: relative clauses Account for the grammar of the following sentences with relative clauses.

1. She was a woman who was able to keep things in order. 2. Mrs. Mooney, who took all the money, bought a boarding house in the nearest town. 3. The lady’s son, who was a clerk to a commission agent, had a bad reputation. 4. Her eyes, which were grey, glanced upwards. 5. This habit, which made her unbearable, was most distressing. 6. Robert spoke to Jack, who was coming up from the cellar. 7. How many people that you know would have done that? 8. John, whose eyes quickly scanned the tennis court, caught sight of her. 9. This horse is the one which controls the others. 10. The cap that he held in his hand was dirty and torn.

315. English: adverbial clauses Account for the grammar of the following sentences with adverbial clauses.

1. The storekeeper gave her credit, as I had requested. 2. When the table was cleared she began her interview. 3. The old woman counted the money before handing over the letter. 4. His hand was so unsteady that he had to stop shaving for a minute. 5. While John was sitting helplessly at the computer, Mary tapped at his door. 6. When Jack was dressed he went over to the window. 7. If you stop playing tennis you will gain weight. 8. Joe wasn’t satisﬁed until the company ﬁnally paid him his back salary.

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9. He went to see Mr. Bennet because he wanted the job. 10. The bushes bowed down as though they had been visited by angels.

316. English: verb complement clauses Account for the grammar of the following sentences.

1. Polly decided when to be lenient and when to be stern. 2. She knew she would win. 3. Mother did not think that he could face the publicity. 4. He scarcely knew what he was eating. 5. Mary said that the missus wanted to see him. 6. The daughter wanted to prove how happy she was. 7. See if my coat needs cleaning. 8. The scoutmaster asked if we had the bread for the sandwiches. 9. The children knew that she hadn’t gotten the toys. 10. That is what you will do.

317. English: inﬁnitives Account for the grammar of the following sentences with inﬁnitives.

1. City people yearn to live on a farm. 2. Kids like to eat. 3. We try to study the bees. 4. I hesitate to tell anyone. 5. I hasten to give you this good news. 6. Peter failed to pass the test. 7. The professor expected to publish the book. 8. We will all strive to do better next time. 9. I hate to lose. 10. We hope to arrive there tomorrow.

318. English: phrase structures For the following phrase structure trees write the phrase structure rules and provide two sentences that can be generated by each structure.

120 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL SYNTAX 1. S

NP VP

Det N V S

NP VP

V PP

P NP 2. S

NP VP

Det A N V Adv

3. S

NP VP

Det N conj N V PP PP

P NP P NP

A N N

319. English: subcategorization Provide sentences illustrating the syntactic information indicated in the lexicon for the following words. 1. put: V, NP PP 2. seek: V, NP 3. sleep: V, 4. conviction: N, PP, S 5. love: N, PP

320. English: subcategorization In terms of subcategorizations, explain why the following sentences are ungrammatical.

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1. *Dutiful Esmeralda found. 2. *Mrs. Smith yelled her tenants. 3. *The game warden is convinced of the healthy deer. 4. *The scientist rained his new methodology. 5. *The geologist is fond that the precious stones are intact.

321. English: structural ambiguity Classify the following sentences according to two kinds of structural ambiguity, and paraphrase each sentence in two different ways according to the two possible meanings. Construct phrase structure trees reﬂecting the different interpertations.

1. Frying chicken will be appreciated. 2. Fashionable women’s shoes are sold here. 3. Drinking water can be healthy. 4. The surface is painted with red ﬂowers and leaves. 5. Innocent men’s deeds shall be judged. 6. Betty hates her husband and so does Mary.

322. English: grammaticality Place an asterisk in front of each sentence that you consider ungrammatical or unacceptable in some way. Explain the reasons for your judgement.

1. Down the treat walked the man with a black hat. 2. Down the street walked the man with a black hat. 3. Richard ran the meadows over. 4. Richard ran him over. 5. Richard ran over the meadows. 6. Richard ran over the man. 7. His mother wants Ben to be a doctor. 8. Ben wants to be a doctor. 9. Ben tries his mother to be a doctor. 10. Carl believes to be a doctor. 11. Carl believes Ben to be a doctor. 12. Elisa cried bitterly. 13. Elisa cried her boyfriend. 14. Ben bought sincerely. 15. The boy bought a CD.

122 6

Semantics

323. English: semantic roles I The term “semantic roles” is used to refer to conceptual relations of nominals to the rest of the sentence. In the following exercises use the following labels: Agent: instigator of the action, source of the action Instrument: thing or object used to perform an action Patient: anyone or anything acted upon or described Location: place from or to where the action procedes Beneﬁciary: anyone or anything receiving the results of an action Experiencer: anyone or anything experiencing an action Complement: the result of an action or a state Identify the semantic roles of the subjects of the following sentences. 1. The president gets many letters every day. 2. The goose quill was used for writing in the 18th century. 3. The elderly man was mugged in the park last night. 4. The park was the scene of a huge demonstration. 5. Warren wrote down his address and telephone number. 6. She felt the thrill of discovery. 7. The broken windows testify to the extent of the riot. 8. The wind blew the table over. 9. My trusty monkey wrench did the trick! 10. The Ford is the car I drove to New Orleans. 11. Napoleon was crowned emperor by the Pope. 12. Ralph fell in love with Barbara at ﬁrst sight. 13. Canterbury was the site of the pilgrimage. 14. A broken heart was all I got out of the affair. 15. The player scored two points yesterday.

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324. English: semantic roles II Identify the semantic roles of the underlined nominals in terms of agent, patient, instrument, location, beneﬁciary, complement, or experiencer.

1. The boy broke the icicle with a stick. 2. Marsha applied her lipstick with a thin brush. 3. The student read the book in the library. 4. The minister is in the pulpit. 5. The bystander was cut by the ﬂying glass. 6. The prize was given to the best speller. 7. He bought the ﬂowers for his girl friend. 8. After the marathon was over the winner collapsed. 9. He made an airplane out of paper. 10. Robert could clearly see Matthew sitting on the sofa.

325. English: semantic roles and lexical entries In the description of an action, the sentence may indicate not only who did what to whom (or what), but also it may indicate when, where, how, and why it was done. In the following sentences, identify the role of each noun phrase and prepositional phrase in terms of agent, patient, instrument, location, beneﬁciary, experiencer, and complement. In addition, write the formulae for the lexical entries of each verb; e.g., “The tiger carried his victim from the village to the jungle.” the tiger — agent to the jungle — location: goal the victim — patient carry, V — NP NP PP PP from the village — location: source

1. The girl scribbled her address on the paper with a pencil. 2. The clerk opened the envelope with his name on it. 3. The letter to the editor has been sent. 4. The management of the restaurant forbids smoking. 5. It rains often in this climate. 6. The moon was shining brightly that night. 7. Sheila took a lace handkerchief from Catherine’s purse. 8. The thief must have opened the gate with a crowbar. 9. She spread peanut butter on the bread. 10. My neighbour hunts deer in the fall.

124 SEMANTICS

326. Classical Arabic: plurals Examine the data below and explain the semantic basis for the agreement between the nouns and the accompanying adjectives. 1. al-muslim-u raﬁiq-un the Moslem man is kind

2. al-muslim-at-u raﬁiq-at-un the Moslem woman is kind

3. al-muslim-uuna mas.riyy-uuna the Moslem men are Egyptian

4. al-muslim-aat-u mas.riyy-aat-un the Moslem women are Egyptian 5. al-bayt-u jˇadiid-un the house is new 6. al-madras-at-u jˇadiid-at-un the school is new 7. al-buyuut-u jˇadiid-at-un the houses are new

8. al-madaaris-u jˇadiid-at-un the schools are new

9. al-kalb-u sa ¡ iid-un the dog is happy

10. al-qitt-at-u sa ¡ iid-at-un the cat is happy

11. al-kilaab-u sa ¡ iid-at-un the dogs are happy

12. al-qitt-aat-u sa ¡ iid-at-un the cats are happy 13. as-sayyaar-at-u kabiir-at-un the car is big

14. as-sayyaar-aat-u kabiir-at-un the cars are big

15. at-tilmii ¢ -u jˇamiil-un the student is handsome

16. at-tilmii ¢ -at-u jˇamiil-at-un the girl student is beautiful

17. at-talaamii ¢ -u jˇamiil-uuna the students are handsome

18. at-tilmii ¢ -aat-u jˇamiil-aat-un the girl students are beautiful

327. Classical Arabic: adjectives The following examples illustrate two of the many patterns of adjectives in Classical Arabic. Identify the patterns and explain the semantic basis for

their differing shapes.

1. a ¡ rajˇ lame 11. as.la bald

2. axraq clumsy 12. at.rasˇ deaf 3. kariim generous 13. t.awiil tall

4. a ¡ maa blind 14. sariifˇ noble

5. ¡ aziiz powerful 15. raﬁiq kind

6. jˇamiil handsome 16. asnaˇ ¡ ugly

7. alfat left-handed 17. ah.wal squinting

8. nad.iif clean 18. s.ah. iih. correct ¡

9. sa ¡ iid happy 19. sarii fast

10. a ¡ war one-eyed 20. axfasˇ weak-sighted

328. Classical Arabic: colour adjectives The following examples of colour adjectives illustrate a variety of patterns.

125 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

Identify the patterns and indicate the semantic basis for them.

1. aswad black 7. qarnafuliyy pink

2. azraq blue 8. urjˇuwaaniyy purple

3. bunniyy brown 9. ah.mar red

4. axd.ar green 10. banafsajˇiyy violet

5. ramaadiyy grey 11. abyad. white

6. burtuγaaliyy orange 12. as.far yellow

329. Swahili: word classes The following examples illustrate various noun classes based upon the singular and plural prefixes. Group the nouns into classes and indicate the semantic basis for the grouping. sg. pl. sg. pl. 1. kikapu vikapu basket 9. mume waume husband 2. mtoto watoto child 10. mkindu mikindu date palm 3. mhindi mihindi corn 11. kioo vioo mirror 4. kikombe vikombe cup 12. mboga miboga pumpkin 5. kisu visu knife 13. mfigili mifigili radish 6. uso nyuso face 14. mkulima wakilima farmer 7. ubavu mbavu rib 15. mwalimu wawalimu teacher 8. udevu ndevu hair 16. ulilmi ndimi tongue

330. Cree: possession The following examples illustrate nouns possessed by the ﬁrst person singular and unpossessed nouns. Indicate the morphological difference in the unpossessed nouns and indicate the semantic basis for this difference. my (noun) (noun) 1. nispiton mispiton arm 2. natey matey belly 3. nicima:nˇ cima:nˇ canoe 4. nitastotin astotin cap 5. niski:sik miski:sik eye 6. no:htawiya mo:htawiya father 7. nisit misit foot 8. no:hkom mo:hkom grandmother 9. nicihˇ ciyˇ micihˇ ciyˇ hand 10. no:ka:wiya mo:ka:wiya mother

126 SEMANTICS

11. nitospwa:kan ospwa:kan pipe 12. nitasa:m asa:m snowshoe 13. nimaskisin maskisin shoe 14. nikimis mikimis sister 15. nikosisa mikosisa son

331. Spanish: estar and ser There are two verbs in Spanish, estar and ser, that are translated into English with forms of the verb ‘to be’. Determine the semantic basis for the usage of one or the other. Sentences with estar 1. Estoy cansado. I am tired. 2. Estamos en Madrid. We are in Madrid. 3. Esta´ enferma. She is sick. 4. Estuve estudiante a Salamanca. I was a student at Salamanca. 5. ¿Donde´ estas?´ Where are you? 6. Estoy para partir. I am about to start. 7. Estas uvas no estan´ maduras. Those grapes are not ripe. 8. Esa chaqueta le esta´ ancha. That jacket is loose on him. 9. Ahora mismo estoy escribiendo. Right now I’m writing. 10. Esta´ a capitan.´ He’s acting as captain. Sentences with ser 1. Soy casado. I’m married. 2. Es enfermera. She’s a nurse. 3. Somos mejicanos. We are Mexicans. 4. Fue´ catedratico´ a Salamanca. He was a professor at Salamanca. 5. Fue´ herido a Toledo. He was wounded at Toledo. 6. Que sera´ sera.´ What is to be will be. 7. ¿De donde´ eres? Where are you from? 8. Sea lo quefuere, voy manana.˜ Be that as it may, I go tomorrow. 9. Es para comer. It’s for eating. 10. Es mi hermano. He’s my brother.

332. Spanish: saber and conocer Spanish has two verbs, saber and conocer, both of which are translated by English ‘to know’. Examine the following sentences and determine the semantic basis for the selection of one or the other.

127 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

Sentences with saber 1. ¿Donde´ esta´ Juan? No se.´ Where is Juan? I don’t know. 2. Sabe frances´ e italiano. He knows French and Italian. 3. Sabemos la verdad. We know the truth. 4. No supo lo que tuvo. He didn’t know what he had. 5. ¿Sabes conducir un coche? Do you know how to drive? Sentences with conocer 1. Conozco a Juan. I know Juan. 2. Le doy a conocer a mi esposo. Please meet my husband. 3. Conoces el terreno, ¿verdad? You know the terrain, don’t you? 4. Conocemos de este asunto. We know all about this. 5. Empece´ a conocerle ayer. I met him yesterday.

333. French: avoir and etreˆ Spoken French used two auxiliary verbs for the past tense: avoir ‘to have’ and etreˆ ‘to be’. Examine the following sentences and determine the semantic basis for the choice of one or the other. Sentences with avoir 1. Je l’ai vu hier. I saw him yesterday. 2. As-tu mange?´ Have you eaten? 3. Il aura lu le livre. He will have read the book. 4. Nous avons gagne!´ We won! 5. Vous avez paye,´ n’est-ce pas? You’ve paid, haven’t you? Sentences with etreˆ 1. Je suis arrive.´ I arrived. 2. Ils sont alles.´ They went. 3. Nous sommes retournees.´ We came back. 4. Je me suis lave.´ I washed myself. 5. Il s’est vu dans le miroir. He saw himself in the mirror.

334. German: neuter nouns German neuter nouns can occur in a prepositional phrase in either the dative case (deﬁnite article dem) or in the accusative case (deﬁnite article das). Examine the following sentences and state the semantic basis for the choice of either the dative case or the accusative case.

1. Monika arbeitet in dem Kaffeehaus. Monika works in the coffeehouse.

128 SEMANTICS

2. Stefan kommt in das Kaffeehaus. Stefan comes into the coffeehouse. 3. Jurgen¨ geht in das Wohnzimmer. Jurgen goes into the living room. 4. Jurgen¨ ist in dem Wohnzimmer. Jurgen is in the living room. 5. Ritas Stuhl steht neben dem Fenster. Rita’s chair stands next to the window. 6. Jan stellt seinen Stuhl neben das Fenster. Jan puts his chair next to the window. 7. Ein Schuh steht unter dem Bett. A shoe is under the bed. 8. Kurt stellt den anderen Schuh unter das Bett. Kurt puts the other shoe under the bed. 9. Ilses Auto steht vor dem Haus. Ilsa’s car stands in front of the house. 10. Armin fahrt¨ sein Auto vor das Hause. Armin drives his car in front of the house.

335. English: interpretability and grammaticality Sentences can be difﬁcult to interpret due to three conditions: they are ungrammatical, they violate our knowledge of the world, or they contain words with no known referents. Indicate which of the following sentences ﬁt into which category.

1. Tom spoke tomorrow after he will go to Toronto. 2. Our 18-month-old baby is six feet tall. 3. The maple trees are lush and green at the North Pole. 4. The maxilliform gritals lornchasted the falingers. 5. The mosquito picked up the deer and ﬂew off with it. 6. Mike bought a car who is red. 7. Radiculus glautons are found in oxtotonous soils. 8. The passengers quenched their thirst with salt water. 9. They will pay last month for the tickets. 10. The lacrods were ﬂooded with ipsigems. 11. Please don’t chaligate the borichite. 12. Students all the home went.

336. English: ambiguity What kind of ambiguity is involved in the following sentences? Provide a paraphrase for each reading.

129 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

1. He turned blue. 2. My uncle’s present position is shocking. 3. What did her expression suggest? 4. Have you seen this seal? 5. He acted as if he had no class. 6. Today I took the yellow bus. 7. By the look on Carl’s face you could tell he was mad. 8. Both agreed on the importance of the cause. 9. She stumbled over the pipe. 10. Jimmy was a little slow.

337. English: interpretations and acceptability Some of the following sentences can be interpreted in either a literal or a ﬁgurative sense. Indicate the acceptability or lack thereof for the sentences for each interpretation and state why.

1. This is not my cup of tea. 2. These are not my cups of tea. 3. I am pulling your leg. 4. I am pulling my leg. 5. Don’t get your knickers in a twist. 6. Don’t get your socks in a twist. 7. She has a bee in her bonnet. 8. There was a bee in her bonnet yesterday. 9. It’s like taking candy from a baby. 10. She took the candy from the baby.

338. English: meaning and context I Observe the placement of the main sentence stress in the following sentences. Provide a context or paraphrase where each can occur.

1. Steve´ doesn’t sing cowboy songs in bars. 2. Steve doesn’t s´ıng cowboy songs in bars. 3. Steve doesn’t sing cowboy´ songs in bars. 4. Steve doesn’t sing cowboy songs in bars.´

339. English: meaning and context II English sentences containing the word not are ambiguous with respect to how much of the text following not is negated. This ambiguity can be resolved with sentence stress. In the following, indicate what sentence stress is associated with each interpretation.

130 SEMANTICS

1. Mario did not build his new boat with wood. a. He built something other than a boat. b. He built the boat of aluminum. c. He didn’t build a boat, he repaired one. d. He built his old boat with wood. 2. I didn’t hear Mozart’s concerto played by Issac Stern. a. I was asleep during the concert. b. I heard Mozart’s sonata. c. I heard Beethoven’s concerto. d. I went to a concert by Itzhak Perlman. 3. Don’t leave hockey sticks in this dressing room. a. It’s OK to leave skates here. b. You can leave your sticks in the other dressing room. c. Look after your own equipment.

340. English: synonyms I Meaning in its widest sense can be broken down into several different types: conceptual, the most neutral term, indicating the referent with no further as- sociative meanings; stylistic, which communicates the social circumstance in which the item is used; affective, which communicates the feelings and attitudes of the speaker; collocative, which is communicated through asso- ciation with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word. Observe the following sets of words and indicate in what type of meaning or meanings they differ. 1. actor/teacher/baker 7. domicile/residence/abode/home 2. ewe/sow/bitch/lioness 8. pretty/handsome/beautiful 3. wander/stroll 9. man/woman/boy/girl 4. run/skip 10. walk/swim 5. horse/steed/nag/horsie 11. tremble/quiver

6. father/daddy/pops/sire 12. cast/throw/chuck/ﬂing

341. English: synonyms II The following triplets are synonyms, i.e., they share their basic conceptual (literal, logical, denotational, etc.) meanings. Discuss in what other shades of meaning they differ. 1. fair sex/female/broad 4. corpulent/fat/tubby 2. job/chore/assignment 5. spouse/wife/missus 3. warrior/ﬁghter/combatant 6. bothersome/annoying/irksome

131 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

7. public/people/folks 12. escort/prostitute/whore 8. firm/obstinate/pig-headed 13. car/automobile/wheels 9. policeman/cop/flatfoot 14. tiff/argument/spat 10. university/college/campus 15. discriminating/refined/picky 11. underweight/skinny/slim 16. wetness/perspiration/sweat

342. English: synonyms III It has been maintained that there are no perfect synonyms, i.e., words with the exact and identical meaning in all occurances. Examine the following sets of words and comment on the differences in meaning, remembering that there are different kinds of meaning to consider.

1. bargain/negociate/bid for/haggle 2. handsome/comely/beautiful/good looking/pretty/gorgeous 3. apathetic/phlegmatic/passive/sluggish/indifferent 4. cheery/joyful/jubilant/happy/euphoric/ecstatic 5. hungry/starving/voracious/desirous/famished 6. idiot/imbecile/moron/dope/stupe 7. lake/loch/lagoon/pond/pool 8. executioner/hangman/killer 9. language/speech/parlance/tongue 10. little/small/tiny/diminutive 11. roar/cry/bellow/screech/yell/scream/shout 12. sailor/seaman/seafarer/navigator 13. stingy/parsimonious/avaricious/miserly 14. surprise/amazement/astonishment/awe/wonder 15. wealth/opulence/afﬂuence/luxury/lucre

343. English: euphemisms I In the following set of sentences identify euphemistic expressions and replace them with neutral expressions. Comment on the reasons for the use of the euphemism.

1. Trans-Florida Airlines provides its passengers with a set of instructions to be followed in case of non-routine operation. 2. American Airlines transports its passengers from the departure gate to the airplane on a customer conveyance mobile lounge. 3. The locally produced spaghetti sauce contains mechanically sepa- rated meat. 4. The Committee for Nutrition and Food Supply argued for the use of a low-cholesterol cheese alternate.

132 SEMANTICS

5. The food technologists developed several kinds of restructured mus- cle products. 6. A number of Japanese companies ship large amounts of surimi-based crab analog to the North American market. 7. Pacific Gas and Electric Company send monthly energy documents to every household. 8. AUTO DISMANTLERS AND RECYCLERS 9. Colleges and universities have been posturing themselves aggres- sively and positively to enhance their positions in the enrollment marketplace. 10. There will be a modified English course offered for those children who achieve a deficiency in English. 11. The Board of Education has organized a committee for dealing with children with poor graphic-motor representation. 12. This year the School of Business ran a negative deficit.

344. English: euphemisms II Identify the euphemisms in the following sentences. Provide a neutral replacement and comment on the motive for the use of the euphemism.

1. If anything should happen to me, open this envelope. 2. It was quite clear to every member of the family that Jim was unwell. 3. I think it’s time you got your affairs in order. 4. When the patient is deemed to be in the terminal phase of his illness, the doctor takes the appropriate steps. 5. Do you experience any discomfort? 6. Don’t exert yourself, Maggie. Remember your delicate condition. 7. We lost Mr Bentley last night. 8. Your uncle suffers from a decreased propensity for cell replication. 9. The patient is usually in a non-decision state for two to three hours after the injection. 10. The patient failed to fulﬁll his wellness potential.

345. English: euphemisms III The following terms are colloquialisms for various diseases. Give the correct medical term and indicate a reason for the use of the more common term. 1. the pox 5. the snifﬂes 8. heart attack 2. infantile paralysis 6. the trots 9. malignancy 3. consumption 7. the ﬂu 10. mental illness 4. the falling sickness

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346. English: transfer of meaning Some words and expressions undergo a semantic transfer, whereby the basic meaning is extended to a different or a larger context. Account for the following examples of semantic transfer.

1. Old Mr Johnson certainly has a lot of bucks in the bank. 2. Emily appears to be a cold and calculating person. 3. Scattergood is the Napoleon of crime! 4. What’s hot in the pop music world today? 5. Dad boiled over when he heard about the car. 6. What lovely china you have! 7. Carl elbowed himself into the crowd. 8. I shall see some squeaking Cleopatra boy my greatness in the posture of a whore. 9. Harrison’s track record isn’t very good this quarter. 10. Larry pulled himself up by the bootstraps a few years ago.

347. English: literal and non-literal meanings The following sentences illustrate literal and non-literal meanings of the same phrases. Paraphrase each sentence to indicate the difference in meanings.

1. The blue jay is sitting on the fence. 2. This politician is sitting on the fence. 3. The pigs and sows live in a pig-sty. 4. The Kalikak family lives in a pig-sty. 5. I heard the water dripping. 6. Finally, I heard from James. 7. The soldiers raided the enemy trenches. 8. The boys raided the ice box. 9. The doctor pulled out the splinter. 10. The politician pulled out his bid for re-election. 11. The tornado had its head in the clouds. 12. My sister had her head in the clouds.

348. English: animal metaphors Interpret the properties of people modelled on the properties of animals in the following similes and other metaphoric expressions. What is the structure of a simile? Think of other cases of animal/human comparison and explain their structure.

134 SEMANTICS

1. She is as gentle as a lamb. 2. She behaves like a cat chasing her tail. 3. He felt like a pregnant fox in a forest fire. 4. He is a wolf in sheep’s clothing. 5. What a birdbrain! 6. She fastened onto him like a leech. 7. They wriggled like worms in hot ashes. 8. She is as graceful as a gazalle. 9. She is as close-mouthed as a clam. 10. He is an eagle-eyed birdwatcher. 11. Don is like a bull in a china shop. 12. You think you’re pretty foxy, don’t you? 13. I feel like a fish out of water. 14. After the fight, Margaret flopped around like a beached whale. 15. Her husband is a rat. 16. My aunt is a mousy little woman. 17. Professor Smith turned an owlish gaze upon the student.

349. English: semantic features For each of the numbered groups of words given below indicate what semantic feature or features they have in common. Discuss the differences and similarities between the a. and b. subgroups.

1. a. actress/sister/widow/niece b. actor/brother/widower/nephew 2. a. bracelet/ring/broach/tiara/earring b. ﬂounce/lace/bow/tassel/ribbon 3. a. rose/carnation/lily/poppy/lilac b. maple/birch/oak/elm/cedar/pine 4. a. Ontario/Manitoba/Alberta/Saskatchewan/Nova Scotia b. Oregon/Texas/Virginia/Nebraska/ Alabama 5. a. magazine/book/journal/dictionary/encyclopedia b. pencil/typewriter/pen/crayon/chalk/computer 6. a. eye/ear/nose/hand/mouth b. lungs/brain/liver/stomach/kidneys 7. a. smart/stupid/genius/imbecile/intelligent b. sad/happy/joyous/furious/upset/depressed 8. a. white/black/red/green/yellow b. lilac/avocado/charcoal/ash/golden 9. a. go/walk/run/trot/march b. strike/beat/attack/pierce/threaten

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10. a. canoe/ship/kayak/sailboat/surfboard b. bus/car/streetcar/train/bicycle

350. English: antonyms I There are three kinds of antonymy: complementary or binary, in which the negative of one word is synonymous with the other word; gradable or polar, in which one word indicates one extreme and the other word indicates the opposite extreme; and relational, in which the words display oppositional symmetry in their meaning (e.g., if X is a parent of Y, then Y is a child of X). Indicate which type of antonymy is illustrated by the following pairs of words. 1. alive/dead 6. present/absent 11. awake/asleep 2. male/female 7. tall/short 12. poor/rich 3. young/old 8. kill/die 13. give/receive 4. fertile/sterile 9. happy/sad 14. fast/slow 5. borrow/lend 10. employer/employee 15. give/get

351. English: antonyms II Give the antonyms of the following words. What is the morphological structure used? 1. likely 7. moral 13. literate 19. charge 2. please 8. discreet 14. real 20. abuse 3. able 9. symmetrical 15. regard 21. fault 4. reformation 10. logical 16. congruent 22. behave 5. tolerant 11. loyal 17. placed 23. claim 6. conformist 12. possible 18. indicated 24. led

352. English: inverse oppositions Inverse oppositions obey a special rule of synonymy which involves two

steps: a. substituting one inverse term for another, and b. changing the position of a negative in relation to the inverse term, e.g., some/all. “Some girls have no friends” is synonymous with “Not all girls have friends”. Which of the following statements are inverses? 1. become/stay Sheila did not become a star. 2. allow/compel We are allowed to remain non-commited. 3. swim/walk We never swim in the lake. 4. die/live Uncle Fred did not live to see his grandchild. 5. possible/necessary It is not possible to eat during lectures.

136 SEMANTICS

353. English: multiple taxonomy Some oppositions involve more than two terms. Examples of this type are semantic classes dealing with types of metal, species of animals, plants, noises, etc. Here is a multiple taxonomy of colours. Think of a way of overcoming the absoluteness of boundaries of the terms by shading off one category into another. Think of at least three other multiple taxonomies. 1. red 5. blue 2. brown 6. white 3. yellow 7. black 4. green 8. gray

354. English: hierarchy For each set of terms indicate whether it represents multiple taxonomy or hierarchy. Explain the difference between them. In what way is set #4 different from the rest of the taxonomies?

1. semantics/syntax/morphology/phonology/phonetics 2. ruby/sapphire/emerald/diamond/garnet 3. Chrysler/Buick/Ford/Oldsmobile/Pontiac 4. January/February/March/April/May, etc. 5. millimeter/centimeter/decimeter/meter/kilometer 6. crayﬁsh/shrimp/prawn/crab/lobster

355. English: oppositions State the type of oppositions of meaning illustrated by the following pairs of lexemes. (The types of oppositions are stated in exercises 349–353.) 1. off/on 6. darkness/light 2. murderer/victim 7. triangle/circle 3. blond/brunette 8. general/sergeant 4. chair/sofa 9. husband/wife 5. still/already 10. morning/noon

356. English: hyponymy A hyponym is defined as a more specific term that denotes a subclass of references of another term. Which member of the following pairs is a hyponym? 1. adults/men 4. subordinate/slave 2. boyscout/boy 5. galleon/ship 3. fish/trout 6. Constantinople/city

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7. bayonet/weapon 9. Parthenon/building 8. time unit/minute 10. primate/baboon

357. English: incompatibility State the componential formulae for the following pairs of words and determine which ones are hyponyms and which are incompatible. What features are involved? 1. woman/child 6. book/publication 2. woman/boy 7. noblewoman/countess 3. ﬂower/rose 8. stallion/mare 4. run/stand 9. fountain pen/pencil 5. coin/dime 10. boar/man

358. English: homonyms The following words are ambiguous. Some have two or more meanings. De- ﬁne their meanings or give synonyms for each word, and provide additional examples of homonyms yourself. 1. bear 6. lie 2. nag 7. well 3. light 8. grain 4. sink 9. pound 5. ear 10. ruler

359. English: homophones Homophones are words that are identical in sound but have different meanings. Some homophones are spelled alike (bear ‘animal’ and bear ‘carry’), and some are spelled differently (bear ‘animal’ and bare ‘uncovered’). The following words have homophones which are spelled differently. Supply the homophone, its spelling, and its meaning. 1. lye 6. merry 2. steak 7. son 3. maid 8. curd 4. bread 9. lone 5. shoe 10. blew

360. English: homonymy and polysemy Polysemes are words that sound alike but one has a meaning that is derived from the other. Examine the following words and determine which pairs represent homonymy and which polysemy.

138 SEMANTICS

1. bolt a. a flash of lightening b. a sudden dash or movement 2. dab a. to pat with something soft b. a small flat fish 3. chip a. to cut or chop with an axe b. a piece of potato cut and fried in deep fat 4. daft a. mild or gentle b. insane or silly 5. ear a. a part of the body b. the spike of a cereal plant 6. fan a. to direct a current of air with a piece of material b. a person enthusiastic about something 7. face a. a part of the body b. the surface of an object 8. press a. to push steadily against b. to forcibly enlist someone for military service 9. rail a. a bar of metal or wood b. to complain violently 10. shy a. easily frightened b. unproductive

361. English: hierarchies For each of the following word sets use semantic formulae in terms of componential deﬁnitions. Identify which features are elements of taxonomic hierarchies. For example:

man: +HUMAN +ADULT +MALE

woman: +HUMAN +ADULT £ MALE

boy: +HUMAN £ ADULT +MALE £ girl: +HUMAN £ ADULT MALE 1. palm/apple/oak/daisy/lemon/orchid 2. letter/diary/magazine/newspaper 3. hut/villa/house/chapel/temple/church 4. raincoat/boots/dress/fur coat/galoshes/shoes 5. baker/write/writer/paint/bun/bake/picture/book/painter 6. bird/plane/car/submarine/horse/ﬁsh 7. hockey/jogging/waterpolo/swimming/football/skating

362. English: contrasts of meaning Provide a componential analysis for the following terms, using the following

139 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

components: parent, married, female, e.g., father (X is the father of Y): X

(parent) ¤ Y, X — female. See if you can analyse other kin terms. 1. son 6. uncle 2. daughter 7. aunt 3. sister 8. father-in-law 4. brother 9. grandmother 5. grandfather 10. daughter-in-law

363. English: two worlds Mark the meanings of the following words by a. tree diagrams, or b. componential deﬁnition. 1. horse 5. Dracula 9. cherub 2. dragon 6. eagle 10. crocodile 3. unicorn 7. child 11. man 4. witch 8. woman 12. phoenix

364. English: analytic and pragmatic truth There are two kinds of truthful statements: analytic, which we judge to be true by virtue of the meaning of their components; and pragmatic, which we judge to be true by virtue of our knowledge of the world. Indicate which of the following sentences illustrate analytic truth and which illustrate pragmatic truth.

1. All sisters are female. 2. Wine contains alcohol. 3. Children sit on telephone directories at the table. 4. Tigers are felines. 5. A boy is an immature man. 6. Tigers eat meat. 7. A chair is a piece of furniture. 8. Michael is often hungry. 9. “Michael” is a man’s name. 10. A house is a structure for living in.

365. English: analytic and pragmatic falsehood There are two kinds of false statements: analytic, which we judge to be false by virtue of the meaning of their components; and pragmatic, which we judge to be false by virtue of our knowledge of the world. Indicate which of the following sentences illustrate analytic falsehood and which illustrate pragmatic falsehood.

140 SEMANTICS

1. Diamonds are made of water. 2. The chrysanthemum grew to over 200 feet tall. 3. This boy is my godmother. 4. Stephanie lost 200 pounds last week. 5. My sister is an only child. 6. A tulip is not a ﬂower. 7. Misogynists like women. 8. All students get excellent marks. 9. Peter broke the lemonade into two pieces. 10. The heat caused the water to turn to ice.

366. English: basic statements I The speaker’s use of intuition can be codiﬁed in the form of the following statements: 1. X is synonymous with Y 5. X is a contradiction 2. X entails Y 6. X positively presupposes Y 3. X is inconsistent with Y 7. X negatively presupposes Y 4. X is a tautology 8. X is semantically anomalous Illustrate the statements with suitable examples.

367. English: basic statements II What type of basic statements can you assign to the following sentences? Which cases belong to the category on the basis of factual knowledge of the real world rather than on the basis of conceptual meaning?

1. My sister bought ten new evening dresses. She has nothing to wear tonight. 2. Speakers of Neumli substitute apico-velars instead of dorso-velars in all ﬁnal positions. 3. Trudy dances the quadrille well. She moves rhythmically. 4. Bill got out of bed at 10 o’clock. He was in bed immediately prior to 10 o’clock. 5. The neighbour stopped beating his dog. He was beating his dog. 6. Agrippina committed suicide. She killed herself. 7. Petronius committed suicide. He deliberately killed himself. 8. The painters thinned the paint. They caused the paint to become thin. 9. Your hair is in my pudding. You have hair. 10. He married his own widow.

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368. English: basic statements III What kind of basic statements can you assign to the following sentences? Decide which cases belong to the category on the basis of factual knowledge of the real world.

1. Ann lives in Ottawa. She lives in the capital of Canada. 2. It has been snowing hard. The ground is white. 3. Billy Joe stole a horse from the rancher. Billy Joe took a horse from the rancher. 4. Daniel has just eaten four steaks. He is hungry. 5. The clown bit his own nose off. 6. Peter stood on the left of his tutor. He stood on the right of his tutor. 7. The cockroach’s hat is made of silk. 8. This blond is a redhead. 9. The day before today was yesterday. 10. Young men are unreliable. Some men are young.

369. English: basic statements IV Which of the following statements are anomalous and which are contradic- tory?

1. The dog elapsed. 2. My uncle is pregnant. 3. The mathematician has invented a round square. 4. Delius wrote this quartet for two instruments. 5. This string quartet was written for piano and oboe. 6. Human gorillas are rare. 7. The colonel’s speech upset the tulips.

370. English: semantic violation Analyse the following poem by Samuel Foote (1720). Identify the type of

violation of semantic rules (anomalies, contradictions, etc.), and observe the violation of contextual cohesion.

So she went into the garden to cut a cabbage leaf to make an apple pie and at the same time a great she-bear, coming down the street, pops its head into the shop

142 SEMANTICS

What! No soap? So he died, and she very imprudently married the barber: and there were present the Picninnies and the Joblillies and the Gargulies and the great Panjandrum himself with the little round button at top; and they all fell to playing the game of catch-as-catch-can till the gunpowder ran out at the heels of their boots.

143 7

Sound Change

371. Old Icelandic: Proto-Germanic */o:/ In the following problem, explain the change or changes that Proto-Germanic */o:/ underwent in Old Icelandic. P-Gmc. O.I. P-Gmc. O.I. 1. fo:tiz fo:tr¨ feet 8. do:maz do:mr court 2. bo:kiz bo:kr¨ books 9. go:das go: r good 3. glo:θiz glo:¨ r embers 10. hlo:wan hlo:a to low 4. klo:wiz klo:r¨ claws 11. fo:tum fo:tum feet(dat) 5. ro:tiz ro:tr¨ roots 12. ho:faz ho:fr hoof

6. θro:wiz θro:r¨ troughs 13. hro:kaz hro:kr rook

7. o:θi o¨ i fury 14. mo:θaz mo: r wrath

372. Old Icelandic: Proto-Germanic */a/ In the following problem, explain the change or changes that Proto-Germanic */a/ underwent in Old Icelandic. P-Gmc. O.I. P-Gmc. O.I.

1. armum ¡ rmum arms(dat) 9. graban grafa to dig

2. staθum st ¡ um places(dat) 10. haban hafa to have

3. saku s ¡ k accusations 11. armaz armr arm

4. salum s ¡ lum halls(dat) 12. dagaz dagr day

5. landu l ¡ nd lands 13. hwalaz hvalr whale

6. barnum b ¡ rnum children 14. swanaz svanr swan

7. grabum gr ¡ fum graves(dat) 15. staθaz sta r place

8. nasu n ¡ s noses 16. naglaz nagl nail

373. Spanish: Vulgar Latin /a/ In the following problem, explain the change or changes that earlier Vulgar Latin /a/ underwent in Spanish. Notice that the forms are presented in

144 SOUND CHANGE

traditional orthography. The letter “c” is pronounced [θ] before /i/ or /e/ in Spanish, otherwise [k]. It is pronounced [k] everywhere in Latin. The combination “qu” in Spanish is pronounced [k]. Vlg.Lat. Sp. Vlg.Lat. Sp. 1. caballariu caballero horseman 11. campu campo field 2. area era floor 12. granu grano grain 3. glarea glera gravel 13. sale sal salt 4. caseu queso cheese 14. arbore arbol´ tree 5. basiu beso kiss 15. cantu canto I sing 6. cerasea cereza cherry 16. manu mano hand 7. sapiat sepa know(sbjv) 17. aqua agua water 8. capiat quepa fit(sbjv) 18. altu alto high 9. porcariu porquero swineherd 19. saltare saltar to jump 10. mansione meson´ house 20. carru carro wagon

374. Old High German: Proto-Germanic */i/ In the following problem, explain the change or changes that Proto-Germanic */i/ underwent going from early Germanic to Old High German. Notice that the Old High German is presented in a conventionalized orthography in which the letter “c” is pronounced [k]. E.Gmc. O.H.G. E.Gmc. O.H.G. 1. wira wer man 10. nimiθ nimit takes 2. kwika quec alive 11. ist ist is 3. liben¯ leben¯ to live 12. wisku wisc rag 4. nista nest nest 13. silubra silbar silver

5. likkon¯ leckon¯ to lick 14. sibi¢a sippa kinsman £ £

6. spikka spec lard 15. sita¢n si an tosit £ £ 7. tikko zecke tick 16. hito¢ hi a heat 8. blika blech tin 17. hrinθiz rind ox 9. wiko wehha week 18. wristi rist instep

375. Maltese: Old Arabic /aa/ In the following problem, explain the change or changes that Old Arabic /aa/ underwent in Maltese. The consonants with a subposed dot (C. ) are laryngealized, pronounced with the back of the tongue raised. O.Ar. Malt. O.Ar. Malt. 1. kaan kien he was 3. faas ﬁes axe 2. baab biep door 4. maat miet he died

145 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

5. naasifˇ niesefˇ dry 8. s.aafi saafi clear 6. t.aar taar he flew 9. daar. daar house 7. s.aab saap he found 10. r.aas raas head

376. Rumanian: Pre-Rumanian /ea/ In the following problem explain the change or changes that Pre-Rumanian /ea/ underwent in modern Rumanian.

Pre-Rum. Rum. Pre-Rum. Rum.

¤ ¤ ¤

1. feat ¤ fat girl 6. sear sear evening

¤ ¤ ¤

2. vear ¤ var summer 7. kread kread believe

¤ ¤ ¤

3. meas ¤ mas table 8. neagr neagr black(fem) ¤

4. beal ¤ bal animal 9. stea stea star

¤ ¤ ¤ 5. pear ¤ par pear 10. tear tear cloth

377. Rumanian: Proto-Romance */u/ In the following problem, explain the change or changes that Proto-Romance ﬁnal */u/ underwent in Rumanian. P-Rom. Rum. P-Rom. Rum. 1. nIgru negru black 11. vinu vin wine

2. makru makru thin 12. k ¡ rpu korp body 3. kodru kodru forest 13. frUktu frupt fruit 4. lukru lukru gain 14. Ursu urs bear 5. duplu duplu double 15. kUlu kur buttocks

6. aspru aspru harsh 16. p ¡ pulu popor people

7. intru intru inside 17. latu lat side ¤ 8. vetlu veki¢u old 18. umeru um r shoulder

9. oklu oki¢u eye 19. kampu kimp ﬁeld

10. unglu ungi¢u angle 20. kredu kred I believe

378. Maltese: Old Arabic vowels In the following problem, explain the change or changes undergone by the Old Arabic vowels in the ﬁrst syllable of these words. As in the earlier Maltese problem, a single vowel is short, a double vowel is long.

O.Ar. Malt. O.Ar. Malt.

1. na.iif ndayf clean 5. sariikˇ sriikˇ partner 2. salaam sliem peace 6. tah.riik tahriik movement 3. makaan mkien place 7. mismaar. musmaar nail 4. musaaﬁr msiefer departed 8. maskiin miskiin poor

146 SOUND CHANGE

9. munxaar munhaar saw 12. jˇiiraan jˇirien neighbours 10. h.usbaan hozbien sum 13. niiraan nirien ﬂames 11. miilaad miliet Christmas 14. buus.uuf busuuf beetle

379. Egyptian Arabic: Old Arabic long vowels In the following problem, explain the change or changes that the Old Arabic long vowels underwent in Egyptian Arabic. O.Ar. Eg.Ar. 1. γa:b γa:b was absent 2. za:r za:r he visited 3. ba:b ba:b door 4. wa:h. id wa:h.id one 5. kaθi:r kiti:r much 6. wazi:rna wazirna our minister 7. fu:lna fulna our beans 8. da:rkum darkum your(pl) house 9. ti:nha tinha her ﬁgs 10. s.u:fhum s.ufhum their wool

380. Lebanese Arabic: Old Arabic vowels In the following problem, explain the change or changes that the Old Arabic vowels underwent in these words in Lebanese Arabic. O.Ar. Leb.Ar. O.Ar. Leb.Ar.

1. ra ¥ s ra:s head 6. bint bint girl

2. bi ¥ r bi:r well 7. tah.t tah. t under

¥ ¥ ¥ 3. lu ¥ lu lu:lu pearl 8. uxti uxti my sister

4. jˇi ¥ t zi:tˇ I came 9. kalb kalb dog

5. ya ¥ kul ya:kul he eats 10. lift lift turnips

381. Spanish: Vulgar Latin initial clusters In the following problem, explain the change or changes that the initial clusters of Vulgar Latin underwent. Notice that both the Latin and the Spanish are in traditional orthography, which does not affect the solution to the problem. Vlg.Lat. Sp. Vlg.Lat. Sp. 1. sperare esperar to hope 4. scribere escribir to write 2. stare estar to be 5. stagnu estano˜ tin 3. scola escuela school 6. brachiu brazo arm

147 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

7. tres tres three 9. fricare fregar to rub 8. granu grano grain 10. plata plata silver

382. Lebanese Arabic: Old Arabic ﬁnal clusters In the following problem, explain the change or changes that the Old Arabic ﬁnal clusters underwent in Lebanese Arabic.

O.Ar. Leb.Ar. O.Ar. Leb.Ar. ¥

1. ¥ akl akil food 11. bint bint girl ¥

2. ¥ ism isim name 12. xubz xubz bread

¦ ¦

3. qabl ¥ abil before 13. ind ind with

¦ ¦ 4. qas.r ¥ as.ir castle 14. abd abd slave 5. duhn dihin paint 15. saxsˇ . saxsˇ . person 6. ﬁkr ﬁkir mind 16. jˇanb zambˇ side 7.ˇism j zisimˇ body 17. γarb γarb west 8. mas.r mas.ir Egypt 18. dars dars lesson

9. miθl mitil like 19. bard bard cold

¥ 10. aqn di ¥ in chin 20. quds uds holy

383. Portuguese: Proto-Romance */n/ In the following problem, explain the change or changes that Proto-Romance */n/ underwent in Portuguese. P-Rom. Port. P-Rom. Port.

1. kantare katar˜ to sing 11. tεnere tεr to have ¡ 2. l ¡ nga l˜ga long 12. vεnire vir to come 3. infεrnu ˜ıfernu hell 13. vena veia vein

4. dεnte dε˜te tooth 14. arena areia sand ¡ 5. ¡ mine me˜ man 15. kena seia dinner 6. ﬁne f˜ı end 16. luna lua moon 7. tεne tε˜ holds 17. ponere por to place

8. non n ¡˜ no 18. femina femea woman

9. ku¢en ke˜ who 19. katena kadeia chain

10. kUn ko˜ with 20. panatari¢u padeiru baker

384. Spanish: Proto-Romance */p/, */t/, */k/ In the following problem, explain the change or changes that Proto-Romance */p/, */t/, and */k/ have undergone in Spanish. Notice that the Spanish is given in traditional orthography, in which the letter “c” is pronounced [k].

148 SOUND CHANGE

P-Rom. Sp. P-Rom. Sp.

1. tepidu tibio warm 11. f ¡ ku fuego ﬁre 2. sapone sabon´ soap 12. formika hormiga ant 3. sapere saber to know 13. pakare pagar to pay 4. ripa riba shore 14. frikare fregar to rub 5. skopa escoba broom 15. sekuru seguro secure

6. seta seda silk 16. h ¡ spite huesped´ guest

7. pratu prado meadow 17. k ¡ sta cuesta side 8. muta muda mute 18. mUska mosca ﬂy

9. u¢ita vida life 19. gustare gustar to please 10. natare nadar to swim 20. peskare pescar to ﬁsh

385. Italian: Proto-Romance */k/ and */g/ In the following problem, explain the change or changes that Proto-Romance */k/ and */g/ have undergone in Italian. Notice that the Italian is given in traditional orthography. The letter “c” is pronounced [k] and the combination “gn” is pronounced [n˜n].˜ The Proto-Romance is in a phonemic transcription. P-Rom. It. P-Rom. It.

1. n ¡ kte notte night 11. pugnu pugno ﬁst 2. lakte latte milk 12. pignu pegno pawn 3. rεktu retto upright 13. lignu legno wood 4. striktu stretto narrow 14. signu segno sign 5. pεktus petto chest 15. dignu degno worthy 6. tεksere tessere to weave 16. amiku amico friend 7. fraksinu frassino ash tree 17. sekuru sicuro secure 8. neksu nesso link 18. negare negare to deny 9. seksu sesso sex 19. rogare rogare to ask 10. taksu tasso yew tree 20. gola gola throat

386. Montagnais: Proto-Algonquian */sk/ˇ In the following problem, explain the change or changes that the Proto- Algonquian cluster */sk/ˇ has undergone in Montagnais.

P-Alg. Mont. ¤ 1. neskaˇ syaˇ n ¤ x siˇ ﬁngernail

2. neto:skwaniˇ ntu:x ¤ n elbow 3. wete:skaniˇ ute:xan his horn 4. eskwete:wiˇ ixute:w ﬁre

149 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

5. maθkwehsyi masuxsu grass 6. neski:nˇ sekwiˇ nissisi:kwˇ my eye 7. askipowaˇ assipu eats 8. maskye:kwiˇ masse:kw swamp 9. ka:skipya:taˇ ka:ssipita scratch 10. pa:skesikaniˇ pa:ssikan gun

387. Swahili: Proto-Bantu */p/, */t/, */k/ In the following problem, explain the change or changes that Proto-Bantu */p/, */t/, and */k/ have undergone in Swahili. P-Ban. Sw. P-Ban. Sw. 1. muki:pa msipaˇ vein 7. -pi:ka -fika arrive 2. muaki: mwasiˇ mason 8. mulapi: mlafi glutton 3. mupiki: mpisiˇ cook 9. mulipi: mlifi payer 4. pi:ti: fisi hyena 10. -tatu -tatu three 5. mufuati: mfuasi follower 11. -kula -kula grow 6. kiti:ma kisima well 12. -pumula -pumua nest

388. Latin: Proto-Indo-European */s/ In the following problem, explain the change or changes that Proto-Indo- European */s/ has undergone in Latin. Notice that the Latin is presented in traditional orthography. This does not affect the solution. P.I.E. Lat. P.I.E. Lat. 1. euso¯ ur¯ o¯ I burn 10. satis¯ satis enough

2. ai¢oses aeris metal(gen) 11. salnes salis salt(gen) 3. bhloses¯ ﬂoris¯ ﬂower(gen) 12. gnesk¯ o¯ nosc¯ o¯ I know 4. disemo¯ dirimo¯ I separate 13. ghostis hostis enemy 5. esat¯ erat was 14. katesna catena¯ chain

6. ku¢esur queror I complain 15. kastrom castrum fort 7. ghesi heri yesterday 16. veidso¯ v¯ıso¯ I inspect

8. oses¯ oris¯ mouth 17. ku¢atso- caseus¯ cheese ¢ 9. ous¯ a¯ ora¯ edge 18. mei¢tsei m¯ıs¯ı I sent

389. Italian: Proto-Romance */k/ In the following problem, explain the change or changes that Proto-Romance */k/ has undergone in Italian. Notice that the Italian is presented in traditional orthography, in which the letter “c” is pronounced [c]ˇ before “e” and “i”, but is pronounced [k] elsewhere.

150 SOUND CHANGE

P-Rom. It. P-Rom. It. 1. kεrvu cervo stag 6. kapu capo head 2. kera cera wax 7. skala scala ladder

3. dUlke dolce sweet 8. k ¡ llu collo neck 4. pake pace peace 9. mUska mosca ﬂy 5. kivtate citta` city 10. kura cura care

390. Russian: */k/ In the following problem, explain the change or changes in Russian of */k/, coming from a variety of ancient sources. In some cases, the Proto-Slavic word is not available, and we provide a cognate form from another Indo- European language. Unless otherwise marked, the source is Proto-Slavic. Source Russ. 1. kendo˘ cˇado´ child 2. kriketi¯ kricˇat´ y yell 3. ked¯ u˘ cadˇ smoke 4. rank˘ıka¯ ru´ckaˇ hand(dim)

5. kel-(P.I.E) celˇ o´ brow ¢ 6. vulk˘ ˘ıi¢˘ı vol´ ciiˇ wolf-like

7. keik-(P.I.E) cistiˇ ¢i clean y

8. melk˘ın ml e´cniˇ ¢i milky 9. kemerai cˇemer´ headache 10. kirvis(Lith) cˇerv´ y worm 11. melko moloko milk 12. kriku˘(O.C.S) krik yelling 13. kaulos(Lith) kav´ıly grass 14. ranka¯ ruka´ hand 15. vulk˘ u˘ volk wolf 16. okulus(Lat) oko´ eye 17. kamane(Lith)˜ komar´ bug 18. kori-(P.I.E) kor´ıca cinnamon

19. kor ¤ ua¯ korova´ cow 20. kal-(P.I.E) kalu´zaˇ puddle

391. Russian: */x/, */h/ In the following problem, explain the change or changes in Russian of the back consonants */x/ and */h/, coming from a variety of sources. In some cases the Proto-Slavic form is not available, and we provide a cognate

151 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

from another Indo-European language. Unless otherwise marked, the source words are from Proto-Slavic. Source Russ. 1. teix¯ına¯ tyisinˇ a´ silence 2. hiufo(O.H.G) sipˇ thorn 3. dux˘ ˘ıontu˘ disutˇ breathe 4. helmaz(Ger) selˇ om´ helmet 5. xeladion(Gk) salandaˇ boat

6. pux˘ın- pusnˇ oi´ ¢ furry 7. ol˘ıx˘ına¯ olysˇ´ına alders 8. morux˘ık- maru´skaˇ mark 9. hiiri(Finn) siraˇ mouse 10. blox˘ın- blosin-ˇ ﬂea-like 11. tixo ty´ıxo silently 12. texaˇ (O.C.S) utyexa´ joy 13. dux˘ u˘ dux spirit 14. oxvu˘ oxota´ hunt 15. xardz(Turk)ˇ xarciˇ provision

16. pux- puxli´ ¢i pudgy 17. ol˘ıxa ol´ yxa alder 18. bloxa¯ bloxa´ ﬂea

19. xudu˘ xudoi¢ poor 20. hubel(Ger)¯ xubli chips

392. Old Church Slavic: */k/ In the following problem, explain the change or changes in Old Church Slavic */k/, coming from a variety of sources. In some cases the Proto- Slavic form is not available, and we provide a cognate form from another Indo-European language. Unless otherwise marked, the source words are from Proto-Slavic. Note that in Old Church Slavic /e/ˇ was formerly pro-

nounced [i¢a]. Source O.C.S. 1. kaina(Lith)` cenaˇ price 2. skiedra(Latv)` ceditiˇ strain 3. kailus(O.Pr) celuˇ whole 4. kaistu(Lith)ˇ cestaˇ road 5. kailo-(P.I.E) celovatiˇ kiss 6. kaipti(Lith) ocepˇ enˇ etiˇ fear

152 SOUND CHANGE

7. kaisar(Lat) cesarˇ ˘ı emperor 8. kai(Gk) ceˇ which 9. r˘ıki r˘ıci say!

10. kiriko(Go) cr˘ıki church ¢ 11. kui¢ati kuiati murmur 12. kaul¯ a¯(P.I.E) kila knot 13. kolso-(P.I.E) klasu˘ wheat 14. klad-¯ klada block 15. kal-¯ (P.I.E) kalu˘ mud 16. koby kobyla mare 17. kla-¯ klado˜ I place 18. kruv-(Lith)¯ krovu˘ roof 19. taka(Aves) toku˘ current 20. reko˜ reko˜ I say

393. Old Church Slavic: back consonants In the following problem, explain the change or changes in Old Church Slavic of the back consonants represented as “x” and “h” in ancient forms, coming from a variety of sources. In some cases the Proto-Slavic form is not available, and we provide a cognate form from another Indo-European language. In the words below, the source word is in Proto-Slavic unless otherwise marked. Note that in Old Church Slavic /e/ˇ was formerly pro-

nounced [i¢a]. Source O.C.S. 1. heina(Finn)¨ senoˇ garden 2. hearm(O.H.G) sramu˘ shame 3. weihs(Go) visetiˇ hang 4. duxeˇ duseˇ spirit(loc) 5. duxi dusi spirits 6. xoiro- serˇ u˘ grey 7. hirvi(Finn) sruna doe 8. heim(P-Gmc) semˇ e˜ family 9. hjarn(O.N) srenˇ u˘ white 10. hiu(O.H.G) si this 11. duxu˘ duxu˘ spirit 12. grexˇ u˘ grexˇ u˘ sin 13. fauho(Go)ˆ puxu˘ fur 14. puhati(Sk) puxati to blow 15. snuxa˘ snuxa˘ son’s wife

153 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

16. ahad(Aves)¯ xodu˘ walk 17. xumeli xumel˘ ˘ı hops 18. hlaiw(Go) xlevˇ u˘ shed 19. hulma(Ger) xlum˘ u˘ hill 20. xoras¯ xira weakness

394. Old Church Slavic: */k/, */g/, */gh/ In the following problem, explain the change or changes in Old Church Slavic of the old velars */k/, */g/, and */gh/, coming from a variety of sources. In some cases, the Proto-Slavic word is not available, and we present a cognate form from another Indo-European language. In the sources below, the words are Proto-Slavic unless otherwise marked. Note that in Old

Church Slavic /e/ˇ was formerly pronounced [i¢a]. On the basis of the last three exercises, formulate a generalization on the development of Proto- Indo-European velars in Old Church Slavic. Source O.C.S. 1. boge bozeˇ God(loc) 2. kerno(O.Ger)¨ zruno˘ grain 3. nogeˇ nozeˇ leg(loc) 4. geiz(O.Ger) za˘ıoc˜ ˘ı hare 5. gheim-(P.I.E) zima winter 6. rog¯ı rozi horns 7. ginen(O.Ger)¯ zinoti˜ yawn

8. gem-(P.I.E) zmii¢ serpent 9. giwen` (O.H.G) zevatiˇ to yawn 10. gnjida (Sk) gnus˘ınu˘ disgust

11. baga(Aves) bogu¢ God 12. strig- strigo˜ I shear 13. gorg-(Gk) groza storm 14. gras(Go) grozd˘ı cluster 15. godsli˜ gosli˜ psaltery 16. gadu˘ gadu˘ snake 17. ghol¯ u¯(P.I.E) glava head 18. hanti(O.Ind)´ goniti urge 19. agn´ıs(Sk) ogni ﬁre 20. gnˆıtan(O.H.G) gniti decay

395. Spanish: Proto-Romance */ε/ In the following problem, explain the change or changes the Proto-Romance

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*/ε/ underwent in Spanish. There are some secondary changes elsewhere in the problem that you should also try to explain. Notice that the Spanish is presented in standard orthography, in which the letter “c” is pronounced [θ] before “e” or “i”, but [k] elsewhere. The letter combination “ch” is pronounced [c].ˇ The words are presented in random order, and must be grouped into the appropriate classes by the student. P-Rom. Sp. P-Rom. Sp.

1. pulε¢iu poleo wind 12. tεnet tiene has 2. profεktu provecho gain 13. mεle miel honey 3. despektu despecho anger 14. kεntu ciento hundred 4. lektu lecho bed 15. fεrru hierro iron 5. kεku ciego blind 16. pεrdit pierde loses

6. pεktu pecho chest 17. εkua yegua mare ¢

7. vεni¢u vengo I come 18. mεdiu medio middle ¢ 8. prεmi¢a premia prize 19. nεrviu nervio nerve 9. fεsta ﬁesta feast 20. apεrtu abierto open

10. assεktat acecha follow 21. prεti¢u precio price 11. hεrba hierba grass 22. sεpte siete seven

396. Italian: Proto-Romance */ε/ In the following problem, explain the change or changes that Proto-Romance */ε/ underwent in Italian. Notice that the Italian is presented in standard orthography, in which the letter “c” is pronounced [c]ˇ before “e” or “i”, but [k] elsewhere, and the letter “g” is pronounced [jˇ] before “e” and “i” but [g] elsewhere. When the combinations “ci” and “gi” are followed by another vowel, they are pronounced [c]ˇ and [jˇ], not [ci]ˇ and [jˇi]. The combination

“sci” is pronounced [s],ˇ and the combination “gl” is pronounced [ § ]. Notice that the items are presented in alphabetic order of the English gloss, and must be put into the appropriate classes by the student. P-Rom. It. P-Rom. It.

1. fεra ﬁera beast 15. kεntu cento hundred ¢ 2. mεli¢u meglio better 16. nεskiu nescio ignorant 3. kεku cieco blind 17. fεrru ferro iron 4. pεktu petto chest 18. lεve lieve light

5. prεssi¢a prescia crowd 19. pεrdit perde loses

6. desεrtu diserto desert 20. mεdi¢u mezzo middle

7. fεsta festa feast 21. prεti¢u prezzo price 8. pεde piede foot 22. sεlla sella eat

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9. gεlu gielo frost 23. sεpte sette seven 10. fεle ﬁele gall 24. kεlu cielo sky 11. lεpre lepre hare 25. sternutu sternuto sneeze 12. fεnu ﬁeno hay 26. dεke dieci ten 13. tεnet tiene holds 27. tεmpu tempo time 14. mεle miele honey 28. tεpidu tiepido warm

397. Spanish and Italian: Proto-Romance */ ¡ / In the following problem, explain the change or changes that Proto-Romance

*/ ¡ / has undergone in both Spanish and Italian. Notice that both languages are presented in standard orthography. Refer to previous problems for the pertinent rules of pronunciation of these standard orthographies, and add that the letter combination “ch” in Italian is pronounced [k]. Also note that the letter combinations “ue” and “uo” in Spanish and Italian respectively are diphthongs in which the “u” represents a non-syllabic on-glide, and the whole combination is only one syllable long. The words are in alphabetic order according to the English gloss and must be grouped into the appropriate classes by the student. P-Rom. Sp. It.

1. p ¡ diu poyo poggio bench

2. bisk ¡ ktu bizcocho biscotto biscuit

3. m ¡ rdit muerde morde bites

4. k ¡ rpu cuerpo corpo body

5. ¡ ssu hueso osso bone

6. k ¡ ntat cuenta conta calculates

7. p ¡ tet puede puo` can

8. m ¡ rit muere muore dies

9. ¡ vu huevo uovo egg

10. ¡ klu ojo occhio eye

11. ¡ ktu ocho otto eight

12. f ¡ ku fuego fuoco ﬁre ¡ 13.¢ i ku juego giuoco game

14. h ¡ spite huesped´ ospite guest ¡

15. f li¢a hoja foglia leaf ¡ 16. m di¢u moyo mozzo measure

17. m ¡ vet mueve muove moves

18. n ¡ kte noche notte night

19. k ¡ ksa coja cossa thigh ¡ 20. h di¢e hoy oggi today

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398. Russian: /˘ı/ and /u/˘ In the following problem, explain the change or changes that have taken place between the earlier stage represented by Old Church Slavic and the later stage represented by Russian in respect to the vowels /˘ı/ and /u/˘ of the earlier stage. O.C.S. Russ. 1. sun˘ u˘ son dream(nom.sg) 2. suna˘ sna dream(gen.sg) 3. sunu˘ snu dream(dat.sg) 4. sramu˘ sram shame 5. ot˘ıc˘ı otec father 6. kuto˘ kto who 7. k˘ıto ctoˇ what 8. m˘ıne mnye me(dat.sg) 9. kun˘ ez˜ ˘ı knyazy duke 10. d˘ın˘ı deny day 11. v˘ıdovica vdovica widow 12. suln˘ ˘ıce solnce sun 13. kude˘ gde where 14. suto˘ sto hundred 15. pyasuk˘ u˘ pesok sand(nom.sg) 16. pyasuka˘ peska sand(gen.sg) 17. p˘ıstru˘ pestr colourful 18. p˘ıs˘ı pes dog

399. Russian: vowels In the following problem, given the Old Church Slavic form of the words, predict which vowel or lack thereof will occur in Russian. Base your decision on what you know from the previous problem. O.C.S. Russ. 1. p˘ıni p ni stumps 2. zulo˘ z lo evil 3. duva˘ d va two 4. gunati˘ g nati chase 5. mux˘ u˘ m x moss 6. suz˘ uvati˘ s z vaty invite 7. t˘ıst˘ı t st father-in-law 8. uzuk˘ u˘ uz k narrow(masc.sg)

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9. uzuka˘ uz ka narrow(fem.sg) 10. posul˘ u˘ pos l messenger

400. Slavic Languages: Proto-Slavic */or/ In the following problem, describe the change or changes that have occurred to Proto-Slavic */or/ in the descendant Slavic languages. What morphophonemic processes are involved? P-Sl. O.C.S. Po. Cz. Russ. 1. gordu˘ gradu˘ grod´ hrad gorod city 2. vornu˘ vrana wrona vrana´ vorona crow 3. borda brada broda brada boroda chin 4. porsen prase˜ prosie˜ prase poros- pig 5. morz mrazu˘ mroz´ mraz´ moroz frost 6. gorx graxu˘ groch hrach´ gorox pea 7. storna strana strona strana storona side 8. storzˇ˘ı strazˇ˘ı stro´z˙ stra´zˇ storozˇ guard 9. porxu˘ praxu˘ proch prach porox dust

10. kortu˘ kratuk˘ u˘ krotki´ kratk´ y´ korotki¢i short 11. orzˇ˘ın razˇ˘ınu˘ rozenˇ rozeˇ nˇ rozonˇ spit 12. orv˘ınu˘ ravinu˘ rowny´ rovny´ roven even 13. orb rabu˘ rob rob- robota slave 14. orkyta — rokita rokyta rokita willow 15. orst- rasto˜ wzrost rostu rost grow 16. orzu˘ razu˘ ro´zny˙ rozlicnˇ y´ vrozny different

401. Slavic Languages: Proto-Slavic */ol/ and */el/ In the following problem, describe the change or changes that have occurred to the Proto-Slavic sequences */ol/ and */el/ in the various Slavic languages. What morphophonemic processes are involved? Polish and Czech are in standard orthography. P-Sl. O.C.S. Po. Cz. Russ. 1. golva glava głowa hlava golova head

2. (dolgos) zliˇ ¢abu złobˇ zlabˇ zolobˇ gutter 3. poltuno˘ plat˘ıno płotno platno´ polotno linen 4. polxu˘ plaxu˘ płochy plachy´ polox fear

5. moldvis mladu˘ młody mlady´ molodoi¢ young

¢ ¢ 6. solvi¢i slavii słowik slav´ık solovei nightingale 7. solma slama słoma slama´ soloma straw

8. soldu˘ sladuk˘ u˘ słodki sladky´ solodkii¢ sweet

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9. soln- slanu˘ słony slany´ solonka salt 10. volsu˘ vlasu˘ włos vlas volos hair 11. melko mlekoˇ mleko mleko´ moloko milk 12. pel- pletiˇ plec´ pleti poloty weed 13. pelnu´ plenˇ u˘ plenic´ plen polon capture 14. pelva plevaˇ plewa pleva polova chaff 15. mel- mletiˇ mlec´ mleti molotyba grind 16. selz- slezenaˇ sledziona slezina selezenka spleen 17. seld˘ı — sledz sledˇ seledka herring

18. selmen slemeˇ slemie slemn´ eˇ solomi¢a strait 19. velk vlek˘ o˜ wlec´ vleci´ volocˇ drag 20. selmˇ u˘ slˇ emˇ u˘ — slemˇ solomˇ helmet

402. Indo-European: Satem and Kentum languages In the following cognate sets in various Indo-European languages, observe the reﬂexes of the old Proto-Indo-European velars either as velars or as spirants. Indicate which languages are included in the Satem group or in the Kentum group.

1. sej (Russian); su˘ (Old Church Slavic); sisˇ (Latvian); cis (Latin); himma (Gothic); εke´ı(Greek); ka-,¯ ki- (Hittite) ‘this’

2. rajata-´ (Sanskrit); r ¤ zata- (Avestan); arguros´ (Greek); argentum (Latin); argat (Old Irish) ‘silver’ 3. slovo (Old Church Slavic) ‘word’; clueo (Latin) ‘I am called’; sr´ avah´ (Sanskrit) ‘fame’; kleos´ (Greek) ‘fame’; hliuma (Gothic) ‘hearing’ 4. cakra- (Sanskrit); kuklos (Greek); kukal¨ (Tokharian); hweohl (Old English) ‘wheel’ 5. lih- (Sanskrit); lizum (Armenian); lizati (Old Church Slavic); leihko¯ (Greek); lingo (Latin); ligim (Old Irish); bilaigon (Gothic) ‘lick’

6. simi¢a´ (Ukranian) ‘family’; seminˇ u˘ (Old Church Slavic) ‘household member’; haims (Gothic) ‘village’; heim (Old High German) ‘home’; kome´ (Greek) ‘village’; c¯ıvis (Latin) ‘citizen’ 7. xortos (Greek); senoˇ (Bulgarian); seno (Slovak); siˇ enas˜ (Lithuanian); heu (German) ‘hay’ 8. hekaton (Greek); centum (Latin); simtasˇ (Lithuanian); ke¯ (Old

Irish); sat ¤ m (Avestan) ‘hundred’ 9. jarate¯ (Sanskrit) ‘sing’; kerran (Old High German) ‘shriek’; geranos (Greek) ‘stork’; zeravˇ (Bulgarian) ‘crane’; dzerve˜ (Latvian) ‘crane’ 10. sersenˇ y (Russian); serˇ sen’ˇ (Low Sorbian); Hornisse (German); crabr¯ o¯ (Latin); sirsilis (Old Prussian) ‘hornet’

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403. English: sound change The following items are words in Old English with the Modern English reﬂexes. Re-write both columns in a phonemic transcription and formulate the sound changes that have occurred. O.E. Mod.Eng. O.E. Mod.Eng. 1. hring ring 11. hund hound 2. cniht knight 12. sæ¯ sea 3. blod¯ blood 13. mere mare 4. betweonum¯ between 14. cyning king

5. læcecræft leechcraft 15. sæb¯ at¯ seaboat ¨ 6. ¨ usend¯ thousand 16. ær¯ there 7. bryd¯ bride 17. f¯ıf ﬁve

8. teo¯ ¨ a tithe 18. scyrte shirt 9. dæg day 19. godspell gospel 10. godsunu godson 20. brydguma¯ bridegroom

404. English: vowels In the following problem, rewrite the English forms in a phonemic transcription, and observe the phonemic alternations between the main stressed vocalic nucleus in the first column and the corresponding vocalic nucleus in the second column. Hypothesize an identical vowel for both forms at an earlier stage of the language, and determine what sound changes have taken place in these vowels, and what conditioning factor was involved and led to the present alternation. The forms are arranged in alphabetic order, so it is up to the student to sort them out into suitable groups. In this and the remaining problems in this section, you might want to look up the etymology of the words in a dictionary either before or after you have done the problem. 1. creep crept 7. kneel knelt 2. dame damsel 8. late last 3. five fifteen 9. lose lost 4. float flotsam 10. nose nostril 5. goose gosling 11. out utmost 6. house husband 12. wise wisdom

405. English: vowels In the following problem, again rewrite the words into a phonemic transcription as in the previous problem, and observe the phonemic alternation between the main stressed vocalic nucleus in the ﬁrst column and the

160 SOUND CHANGE

corresponding vocalic nucleus in the second column. What conditioning factor is involved here? 1. cape capital 7. school scholarly 2. crime criminal 8. severe severity 3. globe globular 9. sole solitude 4. grade gradual 10. south southerly 5. obscene obscenity 11. out utterly 6. prove probable 12. vile vilify

406. English: vowels In the following problem, consider the way the vowels are spelled. What conclusion can you come to by a comparison of the way the vowels are spelled and the way they are pronounced in modern English? 1. creep crept 6. heal health 2. clean cleanse 7. keep kept 3. deep depth 8. kneel knelt 4. dream dreamt 9. mean meant 5. feel felt 10. steal stealth

407. English: vowels In the following problem, explain the change or changes that have taken place in the main stressed vowels from Old English to modern English. What is the conditioning factor for the differences between forms 1–6 and forms 7–12? O.E. later Mod.Eng. O.E. later Mod.Eng. 1. gosi¯ gosi¨ geese 7. gos¯ gos goose 2. to¯θi to¨θi teeth 8. to¯θ toθ tooth 3. musi¯ musi¨ mice 9. mus¯ mus mouse

408. English: /h/ In the following problem, explain the change or changes that Old English /h/ has undergone in Modern English. Certain dialects of modern English have changes that other dialects do not.

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O.E. Mod.Eng. .O.E Mod.Eng 1. hlud¯ loud 6. hand hand 2. hring ring 7. hela¯ heel 3. hnutu nut 8. holin holly 4. hw¯ınan whine 9. helpan help 5. hwæt what 10. huntian hunt

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409. English: questions The following examples are questions in 16th-century English, followed by their Modern English equivalents. Indicate what changes have taken place between 16th-century English and Modern English. Find out what the source of the earlier sentences is.

1. What sum owes he? What sum does he owe? 2. Why sweat they under burdens? Why do they sweat under burdens? 3. What says that fool of Hagar’s offspring, ha? What does that fool of Hagar’s offspring say, ha? 4. What says the leaden casket? What does the lead casket say? 5. Move these eyes? Do these eyes move?

410. English: negatives The following examples are negative sentences in 16th-century English, followed by their Modern English equivalents. Indicate what changes have taken place between 16th-century English and Modern English. Find out what the source of the earlier sentences is.

1. Mislike me not for my complexion. Do not mislike me for my complexion. 2. Clamber not you up to the casement then. Don’t climb up to the casement then. 3. A kinder gentleman treads not the earth. A kinder gentleman doesn’t tread the earth.

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4. I know not what’s spent in the search. I don’t know what’s spent in the search. 5. Hate counsels not in such a quantity. Hate doesn’t counsel in such a quantity.

411. Arabic: verbs The following are paradigms of the verb ‘to write’ in the present tense in Old Arabic and in Maltese, a modern Arabic dialect. Outline the phonological and grammatical changes that Maltese has undergone from Old Arabic. O.Ar. Malt. aktibu niktep I write taktibu tiktep you(masc) write taktibiina tiktep you(fem) write yaktibu yiktep he writes taktibu tiktep she writes naktibu niktebu we write taktibuuna tiktebu you(masc.pl) write taktibna tiktebu you(fem.pl) write yaktibuuna yiktebu they(masc) write yaktibna yiktebu they(fem) write

412. English: nouns The following paradigms illustrate the nominal inflections of Proto-German- ic and the nominal inflections of Old English. Indicate what phonological and grammatical changes the inflections have undergone in Old English. P-Gmc O.E. nominative stanaz¯ stan¯ stone accusative stanan¯ stan¯ genitive st anesa¯ stanes¯ dative stanai¯ stane¯ instrumental stani¯ stane¯ nominative stan¯ oz¯ stanas¯ stones accusative stananz¯ stanas¯ genitive stanon¯ stana¯ dative stanomiz¯ stanum¯

413. Italian: imperfect tense The following paradigms illustrate the Proto-Romance present and imper-

164 GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL CHANGE

fect tenses of ﬁrst conjugation verbs, followed by the same tenses in modern Italian. Indicate what phonological and grammatical changes Italian has undergone. P-Rom. It. canto¯ canto I sing cantas¯ canti you sing cantat canta he sings cantamus¯ cantiamo we sing cantatis¯ cantate you(pl) sing cantant cantano they sing cantabam¯ cantavo I sang cantab¯ as¯ cantavi you sang cantabat¯ cantava he sang cantab¯ amus¯ cantavamo we sang cantab¯ atis¯ cantavate you(pl) sang cantabant¯ cantavano they sang

414. English: Old English nouns The following is a list of Old English nouns and their plurals, followed by their equivalent in Modern English. Outline the grammatical changes that have taken place. O.E. Mod.Eng. sg. pl. sg. pl. 1. stan¯ stanas¯ stone stones 2. word word word words 3. duru dura door doors 4. cneo¯ cneo¯ knee knees 5. scinu scina shin shins 6. cwen¯ cw ena¯ queen queens 7. spere speru spear spears 8. feld felda ﬁeld ﬁelds 9. cnapa cnapan knave knaves 10. tunge tungan tongue tongues 11. boc¯ bec¯ book books

12. hnutu hnyte nut nuts ¡ 13. mona¯ ¡ mona¯ month months 14. lamb lambru lamb lambs 15. cealf cealfru calf calves

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16. æg¯ ægru¯ egg eggs 17. cild cildru child children

415. English: verbs The following are Old English verbs in the third person singular preterite tense, followed by their Modern English equivalents. Indicate what grammatical change has occured. 1. lifde lived 11. mealt melted 2. strac¯ stroked 12. swealg swallowed 3. glad¯ glided 13. spearn spurned 4. grap¯ gripped 14. scræp scraped 5. ceaw¯ chewed 15. meow¯ mowed 6. leac¯ locked 16. boc¯ baked 7. sleap¯ slipped 17. wosc¯ washed 8. clamb climbed 18. scrof¯ scraped 9. barn burned 19. feold¯ folded 10. healp helped 20. ﬂeow¯ ﬂowed

416. English: verbs In Old English the ﬁrst person singular and the third person singular of the perfect (past) tense of strong verbs were identical. The third person plural form was different. In the development into Modern English, some strong verbs used the singular stem and some used the plural stem. Examine the following forms and identify those with singular stems and those with plural stems. Can you think of any reason why some verbs derive from one stem and others derive from the other stem? pret.sg. pret.pl. Mod.Eng. pret.sg. pret.pl. Mod.Eng. 1. bærst burston burst 9. rad¯ ridon rode 2. bat¯ biton bit 10. scranc scrunk shrank 3. bead¯ budon bade 11. slad¯ slidon slid 4. ceas¯ curon chose 12. slanc sluncon slunk 5. clang clungon clung 13. spann spunnon spun 6. cleaf¯ clufon clove 14. stang stungon stung 7. draf¯ drifon drove 15. strad¯ stridon strode 8. dranc druncon drank 16. wrat¯ writon wrote

417. English: Old English ‘to be’ The verb ‘to be’ had some dialectical variation in Old English. The following paradigms give some of these. Compare these with Modern English and

166 GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL CHANGE

determine from which Old English forms the Modern English forms are derived. pres.indic. pres.sbjv. s-root b-root s-root b-root eom beo¯ s¯ıe beo¯ I am eart bist s¯ıe beo¯ you are

is bi ¡ s¯ıe beo¯ he is

aron beo¯ ¡ s¯ıen beon¯ they are inf. beon¯ wesan to be pres.part. beonde¯ wesende being past.part. ge-beon¯ been imp. beo¯ be(sg)

beo¯ ¡ be(pl) past.indic past.sbjv. wæs wære¯ I was, were wære¯ wære¯ you were wæs wære¯ he was, were wæron¯ wæren¯ they were

418. Spanish: days of the week The following examples are the Vulgar Latin names of the days of the week, followed by the modern Spanish days of the week. Explain the derivation of the Spanish names from the Latin, especially the names of Monday and Wednesday. Vlg.Lat. Sp. Sunday dies dominicu domingo Monday dies lunae lunes Tuesday dies martis martes Wednesday dies mercurii miercoles´ Thursday dies jovis jueves Friday dies veneris viernes Saturday dies sabatu sabado´

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419. Spanish: neuter nouns in -us The following examples are Latin neuter nouns in -us, whose plural was -Vra. Each is followed by the Spanish equivalent. Note that the singular and plural in Spanish do not necessarily reﬂect the singular and plural in Latin. Explain what has happened to these nouns. sg. pl. Lat. Sp. Lat. Sp. 1. corpus cuerpo corpora cuerpos body 2. tempus tiempo tempora tiempos time 3. pectus pecho pectora pechos breast 4. latus lado latera lados side 5. pignus peno˜ pignora penos˜ pledge 6. opus uebo opera uebos task The last two items have by-forms with the same meanings, but different forms: 7. pignus prenda pignora prendas pledge 8. opus huebra opera huebras task Explain what has happened in these two cases.

420. Spanish: cultismos In the following examples, each Latin etymon has two reflexes in Span- ish: one inherited from Latin through Proto-Romance, the other borrowed directly from Latin at a later date (called in Spanish “cultismo”, meaning ‘cultivated word’), frequently with a different meaning. Examine the items and try to explain the difference in meanings. Lat. Inherited Borrowed 1. articulus artejo knuckle art´ıculo finger joint 2. fingere henir˜ to knead fingir to pretend 3. sexta siesta nap sexta sixth 4. circulus cercha rim c´ırculo circle 5. catedra cadera hip catedra´ chair 6. titulus tilde (diacritic) t´ıtulo title 7. folia hoja leaf folio folio 8. malitia maleza thicket malicia malice 9. justitia justeza honesty justicia justice 10. fidele¯ fiel faithful fidel faithful 11. mansione meson´ inn mansion´ mansion 12. speculum espejo mirror especulo´ speculum

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421. Spanish: pronouns The following items illustrate the nominative and objective forms of the Spanish and Latin pronouns. These are followed by parallel Latin and Span- ish use of these pronouns. Explain what has taken place in the development from Latin to Spanish both in form and in usage. Sp. Lat. nom. obj. nom. obj. I yo me ego me¯ you tu´ te tu¯ te¯ he el´ le ille illum she ella la illa illam we nosotros nos nos¯ nos¯ you(pl) vosotros os vos¯ vos¯ they(masc) ellos los ill¯ı illos¯ they(fem) ellas las illae illas¯

Lat. Sp. inter teetm¯ e¯ entre tu´ y yo between you and me inter te¯ et illum entre tu´ y el´ between you and him inter me¯ et illam entre yo y ella between me and her secundum illam segun´ ella according to her secundum illos¯ segun´ ellos according to them(masc) secundum illas¯ segun´ ellas according to them(fem) secundum nos¯ segun´ nosotros according to us secundum vos¯ segun´ vosotros according to you(pl)

422. Spanish: subjunctive

In Spanish a Latin /k/ (orthographically “c”) became /θ/ when followed £ by a front vowel: dicit ¢ di e ‘he says’, and became /g/ intervocalically

when followed by a non-front vowel: dico ¢ digo ‘I say’. Examine the following paradigms of the indicative and subjunctive of the verb ‘to arrive’ and explain what the development from Latin to Spanish has been. indic. sbjv. Lat. Sp. Lat. Sp. plico¯ llego plicem llegue I arrive plicas¯ llegas plices¯ llegues you arrive plicat llega plicet llegue he arrives plicamus¯ llegamos plicemus¯ lleguemos we arrive

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plicatis¯ llegais´ plicetis¯ llegueis´ you(pl) arrive plicant llegan plicent lleguen they arrive

423. Spanish: indicative present of ‘to be’ The following forms illustrate the present indicative of the verb ‘to be’ in Latin and in Spanish. Explain what has happened to the verb for ‘you are’, and why. pres.ind. fut. Lat. Sp. Lat. Sp. sum soy I am ero¯ sere´ es eres you are eris seras´ est es he is erit sera´ sumus somos we are erimus seramos est¯ıs sois you(pl) are eritis serais´ sunt son they are erunt seran´

424. Spanish: present subjunctive of ‘to be’ The following forms illustrate the present subjunctive of the verb ‘to be’ in Latin and in Spanish, as well as the Latin forms for the present subjunctive of the verb sedere ‘to be in a place’. Explain what has happened to the Spanish pardigm of the verb ‘to be’. Lat. Sp. sedere sim sea sedeam I s¯ıs seas sedeas you sit sea sedeat he s¯ımus seamos sedeamus¯ we s¯ıtis seais´ sedeatis¯ you(pl) sint sean sedeant they

425. Spanish: Arabic loans The following are examples of Arabic words borrowed into Spanish. Explain what has happened in the transition from Arabic to Spanish. Sp. Ar. 1. el albayalde the white lead al-bayd. the white (stuff) 2. el albuhera the lake al-buh.eyra the pond 3. el alcalde the mayor al-qaad. ii the judge 4. la alcoba the alcove al-qubba the niche 5. el algodon´ the cotton al-qut.un the cotton

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6. la Alhambra the Alhambra al-h.amraa the red (one) 7. el aceite the oil az-zayt the oil 8. el anil˜ the indigo an-niil the Nile 9. el azafran´ the saffron as-s.ufr the yellow (stuff) 10. el azud the dam as-sadd the dam

426. Spanish: future tense The following are the paradigms for the future tense in Latin followed by the future tense in Spanish. What has happened? For your reference, we also include a Latin construction meaning ‘I have to love’, consisting of the inﬁnitive of the verb ‘to love’ amare¯ , plus the present subjunctive of the verb ‘to have’. Lat. Sp. Lat. construction amab¯ o¯ amare´ amare¯ habeam I amabis¯ amaras´ amare¯ habeas¯ you amabit¯ amara´ amare¯ habeat he amabimus¯ amaremos amare¯ habeamus¯ we amabitis¯ amareis´ amare¯ habeatis¯ you(pl) amabunt¯ amaran´ amare¯ habeant they

427. English: conjoined pronoun In standard English grammar, a pronoun that is the object of a verb or a preposition is in the objective case: I saw him, with me. A possessed noun is preceded by a possessive pronoun: my brother. However, when there are two pronouns or a pronoun and a noun, one or both of the pronouns can be in the nominative case: he saw John and I, between he and I, he and Mary’s car. Examine the following examples and try to formulate an explanation or explanations as to how this alternative construction arose. (Hint: colloquial Him and me done it, labeled “incorrect”, vs. standard He and I did it, labeled “correct”.) 1. addressing we Canadians 2. all debts are cleared between you and I 3. has been with my cousin Edward and I 4. without he and Reagan ever meeting 5. he asked that he and his wife’s names be changed 6. bitterness between Francis and I 7. between he and his grandson 8. watching my sister and I do things 9. the following week found my girlfriend and I

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10. trying to get my sister and I to learn to swim 11. would you care to dance with my friend and I? 12. let we workers decide 13. but to we nostalgic post-Imperial powers 14. the frustrations of we the journalists 15. that silliness about he and Huldy Ann thinking a lot 16. a big week for Tom Burgess and I 17. it took Ross and John and David and Stephen and Bob and I almost 18. at Josh and I’s wedding

428. Romance and Germanic: ‘right’ and ‘left’ In some Romance and Germanic languages, the word for ‘left’ or ‘left hand’ has a wide variety of etyma, while the word for ‘right’ or ‘right hand’ has less etymological variation. Can you think of a reason that this is so? Examine the following examples and attempt to give an explanation. left right Latin sinister dextra Italian siniestra destra Spanish izquierda derecha Spanish zurdo — ‘left-handed person’ Catalan esquerra` dret Portuguese esquerda direito French gauche droit Rumanian stˆıng dreaptaˇ German links recht English left right Swedish vanster¨ ratt¨

429. Spanish: pronouns In Spanish, when two pronouns follow a verb form such as the inﬁnitive, the indirect object precedes the direct. The indirect pronoun for the third person is le (singular) and les (plural). When an indirect and a direct pronoun come together, the indirect is invariably se instead of the predicted le or les. Vulgar Latin has the regularly expected indirect pronoun. Examine the following examples and see if you can ﬁnd an explanation for this. Vlg.Lat. Sp. dare me darme to give to me dare me illu darmelo´ to give it to me dare te darte to give to you

172 GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL CHANGE

dare te illu dartelo´ to give it to you dare illi darle to give to him dare illi illu darselo´ to give it to him dare illis illu darselo´ to give it to them dare se darse to give to himself dare se illu darselo´ to give it to himself

430. Spanish: pronouns with ‘with’ In Spanish the objective form of the pronoun follows a preposition: para me ‘for me’; para te ‘for you’; para se ‘for himself’. However, some pronouns used with the preposition ‘with’ have a special form. Examine the following examples and the Latin equivalents and try to ﬁnd an explanation for this. Lat. Sp. mecum¯ conmigo with me tecum¯ contigo with you secum¯ consigo with himself nob¯ ¯ıscum con nosotros with us vob¯ ¯ıscum con vosotros with you(pl) cum amico¯ con un amigo with a friend

431. Spanish: the verb vencer ‘to conquer’

In Spanish, a Latin /k/ (spelled “c”) became /θ/ before a front vowel: dicit £ ¢ di e ‘he says’, but remained /k/ after /n/ and before a non-front vowel:

truncu ¢ tronco ‘tree trunk’. Examine the following paradigms of the present indicative and present subjunctive of the verb ‘to conquer’ and explain the developments. The phoneme /θ/ is spelled “c” before “e” or “i”, but “z” elsewhere. indic. sbjv. Lat. Sp. Lat. Sp. vinco¯ venzo vincam venza I conquer vincis vences vincas¯ venzas you conquer vincit vence vincat venza he conquers vincimus vencemos vincamus¯ venzamos we conquer vincitis venceis´ vincatis¯ venzais´ you(pl) conquer vincunt vencen vincant venzan they conquer

432. Spanish: the verb ir ‘to go’ The following are the paradigms of the present indicative, the imperfect indicative and the preterite of the Latin verb ire ‘to go’ with the Spanish

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equivalents. Explain what has happened. pres. imperf. pret. Lat. Sp. Lat. Sp. Lat. Sp. eo¯ voy ¯ıbam iba iv¯ı fu´ı I go ¯ıs vas ¯ıbas¯ ibas ivist¯ı fuiste you go it va ¯ıbat iba ivit fue´ he goes ¯ımus vamos ¯ıbamus¯ ibamos ivimus fuimos we go ¯ıtis vais ¯ıbatis¯ ibais´ ivistis fuisteis´ you(pl) go eunt van ¯ıbant iban iverunt¯ fueron they go

433. Maltese: numbers 11–19 The numbers in Classical Arabic are complex. From 11 to 19 they consist of the single digit followed by the word for ‘ten’, so, for example, the number “15” is expressed by the words that mean ‘five ten’, similar to English “fifteen”. A following noun is in the indefinite accusative singular. If the noun is masculine, the digit (with the exceptions of the words meaning ‘one’ and ‘two’) is feminine and has the feminine ending -ata, but the word for ‘ten’ is masculine and lacks the -ata ending. If the noun is feminine, the digit is masculine, lacking the -ata ending, but the word for ‘ten’ is feminine and has the -ata feminine ending. Maltese, a modern Arabic colloquial dialect, has changed this system. Examine the following examples and indicate what changes have occured. (Note that the letter “x” is pronounced [s]ˇ in Maltese.) Masculine nouns

Cl.Ar. Malt.

1. ah. ada ¤ asaraˇ t.ifalan dax il-tifel 11 boys

2. iθnaa ¤ asaraˇ baaban tnax il-bieb 12 doors

3. θalaaθata ¤ asaraˇ daaran tlittax il-dar 13 houses

4. arba ¤ ata asaraˇ bi ran erbatax il-bir 14 wells

¥ 5. xamsata ¤ asaraˇ daw an mistax il-dawl 15 lights .

6. sittata ¤ asaraˇ kalban sittax il-kelb 16 dogs ¤ 7. sab ¤ ata asaraˇ h. abiiban sbatax il-habib 17 friends

8. θamaanyata ¤ asaraˇ yawman tmintax il-jum 18 days ¤ 9. tis ¤ ata asaraˇ s.ayfan dsatax il-sajf 19 summers Feminine nouns

Cl.Ar. Malt.

1. ih.daa ¤ asrataˇ bintan dax il-bint 11 girls

2. iθnataa ¤ asrataˇ bayd.atan tnax il-bajda 12 eggs

174 GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL CHANGE

3. θalaaθa ¤ asrataˇ kalimatan tlittax il-kelma 13 words

¤ ¤ ¥

4. arba ¤ a asrataˇ ˇum j atan erbatax il-gimg˙ a 14 weeks

¥ 5. xamsa ¤ asrataˇ mra atan mistax il-mara 15 women

6. sitta ¤ asrataˇ t.ayratan sittax il-tajra 16 birds ¤ 7. sab ¤ a asrataˇ wardatan sbatax il-warda 17 roses

8. θamaania ¤ asrataˇ sanatan tmintax il-sena 18 years ¤ 9. tis ¤ a asrataˇ laylatan dsatax il-lejla 19 nights The following forms may be of use in analysing the data: Cl.Ar. Malt. 1. at-taaqatu it-tieqa the window 2. ad-daaru id-dar the house 3. ar-rajˇulu ir-ragel˙ the man 4. as-samawaatu is-smewwiet the heavens 5. al-kalbu il-kelb the dog 6. al-baytu il-bejt the roof 7. kam bintan kemm il-bint how many girls?

434. Turkish: loan words Divide the following words into three groups: native Turkish words, words borrowed from Arabic, and words borrowed from languages other than Arabic. Hint: borrowed words frequently do not exhibit the vowel harmony exhibited by native Turkish words. 1. taksi taxi 16. penaltı penalty 2. cevap answer 17. dikkat attention 3. itibar regard 18. vakit time 4. kokteyl cocktail 19. koyun sheep 5. çocuk child 20. bas¸bakan prime minister 6. sonra after 21. imparator emperor 7. idrak perception 22. kabir tomb 8. çIplak naked 23. bahis topic 9. gazete newspaper 24. katibeˆ clerk 10. mikrop microbe 25. sutc¨ ¸u¨ milkman 11. evcik little house 26. memur official 12. kahramanlik heroism 27. domates tomatoes 13. aks¸am evening 28. s¸aka joke 14. feribot ferryboat 29. kitap book 15. is¸tirak participation 30. banliyo¨ suburbs

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435. English: spellings English spellings may provide a variety of information about the history of the language. Find out how the underlined letters in the following words came to be part of the spelling. 1. comb 6. church 11. kiss 16. throne 2. ye olde shoppe 7. citizen 12. gnaw 17. doubt 3. guest 8. wrong 13. question 18. son 4. light 9. knight 14. enough 19. subtle 5. philosophy 10. mouse 15. sun 20. caught

436. English: ‘-ling’ sufﬁx English inherited a sufﬁx -ing from earlier Germanic which indicated ‘having the quality of’ something. A modern example is wilding ‘an apple tree

having the quality of being wild’; another is farthing ‘the fourth part of a ¦ penny’. An early example is æ¦ eling ‘nobleman’, from the adjective æ el ‘noble’. Examine the following words and explain what has happened to this sufﬁx in modern English in both form and meaning. 1. yearling 6. duckling 2. underling 7. nursling 3. hireling 8. princeling 4. ﬁngerling 9. earthling 5. gosling 10. darling How would you analyse the word quisling ‘a traitor who heads a puppet government of a conquered nation’?

437. English: suffixes A number of suffixes have variant forms when suffixed to certain words. Examine the following formations and outline the historical processes that have influenced the shape of the suffixed word. 1. witty–witticism; but Marx–Marxism; cf. critic–criticism 2. tobacco–tobacconist; but social–socialist; cf. Plato–Platonist 3. Peru–Peruvian; but Florida–Floridian; cf. Shaw–Shavian 4. farce–farcical; but fate–fatal; cf. music–musical 5. Norway–Norwegian; but Paraguay–Paraguayan; cf. Old Norse Norvegr ‘Norway’

438. English: native vs. borrowed vocabulary Examine the following words and arrange them into three groups: inherited

176 GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL CHANGE

Germanic words, words borrowed from French, and words borrowed from Latin and other languages, keeping words with similar meanings in the three groups side by side. Explain the relation between the words in sets of similar meaning. 1. adolescent 11. crude 21. fasting 31. tedious 2. carnal 12. enlarge 22. lunatic 32. boldness 3. tiresome 13. song 23. routine 33. manliness 4. valour 14. usual 24. courage 34. sensual 5. fatiguing 15. mad 25. improvidence 35. youngster 6. lukewarm 16. deranged 26. aggrandize 36. imperfect 7. magnify 17. rashness 27. abstain 37. tenacity 8. juvenile 18. aria 28. habitual 38. fortissimo 9. nonchalant 19. chant 29. unfashioned 39. starve 10. indifferent 20. lustful 30. incapable

439. Indo-European: ablaut The data from Proto-Slavic, Latin, Greek, and Lithuanian illustrate the Indo- European ablaut, or vowel change. Identify the ablaut type, indicate what function it has, and illustrate how the same function is expressed in English. Can you think of any further examples of ablaut in English or any other Indo-European language?

P-Sl. §

1. bredo I wade brodu¨ ford § 2. peko I bake potu¨ sweat

3. lezoˇ § I lie lozeˇ bed §

4. grebo I dig grobu¨ grave § 5. neso I carry ponusu¨ diarrhea

6. vedo§ I lead vojevoda commander § 7. bejo I strike boju¨ battle

§ 8. reko I speak proroku¨ prophet Lat. 9. tego¯ I cover toga toga 10. fero¯ I carry foria¯ diarrhea 11. pendo¯ I weigh pondus weight 12. sedeo¯ I sit solium throne Gk. 13. lego´ I speak logos word 14. plexo´ I weave ploxe´ weaving

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15. fero´ I carry foros´ load 16. trexo´ I run troxos´ wheel 17. pexo´ I comb poxe´ wool 18. demo´ I build domos house 19. feno´ I kill fone´ murder Lith. 20. nesˇu` I carry nastaˇ bag 21. renoju` I support ramtis˜ support 22. bredu` I wade brasta ford 23. renku` I gather ranka` hand 24. vedu` I lead vadovas˜ guide

440. Russian: loanwords from Turko-Tatar On the basis of evidence from other Slavic languages, indicate which Rus- sian words are borrowings from Turko-Tatar languages (Pecheneg, Polovets, Dzhagotai, etc.). Czech and Polish are in standard orthography, Russian in transliteration. Russ. Cz. Po.

1. ruka ruka re§ ka hand 2. losad’ˇ ku˚nˇ kon´ horse

3. lebed’ labut’ łabe§ dzˇ swan 4. jajco vejce jaje egg 5. tamga znamka´ znaczek stamp 6. tetja¨ teta ciotka aunt 7. medved’ medvedˇ niedzwied˙ z˙ bear 8. isakˇ osel osiol donkey 9. izjum hrozinka rozinka raisin 10. zvezda hvezdaˇ gwiazda star

11. gus’ husa ge§ s˙ goose

12. xaralug ocel stal steel 13. volosy vlasy włosy hair

14. den’ga pen´ız pienia§ dz money 15. saraj stodola stodola shed 16. basmakˇ bota but shoe

17. mjaso maso mie§ so meat 18. gajdamak lupicˇ łupiezcaˇ bandit 19. pcelaˇ vcelaˇ pszczoła bee 20. karij hnedˇ y´ gniady brown

178 GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL CHANGE

441. English: mondegreens A mondegreen is a word or phrase that is misunderstood at a later date and reananlysed into something different by the speakers. The name comes from a line in a old Scottish ballad that goes “they killed the Earl of Moray/And laid him on the green”. This was misunderstood to be “they killed the Earl of Moray/And Lady Mondegreen”, Lady Mondegreen presumed to be his loved one. A familiar mondegreen is the well-known hymn “Gladly the Cross I’d Bear”, heard by many children who sing the hymn as “Gladly the Cross-eyed Bear”. Examine the following mondegreens and give a historical explanation of what changes have occurred. See if you can ﬁnd other historical mondegreens that have become standard or widespread in English. Earlier Later 1. an ewt (salamander) a newt 2. an ekename (additional name) a nickname 3. for then anes (for the once) for the nonce 4. an otch a notch 5. a naranj an orange 6. another meal a whole nother meal 7. a nouche (a brooch) an ouche 8. a napron an apron 9. a naddre (type of snake) an adder 10. would have done would of done 11. spit and image spitting image 12. sam-blind (half-blind) sand blind 13. a let ball (in tennis) a net ball 14. Welsh rabbit Welsh rarebit

442. English: hobson-jobsons A hobson-jobson is similar to a mondegreen, except that the earlier word or phrase is from a foreign language, and is taken into the accepting language not according to the meaning but according to the sound that it has in the foreign language. An example is a popular French song “C’est ﬁni” (‘It’s ﬁnished’) rendered into English with the title “Symphony”. Examine the following hobson-jobsons (some created from place-names by the soldiers in the British army in France and Belgium during World War I), and give historical explanations for the adoption into English. Original word or phrase English hobson-jobson 1. Hallebast Hell Blast 2. Bar-le-Duc Barley Duck

179 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

3. Poegstraat Pug Street 4. Etaples´ Eat Apples 5. Ypres Wipers 6. Doingt Doing It 7. Auchonvillers Ocean Villas 8. Monch-Breton Monkey Britain 9. Rue Pigalle Pig Alley 10. l’oeuf (the egg, zero) love (zero score in tennis) 11. m’aidez (you help me) Mayday (distress signal) 12. mousseron (type of fungus) mushroom The following is an Arabic hobson-jobson from an English source: 13. Shakespeare Sheikh az-Zubair (town in Iraq) Can you think of any other hobson-jobsons in English?

443. English: meat In English there are several native English words that refer to domestic or other animals on the hoof, but different words borrowed from French to refer to the ﬂesh of those animals on the table. They are as follows: on the hoof on the table French 1. pig pork porc 2. calf veal veau 3. cow beef boeuf 4. deer venison venaison 5. sheep mutton mouton Can you think of an explanation for this state of affairs? Can you think of any more word pairs of this type?

180 9

Historical Reconstruction

444. Romance: vowels I In the following problem, reconstruct the first vowel of the following words in proto-Romance. Notice that in this and the following problems, Spanish and Rumanian are presented in the standard orthographies, but Sardinian is presented in a phonemic transcription. In Rumanian, the letter “a”˘ is pronounced [ ], the letter “ˆı” is pronouced [i], the letter “s¸” is pronounced [s],ˇ and the letter “t¸” is pronounced [c]. Sp. Sard. Rum. Sp. Sard. Rum. 1. hilo filu fir thread 6. pino pinu pin pine tree 2. vida bita vita˘ life 7. riba riba rˆıpa˘ shore 3. s´ı si s¸i yes 8. r´ıo riu rˆıu river 4. vino binu vin wine 9. riso rizu rˆıs laugh 5. d´ıa d´ıe zi day

445. Romance: vowels II In the following problem, reconstruct the ﬁrst vowel of the following words in Proto-Romance. Keep in mind the vowel you reconstructed in the previous problem, and be prepared to revise the vowel in this problem in light of the next problem. Sp. Sard. Rum. Sp. Sard. Rum. 1. verde birde verde green 6. cresta krista creasta˘ crest 2. seco sikku sec dry 7. tema tima teama˘ fear(sbjv) 3. pesca piske pes¸te ﬁsh 8. seca sikka seaca˘ dry(fem) 4. teme timi teme fear 9. negra nigra neagra˘ black(fem) 5. sed sidis sete thirst

446. Romance: vowels III In the following problem, reconstruct the ﬁrst vowel of the following words

181 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

in Proto-Romance. Compare this vowel with the vowels you reconstructed in the two previous problems, and readjust your reconstruction accordingly. Sp. Sard. Rum. Sp. Sard. Rum. 1. creo kredo cred I believe 5. crea kreda creada˘ believe 2. mes meze mes month 6. tela tela teara˘ cloth 3. tres tres trei three 7. cera kera ceara˘ wax 4. seda seda — silk

447. Romance: vowels IV In the following problem, reconstruct the first vowel of the following words in Proto-Romance. Again, keep mind what vowels you have already reconstructed and make necessary readjustments in the reconstruction of this vowel, paying special attention to pattern congruity. If all the previous vowels are single vowels, as opposed to diphthongs, what is this one likely to be? Sp. Sard. Rum. Sp. Sard. Rum. 1. hiel fele fiere gall 5. lecho lettu — bed 2. miel mele miere honey 6. pecho pettus piept chest 3. pierdo perdo pierd I lose 7. medio mesu miez middle 4. hierro ferru fier iron

448. Romance: vowels V In the following problem, reconstruct the ﬁrst vowel of the following words in Proto-Romance. Consider the pattern that is emerging with the vowels reconstructed so far. Do not confuse the Spanish form pecho meaning ‘tax’ with the Spanish word pecho meaning ‘chest’. What do the Sardinian forms tell you about the etymology of the two words? Sp. Sard. Rum. Sp. Sard. Rum. 1. vaca baka vaca˘ cow 5. parte parte parte part 2. lago lagu lac lake 6. hecho fattu fapt fact 3. cabo kabu cap head 7. leche latte lapte milk 4. sal sale sare salt 8. pecho pattu — tax

449. Romance: vowels VI In the following problem, reconstruct the ﬁrst vowel of the following words in Proto-Romance. Keep in mind the pattern of vowels that is emerging as the reconstructions go on. What similarities do these cognate vowels have with previously reconstructed vowels? What differences?

182 HISTORICAL RECONSTRUCTION

Sp. Sard. Rum. Sp. Sard. Rum. 1. puerco porku porc pig 6. suerte sorte soarte luck 2. cuerpo korpus corp body 7. puerta porta poarta˘ door 3. juegoˇogu j joc game 8. duele dole doare it hurts 4. duelo dolu dor pain 9. cuesta kosta coasta˘ rib 5. nuestro nostru nostru our

450. Romance: vowels VII In the following problem, reconstruct the ﬁrst vowel of the following words in Proto-Romance. There are two different conditioning factors for the Rumanian reﬂexes. Sp. Sard. Rum. Sp. Sard. Rum. 1. nos nos noi we 6. hora ora oara˘ hour 2. vos vos voi you 7. monte monte munte mountain 3. todo tottu tot all 8. pone pone pune puts 4. sol sole soare sun 9. corona korona curuna˘ crown 5. voz boge boace voice

451. Romance: vowels VIII In the following problem, reconstruct the ﬁrst vowel of the following words in Proto-Romance. Keep in mind the structural pattern of the reconstructed vowels. Sp. Sard. Rum. Sp. Sard. Rum. 1. gola gula gura˘ throat 5. mosca muska musca˘ ﬂy 2. oso ursu urs bear 6. onda unda unda˘ wave 3. roto ruttu rupt broken 7. gota gutta guta˘ drop 4. sordo surdu surd deaf

452. Romance: vowels IX

In the following problem, reconstruct the ﬁrst vowel of the following words in Proto-Romance. To which earlier reconstructed vowel is this one in a similar structural position? Sp. Sard. Rum. Sp. Sard. Rum. 1. luna luna luna˘ moon 4. lumbre lumene lume light 2. humo fumu fum smoke 5. muda muta muta˘ mute 3. crudo krudu crud raw

183 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

453. Indo-European: initial consonants I In the following problem, reconstruct the initial consonants or consonant clusters of the following words in Proto-Indo-European. In this and the following reconstruction problems, the cognate words in the other languages do not necessarily mean the same as the English, due to semantic change. Also, the latter parts of the words are sometimes not cognate, due to changes in the various languages. Eng. Lat. Gk. Eng. Lat. Gk. 1. father pater pater¯ 6. spike sp¯ıca spilos 2. foot pes¯ pous 7. spurn sperno¯ spairo¯ 3. for per peri 8. sprout — spora 4. ﬂat planus¯ platos 9. spoon sponda spen¯ 5. fathom patere¯ patane¯ 10. spew spuere —

454. Indo-European: initial consonants II In the following problem, reconstruct the initial consonants or consonant clusters of the following words in Proto-Indo-European. Eng. Lat. Gk. Eng Lat. Gk. 1. thin tenuis tanu- 6. stand stare¯ statos 2. the tam to 7. stiff stips stibos 3. three tres¯ treis 8. straw sternere sternon 4. thou tu¯ tu 9. strong — strangos 5. through trans terθron 10. star stella (a)ster

455. Indo-European: initial consonants III In the following problem, reconstruct the initial consonants or consonant clusters of the following words in Proto-Indo-European. Eng Lat. Gk. Eng Lat. Gk. 1. horn corn u¯ keras 6. shave scabere skaphe 2. heart cor kardia 7. shine scintilla skia 3. wheel circulum kuklos 8. shin scindere — 4. hound canis kuon¯ 9. shade — skotos 5. head caput kapia 10. shell scalpere —

456. Indo-European: initial consonants IV In the following problem, reconstruct the initial consonants of the following words in Proto-Indo-European. The Germanic cognates are Gothic unless otherwise indicated as O.I. for Old Icelandic.

184 HISTORICAL RECONSTRUCTION

Sk. Gk. Gmc. 1. bhrater¯ phrater¯ bro¯θar brother 2. bharati phero¯ baira¯ carry 3. bhatih¯ phane¯ bandwa light 4. bhutih¯ phuo¯ bua¯ (O.I) be 5. bhanati phemi¯ bon¯ (O.I) speak 6. badhnati¯ pentheros bindan bind 7. bod¯ hati peuthomai (ana)biudan wake up 8. bardhakah pertho¯ bord(O.I) cut 9. bahuh¯ pek¯ hus bogr¯ (O.I) elbow 10. bahu- pakhus bingr(O.I) thick

457. Indo-European: initial consonants V In the following problem, reconstruct the intial consonants of the following words in Proto-Indo-European. The Germanic cognates are Gothic unless otherwise indicated as O.S. for Old Saxon, or Eng. for English. Sk. Gk. Gmc. 1. dhayah¯ thesato¯ daddjan suck 2. dhran. ati threnos¯ drunjus noise 3. dhumah¯ thumos¯ domian¯ (O.S) smoke 4. dhrs.n.oti thersos (ga)dars brave 5. dhavate¯ theo¯ dau(O.S) run 6. draphsah trepho¯ derbi(O.S) coagulate 7. duhati tukhe¯ dang press 8. dehmi¯ teikhos digandin knead 9. drag¯ hate¯ — dracu(O.S) pain 10. — tuphoi dowel(Eng) peg

458. Indo-European: initial consonants VI In the following problem, reconstruct the initial consonants of the following words in Proto-Indo-European. The Germanic cognates are Gothic unless otherwise indicated. O.N. indicates Old Norse. Sk. Gk. Gmc. 1. hari- kholos gulθ yellow 2. haryati khairo¯ -gairns joy 3. havate — guθ call 4. hamsah khen¯ gas¯ (O.I) goose 5. heman¯ kheima goi¯ (O.S) winter

185 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

6. gabhastih — gabei take 7. — kephale¯ gibla summit 8. grabh- — grapa(O.N) grab 9. grha- korthis gards house 10. guhati¯ — gygr¯ (O.I) conceal

459. Indo-European: medial consonants In the following problem, reconstruct the medial dental consonant of the following words in Proto-Indo-European. Sk. Go. Sk. Go. 1. bhratar´ bro´θar brother 6. pitar´ fadar´ father 2. antara´ an´ θar other 7. matar´ modar´ mother 3. danta´ tun´ θu tooth 8. antar´ undar´ under 4. ati´ a´θ(θan) but 9. at¯ ´ı ond´ (O.N) duck 5. n´ıtya- n´ıθjis constant 10. catvaras´ f´ıdwor four

460. Slavic: vowels I In the following problem, reconstruct the vowels of the following words in Proto-Slavic. The forms are from Ukranian, Russian, Czech, and Slovak. Which language retains the original vocalic element? Ukr. Russ. Cz. Slo. 1. dilo delo di:lo dielo work

2. bida beda bi:da bieda misfortune ¡ 3. bilii¡ belii bi:li: bieli white 4. vira vera vi:ra viera faith 5. viter veter vi:tr vietor wind

461. Slavic: vowels II In the following problem, set up a correspondence for vowels which have

¢ the nasal reﬂexes in Old Church Slavic (/e¢ / and /o/). Comment on the development of Old Russian /u/ and /ja/. The following abbreviations are used: O.C.S. = Old Church Slavic; O.R. = Old Russian; Lith. = Lithuanian; P.I.E. = Indo-European; O.H.G. = Old High German; Lat. = Latin; O.Pr. = Old Prussian; Sk. = Sanskrit; O.N. = Old Norse; O.S. = Old Saxon; Ger. = German. O.C.S. O.R. Lith. P.I.E. y

1. go¢ sˇı gus zasˇ `ıs gans(O.H.G) goose y

2. kuneˇ ¢ zˇı knjaz — kuning(O.H.G) nobleman

186 HISTORICAL RECONSTRUCTION

3. me¢ ta mjata minta menta(Lat) mint y

4. dese¢ tˇı desjat desimtasˇ decem(Lat) ten y

5. peneˇ ¢ zˇı penjazˇ — pfenning(O.H.G) coin y

6. pame¢ tˇı pamjat atmintis mens(Lat) memory

7. sve¢ tuˇ svjat sventasˇ swenta(O.Pr) saint

8. semeˇ ¢ semjaˇ semen-ys´ semen(Lat)¯ seed

9. so¢ tuˇ sut — sunt(Lat) they are

10. ro¢ ka ruka ranka` rancko(O.Pr) hand

11. o¢ gulˇ ˇı ugl anglis´ ang´ aras(Sk)¯ corner

12. o¢ gureˇ ugre unguras ungarn(Ger) Hungarians y

13. do¢ ti dut dumti dumba(O.N) blow

14. go¢ ba guba gumbas˜ kumb(O.H.G) mouth

15. me¢ so mjaso meisa mensa(O.Pr)¯ meat

16. agne¢ jagnja — agnus(Lat) lamb ¢ 17. le¢ dvije ljadveja — lent¯ı(O.H.G) spoon

18. mo¢ ka muka mankan´ mengian(O.S) ﬂour h

19. mo¢ titi mutiti — mant atati(Sk) stir up

20. gro¢ zˇı gruz gramzd- — mud 21. grobuˇ grub grubus` krampf(O.H.G) coarse

462. Slavic: vowels III ¢ Old Church Slavic had two nasal vowels, /e¢ / and /o/. On the basis of the forms in the other Slavic languages, fill in the blank spaces in the Old Church Slavic forms which occur first in each example below. The order of the following forms is: Czech, Slovak, Serbo-Croatian, Russian, English gloss. (All languages are presented in traditional orthography except Russian, which is transliterated.) O.C.S. Cz. Slo. Srb-Cro. Russ. 1. s se sa se sja self 2. p t˘ı petˇ pat’¨ pet` pjat’ five 3. r ka ruka ruka ruka´ ruka´ hand 4. r k ruku ruku rukuˆ ruku´ hand(gs) 5. p tu˘ pat´ y´ piaty petiˆ pjatyj´ fifth 6. t gn ti tahnouti´ tahnut’´ istegnuti´ tjanut’´ to pull 7. j zyku˘ jazyk jazyk jezik` jazyk´ tongue 8. d bu˘ dub dub dub´ dub oak 9. d ba dubu duba duba´ dubu´ oak(gs) 10. zenojˇ zenouˇ zenˇ u´ zˇenom` zenˇ oj´ woman(instr) 11. j dro jadro´ jadro jezgra´ jadro´ kernel

187 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

12. s t˘ı jsou su´ su — they are 13. nes tu˘ nesou nesu´ donesu:` nesut´ they carry 14. s dvˇ soud sud´ sud´ sud court 15. im jmeno´ meno `ıme ´ımja name

463. Slavic: verbal stems I Find a one-stem Proto-Slavic reconstruction for every set of verbal forms in Czech, Russian, and Serbo-Croatian, and comment on the changes the Proto-Slavic stem underwent in the infinitive. Next, find the Proto-Slavic suffix for the past tense. Which language preserves the ancient form? What changes did the other languages undergo? The suffix -nou-/-nu-/-n- indicates momentary action. In what way does it influence the shape of the stem? The asterisk (*) following a form in Russian indicates cases where */e/ has gone to /o/ in modern Russian. You should ignore occasional vocalic changes. A. Cz. Inf. 1st.pres. masc.past 1. pa:styi pasu pa:sl pasture 2. tra:stˇ yi tresuˇ tra:slˇ shake 3. ne:styi nesu nesl carry 4. le:styi lezu lezl crawl 5. ve:styi vezu vezl bring 6. bodnoutyi bodnu bodnul pierce 7. padnoutyi padnu padnul fall 8. kra:styi kradu kradl steal 9. ve:styi vedlu vedl lead 10. me:styi metu metl sweep

B. Russ. Inf. 1st.pres. masc.past y y 1. pas t i pasu pas pasture 2. tryasytyi tryasu tryas shake 3. nyesytyi nyesu nyes* carry 4. lyesytyi lyezu lyes* crawl 5. vyesytyi vyezu vyes* bring 6. bodnuty bodnu bodnul pierce 7. pasyty padu pal fall 8. krasyty kradu kral steal 9. vyesytyi vyedu vyel* lead 10. myesytyi myetu myel* sweep

188 HISTORICAL RECONSTRUCTION

C. Srb-Cro. Inf. 1st.pres. masc.past 1. pasti pasem pasao pasture 2. tresti tresem tresao shake 3. — — — — 4. — — — — 5. — — — — 6. bosti bodem bo pierce 7. pasti padnem pao fall 8. krasti kradem krao steal 9. povesti povedem poveo lead 10. mesti metem meo sweep

464. Slavic: verbal stems II Reconstruct as many Proto-Slavic verb stems as you can. The order of the forms and the directions for working with the data are the same as in the previous problem. A. Cz. Inf. 1st.pres. masc.past 1. mihnout mihnu mihnul ﬂash 2. moci mohu mohl be able 3. slehnout slehnu slehnul lay down 4. sta:hnout sta:hnu sta:hnul tighten 5. styihnout styihnu styihnul catch up 6. pomoci pomohu pomohl help 7. pe:ci peku pekl bake 8. prote:ci proteku protekl ﬂow 9. puknout puknu puknul burst 10. ri:ciˇ reknuˇ reklˇ say

B. Russ. Inf. 1st.pres. masc.past 1. mignuty mignu mik ﬂash 2. mocˇ mogu mok be able 3. slyecˇ slyagu slyek lay down 4. tyagaty tyagaju tyagal tighten 5. dostyicˇ dostyignu dostyig catch up 6. pomocˇ pomogu pomok help 7. pyecˇ pyeku pyok bake

189 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

8. protyecˇ protyeku protyok ﬂow 9. pucitˇ y pucuˇ pucilˇ burst 10. otryecsˇ ya otryekusy otryoksya say

C. Srb-Cro. Inf. 1st.pres. masc.past 1. mignuti mignem migao ﬂash

2. mocˇ¡i mogu mogao be able

3. slecˇ¡i slegnem slegao lay down

4. stecˇ¡i stegnem stegao tighten

5. dosticˇ¡i dostignem dostigao catch up

6. pomocˇ¡i pomognem pomogao help

7. pecˇ¡i pecemˇ pekao bake

8. protecˇ¡i protecemˇ protekao ﬂow

9. pucˇ¡i puknem pukao burst

10. recˇ¡i reknem rekao say

465. Austronesian: reconstruction In the following problem, reconstruct as much of Proto-Austronesian as you can. The following abbreviations are used: S. = Sundanese; O.J. = Old Javanese; N.J. = New Javanese; M. = Malay; Md. = Madurese. S. O.J. N.J. M. Md. 1. mataq mata mot` o` mata matah eye 2. manis manis manes` manes manes lovely 3. tumaq tuma tumo` tuma tomah` louse 4. taman taman taman taman taman garden

5. raruq laru laru laru laroh` potion

£ £ £ £ 6. kura £ kura kura kura kora` reduction 7. damar damar damar damar dhamar´ lamp

8. bantal bantal bantal bantal bhantal´ pillow

£ £ £ £ 9. hura £ hura ura huda oda´ shrimp 10. hirup hurip urep´ hidop odiq` live 11. raris — lares` lares lares` in demand 12. rurug lurug lurog´ — lor´ ok` go to war

13. duqum a-dum˘ dom´ — dhuqum to distribute

£ £ £ 14. kada £ kada kada — kadha´ kin 15. gandar — gandar gandar ghandh´ ar´ wooden shaft

16. ganjil — ganjel´ ganjel ghanjhil´ uneven

£ £ £ £ 17. tanju £ tanju tanjo´ tanjo tanjhu ﬂower

190 HISTORICAL RECONSTRUCTION

18. panas panas panas panas panas warm

£ £ £

19. — b-in-a £ sal ba sal ba sal bha´ sal building

20. harip har p di-ar p-i hadap adaq´ in front of 21. maruq — maru madu madu fellow, wife

466. Austronesian: vowels In the following problem, reconstruct the vocalic system of the Proto- Austronesian language. State the vocalic changes for each language and attempt to reconstruct each word in Proto-Austronesian. The same abbreviations are used as in the previous problem. S. O.J. N.J. M. Md.

1. kitaq kita kito` kita keta` I

£ £ £ 2. — balira £ w lira b lira´ balera sulphur

3. gilaq gila gilo` gila ghelah´ shy

£ £ £ 4. lutu £ lutu luto´ loto — monkey 5. pisah -pisah pisah pisah pesa` separate 6. bulan wulan wulan bulan bulan´ moon 7. buluq wulu wulu bulu- buluh hair

8. qupah qupah upah opah opa` reward

£ £ £ £ 9. tulu £ -ulu tulo´ tolo tol´ o` help

10. tumpuk — tumpoq tompoq tomp` oq` small heap

£ £ £

11. — kila £ kila kila kela` sugar

£ £

12. — s-um-i £ gah si gah—´ se` gha´ to avoid

£ £ £ £

13. suru £ ma-nuru suro´ soro soro` to push

14. tarimaq a-narima t rimo` t rima tarema` to receive

£ £

15. tamia £ tamia — t mia — bamboo

16. — galuga g lugo` g luga ghalugh´ ah´ red dye

467. Eastern Oceanic: reconstruction Which consonants in the following languages show systematic correspon- dences? Present your ﬁndings in the form of a table. Fill in the missing forms, and point out which forms deviate from the general pattern. The following abbreviations are used: P.E.O. = Proto-Eastern Oceanic; N. = Nggela; F. = Fijian; P-Pol. = Proto-Polynesian. P.E.O. N. F. P-Pol. 1. zava hava cava hafa what 2. zivo hivo civo hifa down 3. zaa ha haa which 4. mazu mahu macu mahu full

191 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

5. tazi taci tahi sea 6. voze vohe voce paddle 7. kanaze kanace kanahe mullet

8. viza ngiha vica ﬁha how much £

9. ta £ i tagi tagi ta i cry £ 10. za £ a hanga caga ha a span 11. vizo viho vico ﬁso squirt out 12. zoka hoka coka- hoka spear 13. — hage-v cake-v hake climb

14. £ iza ngiha gica anuha when 15. kesa kakesa kesa-v kesa dye 16. misi misimisi misi-k misi suck 17. zala hala cala hala path 18. i-sele i-sele i-sele sele knife 19. zoko hogo coko — ﬁsh 20. tazi tahi taci tahina sibling

468. Malayo-Javonic: reconstruction Reconstruct the consonants of each word in Proto-Malayo-Javonic. Discuss

the tendencies of sound changes for each language. In the ancient Malay

manuscripts words such as modern Malay /basar/, /k rat/, /t log/ are spelled “b.ss.r”, “k.rr.t”, “t.ll.g”, etc. The following abbreviations are used: S. = Sundanese; J. = Javanese; M. = Malay; Md. = Madurese. S. J. M. Md. 1. limaq limo´ lima lemaq´ ﬁve 2. mataq mot` o` mata mataq eye 3. panas panas panas panas warm

4. batuq watu batu pat´ o` stone

£ £ £

5. benta £ linta binta binta star

£ £ £ 6. kone £ kun e´ kune kon` e´ yellow

7.taliq tali tali tale` rope

8. kirit k r t k rat k rraq cut

£ £ £

9. lisu £ l so´ leso l sso` rice

£ £ £ £

10. la £ it la et´ la et la eq` sky

11. birat abot` b rat b rraq´ heavy

12. bapaq bapaq bapaq ppaq father

13. tiluq t lu tiga t lloq` three

14. kabeh kabeh` semua k bbhi all

£ £ £ 15. gari £ gare´ k re k rre´ dry

192 HISTORICAL RECONSTRUCTION

469. Turkic: reconstruction In the following problem, reconstruct as much as you can of Proto-Turkic and formulate what sound changes have taken place in the various languages. Do not look for conditioning factors in this exercise. The following abbreviations have been used: A. = Azerbaijani; Turk. = Turkish; K. = Kumic; Tv. = Tuvin. A. Turk. K. Tv. 1. γaz- kaz- kaz- kas- dig 2. γal- kal- kal- — stay 3. γar- kar- kar- xar- snow

4. γat- kat- kat- ka ¤ t- add

5. γac-ˇ kac-ˇ kac-ˇ kas-ˇ run

¡ ¡ ¡ 6. γoi¡un- koiun- koi- xoi- sheep 7. γol kol kol xol- hand 8. γul kul kul kul slave

9. γusˇ kusˇ kusˇ ku ¤ sˇ bird 10. γiz kiz kiz kis girl 11. γil kil kil xil hair 12. γin kin kin xin sheath

13. γisˇ kisˇ kisˇ ki ¤ sˇ winter 14. gal-¨ gel-¨ gel¨ kel¨ come 15. gir- gir- gir- kir- enter 16. gol¨ gol¨ gol-¨ xol¨ lake

17. goi¨ ¡ gok¨ gok¨ kok¨ sky 18. gor-¨ gor-¨ gor-¨ kor-¨ see 19. gun¨ gun¨ gun¨ xun¨ sun 20. guj¨ ˇ gu¨cˇ gu¨cˇ ku¨sˇ power

470. Turkic: sound changes In the following problem, observe some of the sound changes from Proto- Turkic to Turkmen and Yakutsk. On the basis of your observations reconstruct the missing forms of Proto-Turkic and the blank spaces. The following abbreviations have been used: P-T. = Proto-Turkic; T. = Turkmen; Y. = Yakutsk. P-T. T. Y. P-T. T. Y. 1. ka:n¨ gi:ny kien¨ y wide 4. ta:l da:lak ta:l tear 2. ka:p¨ ga:p¨ kiep¨ form 5. ta:s da:sˇ da:s stone 3. ka:¨ cˇ gi:cˇ kies¨ e¨ evening 6. da:r ta:r narrow

193 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

7. to:r¨ dor¨ tuör¨ peck 10. ti:sˇ di:sˇ ti:s tooth 8. go:k¨ kuöx¨ blue 11. to:l do:l tuol fill

9. ku¨cˇ gui¨ ¡cˇ ku:s¨ power

471. Various Languages: lexical similarities Part of the problem of comparative reconstruction is determining which langauges are genetically related to others, and which words are truly cognate and which are the result of other factors. In the following problem, determine the most plausible explanation for the similarities between the words. Use the following code: G = genetic relationship; B = borrowing; U = universal tendency (e.g. onomatopoeia); C = coincidence. In the case of borrowing, indicate which language is the source. Remember that there could also be an outside source, i.e. both languages have borrowed a term from a third language. In these data, words from languages that use the Latin alphabet are presented in standard orthography; other items appear in a phonemic transcription. 1. German: Bruder — Persian: bæradær brother 2. Hebrew: sera:phi:m — English: seraphim angels 3. Japanese: seppuku — English: seppuku suicide 4. Greek: ne — Korean: ne yes 5. English: to tick — Russian: ty´ıkaty to tick 6. Hungarian: tabla — Czech: tabule blackboard

7. Hebrew: salˇ ¥ m — Arabic: sala:m peace 8. German: Horn ‘French horn’ — Welsh: korn horn 9. French: theatre´ — Turkish: tiyatro theatre 10. Bulgarian: lav r — Latin: laurus laurel 11. Greek: arxaismos ‘old’ — Russian: arxaizm archaism 12. German: Flugel¨ — Yiddish: ﬂig l wing

13. Polish: da¢ b — Czech: dub oak y 14. Dutch: sneeuw — Russian: sn eg snow 15. Latin: aqua — Spanish: agua water 16. Finnish: kikattelta — Czech: chichotat to giggle 17. French: scandaleux — German: skandolos¨ scandalous

18. Malay: kuci £ — Russian: koskaˇ cat 19. Turkish: kitap — Arabic: kita:b book 20. Spanish: fotograf´ıa — German: Photographie photograph 21. Russian: v´ıdyety — Latin: videre to see 22. Rumanian: ceai — Turkish: c¸ay tea 23. Arabic: hasi:ˇ sˇ ‘grass’ — English: hashish marijuana

194 HISTORICAL RECONSTRUCTION

24. Turkish: baba — Russian: papa´ daddy 25. Egyptian Arabic: bint — Maltese: bint girl 26. Greek: idio:ma — English: idiom pecularity of language 27. Rumanian: negru ‘black’ — English: Negro black person 28. Rumanian: curuna˘ — Latin: corona crown 29. Sundanese: maruq — Javanese: maru wife 30. Yakutsk: ti:s — Turkmen: di:sˇ tooth 31. English: park — German: parken to park 32. Latin: femina — Portuguese: femea woman 33. Russian: dva — Malay: dua two 34. Hebrew: hi — Welsh: hi she 35. Arabic: zama:n — Persian: zæman time

472. English: terminology The following terminology is standard equipment for historical linguists. Deﬁne each of the following terms and give an illustrative example. 1. diachronic linguistics 9. proto-language 17. isogloss 2. synchronic linguistics 10. proto-form 18. dialect 3. comparative method 11. cognate 19. ideolect 4. reconstruction 12. reﬂex 20. diphthongization 5. dialect geography 13. borrowing 21. umlaut 6. genetic relationship 14. analogy 22. ablaut 7. parent language 15. family tree 23. palatalization 8. daughter language 16. wave model 24. glottochronology

195

Solutions

1. Phonetics

76. Greek 1. pol´ı 6. gafa´ 11. sal´ı 16. ftino´ 2. tora´ 7. boli´ 12. orato´ 17. ponos´ 3. koma´ 8. onoma´ 13. stoma´ 18. mark´ εs 4. gavos´ 9. alepu´ 14. aoratos´ 19. lyito´ 5. kaθ´ıkon 10. mε´ri 15. θap´ıs 20. nεne´ 77. Swahili

1. and´ıka 6. fund´ısaˇ 11. k´ıcuˇ ¡a 16. mtoto´

2. bar´ıdi 7. hams´ıni 12. kisu¡ah´ıli 17. ndege´

3. cakˇ ula´ 8. h´ıcoˇ 13. ku¡anza´ 18. n˜ama´ y

4. dau´ ¡a 9. ´ımba 14. leo´ 19. pamod´ a 5. εndelea´ 10. dy´ıcoˇ 15. mboga´ 20. ufunguo´ 78. Persian 1. særˇ ab´ 6. kar 11. kucˇe´ 16. gærm 2. mod´ır 7. gav 12. xarijˇ´ı 17. tU 3. sal´ım 8. zor uf´ 13. musˇ 18. æsr 4. ruz 9. sæfˇ af´ 14. kulucˇe´ 19. εsm 5. zærd 10. qadim´ı 15. bacˇe´ 20. fars´ı 79. Hebrew

1. adon´ı 6. caγ´ıγ 11. hitstalvut´ 16. me ¢ od´ 2. anaxnu´ 7. dεγ´ Ix 12. ivγ´ıt 17. misγad´

3. banot´ 8. εγ´ Ic 13. kε´lIv 18. na ¢ ´ım

¢ £ 4. be εγ´ Ix 9. gadol´ 14. lifnei´ ¡ 19. γ sˇ 5. bisvilˇ ´ı 10. gvina´ 15. mεdabεγ´ 20. xod´ εsˇ

197 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

80. Rumanian

¤ ¡

1. pas 6. ru¡ag´ 11. bun 16. lupi

¤ ¤ 2. opt 7. car´ 12. zi 17. pi¡atr´

3. kal 8. jˇam 13. g´ıt ¤ l 18. kind

4. kei´ ¡e 9. sare´ 14. rom´ın 19. vreme´ ¡ 5. oki 10. zˇale´ 15. lup 20. pu¡´ıne 81. Portuguese

1. t´ıu 6. zˇεneru´ 11. fræku´ 16. m´ıo

£ ¤

2. k´pu 7. æm rε´lu 12. l´ıvru 17. oi´ ¡tu ¤ 3. dineru´ 8. m £ l 13. ´ıεstˇ 18. nau˜

4. mε´sæ 9. ænε´l 14. ´ıst ¤ 19. mu˜´ıtu ¥ 5. kai´ ¡seˇ 10. brænku´ 15. mu ε´r 20. pu´εra 82. Turkish 1. basˇ 6. kusˇ 11. han´ I 16. han´ım 2. cˇol¨ 7. sut¨ 12. h´ıjˇa 17. ko¨sˇe´ 3. disˇ 8. kiz 13. lutf¨ εn 18. bicˇak´ 4. kol 9. alt´ı 14. ucmˇ ak´ 19. cˇur¨ uk¨´ 5. εl 10. kisˇe´ 15. εfε´ndIm 20. tεsˇεkur¨´

83. Gujerati

¤ ¤ 1. bai¡ 6. pap´ r 11. dar 16. d s h

2. b ai¡ 7. lal 12. kal 17. at

3. taru´ 8. lar 13. mata´ 18. tran´ ¤ ¡ 4. daru´ 9. nam 14. pita´ 19. u¡´ıdia 5. pap 10. naru˜´ 15. pa˜cˇ 20. bharat´ 84. Yoruba 1. gba¯ 6. te´ 11. d¯ı 16. tut´ u¯ 2. gba` 7. te` 12. so` 17. kpar¯ ´ı

3. k £` 8. r´ı 13. sˇo´ 18. n´ıbe¯ 4. ko´ 9. kpa´ 14. fu¯ 19.ˇ jamb` a` 5. ko¯ 10. gbe¯ 15. lu´ 20. mef´ a¯ 85. Polish

1. pas 6. sˇ £´stra 11. gv´ızdˇ εsˇ 16. cˇarne´ 2. pokaza´ cˇ 7. o´sˇεm 12. cˇε´nsto 17. ziˇ v´ı

3. ki¡εdi 8. xlεb 13. tromba´ 18. zˇ´ıma y y

4. r´ıba 9. v´ıvi¡urka 14. lud´ ε 19. smˇ ets´ e ¦ 5. sˇε´r £ ki 10. von 15. msaˇ 20. tova´ziˇ sˇ

198 SOLUTIONS 2. Structural Phonology

86. Cree (Model Solution) a. Establishing the environments: # V V # C V V V [p] 1, 4 2, 5 3 [b] 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 b. The status: The sounds [p] and [b] are in complementary distribution and therefore represent one phoneme. c. Final statement:

/p/ § [b]/V V

§ [p]/elsewhere [b] occurs between vowels and [p] occurs elsewhere. The allophone chosen for representation of the phoneme is the one with the more general or widespread distribution, unless other factors dictate otherwise.

87. Biblical Hebrew [f] occurs following vowels; [p] occurs elsewhere 88. Biblical Hebrew [θ] occurs following vowels; [t] occurs elsewhere 89. Cree [d] occurs between vowels; [t] occurs elsewhere 90. Bazilian Portuguese [c]ˇ occurs before the vowel [i]; [t] occurs elsewhere 91. Brazilian Portuguese [jˇ] occurs before the vowel [i]; [d] occurs elsewhere 92. Korean [s]ˇ occurs before the vowel [i]; [s] occurs elsewhere 93. Cree [jˇ] occurs between vowels; [c]ˇ occurs elsewhere 94. Cree [g] occurs between vowels; [k] occurs elsewhere. You will have observed by now that Cree does not have separate voiced and voiceless phonemes as

199 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

does English. It has separate voiced and voiceless allophones, but these are not phonemes. 95. Biblical Hebrew [k] occurs in initial position; [x] occurs following vowels 96. German (Model Solution) This problem has to be done in two stages. a. Establishing the environments:

V V Vu¡ V C V V C# V# C γ 1, 2, 3, 5 4, 6 7, 8, 9, 10 g 11, 14, 15 12, 18 13, 19 16, 17 20 The sounds [γ] and [g] seem to contrast in the environment V V. We will therefore consider the quality of the vowels in these positions, not just the presence or absence of a vowel.

b. Adjusting the environment:

¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ a: ¤ u: o: a: u i: o¨ e: γ 1, 2, 3, 10 5 7, 8 9 g 11 14 15 c. The status: When the quality of the vowels is taken into account, it is found that when between vowels the sound [γ] occurs only after back vowels and the sound [g] occurs only after front vowels. The sounds [γ] and [g] are therefore in complementary distribution and represent only one phoneme /g/. d. Final statement: [γ] occurs only after a back vowel and before another vowel; [g] occurs elsewhere

97. Serbo-Croatian

¡ ¡ [c¡] and [c]ˇ contrast: [caca] vs. [caˇ ca]ˇ 98. Turkish

[r¨] occurs in ﬁnal position; [r] occurs elsewhere 99. Korean [r] occurs between vowels; [l] occurs elsewhere 100. Lebanese Arabic [i] occurs in ﬁnal position; [I] occurs elsewhere

200 SOLUTIONS

101. Turkish [i] occurs before a consonant followed by another vowel; [I] occurs elsewhere

102. Polish ¦ [ ¦ ] and [z] contrast: [ von] vs. [zvani]

103. Spanish [ε] occurs before either [r]˜ or [x]; [e] occurs elsewhere 104. Slovak [l] and [ly] contrast: [lak] vs. [lyak] 105. Lebanese Arabic [u] occurs in ﬁnal position; [U] elsewhere 106. Turkish [u] occurs before a consonant followed by a another vowel; [U] occurs elsewhere 107. Spanish [b] occurs in initial position; [β] occurs between vowels 108. Turkish [c]ˇ and [jˇ] contrast: [acik]ˇ vs. [ajˇi] 109. Spanish [b] occurs after [m]; [β] occurs elsewhere. You already know from problem 107 that [b] also occurs in initial position.

110. Malay The interpretation of prenasalized stops is more suitable because Malay does not favour consonantal clusters.

111. Slovak ¡ [v] and [u¡] are allophones; [u] occurs either in ﬁnal position or between a vowel and a consonant; [v] occurs elsewhere. [f] belongs to a separate phoneme.

112. Malay [t] and ty] contrast: [tarek] vs. [tyarek]. [c]ˇ is a free variant of [ty]: #7 and #9

201 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

113. Czech [a] and [a:] contrast: [lano] vs. [ra:no] vs. [ranyen] 114. Japanese [c] occurs before [u]; [c]ˇ occurs before [i]; [t] occurs elsewhere 115. Spanish [ ] occurs between vowels; [d] occurs in initial position 116. German [c¸] and [x] are allophones: [c¸] occurs either after a front vowel or after a consonant; [x] occurs elsewhere. [s]ˇ belongs to a separate phoneme. 117. Turkish [u] and [u]¨ contrast: [usta] vs. [ust]¨

118. Malay ¢ [k] and [ ¢ ] are allophones: [ ] occurs in ﬁnal position; [k] occurs elsewhere. [t] belongs to a separate phoneme. 119. Spanish [g] occurs in initial position; [γ] occurs between vowels 120. Hungarian [n] and [ny] contrast: [panas] vs. [se:panya] 121. Spanish

[g] occurs either in initial position or after [ © ]; [γ] occurs elsewhere. Youwill have noticed that in Spanish all voiced stops and the corresponding voiced fricatives are allophones: voiced stops [b, d, g] occur in initial position or after nasals; the voiced fricatives [β, , γ] occur elsewhere.

122. Russian [k] and [kw] are allophones: [kw] occurs before the back rounded vowels [u] and [o]; [k] occurs elsewhere. [ky] belongs to a separate phoneme. 123. Turkish [k] and [ky] are allophones and [g] and [gy] are allophones: both [ky] and [gy] occur next to front vowels

202 SOLUTIONS

124. Russian [xw] occurs before back rounded vowels; [xy] occurs before front vowels; [x] occurs elsewhere 125. Czech

[rˇ¨] occurs in final position or next to a voiceless stop; [r]ˇ occurs elsewhere; [r] is a separate phoneme 126. Hungarian [a] and [a:] contrast: [aga:r] vs. [a:g] 127. Russian There are two possibilities: a. that the sound [ε] is allophone of the phoneme /e/ or that it is an allophone of the phoneme /æ/. The first hypothesis is more likely since the similarity between [ε] and [e] is greater than the similarity between [ε] and [æ]. Therefore the preferred solution is that [ε] and [e] are allophones of one phomeme /e/: [e] occurs before palatalized consonants (Cy); [ε] occurs elsewhere. [æ] belongs to a separate phoneme. 128. Canadian French [i] occurs in final position; [I] occurs before a final consonant 129. Canadian French [i] occurs either in final position or before a final [v z zˇ r]; [I] occurs elsewhere 130. Canadian French [i] occurs in final position or before [v z zˇ r] or in an open syllable; [I] occurs elsewhere 131. Canadian French

[u] occurs either in ﬁnal position or before [v z zˇ r]; [U] occurs elsewhere 132. English For the solution, see the list of phonetic symbols on page vi. 133. Turkish For the solution, see the list of phonetic symbols on page vi. 134. English For the solution, see the list of phonetic symbols on page vi.

203 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

135. Segments

1. t c;ˇ 2. b θ d; 3. f c;ˇ 4. i; 5. a; 6. s v; 7. l i; 8. o¨ u; 9. c;ˇ 10. l ¥ 136. Segments 1. p; 2. k; 3. d; 4. h jˇ; 5. γ; 6. u;¨ 7. x; 8. o;¨ 9. g; 10. I æ 137. Segments 1. strident; 2. back; 3. high; 4. lateral; 5. round; 6. continuant; 7. anterior; 8. syllabic; 9. voice; 10. coronal 138. Turkish Structure: onset = O, nucleus = N, coda = C; syllables: sˇ = O, i = N, s=C;ˇ m = O, a = N, n = C; etc. Closed syllables: siˇ s,ˇ man, is, etc. 139. Czech Stress is not phonemic. The primary stress always falls on the ﬁrst syllable of the word and the secondary stress always falls on the third syllable if present. 140. Russian Primary stress is phonemic; its position cannot be predicted. Secondary stress is not phonemic; it always falls on the syllable, if present, before a syllable with primary stress. 141. Lebanese Arabic Stress is not phonemic. Stress falls on the last vowel followed by two consonants; if there are no clusters of two consonants, the stress falls on the last long vowel of the word; if there are no long vowels, the stress falls on the third vowel from the end of the word; if there are only two vowels in the word, the stress falls on the ﬁrst vowel of the word. 142. English: Spelling [no solution provided.]

Exercises in English Transcription The following transcriptions are done in the Smith-Trager system and according to the pronunciation given in the American Heritage Dictionary. Your transcriptions may differ from these given here depending on your dialect of English.

204 SOLUTIONS

143. English

1. s £ t 6. fowm 11. lay 16. eyjˇ

2. hud 7. recˇ 12. cikˇ 17. nad ¤ 3. loyd 8. sey 13. l ¤ g 18. d z 4. mæs 9. tuwl 14. mawθ 19. put 5. fayt 10. taym 15. naw 20. leg 144. English 1. truw 6. drayv 11. kræm 16. slaym 2. stik 7. stow 12. freyd 17. twicˇ 3. prayd 8. pliyz 13. ﬂuwk 18. glib 4. klowz 9. strip 14. græs 19. fyuw 5. blowk 10. gril 15. kwik 20. kriym 145. English

3. w £ kt 8. bowst 13. aks 18. lilt

4. maynd 9. l ¤ mpt 14. kænt 19. larjˇ 5. æsks 10. pæ z 15. jˇagd 20. stæmps

146. English ¤

1. rek´ ¤ rd 6. ayviy´ 11. tæliy´ 16. suwt´ r ¤

2. tæt´ ¤ l 7. sowf´ 12. foybel´ 17. sw´ıdisˇ

£ ¤ ¤ ¤

¤ ¤

4. s´ıtiy 9. gæl´ ¤ nt 14. kor´ l 19. mæ´ cˇ z

147. English

¤ ©

1. streynj´ ˇ ¤ r 6. mortis´ 11. darkn´ s 16. gæ´ gwey

¤ ©

3. p ¤´nst r 8. gæspi´ 13. laytliy´ 18. pr´ınsliy

5. m´ıstriy 10. brestw´ ¤ rks 15. pr´ıysthud 20. karthwiyl´ 148. English

1. rilay´ 6. rilæks´ 11. mira´zˇ 16. rizent´

¤ ¤

2. iym´ıt 7. t ¤ nayt´ 12. lawd´ 17. k layd´ ¤

3. gitar´ 8. m ¤ r´ıy 13. b luwn´ 18. rizuwm´ ¤ 4. k ¤ ræl´ 9. m layn´ 14. rijˇoys´ 19. skiduw´

5. rimowt´ 10. p ¤ ruwz´ 15. rigeyl´ 20. riyp´ıyl

205 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

149. English

1. kwædr´ıl 6. kartuwn´ 11. s ¤ rvey´ 16. distroy´ ¤

2.ˇent j ´ıyl 7. ¤ bzalv´ 12. dispoyl´ 17. k rteyl´ ¤ 3. tekn´ıyk 8. disper´ 13. ¤ bz´rv 18. rispekt´ 4. end´ıyr 9. supr´ıym 14. parteyk´ 19. iykl´ıps 5. ristreyn´ 10. biyspowk´ 15. riv´ıyl 20. læmpuwn´

150. English

¤ ¤

1. kor´ ¤ leyt 6. hirowik´ 11. encˇænt´ d 16. trænsley´ sˇ n

¤ ¤ ¤

¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤

¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ © ¤

4. prayv ¤ t´ıyr 9. brig d´ıyr 14. yuwn´ v rs 19. p´ kcuwˇ l ¤ 5. harpsikord´ 10. s ¤´rtituwd 15. kazmetik´ 20. m´mifay

151. English

¤ ¤

1. riymark´ ¤ b l 8. ripyuwdiyeyt´ 15. gargæn´ cuwˇ n ¤

2. hæl ¤ towsis´ 9. mersineriy´ 16. helikapt´ r

¤ ¤ ¤

3. b´ıbliy ¤ fayl 10. dræm´ t rjˇiy 17. ´ın veytiv

¤ ¤

4. kærizmætik´ 11. sæl´ ¤ mænd r 18. niyænd´ rθal

¤ ¤ ¤ ¤

5. diykæ´ θ ¤ lan 12. sowsˇ l´ıstik 19. mæl jˇ´st d

¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤

6. rowz ¤ kruw´ sˇ n 13. h b´ıcuwˇ l 20. kamp´ nseyt d

¤ ¤ 7. kæp´ ¤ t layz 14. eys metrik´

152. English

¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤

1. koriyagr´ ¤ ﬁy 8. mæl´ prapiz m 15. npr fe´sˇ n l

¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤

2. dikæp ¤ tey´ sˇ n 9. rek nsiliyey´ sˇ n 16. dilæp´ dayt d

¤ ¤ ¤ ¤

3. kwalif ¤ key´ sˇ n 10. triniteriy´ n 17. man jˇen´ sis

¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ £ ¤ ¤

4. prins ¤ pæl´ tiy 11. nd rdivel´ pt 18. d toriy´ m

¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ©

5. int ¤ rag´ tiv 12. prowd kt´ıv tiy 19. næ´ sˇ n layzi

¤ ¤ ¤ ¤

6. hæb ¤ rdæ´ sˇ riy 13. ilektral´ sis 20. presb t´ıriy n

¤ ¤ 7. indifætig´ ¤ b l 14. impas b´ılitiy

3. Phonemic Alternations

The following statements should be considered only as hints towards a number of possible solutions within various theoretical frameworks. 153. Yoruba

/m/ before /b/; /n/ before /d/; / © / before /k/. Assimilation: the nasal assimilates to the position of articulation of the following consonant.

206 SOLUTIONS

154. Latin stem-final /g/ and /b/ become /k/ and /p/ when they occur before the nominative singular inflection /-s/. Stem-final /k/ and /p/ as well as stem-final vowels are not affected. Assimilation: voiced /g/ and /b/ assimilate to the voicing of the following voiceless /s/. 155. Icelandic /e/ occurs before a following syllable containing /i/; /a/ occurs elsewhere. As- similation: the vowel of the stem assimilates to the front-back and rounded- unrounded quality of the vowel in the following syllable. 156. Spanish the stem vowel in examples 1-5 (underlying /ε/) occurs as /ie/ when stressed; it occurs as /e/ when unstressed. The stem vowel in 6-10 (underlying /e/) occurs as /e/ either stressed or unstressed. Diphthongization. 157. Spanish

the stem vowel in examples 1-5 (underlying / £ /) occurs as /ue/ when stressed; it occurs as /o/ when unstressed. The stem vowel in examples 6-10 occurs as /o/ either stressed or unstressed. Diphthongization. 158. German the stem-final voiced obstruants /b d g/ become voiceless /p t k/ when they occur word-final. The stem-final voiceless obstruants /p t k/ are not affected. When only one of two contrasting phonemes can occur in a certain position (word-final for example, as in German), the contrast between them is said to be neutralized in that position. 159. Turkish /t/ occurs following a voiceless consonant as in /bas-ta/;ˇ /d/ occurs elsewhere as in /randevu-da/. Assimilation: the consonant assimilates to the voicing or lack of it of the preceding segment. 160. Turkish /e/ occurs following a front vowel in the root as in /es-ler/;ˇ /a/ occurs following a non-front vowel in the root as in /bas-lar/.ˇ Vowel harmony, a type of assimilation in which the vowel of the suffix assimilates party or completely to the place and manner articulation of the vowel of the stem.

207 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

161. Turkish objective sufﬁx vowel harmony: /i/ following /i e/; /u/¨ following /u¨ o/;¨ /i/ following /i a/; /u/ following /u o/. Assimilation.

162. Cree underlying /w/ occurs before a vowel as in /atimw-ak/, but disappears in ﬁnal position preceded by a consonant as in /atim/. Deletion: the segment /w/ is deleted in certain positions.

163. Cree underlying /t/ occurs before a vowel as in /nit-astotin/, but disappears before a consonant as in /ni-ciman/.ˇ Deletion: the segment /t/ is deleted when followed by another consonant in certain positions.

164. Afrikaans ¤ underlying /t/ occurs before a vowel as in /a:nr ¤ xt- r/, but disappears in

word-ﬁnal position preceded by a consonant as in /a:nr ¤ x/. Deletion: the segment /t/ is deleted in certain positions.

165. Persian underlying /g/ occurs followed by a vowel as in /bacˇceg-an/,ˇ but disappears when in word-ﬁnal position as in /bacˇce/.ˇ Deletion: /g/ is deleted in word- ﬁnal position.

166. Maltese underlying geminate consonants are retained when followed by a vowel as in /mess-u/, but are reduced to a single consonant in word-ﬁnal position as in /mes/.

167. Greek underlying /t d n/ occur before a vowel as in /erot-os/, /elpid-os/, and /hrin- os/, but disappear when followed by /s/ in word-ﬁnal position as in /ero-s/, /elpi-s/, and /hri-s/. Deletion: a segment is deleted when followed by an /s/ in ﬁnal position.

168. Classical Arabic underlying /w/ and /y/ occur before a consonant as in /qawl and /sayr/, but disappear when they occur in intervocalic position, as in /qaal-a/ (underlying /qawal-a/) and /saar-a/ (underlying /sayar-a/). Deletion: a segment is deleted in certain positions.

208 SOLUTIONS

169. Iraqi Arabic underlying consonant clusters occur together when followed by a vowel as in /baγl-i/, but /a/ is inserted between them if they are word-final and the vowel of the preceding syllable is also /a/ as in /baγal/. Epenthesis: a segment is inserted into sequences of other segments. 170. Iraqi Arabic underlying consonant clusters occur together when followed by a vowel as in /bint-i/ and /xubz-i/, but a vowel identical with the vowel of the preceding syllable is inserted between them when they are word-final, as is /binit/ and /xubuz/. Epenthesis: a segment is inserted into sequences of other segments. 171. Fijian an underlying stem-final consonant occurs when followed by a vowel as in /lakov-a/, but disappears when word-final as in /lako/. Deletion: a consonant is deleted in word-final position. 172. Swahili the singular morpheme is /u/ before a stem which begins with a consonant as /u-bale/, but is /w/ before a stem which begins with a vowel as in /w- araka/; the plural morpheme is /m/ before a stem that begins with /b/ as in

a stem which begins with a /g/ as in / © -gimbi/, and /n/˜ before a stem which begins with a vowel as in /n-araka/.˜ Assimilation: the singular and plural morphemes assimilate to the initial segment of the following noun. 173. Egyptian Arabic underlying /aa/ occurs before a single consonant as in /saaf/,ˇ but /a/ occurs before two consonants as in /saf-na/.ˇ Vowel shortening: a long vowel becomes short when followed by two consonants. 174. Egyptian Arabic underlying double (long) vowels occur before single consonants as in /taag/, /biir/, /nuur/, /beet/, and /door/; similar short vowels occur before two consonants as in /tag-na/, /bir-na/, and /nur-na/. In the case of /beet/ and /door/, the long mid vowels become high short vowels as in /bit-na/ and /dur-na/. Shortening of all vowels and raising of certain vowels.

209 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

175. Hungarian /e/ occurs following a syllable with a front vowel as in /ember-ek/; /o/ occurs following a syllable with a non-front vowel as in /dob-ok/. Vowel harmony: a vowel assimilates partly or completely to a preceding vowel. 176. Hungarian /o/ occurs following a consonant as in /dob-ok/, but disappears following a long vowel as in /tanulo:-k/. Deletion: a vowel disappears in certain positions. 177. Slovak a long vowel occurs in the suffix following a stem with a short vowel as in /krut-i:/; a short vowel occurs in the suffix following a stem with a long vowel or a diphthong as in /lyu:t-i/ and /biel-i/. Dissimilation: one segment becomes unlike another segment. 178. Slovak a long vowel occurs in the suffix following a stem with a short vowel as in /nov-i:/; a short vowel occurs in the suffix following a stem with a diphthong as in /uosm-i/. Dissimilation: one segment becomes unlike another segment. 179. Slovak /iek/ occurs in the suffix following a stem with a short vowel as in /lat-iek/; /ok/ occurs in the suffix following a stem with a long vowel or a diphthong as in /la:t-ok/ and /ciel-ok/.ˇ Dissimilation: one segment becomes unlike another segment, with varying details. 180. Czech the final consonant of a preposition occurs voiceless before a voiceless consonant as in /s tebou/; the final consonant of a preposition occurs voiced elsewhere as in /z delegaci:/ and /z ohnye/. Assimilation: the consonant assimilates to the voicing or lack thereof of the following segment. 181. Hebrew the final /t/ of the prefix occurs in place before a non-sibilant consonant as in /hit-kibel/, but it changes places with a sibilant consonant as in /hi-s-t-alek/ from /hit-/ and /silek/. Metathesis: when a segment changes places with another segment.

210 SOLUTIONS

182. French the feminine form is the base form as in /vεrt/; the masculine is formed from the feminine by the deletion of the ﬁnal consonant as in /vεr/. Another

solution is to assume that the feminine form has a final /- ¤ / and that the phonemic alternation is to delete the final segment, whether a vowel or a consonant. 183. Welsh The morphemic difference must reside in the pronouns, however identical they look. One solution is to express them as /i/ as in /i-pen/, /i(voicing)/ as in /i(voicing)-pen/ and /i(spirantization)/ as in /i(spirantization)-pen/, with the effect on the following consonant: /(voicing)-p/ becomes /b/, and /(spirantization)-p/ becomes /f/. This process is known as “lenition” among linguists who work with the Celtic languages. 184. Polish /o/˜ and /e/˜ both occur before a final consonant as in /dob/˜ and /kes/;˜ before a final sequence of CV, only /e/˜ occurs as in /debu/˜ and /kesa/.˜ 185. Turkish /a/ occurs if the last stem vowel is a non-front vowel as in /soy-mak/; /e/ occurs if the last stem vowel is a front vowel as in /gi-mek/. The third morpheme is /-Vn-/, indicating reflexive action, with greater vowel variation. Vowel harmony, familiar from previous problems in Turkish and Hungarian. 186. Bulgarian a vowel can occur before a word-final sonorant as in /kutel/,´ but disappears when the sonorant is followed by another vowel as in /kutl-i/.´ Deletion: a segment is deleted in certain positions. 187. Bulgarian

/k g x/ occur either in ﬁnal position or before a non-front vowel as in /rak/, /vraga/, and /stomaxa/; they change into /c z s/ before a front vowel as in /rac-i/, /vraz-i/, and /stomas-i/. Assimilation: velar consonants become palatal consonants before a front vowel. 188. Finnish a geminate consonant can occur before an open syllable as in /kuk-ka/, but only a single consonant can occur before a closed syllable as in /ku-kan/. Consonant gradation: a geminate consonant becomes a single consonant in certain positions.

211 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

189. Finnish a geminate consonant can occur before an open syllable as in /menet-te- len/, but only a single consonant can occur before a closed syllable as in /mene-tel-la/.¨ This is another instance of consonant gradation.

190. Finnish a nasal followed by a stop occurs when followed by an open syllable as in /huonom-pa/, but two nasals occur when followed by a closed syllable as in /huonom-man/. Assimilation: the stop assimilates to the nasal.

191. Czech underlying /t/ and /d/ occur as /s/ when followed by /ty/ as in /me:s-tyi/; /t/ and /d/ occur elsewhere as in /met-u/ and /ved-e/. Dissimilation: a segment becomes unlike another segment.

192. Modern Greek the first consonant of the prefix as in /le-lika/´ is a reduplication of the first consonant of the stem as in /l´ıo/. Reduplication: all or part of a morpheme is repeated in certain grammatical constructions.

193. Turkish an underlying consonant cluster occurs when followed by a vowel as in /ism-i/, but an /i/ is inserted between the two consonants when the cluster occurs word final as in /isim/. Underlying geminate consonants occur when followed by a vowel as in /hakk-i/, but are simplified to one consonant when they occur word final as in /hak/.

194. English ¤ an underlying /æ/ becomes / ¤ / when unstressed as in /mor l/ but remains /æ/ when stressed as in /morælitiy/.´ Vowel change.

195. English underlying /t/ and /d/ occur either ﬁnally as in permit and elide or before /iy/ as in Haiti; before an underlying /i/ they become /s/ˇ as in relation or /z/ˇ as in elision. Palatalization, a form of assimilation.

196. English underlying /s/ and /z/ occur in ﬁnal position as in race and please; before an underlying /i/ they become /s/ˇ and /z/ˇ as in racial and pleasure. Palatalization, a form of assimilation.

212 SOLUTIONS

197. English the underlying clusters /gn/, /gb/, /mb/, and /tn/ occur in non-ﬁnal position as in signal, but are reduced to a single consonant when they occur in ﬁnal position as in sign. 198. English

the prefix is /im-/ before a labial, /in-/ before a dental, /i © -/ before a velar, /il-/ before a lateral, and /ir-/ before an /r/. Assimilation: the underlying /n/ of the prefix assimilates to the following consonant. 199. English /s/ occurs following a voiceless consonant; /iz/ occurs after a sibilant; /z/ occurs elsewhere. The plural morpheme is underlying /z/; it assimilates to a preceeding voiceless consonant. When it follows another sibilant, a /i/ is inserted between the two sibilants. 200. English the plural suffix in this problem is identical in behaviour to the plural suffix in the problem above. Notice that in noun stems, a word-final voiceless spirant becomes voiced in these constructions. 201. English the past tense suffix is underlying /d/; it becomes /t/ following a voiceless consonant as in walked, it is /d/ following a voiced consonant as in lived, and has a vowel inserted before it when it follows another dental as in fitted. Assimilation.

4. Morphology

In the following solutions, only the inﬂectional and derivational morphemes will be listed except in the ﬁrst problem, which has a model solution and where all morphemes will be listed, and where called for in other problems. 202. Egyptian Arabic (Model Solution)

Stems (past tense verbs): xabbar- ‘told’; h.amal- ‘carried’; xadam- ‘served’;

saf-ˇ ‘saw’; taba ‘followed’; ragga ‘returned’. Object sufﬁxes (conjunct pro-

nouns): -ak ‘you(masc)’; -ik ‘you(fem)’; -kum ‘you(pl)’; -hum ‘them’;

ma sˇ negative.

213 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

203. Czech po- future; pri-ˇ approximation; od- away; -u 1st.sg.; -esˇ 2nd.sg.; -e 3rd.sg; -eme 1st.pl.; -ete 2nd.pl.; ou 3rd.pl.

204. Lebanese Arabic

0- 1st.sg.; t- 2nd.sg.masc.; t- -i 2nd.sg.fem.; y- 3rd.sg.masc.; t- 3rd.

sg.fem.; n- 1st.pl.; t- -u 2nd.pl.; y- -u 3rd.pl.

205. Cree

ni- 1st.sg.; ki- 2nd.sg.; ni- -a:n 1st.pl.; ki- -a:wa:w 2nd.pl. 206. Swahili ni- 1st.sg.; u- 2nd.sg.; a- 3rd.sg.; tu- 1st.pl.; m- 2nd.pl.; wa- 3rd.pl.; -na- present; -ta- future. 207. Swahili -na- present; -ta- future; -li- past; -me- perfect; -ni- ‘me’; -ku- ‘you’; -m- ‘him’; -tu- ‘us’; -wa- ‘you(pl)’; -wa- ‘them’. 208. Hebrew -ti 1st.sg.; -ta 2nd.sg.masc.; -t 2nd.sg.fem.; -nu 1st.pl.; -tem 2nd.pl.masc.; -ten 2nd.pl.fem.. 209. Hungarian 1. 31; 2. 60; 3. 51; 4. 200; 5. 10,000; 6. 1514; 7. 44; 8. 80; 9. 1848; 10. 27; 11. 100,000; 12. 33; 13. 19; 14. 22; 15. 69; 16. 75. 210. Italian -o 1st.sg.; -i 2nd.sg.; -a 3rd.sg.; -iamo 1st.pl.; -ate 2nd.pl.; -ano 3rd.pl. 211. Italian -av- imperfect; -amo 1st.pl. after -av-; otherwise identical to present tense. 212. Lebanese Arabic -t 1st.sg.; -ak ‘you(m)’; -ik ‘you(f)’; -u ‘him’; -a ‘her’; -kun ‘you(pl)’; -un ‘them’; -ni ‘me’; -na ‘us’

213. Classical Arabic

-l-m ‘know’; s-l-m ‘hand over’; s-l-f ‘lend’; s-r- ‘be fast’; -k-r ‘remember’. Morphological processes include prefixation, gemination, suffixation, vocalic alternation. The gemination of the middle radical can be considered infixation, since it occurs in the middle of a morpheme. Notice that

214 SOLUTIONS

the vowels vary in a number of the patterns. This is called “discontinuous morphology” and is characteristic of the Semitic languages. 214. Persian

xah- future; -an inﬁnitive; -am 1st.sg.; -i 2nd.sg.; -ad 3rd.sg.; -im 1st.pl.; -id

215. Cree

-a pl; ni- ‘my’; ki- ‘your(sg); o- ‘his’; ni- -ina:n ‘our’; ki- -iwa:w

‘your(pl)’; o- -iwa:w ‘their’ 216. Egyptian Arabic

-t 2nd.sg.masc.; -ti, -tii- 2nd.sg.fem.; -na, -naa- 1st.pl.; -tu, -tuu- 2nd.pl.;

ma sˇ negative; - ha, -haa- ‘her’; -ki, -kii- ‘you(fem); -ni, -nii- ‘me’ 217. Persian -am 1st.sg.; -i 2nd.sg.; -0 3rd.sg.; -im 1st.pl.; -id 2nd.pl.; -and 3rd.pl.; mi- continuous action; na- negative 218. Turkish -jˇi, -jˇi,-jˇu, -jˇu¨ agent; -lik, -lik, -luk, luk¨ abstract noun, locality; -jˇe, -jˇa, -ce,ˇ -caˇ manner, relation; -siz, -siz, -suz, -suz¨ negative

219. Cree

nima:w ‘I him’; kima:w ‘you(sg) him’; 0- me:w ‘he

him’; ni ma:na:n ‘we him’; ki ma:wa:w ‘you(pl) him’;

0- me:wak ‘they him’; ni hte:n ‘I it’; ki hte:n ‘you(sg)

it; 0- htam ‘he it’; ni hte:na:n ‘we it’; ki- hte:na:wa:w

‘you(pl) it’; 0- htamwak ‘they it’. Further analysis is possible but not useful at this level. 220. Czech type I: animate nouns ending in -s,ˇ -c,ˇ -r;ˇ type II: nouns ending in other consonants; type III: inanimate nouns ending in -s.ˇ -c.ˇ -r;ˇ type IV: inanimate nouns ending in other consonants. 221. Hungarian -ek, -ok, -ok¨ 1st.sg.; -s, -es, -as 2nd.sg.; -0 3rd.sg.; -unk, -unk¨ 1st.pl.; -tek, -tok, -tok¨ 2nd.pl.; -nek, -nak 3rd.pl.

215 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

222. Turkish 1. eve; 2. ati; 3. gul¨ un;¨ 4. yoldan; 5. ickiye;ˇ 6. odadan; 7. kopr¨ uyle;¨ 8.pal- tonun; 9.ˇeple; j 10. kitabi; 11. otobusten;¨ 12. karakol; 13. kedinin; 14. parayla; 15. sur¨ uye;¨ 16. kokuyu; 17. kalem; 18. vatan; 19.gune;¨ 20. horozu; 21. mefkinin; 22. elma; 23. koyl¨ uyle;¨ 24. piyangodan. 223. Czech

suffix: -eysi:ˇ (with palatalization of the final consonant of the base); prefix:

ney-. Possible interpretation of circumfix forming the superlative: ney- -eysi:.ˇ 224. Tagalog infix: -um-, -in- after the first consonant or consonant cluster of the stem 225. Latvian -t: infinitive marker; -ta:y- (-ey- after stem ending with consonant): agent nouns; -s: inflectional ending; -ni:k-: place or occupation nouns; -a, -e, -s: inflectional endings

226. German

infinitive suffix: - ¤ n; past participle circumfix: ge- -t (with devoicing of the final consonant of the base before the voiceless -t) 227. Classical Arabic discontinuous morphemes: k-t-b ‘write’; s-l-m ‘be safe’; d-r-s ‘study’; s-ˇ γ-l ‘work’; vowel and consonant patterns like -i-aa-un which form derived words. 228. Various Languages suppletion: the occurance of a different lexical form for a different grammatical form. It is not a morphological feature, but a lexical one.

229. Tagalog reduplication: the stem is repeated in the derived form 230. Tagalog reduplication: in examples 1–3, the first consonant and the first vowel of the stem is repeated in the future; in examples 4 and 5 the second syllable of the prefix of the present is repeated in the future 231. Turkish -mek, -mak infinitive; -t- causative; ayirtmak ‘to divide’

216 SOLUTIONS

232. Estonian 1. son’s son; 2. brother’s daughter; 3. aunt’s son; 4. uncle’s son; 5. sister’s son; 6. uncle’s daughter; 7. aunt’s daughter; 8. daughter’s son; 9. son’s daughter; 10. brother’s son; 11. sister’s son; 12. daughter’s daughter. Endocentric compounding. 233. Estonian endocentric compounds; postkontor ‘postofﬁce’ is a hyponym, i.e., a special case of kontor ‘ofﬁce’; etc. 234. Czech endocentric compounds; citoslovce ‘emotion- little word’ is a hyponym of slovce ‘little word’; etc. 235. Czech exocentric (bahuvrihi) compounds: vrityixvost ‘wag tail’ is not a particular type of tail; the whole compound denotes a particular feature of another entity, in this case a person 236. Estonian exocentric compounds: kanapea ‘hen-head’ is not a type of head; it denotes a particular feature of another entity, in this case a person 237. Czech copulative compounds (dvandva); coordinative relationship between morphemes. 238. Turkish 1. endocentric; 2. copulative; 3. endocentric; 4. copulative; 5. exocentric; 6. endocentric; 7. exocentric; 8. copulative; 9. endocentric; 10. exocentric

239. German

¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ interfixes: 1. -n-; 2. - ¤ -; 3. - n-; 4. - s-; 5. - s-; 6. - s-; 7. - - 240. English zero-morph: a difference in function between homophonous forms, where parallelism with other forms in a paradigm appears to demand an affix, but no affix occurs

217 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

241. English prefixes: un-, under-, be-, out-, in-; derivative suffixes: -ly, -ness, -ship, -er, -ful, -y, -less, -ish, -kin, -ry, -en, -al, -er, -ing; inflectional suffixes: -s, -ed, -en. 242. English Group I: a. negative: un-, non-, in-, dis-, a-; b. reversative: un-, de-. Group II: a. pejorative: mis-, mal-, pseudo-; b. degree: arch-, sub-, over- , hyper-. Group III: a. locative: super-, sub-, inter-, under-; b. time: ex-, fore-, pre-, post 243. English occupational: 1, 4; diminutive: 2, 7, 14, 16, 21, 26; feminine: 5, 8; member of a group: 6, 9, 23, 24, 27, 28; abstract noun: 3, 10, 15, 18, 19, 20, 22, 25, 29, 30; result: 12; condition: 13; adverbial: 17 244. English deverbatives: 1, 5, 7, 8, 13, 14, 15, 19, 20, 22, 24, 27, 29; denominatives: 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18, 21, 23, 25, 26, 28, 30 245. English acronyms: 2, 17, 19, 39, 41, 46, 59; derivatives: 1, 4, 5, 10, 11, 16, 22, 25, 29, 31, 34, 38, 40, 43, 44, 47, 55, 58; conversions: 8, 12, 18, 49, 51, 54: borrowings: 9, 13, 26, 33, 35, 37, 45, 48, 50, 52, 56; compounds: 6, 20, 21, 23, 32, 42, 57, 60; reduplications: 3, 15, 27, 53; clippings: 7, 14, 24, 28, 30, 36.

246. English

§ § V § N: 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 13, 16, 20, 22, 25, 28, 29; A N: 2, 6, 27; N V: 3,

10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 19, 23, 24, 30; A § V: 9, 12, 18, 21, 26 247. English 1. V+Subj; 2. V+Obj; 3. Obj+V; 4. Subj+V; 5. Adv+V; 6. N+N; 7.V+Subj; 8. N+N; 9. Obj+V; 10. Subj+V; 11. Adv+V; 12. Adv+V; 13. V+Obj; 14. V+Subj; 15. Adv+A; 16. A+N; 17. N+N; 18. Adv+V; 19. Obj+V; 20. Obj+V

218 SOLUTIONS 5. Syntax

248. Malay (Model Solution) ¤ nouns: rumah ‘house’, bapa ‘father’, anak l ¤ laki ‘son’, p rempuan ‘girl’,

kakak ‘sister’. verbs: lihat ‘look’, cintaˇ ‘love’, i © in ‘want’, kahwin ‘marry’, © jˇadi ‘get’, cadaˇ © ‘decide’, i kari ‘disobey’, ampun ‘forgive’, bunuh ‘kill’,

kaya ‘rich’, marah ‘angry’. grammatical elements: dia ‘he/she’; m ¤ - (+vari-

ants) continuous action; -na˜ possessive marker; itu deﬁnite article; -kan

plication of the stem, e.g., murid-murid; indeﬁnite article with the nouns © indicating animals:s ¤ ekor; pl. indicated by ba ak; deﬁnite article: itu

250. Latin noun stem: puell- ‘girl’, etc.; verb stem: ara- ‘plough’, etc.; conjunction: et ‘and’; preposition in ‘in’; noun suffixes: -a (nom.sg.), -ae (gen.sg.), - am (acc.sg.), -ae (nom.pl.), -arum¯ (gen.pl.), -as¯ (acc.pl.); verb suffixes: -t (3rd.sg.), -nt (3rd.pl.), -mus (1st.pl), -ne (interr.marker); word order: subj. obj. vb. ‘the sailor carries the daughter of the queen into the room’; ‘filiae nautarum¯ silvam et aquas¯ vident’.

251. Estonian nominal sufﬁxes: -ed (pl.), -it (obj.), -il ‘on’, -i (poss.), -a (part.), -is ‘in’, -dega ‘with’; verbal sufﬁxes: -b (3rd.sg.), -vad (3rd.pl.); pronoun: teisel ‘other’, ta ‘he/she’, mu ‘my’, tema ‘his/her’, meie ‘our’. stems: poiss- ‘boy’. on ‘is’, ‘are’, ‘has’, kaan ‘cover’, isa ‘father’; utleb¨ ‘he says’, utlevad¨ ‘they say’. tudruku¨ nudd on aris.¨ poiss tahab must kaan.

252. Bulgarian

deﬁnite markers: - ¤ t (masc.sg.), -te (masc.pl.), -ta (fem.sg.); nominal suf- ﬁxes: -a (nom.fem.sg.), -a (gen.masc.sg.), -i (nom.masc.pl.); prepositions: na, v, do

253. Hebrew pronouns: ani ‘I’, ata ‘you (masc.sg.)’, at ‘you (fem.sg.)’, hu ‘he’, hi ‘she’, anaxnu ‘we’, atem ‘you (masc.pl.)’, aten ‘you (fem.pl.)’, hem ‘they (masc.)’,

219 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

hen ‘they (fem.)’; verbal sufﬁxes: -0 (masc.sg.), -a (fem.sg.), -im (masc.pl.), -ot (fem.pl.); preﬁxes ba- ‘in’ 254. Hindi rahe prog.marker; ka¯ poss.marker; -ta pres.3rd.sg.masc.; -t¯ı pres.3rd.sg. fem.; hai pres.marker (sg.); hai˜ pres.marker (pl.) 255. Turkish -im (1st.sg); -ik (1st.pl); -i acc.def; -ler (pl); bir indef.art 256. Classical Arabic

¢ al- def.art; -u nom.; -a acc.; -i gen.; -hu ‘his’; -hum ‘their (masc)’; –hunna ‘their (fem)’ 257. Classical Arabic nominal affixes: l- def.art; -un nom.indef; -an acc.indef; nominal suffixes: -u nom.; -a acc.; verbal suffixes: -a ‘he’, -ta ‘you (masc.sg.)’, -ti ‘you (fem.sg.)’, -naa ‘we’, -tum ‘you (masc.pl.)’; -ka ‘you (masc.sg.)’obj., -ki ‘you (fem.sg.)’obj, -kumu ‘you (masc.pl.)’obj 258. Czech adjectives: -i: (masc.sg.), -a: (fem.sg.), - e: (neut.sg.), -i: (masc.pl.anim.), -e: (masc.pl.inanim.), -e: (fem.pl.), -a: (neut.pl.) 259. Czech masc.sg: adj -i:, noun -0, verb -0; masc.pl.: adj. -i:, noun -i:, verb -i; fem.sg.: adj -a:, noun -a, verb -a; fem.pl.: adj -e:, noun -i, verb -i; past tense -l- 260. Czech pres.part: -e (masc.sg.), -i:c (fem.sg.), - i:ce (pl.); past.part: -l (masc.sg.), -la (fem.sg.), -li (pl.)

261. Russian the sufﬁx -u indicates a partitive sense, i.e., a reference to an unspeciﬁed quantity 262. German Subject nouns have der, die (nom.); nouns after aus and other prepositions

have dem (dat.), after ohne and other prepositions have den (acc.), and after

anstelle and other prepositions have des es (gen.)

220 SOLUTIONS

263. Turkish A typical order is: sbj. + time + place + ind.obj. + dir.obj. + verb modifer + verb 264. Russian the relexive suffix indicates: a. identify of subject and object; b. reciprocity; c. passive voice; d. characteristic feature of subject 265. Czech In Czech, the comment (new information) is placed at the end of the sentence. In English, the comment carries the sentence stress. 266. Turkish word order: subject + time + place + indirect object + direct object + verb; the object that is definite always precedes the object that is indefinite, irrespective of its status as direct or indirect; vocabulary: ressam ‘artist’, resim ‘picture’, gazetici ‘journalist’, anne ‘the mother’, gun¨ ‘day’, hafta ‘week’, çore¨ g/k,˘ kiz ‘girl’, geçen ‘last’, pis¸irdi ‘baked’, biz ‘us’, bir ‘a’, siz ‘you’, -te/-da/-ta ‘in’, -in ‘his/her’, -i (acc.), -e/-ye/-a (dat.), -ler (pl.) 267. Iraqi Arabic def.art-noun + pers.marker-verb + def.art-noun 268. Hebrew def.art-noun + verb + obj.marker + def.art-noun 269. Spanish def.art + noun + verb-pers.marker + def.art + noun 270. French art + noun + verb-pers.marker + art + noun

271. German pronoun + verb-pers.marker + adv 272. Iraqi Arabic def.art-noun + (mod.aux) + pers.marker-verb + (prep)-def.art-noun 273. Iraqi Arabic def.art-noun + (pers.marker-verb) + pers.marker- verb + def.art-noun

221 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

274. Lebanese Arabic def.art-noun + mood.marker-(pers.marker-verb) + pers.marker-verb + def.art-noun

275. Iraqi Arabic (dem)-def.art-noun + (verb-pers.marker) + (prep.) + ((dem)-def.art-noun) + (noun) + (adj.)

276. Egyptian Arabic (def.art-)noun-(dem) + pers.marker-verb + (def.art-)noun-(dem) 277. Latin noun-case.marker(α) + adj.-case.marker(α) + verb-pers.marker

278. Latin noun-case.marker(α) + noun-case.marker(β) + verb-pers.marker

279. Classical Arabic (interr.) + verb-pers.marker + (def.art-)noun-case.marker(α) + (def.art-) noun-case.marker(β) 280. Turkish noun + noun + verb-pers.marker + (interr.)

281. English [no solution provided]

282. English [no solution provided]

283. English [no solution provided]

284. English [no solution provided]

285. English [no solution provided]

286. Spanish noun + verb + non-personal noun; noun + verb + a + personal noun

222 SOLUTIONS

287. Rumanian def.art + noun; noun + indef.art 288. German noun + pres.verb + noun; noun + ‘have’ + noun + past.participle 289. Spanish noun + verb + noun; noun + reﬂex.pro + verb 290. French noun + verb + noun; noun + verb + inﬁnitive + noun 291. Lebanese Arabic def.art-noun; noun + def.art-noun 292. Lebanese Arabic noun + verb + noun; noun(α) + relative + verb- obj(α) 293. Swahili noun(α) + verb marker(α)-verb stem + noun(β); noun(α) + verb marker(α)- obj(β)-verb stem 294. Swahili noun(α) + (ni) + (adj(α)) + verb(α) 295. French noun + verb; noun + ne + verb + pas 296. Spanish verb + noun; no + verb + neg.noun

297. Spanish verb(α) + noun; verb + que + verb(α)-subj + noun 298. Latin direct statement: noun(α) + verb(α); indirect statement: verb(β) + noun(α) + verb-inﬁn.

299. Polish

declarative: albo + + albo ; interrogative: czy + + czy

223 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

300. German direct: 2. werde; 3.es; 4. wir; 5. werden; 6. werde; 7. ich; 9. ich, es; 10. werde. indirect: 2. dass ich; 3. dass, wurden;¨ 4. ich es sehen wurde;¨ 5. dass wir, kaufen wurden;¨ 6. wurde;¨ 7. dass, es, wurden;¨ 8. dass es essen wurde;¨ 9. dass, es, wurden;¨ 10. dass ich es bringen 301. Bulgarian decl.: subj. + verb; fut.: subject + sˇceˇ + verb; neg.: subj. + nyama da + verb; interr.: verb + li; fut.interr.: subj. + sˇceˇ + verb + li; etc. 302. Czech infinitive: subj + verb + infinitive + obj.; subordinate: subj + verb + abi + verb + obj. 303. Czech pres.: noun + verb + noun; fut.: noun + modal + infinitive + noun; des.: noun + modal + infinitive + noun; compl.: noun + (compl.)-verb + noun. Completion of the verbal action is expressed by prepositions which change the verbal aspect into prefective. 304. Czech a double negative is required: negative pronoun and a negative verbal prefix 305. Czech an object expressed by a pronoun, which always lacks stress, shifts its position before the stressed verb. Proclitics. 306. English [no solution provided]

307. English [no solution provided] 308. English [no solution provided] 309. English [no solution provided] 310. English [no solution provided]

224 SOLUTIONS

311. English [no solution provided] 312. English [no solution provided] 313. English [no solution provided] 314. English [no solution provided] 315. English [no solution provided] 316. English [no solution provided] 317. English [no solution provided] 318. English [no solution provided] 319. English [no solution provided] 320. English 1. “found” requires an object; 2. “yelled” requires a prepositional phrase; 3. “convinced” requires a sentence; 4. “rain” requires “it” as subject; 5. “fond” requires a prepositional phrase.

321. English 1. Chicken for frying will be appreciated. The act of frying chicken will be appreciated. 2. Shoes for fashionable women are sold here. Fashionable shoes for women are sold here. 3. Water for drinking can be healthy. The act of drinking water can be healthy. 4. Red ﬂowers and leaves are painted on the surface. They are using ﬂowers and leaves to paint the surface with. 5. Men’s deeds which are innocent will be judged. The deeds of innocent men will be judged. 6. Betty hates her husband and Mary hates Betty’s husband too. Betty hates her own husband and as well Mary hates her own husband.

225 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

322. English 1. “treat’ should be “street”; 3. “ran the meadows over” should be “ran over the meadows”; 9. “his mother” should be omitted; 10. “believes” should be “wants”; 13. “cried” should be “cried to”; 14. “bought” requires a direct object

6. Semantics

323. English 1. beneficiary; 2. instrument; 3. patient; 4. location; 5. agent; 6. experiencer; 7. patient; 8. agent; 9. instrument; 10. instrument; 11. patient; 12. experiencer; 13. location; 14. complement; 15. agent 324. English 1. agent; 2. instrument; 3. patient; 4. location; 5. patient; 6. beneficiary; 7. beneficiary; 8. experiencer; 9. complement; 10. experiencer 325. English [no solution provided] 326. Classical Arabic nouns which refer to rational entities (people or genies) have agreement -uuna for masculine plurals and -aat for feminine plurals; nouns which refer to non-rational entities (animals or things) have agreement for masculine and feminine singular, but are all treated in the plural as if they were feminine singular 327. Classical Arabic

adjectives that describe bodily defects have the form ¢ aCCaC; adjectives that describe personality excellences have the form CaCiiC. Note that being left-handed is considered a defect. 328. Classical Arabic

primary colours have the form ¢ aCCaC; other colours have a variety of different shapes all ending in -iyy 329. Swahili m-(sg), wa-(pl) is used for people; ki-(sg), vi- (pl) is used for implements; m-(sg), mi-(pl) is used for trees and plants; u-(sg), n-(pl) is used for parts of the body

226 SOLUTIONS

330. Cree unpossessed nouns with no prefix are alienable, indicating entities that can be given away, like canoes; unpossessed nouns with the prefix mi- are inalienable, indicating entities that cannot be given away, like relatives or body parts 331. Spanish estar is used for temporary conditions or locations; ser is used for permanent conditions 332. Spanish saber is used to mean to know a fact or how to do something; conocer is used to mean be acquainted with a person or a subject 333. French etreˆ is used in the past tense of verbs of motion and for reflexive verbs; avoir is used in the past for all other verbs 334. German the accusative case is used to indicate motion into or towards; the dative case is used to indicate position 335. English ungrammatical sentences: 1, 6, 9, 12; lack of referents: 4, 7, 10, 11; violate our knowledge of the world: 2, 3, 5, 8 336. English the ambiguity is based on the possibility of different interpretations of words — lexical ambiguity, e.g., “blue”: a. colour, b. sad 337. English sentences 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 are unacceptable in the figurative sense 338. English 1. It is John who sings. 2. But he enjoys them when someone else sings them. 3. He sings Russian folk songs. 4. He sings them at home. 339. English the sentence stress falls on the following words: 1. a. boat, b. wood, c. build, d. new; 2. a. hear, b. concerto, c. Mozart’s, d. Issac Stern; 3. a. hockey sticks, b. other, c. don’t

227 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

340. English There are usually several shades of meaning involved in every contrast, therefore the suggested solution is only approximate. Sentences 1, 2, 9, 10: difference in conceptual meaning; sentences 3, 8, 11: difference in collocative meaning, e.g., a person strolls, but a cow does not; sentences 4, 5, 6, 7, 12 indicate different shapes of stylistic and affective meanings. 341. English [no solution provided] 342. English [no solution provided] 343. English 1. crash; 2. bus; 3. scraps of meat; 4. artificial cheese; 5. artificial meat; 6. imitation crab; 7. bills; 8. junkyard; 9. acceptance of all who apply; 10. inadequate knowledge; 11. bad handwriting; 12. profit 344. English 1. death; 2. sick; 3. fatal disease; 4. imminent death, mercy killing; 5. pain; 6. pregnancy; 7. died; 8. senility; 9. unconscious; 10. died 345. English 1. syphilis; 2. polio; 3. tuberculosis; 4. epilepsy; 5. head cold; 6. diarrhea; 7. influenza; 8. coronary thrombosis; 9. cancer; 10. insanity 346. English [no solution provided] 347. English [no solution provided]

348. English Structure of simile: topic: an entity which is being compared; vehicle: an entity which serves for comparison; ground: the property that the topic supposedly shares with the vehicle. “She is as gentle as a lamb“: she (topic), gentle (ground), lamb (vehicle) 349. English 1. HUMAN: a. FEMALE b. MALE; 2. ADORNMENTS: a. JEWELRY b. TEXTILE DECORATIONS; 3. PLANTS: a. FLOWERS b. TREES; 4. ADMINISTRATIVE DIVI-

228 SOLUTIONS

SIONS: a. CANADIAN b. AMERICAN; 5. OBJECTS OF LITERACY: a. FOR READ- ING b. FOR WRITING; 6. ORGANS: a. EXTERNAL b. INTERNAL; 7. MENTAL FEATURES: a. INTELLECT b. EMOTION; 8. COLOURS: a. BASIC b. RELATED TO A PARTICULAR OBJECT; 9. ACTION: a. MOTION b. AGGRESSION; 10. MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION: a. WATER b. SURFACE 350. English binary: 1, 2, 6, 11; polar: 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 14; relational opposites: 5, 8, 10, 13, 15 351. English [no solution provided] 352. English inverses: 1, 2, 5 353. English [no solution provided] 354. English multiple taxonomy: 2, 3, 6; hierarchy: 1, 4, 5; Set 4 is cyclic. 355. English 1. binary; 2. relational; 3. multiple taxonomy; 4. multiple taxonomy; 5. inverse opposition; 6. polar opposition; 7. multiple taxonomy; 8. hierarchy; 9. relational; 10. hierarchy 356. English 1. men; 2. boyscout; 3. trout; 4. slave; 5. galleon; 6. Constantinople; 7. bayonet; 8. minute; 9. Parthenon; 10. baboon 357. English hyponyms: 3, 5, 6, 7; incompatible: 1 (ADULT), 2. (ADULT, MALE), 4. (MOVE- MENT), 8. (MALE), 9. (INDELIBLE), 10. (HUMAN) 358. English [no solution provided] 359. English [no solution provided] 360. English polysemy: 1, 3, 4, 7, 10; homonymy: 2, 5, 6, 8, 9

229 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

361. English the features differenciating the individual items are: 1. TROPICAL TREE, FLOWER, FRUIT; 2. DAILY, PRIVATE; 3. ECCLESIASTICAL, LARGE, SMALL; 4. FOOTWEAR FOR SNOW, FOOTWEAR FOR RAIN, BODYWEAR; 5. AGENT, ACTION, PRODUCT; 6. ANIMAL, VEHICLE, GROUND, WATER, AIR; 7. TEAM, GROUND, WATER, ICE

362. English [no solution provided]

363. English the features differentiating the individual items are: MYTHOLOGICAL, MALE, FEMALE, HUMAN, EQUINE, REPTILE, AVIAN

364. English analytic truth: 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10; pragmatic truth: 3, 6, 8

365. English analytic falsehood: 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9; pragmatic falsehood: 2, 4, 8, 10

366. English 1. X (I am an orphan), Y(I am a child and my parents are dead); 2. X(The doll has blond hair), Y(The doll has hair); 3. X(I am an orphan), Y(My parents are alive); 4. X(This orphan has no parents); 5. X(This orphan’s parents are alive); 6. X(Has your mother signed the cheque?), Y(You have a mother); 7. X(If she had a doll she would be happier), Y(She has a doll); 8. X(The orphan’s parents are vacationing in Mexico)

367. English 1. inconsistency (factual); 2. anomaly (factual); 3. entailment; 4. positive presupposition; 5. positive presupposition; 6. entailment; 7. synonymy; 8. synonymy; 9. positive supposition; 10. anomaly

368. English 1. synonymy (factual); 2. entailment (factual); 3. entailment; 4. inconsistency (factual); 5. anomaly (factual); 6. inconsistency; 7. anomaly (factual); 8. contradiction; 9. tautalogy; 10. positive presupposition

369. English anomaly: 3, 4, 6; contradiction: 1, 2, 5, 7

230 SOLUTIONS

370. English [no solution provided]

7. Sound Change

371. Old Icelandic *o: > o:/¨ C(C)i 372. Old Icelandic

*a > £ / C(C)u 373. Spanish a>e/ C(C)e, iV

374. Old High German *i > e/ C(C)non-high V 375. Maltese aa > ie/(C) (C) 376. Rumanian ea > a/labial

377. Rumanian u > 0/(resonant)C # 378. Maltese V > 0/ CVVC; VV > V/ CVVC 379. Egyptian Arabic

VV > V/ CC

380. Lebanese Arabic

V > V:/ ¢ C 381. Spanish s > es/# C

382. Lebanese Arabic C + resonant > Ci + resonant/ #

231 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

383. Portuguese *n > 0/V V; *Vn > nasalized vowel/ #, e#

384. Spanish *p, *t, *k > b, d, g/V V

385. Italian *k > t/ t; *k > s/ s; *gn > n˜n˜

386. Montagnais *skˇ > ss/ front vowel, y; *sk > x/elsewhere

387. Swahili *p, *t, *k > f, s, s/ˇ i

388. Latin *s > r/V V

389. Italian *k > c/ˇ front vowel

390. Russian *k > c/ˇ front vowel

391. Russian *x, *h > s/ˇ front vowel

392. Old Church Slavic *k > c/ front vowel, ai

393. Old Church Slavic *h, *x > s/ front vowel, ai, oi

394. Old Church Slavic *k, *g, *gh > z/ front vowel

395. Spanish

*ε > e/ ¡iV, kt; *ε > ie/elsewhere

396. Italian

*ε > e/ CC,¡ iV; *ε > ie/elsewhere

232 SOLUTIONS

397. Spanish and Italian

£ £ £ £ ¡ Sp.: * > o/ (C)i¡V, kt, kl; * > ue/elsewhere; It.: * > o/ CC, (C)iV; * > uo/elsewhere 398. Russian u˘ > o/ Cu,˘ ˘ı #; u˘ > 0/elsewhere; ˘ı>e/ C˘ı; ˘ı > 0/elsewhere 399. Russian 1. pni; 2. zlo; 3. dva; 4. gnati; 5. mox; 6. sozvaty; 7. testy; 8. uzok; 9. uzka; 10. posol 400. Slavic Languages Polish: *or > ro; Czech: *or > ro/ #; *or > ra/elsewhere; Russian: *or > ro #; *or > oro/elsewhere 401. Slavic Languages OCS: *ol > la; *el > le;ˇ Polish: *ol > lo; *el > le; Czech: *ol > la; *el > le; Russian: *ol > olo; *el > olo, ele 402. Various Languages Satem: Russian, Old Church Slavic, Latvian, Sanskrit, Avestan, Ukranian, Bulgarian, Slovak, Lithuanian, Low Sorbian, Old Prussian; Kentum: Latin, Gothic, Greek, Hittite, Old Irish, Tocharian, Old English, Old High German, German 403. English h > 0/#r ; k > 0/# n; k > c/ˇ front vowel; sk > s/ˇ front vowel; ¯ı > ay; u¯ > aw; etc. 404. English ¯ı > i/ CC, > ay/elsewhere; e¯ > e/ CC, > iy/elsewhere; a¯ > æ/ CC, >

ey/elsewhere; £ > a/ CC, > ow/elsewhere; o>a/¯ CC, > uw/elsewhere; u¯

> ¤ / CC, > aw/elsewhere 405. English same as the preceding problem, except that the conditioning factor is that, instead of being followed by two consonants, the vowel is followed by two or more syllables

233 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

406. English the spellings “ee” and “ea” suggest that at an earlier date the two vowel clusters were pronounced differently, and that due to sound change they came to be pronounced the same 407. English back rounded vowel > front rounded vowel/ Ci; front rounded vowel > front unrounded vowel; ﬁnal i > 0 408. English h > 0/# l, r, n, in all dialects, and in certain dialects h > 0/# w as well

8. Grammar Change

409. English In the 16th century, interrogatives were made by inverting the order of the subject and the verb; in Modern English interrogatives are made by inserting a form of the verb “to do” in front of the subject. The source of the sentences is Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice. 410. English In the 16th century, negative sentences were made by inserting the word “not” after the verb; in Modern English, the negative is made by inserting the verb “to do” followed by the word “not” before the verb. The source of the sentences is Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice. 411. Maltese Maltese has regularized the Old Arabic paradigm by making the first person singular begin with n- like the first person plural and adding a final -u to make the form like the second and third persons plural; the singular forms

have lost the final -u of Old Arabic, and the plural forms have all developed a final -u from the various forms in Old Arabic. 412. Old English Old English has reduced the Proto-Germanic forms from eight different endings to four, collapsing five cases in the singular to three, and four cases in the plural to three.

234 SOLUTIONS

413. Italian Italian has analogized the endings of the present to the imperfect, as well as simplifying them in both tenses.

414. English English has reduced the various plural endings of Old English to one, the -s of the conjugation of the word “stone”, with the exception of the word for “children”.

415. English Many irregular or strong verbs in Old English have been regularized to the regular or weak verb in Modern English with the addition of the regular past tense ending generally spelled “-ed”.

416. English 1. pl; 2. pl; 3. sg; 4. sg; 5. pl; 6. sg; 7. sg; 8. sg; 9. sg; 10. sg; 11. pl; 12. pl; 13. pl; 14. pl; 15. sg; 16. sg. There seems to be no reason for the choice of the singular or plural by particular verbs.

417. English The majority of the forms are from the s-root; the inﬁnitive is from the b-root. Notice that the past subjunctive derives from a form that had r in ﬁrst and third persons singular, which is why Modern English has “if I were”.

418. Spanish The names for Monday and Wednesday, which did not end in -s in Latin have adopted a ﬁnal -s by analogy to the forms for Tuesday, Thursday, and Friday. Saturday and Sunday ended in a -u in Latin and have not been subjected to this analogy.

419. Spanish The final -s in the singular was dropped by regular sound change and the resulting form was seen as a singular. A new plural was formed with final -s by analogy from other forms. The old Latin plural was lost except for a few forms. In the final two forms, one prenda, is from a different etymon, and the other, huebras, is a survival of the old Latin plural.

420. Spanish The cultismos deal with more formal and specialized things; the inherited words deal with more familiar and common things.

235 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

421. Spanish The form for the objective case of ‘I’ has been replaced by the form of the subjective case and the first and second person plural forms have been lengthened by the addition of the word otros meaning ‘others’. 422. Spanish The Spanish subjunctive stem, which in Latin had a k followed by a front vowel in Latin, has been borrowed from the Latin indicative stem, which has a -g- by regular sound change 423. Spanish The second person singular would have been identical to the third person singular in Spanish by regular sound change, so a form from elsewhere in the paradigm was substituted for the Latin form to prevent this from happening. The form eres is borrowed from the form for the future tense in Latin, which was otherwise completely replaced in Spanish by a new future tense. 424. Spanish The Latin subjunctive of the verb meaning ‘to be’ has been replaced by the subjunctive form of the verb meaning ‘to be seated’, probably because regular sound change would have reduced the Latin subjunctive to *si for a number of forms which needed to be different. 425. Spanish The Arabic definite article has been taken as part of the word, and the Spanish definite article has been added. This is like the name of a movie theatre, “The La Plaza”, which means literally ‘the the plaza’. 426. Spanish The Latin future tense has been completely lost in Spanish, and Spanish has created a new future tense from a phrase consisting of the Latin infinitive and a form of the verb meaning ‘have’. 427. English Since constructions using the objective case like “Him and me done it” are labeled incorrect, speakers come to think that any two pronouns together must both be in the nominative case, so the correct “between you and me” is hypercorrectly changed to “between you and I”.

236 SOLUTIONS

428. Various Languages In European culture, since most people are right-handed, the left hand was looked on as deviant and therefore bad. Words denoting ‘left’ became taboo words and were replaced with words from other etyma. For example, the words for ‘left’ in Spanish and Catalan were borrowed from Basque.

429. Spanish The forms for ‘to give it to him’ and ‘to give it to them’ have two repeditions of the same stem, ill-, one after another. The other forms have different stems. The affected forms were regularized to be like the expessions with different stems.

430. Spanish The Latin pronouns have the word for ‘with’ following the pronoun, but noun phrases have the word for ‘with’ before the noun. After sound change in the pronoun-with forms had blurred the original meaning of cum, it was felt necessary to add the word for ‘with’ in front of the pronoun, on the analogy of the phrases with a noun.

431. Spanish The Spanish subjunctive set, which would have had -k- by regular sound change, was analogized to have the same stem as the indicative, which has /θ/ by regular sound change.

432. Spanish The Spanish imperfective is the only set that reﬂects the Latin form. The present tense is based on a different stem, and the preterite is based on a form of the verb ‘to be’, probably by contamination with the -v- of the Latin preterite.

433. Maltese Maltese has simplified the Classical Arabic set, and has taken the final -ara of the Arabic form for ‘ten’, changed by regular sound change into il- in Maltese, as the definite article, so that the Maltese is literally ‘six ten the dog’ for ‘16 dogs’. This il- has been extended to the word for ‘how many’: kemm il-bint ‘how many the girl’, meaning ‘how many girls’.

434. Turkish a. native Turkish words, which exhibit vowel harmony: 5, 6, 8, 11, 12, 13, 19, 20, 25, 28; b. Arabic borrowings: 2, 3, 7, 15, 17, 18, 22, 23, 24, 26, 29;

237 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

c. borrowings from Western European languages: 1, 4, 9, 10, 14, 16, 21, 27, 30 435. English [no solution provided] 436. English

The final -l of æ el has become attached to the suffix, which has then been extended to the other forms. The word quisling by coincidence coincides with this set, but in actual fact is the last name of Vidkun Quisling, who was the Norwegian collaborator who headed the German-installed puppet government during World War II. 437. English The shapes of the derived forms have been influenced by other forms with similar suffixes. As in the case of Peruvian and Shavian, -v- often shows up in English words which have a -u or -w in other forms. Other examples are Monroe–Monrovia, Moscow–Muskovite, Rousseau–Rousseauvian and Nehru–Nehruvian. This reflects the fact that the final o or u in these words are phonemically /ow/ and /uw/ 438. English a. Germanic: 3, 6, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 20, 21, 32, 33, 39; b. French:1, 4, 5, 9, 12, 16, 19, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 34; others: 2, 7, 8, 10, 18, 22, 28, 30, 31, 36, 37, 38 439. Indo-European Slavic, Latin, Greek: -e-, -o-; Lithuanian: -e-, - a-. Function: word formation, verb to noun conversions. English prefers the usage of a different lexical item.

440. Russian Look for those Russian words which are obviously different from their equivalents in other Slavic languages. Turko-Tatar borrowings: 2. alasa,ˇ 5. damga (money), 8. esek,ˇ 9. uz¨ um,¨ 12. karalik, 14. damga, 15. saray, 16. basmak,ˇ 18. haydamak, 20. kara (black). 441. English [no solution provided] 442. English [no solution provided]

238 SOLUTIONS

443. English After 1066, the English were the ones who raised the animals in the barnyard, hence the animals got the English names; the French were the ones who ate the meat in the dining hall, hence the ﬂesh of the English animals got French names.

9. Reconstruction

444. Proto-Romance *i > Sp. i; Sard. i; Rum. i, ˆı /#r

445. Proto-Romance *I> Sp. e; Sard. i; Rum. e, ea/ C(C)a#

446. Proto-Romance *e > Sp. e; Sard. e; Rum. e, ea/ C(C)a#

447. Proto-Romance *ε > Sp. ie, e/ cˇ ; Sard. e; Rum. ie

448. Proto-Romance *a > Sp. a, e/ cˇ ; Sard. a; Rum. a

449. Proto-Romance

* £ > Sp. ue; Sard. o; Rum. o, oa/ C(C)front or low vowel#

450. Proto-Romance *o > Sp. o; Sard. o; Rum. o, oa/ C(C)front or low vowel#, u/ n

451. Proto-Romance

*U > Sp. o; Sard. o; Rum. u

452. Proto-Romance *u > Sp. u; Sard. u; Rum. u

453. Proto-Indo-European *p > Eng. f, p/#s ; Lat. p; Gk. p

454. Proto-Indo-European *t > Eng. θ, t/#s ;Lat. t;Gk. t

239 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

455. Proto-Indo-European *k > Eng. h, 0/#s >sˇ ; Lat. k; Gk. k 456. Proto-Indo-European

h h h h h

*b > Sk. b , b/# V C , h ; Gk. p , p/# V C , h ; Gmc. b 457. Proto-Indo-European

h h h h

*d > Sk. d , d/# V C , h ; Gk. t , t/# V Ch, h ; Gmc. d 458. Proto-Indo-European

h h h h

*g > Sk. h, g/# V C , h ; Gk. k , k/# V C , h ; Gmc. g 459. Proto-Indo-European *t > Sk. t; Go. θ/stressed vowel , d/ stressed vowel 460. Proto-Slavic *ie > Ukr. i; Russ. e; Cz. i; Slo. ie

461. Proto-Slavic O.C.S. e < P-Sl. *front vowel + nasal; O.C.S. o < P-Sl. *back vowel + nasal

462. Proto-Slavic

1. e ; 2. e; 3. o; 4. o, o; 5. e; 6. e, o; 7. e; 8. o; 9. o; 10. o; 11. e; 12. o; 13. o, 14. o ; 15. e 463. Proto-Slavic Reconstructed stems: 1. pas-; 2. tryas-; 3. nes-; 4. lez-; 5. vez-; 6. bod-; 7. pas-; 8. krad-, ved-, met-. Changes in inﬁnitive: -d, -t > -s, -ti (dissimilation). Past tense: Cz.: sufﬁx -l preserved; Russ.: -sl, -zl > s, dl, -tl > l; Srb- Cro: -dl, -tl > o

464. Proto-Slavic 1. mig-; 2. mog-; 3. sleg-; 4. tag-; 5. stig-; 6. pomog-; 7 pek-; 8. protek-; 9. puk-; 10. rek- 465. Proto-Austronesian

240 SOLUTIONS

466. Proto-Austronesian

© © © tulu © ; 10. tumpuq; 11 kilan; 12. si gah; 13. suru ; 14. tarimaq; 15. tamia ; 16. galugah 467. Proto-Eastern Oceanic 3. F.: ca;¯ 5. N.: tahi; 6. P-Pol.: fohe; 7. F.: kanace; 13. P.E.O. zake-v;. Deviating forms: P- Pol.P ﬁso, anuha; N. ngija, kanace

469. Proto-Turkic ¡ 1. kas; 2. kal; 3. kar/xar; 4. kat; 5. kac;ˇ 6. koi¡/xoi; 7. kol/xol; 8. kul; 9. kus;ˇ 10. kiz; 11. kil/xil; 12. kin/xin; 13. kis;ˇ 14. gel;¨ 15. gir; 16. gol;¨ 17. gok;¨ 18. gor;¨ 19. gun;¨ 20. guc¨ 470. Proto-Turkic 6. ta:r; 8. ko:k¨ 471. Various Languages 1. genetic; 2. borrowing, English from Hebrew; 3. borrowing, English from Japanese; 4. coincidence; 5. coincidence; 6. borrowing, both languages from Latin; 7. genetic; 8. genetic; 9. borrowing, Turkish from French; 10. borrowing, Bulgarian from Latin; 11. borrowing, Russian from Greek; 12. genetic; 13. genetic; 14. genetic; 15. genetic; 16. universal; 17. borrowing, German from French; 18. coincidence; 19. borrowing, Turkish from Arabic; 20. borrowing, both languages from Greek; 21. genetic; 22. borrowing, both languages from Chinese; 23. borrowing, English from Arabic; 24. universal; 25. genetic; 26. borrowing, English from Greek; 27. borrowing in English from Latin, genetic between Rumanian and Latin; 28. genetic; 29. genetic; 30. genetic; 31. borowing, German from English; 32. genetic; 33. coincidence; 34. coincidence; 35. borrowing, Persian from Arabic 472. English [no solution provided]

241

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250 Language Index

(Numbers refer to exercise number, not page number)

Afrikaans: 164 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, Arabic, Classical: 20, 21, 168, 213, 227, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 228, 256, 247, 279, 326, 327, 328, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368, 369, 370, 425, 433, 471 403, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, Arabic, Egyptian: 32, 173, 174, 202, 216, 410, 414, 415, 416, 417, 427, 428, 276, 379, 471 435, 436, 437, 438, 441, 442, 443, Arabic, Iraqi: 169, 170, 267, 272, 273, 275 453, 454, 455, 471 Arabic, Lebanese: 22, 23, 100, 105, 141, English, American: 65 204, 212, 274, 291, 292, 380, 382 English, British: 57, 66 Arabic, Old: 375, 378, 379, 380, 382, 411 English, Old: 402, 403, 407, 408, 412, 414, Armenian: 402 415, 416, 417 Avestan: 392, 393, 394, 402 Estonian: 232, 233, 236, 251 Azerbaijani: 469 Fijian: 171, 467 Bulgarian: 186, 187, 252, 301, 402, 471 Finnish: 188, 189, 190, 393, 471 Catalan: 428 French: 1, 41, 43, 49, 51, 53, 54, 59, 69, Chinese: 2, 3, 15, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75 182, 228, 270, 290, 295, 333, 428, Cree: 86, 89, 93, 94, 162, 163, 205, 215, 443, 471 219, 330 French, Canadian: 25, 44, 45, 60, 61, 128, Czech:13, 33, 70, 113, 125, 139, 180, 191, 129, 130, 131 203, 220, 223, 234, 235, 237, 258, German: 24, 28, 30, 52, 63, 96, 116, 158, 259, 260, 265, 302, 303, 304, 305, 226, 228, 239, 262, 271, 288, 300, 400, 401, 440, 460, 462, 463, 464, 334, 391, 393, 428, 461, 471 471 German, Old High: 374, 391, 393, 394, Dutch: 471 402, 461 English: 132, 134, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, Gothic: 392, 393, 394, 402, 456, 457, 458, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 193, 459 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, Greek: 76, 167, 391, 392, 394, 402, 439, 228, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 453, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458 246, 247, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, Greek, Modern: 192, 471 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, Gujerati: 83 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, Hebrew: 79, 181, 208, 253, 268 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 335, Hebrew, Biblical: 87, 88, 95, 471 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, Hindi: 6, 7, 8, 17, 18, 19, 254 343, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, Hittite: 402

251 SOURCE BOOK FOR LINGUISTICS

Hungarian: 12, 48, 50, 120, 126, 175, 176, 450, 451, 452, 471 209, 221, 471 Russian: 9, 10, 11, 14, 122, 124, 127, 140, Icelandic: 155 228, 261, 264, 390, 391, 398, 399, Icelandic, Old: 371, 372, 456, 458 400, 401, 402, 440, 460, 461, 462, Irish, Old: 402 463, 464, 471 Italian: 42, 64, 210, 211, 228, 385, 389, Sanskrit:393,394,402,456,457,458,459, 396, 397, 413, 428 461 Japanese: 26, 67, 114, 471 Sardinian: 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, Javanese, New: 465, 466, 468, 471 450, 451, 452 Javanese, Old: 465, 466 Saxon, Old: 458, 461 Korean: 16, 92, 99, 471 Serbo-Croatian: 97, 462, 463, 464 Kumic: 469 Slavic, Old Church: 390, 391, 392, 393, Latin: 154, 228, 250, 277, 278, 298, 388, 394, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402, 461, 402, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423, 424, 462 426, 428, 430, 431, 432, 439, 453, Slovak: 104, 111, 177, 178, 179, 402, 460, 454, 455, 461, 471 462 Latin, Vulgar: 373, 381, 402, 418, 429 Sorbian, Low: 402 Latvian: 225, 392, 402 Spanish: 4, 27, 31, 34, 35, 38, 39, 40, 46, Lithuanian: 390, 392, 439, 461 47, 62, 103, 107, 109, 115, 119, 121, Madurese: 465, 466, 468 156, 157, 228, 269, 286, 289, 296, Malay: 110, 112, 118, 248, 249, 465, 466, 297, 331, 332, 373, 381, 384, 395, 468, 471 397, 418, 419, 410, 421, 422, 423, Maltese: 166, 375, 378, 411, 433, 471 424, 425, 426, 428, 429, 430, 431, Montagnais: 386 432, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, Nggela: 467 450, 451, 452, 471 Norse, Old: 393, 458, 461 Spanish, Castillian: 29, 36, 37 Persian: 78, 165, 214, 217, 471 Sundanese: 465, 466, 468, 471 Polish: 85, 102, 184, 299, 400, 401, 440, Swahili: 77, 172, 206, 207, 293, 294, 329, 471 387 Portuguese: 81, 383, 428, 471 Swedish: 428 Portuguese, Brazilian: 90, 91 Tagalog: 224, 229, 230 Proto-Algonquian: 386 Tokharian: 402 Proto-Bantu: 387 Turkish: 82, 98, 101, 106, 108, 117, 123, Proto-Eastern Oceanic: 467 133, 138, 159, 160, 161, 185, 218, Proto-Germanic: 371, 372, 374, 393, 412 222, 231, 238, 255, 263, 266, 280, Proto-Indo-European: 388, 390, 392, 394, 391, 434, 469, 471 461 Turkmen: 470, 471 Proto-Polynesian: 467 Tuvin: 469 Proto-Romance: 377, 383, 384, 385, 389, Ukranian: 402, 460 395, 396, 397, 413 Vietnamese: 5, 68 Proto-Slavic: 400, 401, 439 Welsh: 183, 471 Prussian, Old: 392, 402, 461 Yakutsk: 470, 471 Rumanian: 55, 56, 58, 80, 287, 376, 377, Yiddish: 471 428, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, Yoruba: 84, 153

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