The University of Hull Department of Politics An Analysis of the Process of Association Between Turkey and the European Community in the Context of European Integration and Cooperation being a thesis submitted for the Degree of PhD in the University of Hull by Tunc Aybak, B.A. March 1995 In memory of my father, and for my son Joseph Aydin. 'Turkey is part of Europe: today this means that Turkey is establishing a constitutional relationship with the European Community. Like the Community itself, that relationship is imbued with the concept of revolution.' Ankara, September 1963. The President of the Commission of the European Communities. The Speech of Walter Hallstein at the signing of the Association Treaty. 10]ur task is to less reassure ourselves of our common origins in the European Middle Ages than to develop a new political self- confidence commensurate with the role of Europe in the world of twenty-first century. Hitherto, world history has accorded the empires have come and gone but one appearance on the stage. This is not only true of the rising and falling empires in the Old World, but also for modern states like Portugal and Spain, England, France and Russia. It now appears as if Europe as a whole is being given a second chance. It will not be able to make use of this in terms of the power politics of yester-year, but only under changed premises, namely a non-imperial process of reaching understanding with and learning from other cultures.' Jurgen Habermas Contents Acknowledgements 1 Chapter I: Introduction 3 I. Challenges of the Modern World: Realism versus Pluralism 3 Interdependence 9 Integration Theories 15 Background Conditions for Integration: Regional Parameters of Integration 33 Conceptual Distinctions: Interdependence, Integration and Cooperation 38 The Question of Sovereignty and Autonomy 47 1I. A Working Definition of Europe: Association in the Process of Europeanization 51 Definition of Association 59 M. Research Problems and Theoretical Criteria for Analysis 60 Association as a Process 63 Customs Union 64 Association as a Condition 69 The Theory of Association as a Form of Dependence 72 The Object, Hypothesis and Plan of the Thesis 77 Chapter II: Association in Theory: The Formation of a 'Sui Generis Relationship 80 I. The Association Treaty 81 Background to Turkey's Application: Motivations and Characteristics 81 Association Policy of the EC: The Political Foundations of Turkey's 89 Association Agreement The Legal and Procedural Basis of the Association Treaty 97 The Ultimate Political Objective of the Association Agreement 100 Instrumental Objectives, Processes and Tasks of the Association 101 The Institutional Structure of the Association 104 II. The Additional Protocol 108 The Backgrounds, Motivations and Characteristics of the Additional Protocol 108 The Additional Protocol 112 Conclusions 113 Chapter III. Association in Operation: The First Decade 116 I. The EC Dimension: The Background and Characteristics of External Policies 116 II. The Background Conditions and Characteristics: Turkey's Policies and 122 Perceptions of Association Ill. Substantive Issues in the Transition Period 129 Agricultural issues 129 Trade Gap 132 Textile Issues 134 Labour Issues 139 Financial Issues 142 Operation of the Association 146 Conclusions 152 Chapter IV: Association in the Context of Turkish-Greek Relationship 157 I. Background Conditions, Motivations and Characteristics 157 Historical Legacies and the Definitions of National Identities: 157 Mutual Perceptions • Reconciliation and Detente 160 Sources of Conflict 161 II. The Question of Greek Membership: The Erosion of the Political Balance 166 of Turkey's Association The Impact of Full Membership of Greece on the Normalization of Turkey's 172 Association Process Turkey's Application for Full Membership and the Davos Process 176 III. The Use of Veto Power by Greece and the Question of Turkish Membership 185 Conclusions 194 Chapter V: Association and Full Membership 198 I. Background Characteristics and Motivations of the Application 198 The Economic Characteristics and Motivations 199 The Free Movement of Turkish Workers: Legal and Social Considerations 204 The Political Characteristics and Motivations 207 II. Turkey's Application within the Context of the Decision Making Process 210 of the EC after the Single European Act III. The Commission Report: An Assessment of Turkeys Membership Request 215 The Timing and Context of the Commission's Opinion 215 Substantive Issues Arising from Turkey's Possible Membership 217 Structural Adjustment Problems 220 Political Considerations 225 IV. The Reactivation of the Association Framework 226 The Redefinition of the Association: Matutes Package 226 The Reactivation of the Association Framework: Cooperation Package 227 Substantive Issues Arising from the Reactivation of the Association Process 228 The Completion of the Customs Union 228 Re-establishing Financial Cooperation within the Association Context 236 The Issues of Free Movement of Labour 238 Conclusions 243 Chapter VI: Association in the Context of the Post-Cold War European Security 249 I. Background Characteristics and Motivations: Turkey's NATO Membership 249 and the Western European Integration Project II. Organizational Dynamics and New Challenges in the Post-Cold War Europe 256 III. Have Turkey's Security Assets Diminished in the Post-Cold War Europe? 273 The Gulf War: A Test Case for Turkey's New Role in the Middle East 285 European Defence Identity and Turkey and the Enlargement of the Western 290 European Union New Regionalism in a Pan-European Context: The Black Sea Economic 298 Cooperation Region IV. The Association in the Context of Post Cold War European Security: 305 The Question of the Enlargement of the European Union Conclusions 311 Chapter VII: Conclusions, Summary and Prospects 315 The Progressive Formation of European Identity and the Association 316 Association as a Source of Maximization of Sovereignty 317 Association and the Management of Interdependence 318 The Association and Integration 320 Association and Security 324 The Question of Enlargement and Association 325 Bibliography 328 Acknowledgements First of all, I wish to express my appreciation to the Ministry of Education for the initial financial support, that enabled me to pursue my research in Britain. Writing a Ph.D. is a lengthy process. It has been even lengthier in my case. However, I owe my explanation to Albert Camus who said 'What prevents a work from being completed becomes the work itself.' In my case my own identity on the face of my subject matter - European integration and Turkey - became the work itself during the development of my thesis. I came to Britain soon after Turkey applied for full membership. In the beginning of the late 1990s, there was optimism and hope for a free, united and peaceful Europe. Now, in February 1995, while I am about to submit my dissertation, I feel that that optimism is fading away on the face of ethnic and national prejudice, authoritarianism and despotism and narrow-minded religious fundamentalism. I came to Britain as a Pan-European enthusiast and today my convictions are even stronger. This research enabled me to meet and understand the actions and thoughts of those similar- minded people who believe in the common future of united, peaceful and just Pan-Europe of all religions, nationalities and ethnic groups living under one roof, free from ethnic and national violence and state oppression - a Pan-European civil society. There have been difficult times in the process. However, the never unfailing encouragement, understanding and patience of my wife, Kathryn, throughout the research project, made the writing of this work possible both emotionally and intellectually. Without her this project could not have been completed. In particular, I am especially grateful to my supervisor, Professor Juliet Lodge, for her academic support and her intellectual encouragement. She read the entire manuscript with much patience and care, and made many helpful suggestions throughout for the organization, evaluation and final presentation of the material. I am also indebted to many people who consciously and unconsciously participated in and contributed to the development of my dissertation. It is impossible to name them all 1 in this narrow space in ascending order without doing some injustice. I would like to thank all of them: friends, academics, librarians, writers, politicians, lawyers, diplomats, civil servants, for their help and inspiration in the development of my dissertation. Last but not least, I am grateful to those Turkish people living in Europe for years who can be seen but are still not heard. Working with them under the same circumstances for economic reasons in my needy days, greatly inspired me to work towards a more just and peaceful Europe, free of racial discrimination and xenophobia. I am also indebted to a number of people in the Politics Department who read, assisted and discussed the various aspects of this study. The comments and advice from them were especially beneficial. Finally for the skill and speed with which she typed the final draft, I wish to express special thanks to Sue Wiles. Pearson Park, Hull, March 1995 2 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This study is an attempt to analyze the Association process between Turkey and the European Community (the EC). In other words, it is a process of interaction between two actors within an institutionalized and formal association system. One is a state and the other is a sui generis organization