INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT INNOVATION LAB Maize Package mashed.com

aize, or corn, is a cereal grain first domesticated in southern WHAT IS IPM? Mexico about 10,000 years ago. Maize is a staple food in many parts of the world, with the total global production Integrated pest management M (IPM), an environmentally-sound surpassing that of wheat or rice. It is consumed directly and is also used for corn ethanol, animal feed, and other maize products, such and economical approach to pest as and . There are seven maize groups based control, was developed in response on the structure of the grain: flint maize, dent maize, sweet (and super to pesticide misuse in the 1960s. sweet) maize, floury maize, , waxy maize, and pod corn. Pesticide misuse has led to pesticide The U.S. is the world’s largest maize producer. In Asia, the maize resistance among prevailing pests, a crop is rotated with other cereal crops such as rice, barley, millet, as resurgence of non-target pests, loss of biodiversity, and environmental well as crops like pulses and oilseeds. In African countries, maize is

and human health hazards. Integrated Pest Management Innovation Lab (IPM IL) successfully rotated with , millet, cassava, cowpea, soybean, potatoes, and other vegetables. Maize is a cold-intolerant crop with a shallow root system. The crop depends on soil moisture and is a WHAT ARE more water-efficient crop than others, like soybeans. Maize is most IPM PACKAGES? sensitive to drought at the time of silk emergence when the flowers are ready for pollination. The constraints to maize production are biotic The IPM Innovation Lab has and abiotic. The most important abiotic constraints are low soil fertility, developed and tested robust IPM drought, and soil erosion. Among biotic constraints, insect pests, packages, holistic suites of IPM IPM PACKAGES CROP HEALTH FOR diseases and weeds are foremost. These pests are grouped into three recommendations and practices categories – field pests, field-to-store pests, and store pests. Different for the production of vegetables parts of the maize crop (seed, root, foliage, tassel, stem, ear, and and other crops. Farmers who use grain) are susceptible to different insect pests. The list of major insect IPM packages in planting, pro- pests includes lepidoptera pests (cutworms, armyworms, earworms, duction, and throughout the supply borers, grain moths), coleoptera pests (wireworms, grubs, grain chain see enhanced profitability borers, weevils), and sap-sucking insect pests that serve as vectors in their crops. The recommended of diseases ( and aphids). Major diseases include leaf/ practices in IPM packages cover sheath blight, downy mildew, ear/stalk rot, rust, anthracnose, maize economically significant pest spe- cies over a wide range of cropping lethal necrosis , and maize streak virus. Maize also faces a major systems across the tropical world, problem of weeds including several species of grasses, broadleaf resulting in benefits to human plants, and sedges (such as Cyperus sp., Striga sp.). health and the environment.

This brochure was created and distributed by the Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Integrated Pest Management (IPM IL). It was made possible through the United States Agency for International Development and the generous support of the American people through USAID Cooperative Agreement No. AID-OAA-L-15-00001 diseases

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Photos (From left): • Southern leaf blight of maize • Ear rot

DISEASES Phaeosphaeria maydis disease. Susceptible varieties ear leaf, which expand over ()] should not be planted in previ- the ear, and at later stages (Sphacelotheca reiliana) ously infected areas. white fungal growth spreads () Cercospora zeae-maydis only over and between the kernels. infects corn. This disease Ear rots [Fusarium verticilli- Resistant varieties are also available. Crop rotation is very Smut is distributed in Asia, causes considerable yield oides (=Fusarium moniliforme) useful to manage ear rots Africa, the Americas, and loss in most maize-growing (Nectriaceae), maydis because the survives Europe and invades plants areas of Africa. The disease (=Stenocarpella maydis) poorly overtime on infested during emergence or at is usually associated with ()] debris. the seedling stage through an increase in the maize soilborne teliospores. It grows production area, continuous is systemically with the meristem planting of maize on the same a seed-borne endophyte in Turcicum blight (Setosphaeria and does not get transmitted plot of land year after year, maize. It is very common turcica, Exserohilum turcicum) from one plant to the other. and the use of minimum tillage and also difficult to eliminate. (Pleosporaceae) Infection is visible at a late practices. The initial symptoms Warm dry weather early in the stage of plant development on of grey leaf spots are small, growing season, followed by Symptoms of Turcicum blight tassels and ears (large smut dark, moist spots that are wet weather during the devel- include large, oval, grey, galls) of the maize plant. The encircled by a thin, yellow opment of the cob increases or light brown leaf spots, infected corn ear looks very radiance. Spots are initially the infection. Fusarium verti- sometimes with dark margins, small and tear-drop shaped, brownish and yellow and later cillioides is associated with and cover large parts of the and the cob looks empty. A on turn into grey color due to high levels of disease-causing leaves. Symptoms occur relatively low percentage of the production of grey fungal —fumonisins— first on the lower leaves. The infection in the fields (10%) . Phaeosphaeria maydis on infected kernels. These disease causes the leaves to can cause significant yield also causes small, pale green mycotoxins are harmful to dry out, wither and die. Heavy reduction (about 80%). Once lesions scattered over the humans and cattle. Diplodia dews, frequent light showers, the infection occurs, there are leaf surface. With maturation, maydis causes ear rot, stalk high humidity, and moderate no effective treatments for lesions dry and develop dark rot, and seedling blight of temperatures are favorable reducing or eliminating the brown margins. Lesions corn. Corn is the only host for the disease. This disease damage on affected plants. also coalesce and become for this pathogen. Ear rots causes loss of grain and Head smut spores can survive irregular in shape and blight overwinter on the diseased animal fodder. Resistant hybrid in the soil for several years. the entire leaf. Maize plants stalk and ear tissues that have varieties and crop rotation with Balanced soil fertility should be on the edges of the fields are not been buried. In the spring, a non-host crop (legumes) can maintained, with an emphasis more prone to this disease. the fungus reproduces on the reduce the disease severity. on sufficient nitrogen. Tolerant This disease is pronounced plant debris and produces hybrids are available and in cold conditions. Spores spores that are moved by rain Southern leaf blight of maize hybrids with fast emergence overwinter on crop debris and and wind to the new crop. [Helminthosporium maydis are less prone to head smut in favorable climatic conditions The fungal spores land on the (=Cochliobolus hetros- infection. (high rainfall and moderate plant and commonly infect at trophus, Bipolaris maydis) temperatures); spores get the base of the ear if sufficient (Pleosporaceae)] disseminated through rain Leaf spot [Cercospora water is available. Symptoms splash and wind. Crop rotation, zeae-maydis of ear rot begin as tan spots This disease is found around residual management, and (Mycosphaerellaceae), on the base of the husk and the globe and during the planting dates can manage this diseases and

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Photos (From left): • Downy mildew • Maize dwarf mosaic virus AgroAtlas DISEASES (continued) Banded leaf and sheath delay in flowering as well as a soil and seed transmission blight (Rhizoctonia solani) poor grain set and fill. play significant roles in devel- summer season it is (Ceratobasidiaceae) opment and spread of this considered the most Maize streak virus (MSV) disease. Best measures to important disease of maize. This disease is particularly () manage this disease still need Helminthosporium maydis destructive with the rice-maize further studies. infects leaves, sheaths, ear MSV occurs throughout Africa rotation. Usually, this disease husks, ears, cobs, shanks, and infects the pre-flowering stage and causes severe damage. stalks. Infected seedlings wilt (plants 40-50 days old). White It is transmitted by several and die within a few weeks of mycelium and irregularly species. This the planting dates. Symptoms rounded sclerotia develop on also infects several species vary depending on the race of sheaths, husks, silks, cobs, of Poaceae. MSV causes leaf blight. Lesion color can be and kernels. Leaves and leaf continuous parallel chlorotic tan with brown, red borders or sheaths of infected plants streaks on leaves, with severe yellow-green or chlorotic halos. appear blighted with prominent stunting of the affected plant, The shape of lesions can be banding. Stripping the lower hence, failure to produce diamond, elliptical or spindle- two or three leaves and leaf complete cobs or seed. During shaped. Resistant/tolerant sheaths considerably reduces hybrids are available (RML-4/ epidemic years, MSV can the incidence of disease but RML-17 and RML-32/RML-17). cause 100% yield loss. does not affect grain yield Destruction of infected crop adversely. Maize lethal necrosis disease residue is highly useful. (MLN)

Downy mildew VIRUSES This disease is an emerging (Peronasclerospora spp.) disease in sub-Saharan East Maize dwarf mosaic virus (Peronosporaceae) Africa. This disease is caused (MDMV) (Potyviridae) by coinfection of maize with Downy mildew has a broad MDMV is a serious maize Maize chlorotic mottle virus host range. Seedlings are pathogen and epidemic (Tombusviridae) and one prone to infection and infected worldwide causing about 70% of several viruses from the maize plants have leaf loss in corn yield globally. Potyviridae ( mosaic chlorosis. As the plant grows, virus, maize dwarf mosaic it often shows stunting, and MDMV is a single-stranded virus, Johnsongrass mosaic necrotic lesions begin to form RNA virus and is transmitted virus or Wheat streak mosaic on the leaves. As the leaves in a non-persistent manner by virus). The coinfecting viruses continue to grow, a white, several aphid species. MDMV act synergistically. Infection downy growth develops into infected plants exhibit mosaic results in frequent plant the necrotic lesions. Several patterns, which occur near single-gene sources of resis- the lower part of the youngest death or severely reduced tance have been found, and leaves. Other symptoms or negligible yield. Multiple many resistant varieties are include mottling spots and maize crops per year, maize commercially available. Crop irregular necrotic lesions. thrips (Frankliniella williamsi), rotation is useful. MDMV infected plants show a susceptible maize crops, and insect pests

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Photos (From left): • Fall armyworm • Spotted stem borer Icar.gov.in INSECT PESTS internodes are symptoms of Younger larvae of this pest leaves and enter stems. Heavy this pest. This is the most feed in groups and gradually damage can kill the plant, Spotted stem borer [(Chilo important pest during winter spread out. This pest creates and in older plants, damage partellus) (Lepidoptera: and causes yield losses of a windowpane effect and can reduce grain production. Crambidae)] about 80%. The plant dries causes a papery appearance Trichogramma mwanzai, due to the creation of dead by scraping the leaf surfaces. Telenomus busseolae, Cotesia Adults of the stem borer lay hearts. Trichogramma chilonis There are polyphagous sesamiae, Cotesia flavipes, eggs on lower surfaces of (egg parasitoid) and Cotesia pests that can cause heavy and Cotesia chilonis are some 3-5 leaf stage maize plants. flavipes (larval parasitoid) are damage to the maize crop. major parasitoids of this pest. The first symptom appears known to attack this insect Hand-picking and destruction when the rolled leaves unfurl pest. of larvae, neem, pheromone White grubs [(Phyllophaga and a series of pinholes and traps, as well as Trichogramma spp. and Cyclocephala spp.) papery windows become Fall armyworm [Spodoptera chilonis, Telenomus remus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)] visible. Afterward, larvae frugiperda (Lepidoptera: (egg parasitoid), Cotesia move out of the whorl, bore Noctuidae)] sp., and Bracon sp. (larval The white grubs are about an upward in the developing stalk, parasitoid) are known to occur inch long with a brown head and feed on the meristem, It is an invasive pest in Asia on these pests. and have a curved “C” shape. and the leaf whorl dries up and Africa and attacks all White grubs eat roots and causing ‘dead heart.’ Stem stages of the plant. Early Asian maize borer [Ostrinia attack stems, causing plants to borers become problematic in instar larvae feed in and furnacalis (Lepidoptera: wither and die. Stunted, wilted, spring and summer plantings around the whorl leaves, Pyrallidae)] discolored, or dead seedlings when temperatures and and scrape and skeletonize may emerge when white grubs insect reproduction rates the upper epidermis. It also This pest is distributed attack, and farmers may see are high. Yield losses of creates pinhole damage. throughout Asia. Maize plants gaps in rows where plants fail 26-80% in different agro-cli- Late instar feeding causes are attacked 3-4 weeks after to emerge. Possible damage matic regions are reported. severe defoliation and feeding sowing. Larvae first feed on the can be assessed by digging Trichogramma chilonis (egg during the reproductive leaf tissue, then tunnel into the and examining the root system parasitoid), Cotesia flavipes stage causes damage to midrib, and then move to stalks of the plant. (larval parasitoid), Xanthopimla tassels, ears, and kernels. and ears. Parasitoids affecting stemmator, and Tetrastichus Monitoring, pheromone traps, this pest include Trichogramma howardii (pupal parasitoid) Cutworm [(Agrotis ipsilon) neem, Bacillus thuringiensis, chilonis (egg parasitoids), are known to occur on stem (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)] Metarhizium anisopliae, Brachymeria obscurata, and borers. Beauveria bassiana, SfNPV, Xanthopimpla stemmator Cutworm is a polyphagous Trichogramma chilonis, (pupal parasitoids). Pink stem borer [(Sesamia chewing insect that feeds on Telenomus remus (egg inferens) (Lepidoptera: leaves and tender stems of parasitoid), and Habrobracon African maize stalkborer Noctuidae)] young plants below and above (Bracon) hebetor (larval [(Busseola fusca) (Lepidoptera: the ground. One larva per 10 parasitoids) can manage this Noctuidae)] plants can cause considerable Larvae of pink stem borer pest. damage. Poison baits (wheat feed inside the leaf sheath This pest is indigenous to bran, groundnut cake, water) on the epidermal layer of Army worms [(Spodoptera sub-Saharan Africa, mainly are useful to assess and the first three leaf sheaths. litura, Mythimna separata) infesting maize and sorghum. manage the population below The presence of excreta and (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)] Larval stages feed on young ground. circular ring-like cuts on lower weeds, nematodes, & others

Crop protection network invasive.org

Photos (From left): • Maize cyst nematode • Striga

INSECT PESTS (continued) Root knot nematode [Meloidogyne A. orientalis (Diptera: Muscidae) incognita (Heteroderidae)] Aphid [(Rhopalosiphum maidis) Termites (Odontotermes obesus, (Hemiptera: Aphididae)] Early symptoms of root nematodes Microtermes spp. and Macrotermes spp.) include severely reduced growth of (Blattodea: Termitidae) Aphids are polyphagous insects that suck the plants coupled with extensive the sap and colonize in large numbers, leaf yellowing. The occurrence of this Blister beetle (Coleoptera: Meloidae) secrete honey dew, and vector several nematode can cause complete loss of viruses such as Maize dwarf mosaic virus. yields. Honey dew induces sooty mold on the Thrips (Anaphothrips sudanensis) plants, hindering photosynthetic capacity. They produce several generations in a OTHER IMPORTANT Pyrilla (Pyrilla perpusilla) season. DISEASES, INSECT PESTS, AND NEMATODES Chafer beetle (Chiloloba acuta) WEEDS Ear rot (Fusarium spp.) Maize crop suffers several weeds, which cause high loss of yield. Some of the Downy mildew (Peronasclerospora spp.) most common species in Asia and Africa are Striga sp., Echinochloa colona, Gray leaf Spot (Cercospora zeae maydis) Eleusine indica, Cynodon dactylon, Digitaria sanguinalis, Panicum colonum, Banded leaf and Sheath blight Ageratum conyzoides, Galinsoga parvi- (Rhizoctonia solani) flora, Phyllanthus niruri, Commelina benghalensis, Polygonum dichotomi- Curvularia leaf spot (Curvularia lunata) florum, Aeschynomene indica, Cyperus rotundus, Cyperus esculentus, and Cyperus iria. Charcoal rot (Macrophomina phaseolina)

Bacterial stalk rot (Dickeya zeae)

NEMATODES Common rust (Puccinia sorghi) Maize cyst nematode [Heterodera zeae (Heteroderidae)] Polysora rust (Puccinia polysora)

Found in Asia and America. Nematode- Sorghum downy mildew (Pernosclespora infested plants exhibit poor growth, are sorghi) stunted, and are pale green. Crop rotation with non-cereal crops (soybean, cotton Brown spot ( maydis) and vegetables), deep summer ploughing, intercropping of maize with soybean, and use of resistant/tolerant hybrids help Common rust (Puccinia sorghi) manage the problem. Shoot fly Atherigona( soccata, A. naqvii, ipm package techniques

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Photos (From left): • Trichogramma release • Trichogramma and Telenomus adults

• Maintain weed-free field to avoid • Stripping of 2 lower leaves along with • Both foliar and seed treatments are alternate hosts of pests and diseases. leaf sheath, rouging, and destroying used to protect maize crops. Need-based infected plants also manages diseases. pesticide application at the various • Use clean seeds, well-decomposed stages of growth to manage diseases farmyard manure/compost, remove weed • Seed treatment with Trichoderma and insect pests. Use pesticides as last growth and keep irrigation and drainage harzianum 2.0% WP @ 20 g/kg of seeds option and do not use pesticides with the channels free from weeds. for control of banded leaf and sheath same mode of action repeatedly. Follow blight. the recommended dose of the manufac- • Avoid the use of sand or soil from the turer. Consult local extension officials for weed-infested area. • Set up pheromone traps for lepidopteran pesticide selection. pests to monitor and to take up timely • To remove weeds, hand pull, hand interventions. weed, burn, flood, hoe, till, mulch, earth up. • For conservation biological control, preserve parasitoids Trichogramma spp., (such as Trichogramma chilonis, FOR MORE • Crop rotations help to eliminate crop-as- Trichogramma dendrolimi, Trichogramma INFORMATION sociated weeds. evanescens, Trichogramma mwanzai), Trichogrammatoidea armigera, Cotesia • Sowing of crops at the proper time at flavipes, Bracon chinensis, Xanthopimpla The Feed the Future Innovation Lab for optimum seed rate enables the crop to punctate, Tetrastichus ayyari, Telenomus Integrated Pest Management (IPM IL) cover the ground and hence avoid weeds. remus, Apanteles marginiventris, develops sustainable and economical

Microplitis sp., Campoletis flavicincta, pest control methods to improve • Destruction of stubbles and dead heart. Hyposoter annulipes, Ophion flavidus livelihoods for farmers worldwide. (Hymenoptera), and tachinid flies • Select insect/disease-resistant varieties. The program’s work is based in (Diptera), and predators ladybird beetles, seven countries and is engaged with carabid beetles, spiders, earwigs, dragon scientists, extension agents, students, • Select pure high-quality certified seeds flies, preying mantids, pentatomid bugs, and farmers in the tropical and free of disease, weed seeds, and insect reduviid bugs, robber flies, rove beetles, subtropical world. damage. wasps, and lace wings.

Contact: • Treat seeds with Trichoderma/ • If pesticide applications are necessary, Pseudomonas to protect from soil-borne apply biopesticides e.g. Metarhizium diseases. sp., Beauveria bassiana, Bacilllus IPM Innovation Lab thuringiensis, Nomuraea rileyi, NPV Center for International Research, • Crop rotation helps to manage weeds, (nuclear polyhedrosis viruses), nematode Education, and Development (CIRED) insect pests, nematodes, and diseases. (Steinernema carpocapsae), and Virginia Tech botanical insecticides (e.g. neem). 526 Prices Fork Road • Use balanced soil fertility, avoid high Blacksburg, VA 24061 level of N and low level of K to manage • Release of egg parasitoids, 540-231-3516 | [email protected] diseases. Trichogramma chilonis and Telenomus www.cired.vt.edu/IPMIL

remus, for control of cutworms and other • Avoidance of moisture stress at the time caterpillar pests. Developed by: Dr. A Sharma & Dr. R. of flowering to grain filling stage helps to Muniappan avoid diseases.