Federalism in the Federations for The free with the free, the equal with the equal East-Central Europe 19th Century: Let us be Europeans 1918-1952

The nineteenth century brought Wojciech Bogumi∏ Jastrz´bowski (1799-1882), Stefan Buszczyƒski (1821-1892), historian, political “Although the natural frontiers of each ethnopolis should be Federation plans conceived by The end of the first world war posed the problem of Euro- delineated as precisely as possible, international relations must pean security and borders, including those of the Polish state. a fundamental change in the naturalist, outstanding pedagogue, participant of the Novem- man of letters, and active participant of the January Uprising of Józef Pi∏sudski entailed a project ber Uprising of 1830-1831; under the impact of the bloody 1863; in a dissertation La décadence de l’Europe (1867) he not experience any obstacles. Free movement, free thought, A decree issued on September 1918 by the Soviet Council of T manner in which Polish battle of Olszynka Grochowska he wrote Traktat o wiecznym opposed the political system of Europe, criticising the materi- and free labour are the natural rights of all men. Hence it fol- F aiming at the protection of the People’s Commissars on the annulment of the partitions politicians and thinkers perceived przymierzu mi´dzy narodami ucywilizowanymi. Konstytuc- alism of the culture of the period and the decline of spiritual lows that all artificial political boundaries, all barriers ham- eastern frontiers of Poland and were not treaties drew attention to the status quo ante in the east, i.e. ja dla Europy (Treatise on Eternal Alliance among Civilized Allegory of the Polish-Lithuanian values. Buszczyƒski contrasted the European crisis with an ide- pering communication between men, the exchange of ideas, the frontiers from 1772, although, naturally, all parties were the question of federalism. The loss of their Nations. The Constitution for Europe, 1831). Union on a statue of the Union of Lublin al vision of a fraternal federal union of free nations. His work free industry and trade, such as: passports, customs, press directed against Russia as such but Russian well aware of the fundamental change of the situation in this P. Maliƒski own state at the end of the eighteenth century Jastrz´bowski accepted the premise that peace is the supreme met with interest among the French and German intellectuals prohibitions and such like, should be eliminated once and for imperialism (both “white” and “red”). region. The suspension by the victorious powers of decisions value of each man. Permanent peace in Europe can be based Fragment of a bas-relief from an obelisk in of the time. In 1916 a second edition was issued in Switzerland; all in the whole of Europe. Laisser marcher, laisser faire, relating to the eastern border of Poland while awaiting the became the reason why they concentrated only on the introduction and close observation by the nations Lublin, according to its publishers’ intention, it was to prepare the laisser passer [...].” The independence of and results of the and the restitution of “white of joint legal norms, to be contained in a European Constitu- which in 1826 was placed upon the initiative of ground for the construction of a post-war order in Europe. Russia”, envisaged as an important player on the European primarily on ways of regaining independence; Rany Europy. Fakta statystyczne z objaÊnieniami comprised an initial condition and a path tion. The equality of people comprising a nation – which he Stanis∏aw Staszic (a propagator of the idea of a scene, as well as the westwards advance of the encroaching Red thus, it inspired a search for a European etnograficznymi i dziejowymi, “Warta” 1884-1885 towards a federation with Poland. The failure Army, called for solutions that would safeguard Polish inde- envisaged as a community of language – is to be guaranteed unification of European nations) on the spot of (The Wounds of Europe. Statistical Facts with Ethnographic order that would contain a guaranteed place by national laws, while the equality of all European nations – a 16th-century obelisk, demolished by the tsarist and Historical Explanations, “Warta” 1884-1885) of this conception resulted from the negative pendence. In this situation, Józef Pi∏sudski, the Head of State, by European laws. National laws should be passed by a authorities. and his adherents supported by the Polish Socialist Party for a free Commonwealth. Such a chance was Many nineteenth-century Polish authors referred attitude of our neighbours and the configura- (Parliament), while European laws must be enacted by a Con- (PPS), the Polish Peasant Party-Liberation (PSL-Wyzwolenie) outright, although frequently in an idealised form, perceived in the construction of a federated gress composed of representatives of all nations, whose equal tion of inner forces. International relations and some of the conservatives, acknowledged that Poland was to the experiences of the Union of Lublin, and capable of opposing imperial Russia only in her capacity as the Europe. To this discussion its Polish numbers are to be elected by national . maintained that the historical association of proved to be just as relevant – the policy of The European Constitution defined the competences and prin- centre of a federation, linked predominantly with Lithuania Poland and Lithuania would be not only the and Ukraine. This conception, which undoubtedly referred to participants contributed the intellectual ciples of the functioning of the authorities, sanctions for vio- foundation of a future independent Republic but a preserving a balance of forces on the the tradition of the First Commonwealth and opposed the accomplishments of the earlier epochs, lating legal norms, and the basic rights and duties of the cit- model for a united Europe and, at the same time, Continent and the hopes harboured by the izens. The union was to be open to all states, including its basis. These motifs, which to an increasing incorporation programme proclaimed by the national camp and in particular the experiences of non-European ones, which would accept the established prin- extent thwarted Lithuanian aspirations for member states of the victorious coalition for (a majority in the Sejm), turned out to be unfeasible. Embark- ing upon the construction of her own state Lithuania decid- the Polish-Lithuanian union. ciples. In the Constitution Jastrz´bowski also included a rad- creating an independent state, remained present rebuilding Russia as their strategic partner. ical plan for disarmament and a defence coalition in the form in Polish thought up to the First World War. edly rejected any sort of a union with Poland, while Byeloruss- The authors whose works may be analysed within the context of an eternal alliance, at the same time postulating the cre- Soon it was to become apparent that the ian national consciousness was still embryonic, and the of federalism include renowned politicians, philosophers, ation of a common European army. He launched the idea of reconstruction of the Commonwealth in its old Ukrainians, passive during the offensive of 1920, regarded artists and men of science: Stanisław Staszic, Adam Jerzy educating the youth of Europe for life in peace, tolerance and formula was absolutely impossible. The world the Poles (vide the controversy concerning Eastern ) Czartoryski, Adam Mickiewicz, Józef Maria Hoene-Wroƒski, friendship between the nations, and called for the abolition of emerging after the Versailles treaty made and not the Russians to be their main opponents. All attempts it necessary to seek other solutions. August Cieszkowski, Karol Libelt, Stanisław Worcell or Bolesław the death penalty. Finally, Jastrz´bowski wished to change all to create an independent Ukrainian state in the course of the Limanowski. Their texts are by no means uniform – some deal those national emblems, which contained symbols of violence. war against Bolshevik Russia (the convention signed on 21 with a concrete “federational” proposal while others treat Euro- April 1920 by Poland and the Ukrainian People’s Republic pean unification as a marginal motif. All share the conviction under S. Petlura, with the Polish Republic recognising Ukrain- that a new European order – regardless whether it was to be ian independence) collapsed in the face of the great offensive the outcome of political calculation, moral obligation or pure of the Red Army, halted in the forefields of in August philosophy – must possess the nature of a variously compre- 1920. The idea of a reconstruction of the Polish state accord- hended federation and be built only by free nations. Each of ing to the principles of federalism ultimately failed after the the authors could endorse the appeal made by an unidentified Peace of , which ended the war with Russia (18 March publicist in 1838: Being Poles we want to be something more, 1921) and destroyed chances for Ukraine as an independent let us be Europeans. state, and in the wake of the incorporation of Central Lithua- We present below two of the nineteenth-century authors: the nia in March 1922. characteristic traits of their achievements include either a nov- Allegory of Europe Józef Pi∏sudski was not an ideological federalist, and although el approach, as in the case of W. B. Jastrz´bowski, or a Dzieła Stanisława Staszica, Warszawa 1820 his vision proved unsuccessful, in the opinion of numerous favourable reception by their contemporaries (S. Buszczyƒski). Biblioteka Sejmowa historians it was only thanks to this vision that it became pos- All nations belonging to the eternal alliance in Europe sible to ensure – at least for a certain time – Poland’s secure are due equal allegiance to European laws. eastern frontier. The existence, independence and property of each nation shall be the object of the particular protection of European laws. W.B. Jastrz´bowski, 1831 Wojciech Bogumi∏ Jastrz´bowski Lithograph, M. Fajans, Muzeum Narodowe w Warszawie Declaration of 17-22 May 1917, signed by many Józef Pi∏sudski, K. Krzy˝anowski, 1921 political parties active at the time on Polish soil, including Muzeum Wojska Polskiego, Warszawa the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe), the Polish Józef Pi∏sudski (1867-1935) – independence activist and leader Peasant Party (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe) and the Polish of the Polish Socialist Party (PPS) during the partion era, founder of Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna), called for the Legions, Head of State 1918-1922, exerted a decisive impact independence also for the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania on the shape of Poland reborn after 123 years of partitions; deeply and assured that “Poland will strive unyieldingly towards attached to the idea of a Commonwealth of many nations, Pi∏sudski restoring a union with an independent Lithuania in the firm described himself as a Lithuanian. conviction that the peoples inhabiting Lithuania: the Lithuanians, the Poles and the Byelorussians, will Proclamation of the Head of State to the population discover in a voluntary and harmonious union of those of Ukraine, 26 April 1920, “Monitor Polski”, 26 April 1920 states a guarantee of the national, cultural and economic no. 97, Biblioteka Sejmowa development of all the social strata”. Document preparing the Kiev operation. Announcing an alliance with Archiwum Paƒstwowe w Krakowie S. Petlura, the proclamation promised that the Polish Army would stay on the Dnieper only up to assumption of power by a “legitimate Ukrainian government”. Government of the Republic Pan-European movement and other projects of Poland in exile

In Poland the pan-European idea On 10 July 1930 the Polish government supported Polish-Czechoslovak conventions Polish-Czechoslovak Declaration devised by Richard Coudenhove- the Briand initiative of creating a European federation – (alongside the Yugoslav-Greek London, 11 November 1940 the United States of Europe – and announced its readiness to In this document both governments announced their coun- I -Kalergi, who presented a project P agreements) as an introduction to tries’ presence in a “post-war closer political and economic participate in the preparatory work. In the opinion of the Pol- of a unification of Europe intent on ish diplomats, however, the Briand Plan was very general, and future security, stabilisation and economic union that would become the foundation of a new order in Cen- tral Europe […]”. The British government, seeking a counter- guaranteeing permanent peace and the they accused it of consigning economic issues to the back- development. The Principles of the ground and not guaranteeing the security of the European -proposal for the “New Order” in Europe proclaimed by Hitler, Ieconomic development of the Continent states. The project broke down already in 1930. Constitutional Act of Poland and was also interested in issuing the declaration. Hubert Ripka asserted that the new organisation of Central Europe should (Pan-Europa, 1923), initially met with Poland reacted favourably to three projects for the economic Czechoslovakia were the only such integration of states on the Danube: the plans of André Tardieu include all countries from the Baltic to the Black Sea and the a rather favourable reception, which (the French Prime Minister) in 1932, Elmer Hantos (the Hun- a complete government project prepared Aegean, and comprise part of a wider process – an all-Euro- soon changed into scepticism and garian secretary of state) in 1927, and Milan Hodža (the Min- at the time of the Second World War pean integration. ister of Foreign Affairs of Czechoslovakia). All foresaw the pos- disillusionment. The necessity of sibility of expanding cooperation so as to embrace the European and the most advanced attempt at creating Principles of the Constitutional Act of states, but none were implemented. the Union of Poland and Czechoslovakia reinforcing newly regained statehood a federal union made during that period London, 21 May 1941 Józef Pi∏sudski, Ignacy Paderewski in a situation defined by an unfavourable in Europe. This document was passed by the Political Committee of the geopolitical configuration, the inept Council of Ministers of the Republic of Poland, but the and Stanis∏aw Wojciechowski leaving Warsaw The government of the Republic of Poland in exile was an active Czechoslovak side never expressed its attitude towards it. The cathedral after a Holy Mass celebrated upon the occasion and the need to ensure Aleksander Lednicki spokesman of the unification of East-Central Europe, and Principles, which defined the organisational structure of the of a ceremonial opening of the Legislative Sejm security by resorting to bilateral (1866-1934) already in December 1939 Prime Minister W. Sikorski issued future federation and its competence, accepted the freedom of (10 February 1919), Centralne Archiwum Wojskowe Narodowe Archiwum Cyfrowe a proclamation defining the general principles of the political- settlement and employment on union territory and visa-free conventions, was not conducive for becoming Ardent supporter of the creation of a -economic system of post-war Poland. The project postulated, movement. It assumed that Hungary, Romania, Austria and involved in supranational ventures. European federation predominantly upon i.a. a new organisation of this part of Europe, encompassing Lithuania could join the union. the basis of economic cooperation. Pacifist the region between the Baltic, the Black Sea and the Adriatic, The idea of the as an alliance system 1925 – the establishment, together with the Ministry of ideas inspired him to enquire into the “Zgoda Narodów”, monthly on the propaganda and which could resist German onslaught and separate Germany Polish-Czechoslovak convention about The Intermarium, launched parallel to the federation con- Foreign Affairs, of the Polish committee of the Pan-European solidarity of the nations of Europe as well as organisation of peace, press organ of the Polish Academic Federation from Russia. Numerous subsequent government documents the principles of the post-war confederation ception, was envisaged as a system of alliances involving small Union, headed by Aleksander Lednicki. its legal forms and foundation. In his opinion of Friends of the League of Nations, Biblioteka Narodowa confirmed the conception of basing post-war order in Europe of the two states and medium states in a region between the Baltic and the Black the solution was to be sought in a United London, 23 January 1942 1926 – the I Paneuropean Congress in Vienna, attended by upon federation principles, depicted in a rather general man- Sea, threatened by the aggressive policy pursued by Russia; States of Europe. Despite the collaboration of notable authors, the support of men of A. Lednicki, A. Skrzyƒski and B. Huberman. The Polish ner, albeit always indicating at two-step federation. The convention, signed by both governments, was a regress such a system would supplement an alliance with France, which science, and extensive international contacts, the monthly, like other delegation stressed two questions: the impossibility of Attempts at a realisation of these plans started with a Polish- in comparison to the earlier projects (it anticipated a con- protected Poland from Germany. These ambitious plans, how- periodicals propagating the pan-Europa and federation ideas, ended transferring American solutions onto European ground and -Czechoslovak federation (confederation) and an unsuccessful federation instead of a federation). The Czechoslovak side ever, considerably exceeded the potential of the young Polish after just a few issues. the necessity of creating a professional international research effort to achieve the participation of Lithuania. The fiasco of broke off the negotiations in May 1943 (the Soviet govern- state. After Locarno, Polish diplomacy was compelled to resign centre. Emphasis was placed on the absence of support on this project was the outcome of the attitude assumed by ment severed its relations with the Polish government in from them, and veered towards stabilising the post-Versailles August Zaleski the part of governments. Moscow, and, as a consequence, the British and the Americans April). When on 25 May 1943 Minister of Foreign Affairs collective security system. The pan-European movement was backed by the Academic (1883-1972) (whose support for all practical purposes ended in 1942). The Edward Raczyƒski presented the situation while speaking at Union of Pacifists (AZP, 1926-1939), headed by Stanis∏aw Narodowe Archiwum Cyfrowe negotiations, which were conducted for about two years, pro- the National Council, he declared in the name of the gov- ernment that Poland continued to support the integration of Estreicher, the former rector of the Jagiellonian University. Minister of Foreign Affairs in duced the following documents: Together with the Circle of Friends of the League of Nations 1926-1932, and 1939-1941; East-Central European states. A Soviet-Czechoslovak con- (Warsaw), the Union published the monthly “Zgoda Narodów”. active in the League of Nations. vention was signed in December 1943. When after Locarno the statements made by Coudenhove- He drew up the stand of the -Kalergi started to include suggestions of Polish territorial Polish government towards concessions in favour of Germany, the board of the Polish Pan- the Briand initiative and other Biblioteka Narodowa -European Union sharply protested. In addition, the initiative integration-related projects of the French Prime Minister Aristide Briand to create a of the period. European Union, proposed in 1929, granted the integration plans an international dimension and relegated the pan- -European movement to the margin. Polish activists withdrew from the Pan-European Union in 1935. Response to Mr. Coudenhove-Kalergi “Epoka”, 18 January 1927, Biblioteka Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego The presented text is an open letter by A. Lednicki, showing to the leader of the pan-European movement Medal struck for the baseless nature of his postulate of a revision of the celebrating the first anniversary of the Polish frontier in favour of Germany, and stressing that enactment of the March Constitution the Poles would not shrink from any sacrifice in the F. Łopieƒski, 1922, Biblioteka Sejmowa defence of liberty. The author referred to the ideal of pan-Europe and called for cooperation in the The March Constitution – a symbol of regained reconstruction of a new Europe. sovereignty and state continuum – was adopted on 17 . One day later, on 18 March 1921, the Peace of Riga was signed, which ended the Polish- -Bolshevik war and put the final seal to the Polish east border.

Map of Europe by E. Romer, 1932 Biblioteka Narodowa “New Europe” Polish Underground State and Planning Board

“[…] A union is tantamount to strength, and strength is a General Sikorski accompanied by Structures of the Polish Central and Eastern European Planning Board guarantor of peace. The governments of Poland and Czecho- Mjr. Miszke and Józef H. Retinger Underground state, which existed Periodical “New Europe” and (CEEPB), 7 January 1942 – 25 July 1945, was com- slovakia have arrived at an agreement concerning a post-war who took an active part in devising the initiatives of posed of representatives of the émigré governments of Poland, federation. A similar treaty was signed by Yugoslavia and the Central and Eastern Euro- the Polish government in exile concerning Central SPon Polish territory at the time of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Greece; the Polish delegation was Greece. The Polish government, which I head, supports the Europe (i.a. a project of a Central European the Nazi occupation, recognised pean Planning Board comprised directly supervised by the Polish government. conception of a federation of East-Central Europe […]”. federation). After the war, Retinger organised the The Planning Board was responsible for planning the post-war Hague Congress in 1948 and was involved in the W. Sikorski’s interview for “Collier’s”, 1 April 1943, [in]: Feliks Gross, the authority of the government of the a joint forum created in New York for reconstruction of the whole of Central and as Federacje i konfederacje europejskie. Rodowód i wizje, creation of the European Movement. Warszawa 1994. Instytut Polski i Muzeum im. gen. Sikorskiego, London Republic of Poland in exile, and remained exchanging and forming views about the regards social issues, the economy and education. federation ideas of the East-Central Euro- The greatest accomplishment of the CEEPB was the establish- organisationally connected with the latter, ment, together with New York University and the US Committee referred in their documents to the pean states. They emerged and worked with on Educational Reconstruction, of an Institute of Eastern Europe the cooperation of the Polish Information (7-8 April 1943), whose objective was the reconstruction of Euro- government conception of organising pean education systems. The Institute also propagated plans for a post-war order in Europe based on the Centre, an institution supervised by the federation of East-Central Europe, known as the A-B (Adri- the Embassy of the Republic of Poland atic-Baltic) zone federation. Some of the notions launched by the principles of a federation. Planning Board, such as a project of a future UNESCO or a Euro- in the USA. pean University, were ultimately realised. Below we present the stands taken by the National Political Representation (Krajowa Reprezentacja Polityczna – KRP, an “New Europe”, December 1940 – August 1945; organ of the Polish Underground State), which included rep- circulation of 2500 copies a month, cooperated with numerous resentatives of the four most important political parties, and outstanding scientists and politicians, both American and rep- the Council of National Unity, which in January 1944 stemmed What is the Polish nation fighting for: resenting assorted European countries. Authors collaborating from the KRP. a declaration of the Council of National Unity, Warszawa with “New Europe” included Carlo Sforza, Jacques Maritain, Jan 15 March 1944, Biblioteka Narodowa Masaryk, and the Czechoslovak Minister of Foreign Affairs Hubert Declaration of a political agreement of the parties Ripka. The discussion about an East-Central Europe federation comprising the National Political Representation involved, i.a. Anatol Mühlstein, who presented a project of a con- Warsaw, 15 August 1943 stitution for the federation of states from this region. In reference to the government programme documents, four “New Europe” established close cooperation with the Central and political parties: the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe), Eastern European Planning Board and issued the latter’s numer- the Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Ludowe), the Labour Party ous studies and analyses. The editor-in-chief was Feliks Gross, (Stronnictwo Pracy) and the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Par- secretary general of the Board. tia Socjalistyczna), which recognised themselves as represen- tative for an overwhelming majority of Polish society, announced Title page of the monthly as regards the organisation of a post-war order in Europe a “New Europe”, 1 December 1940 project of creating a confederation of states, whose centre would be a Polish-Czechoslovak union or Poland on her own. Article by A. Mühlstein is the first in a series containing a project of the United States of East-Central Europe. What is the Polish nation fighting for: a declaration of the Council of National Unity Warsaw, 15 March 1944 This document acknowledged the unification of the states of Central and South-East Europe into federal unions as an essential condition for guaranteeing permanent peace in Presented book is a summary of Polish Europe. Emphasis was placed on the active part played by federation thought from the time Poland from the onset of the war. of the Second World War,New York 1945 Feliks Gross (1906-2006), sociologist, devised a conception of a “democratic, integral federalism”.

Anatol Mühlstein (1889-1957) Narodowe Archiwum Cyfrowe Principles of the Constitutional Act Diplomat, in the interwar period at the Embassies of the of the Union of Poland and Czechoslovakia, Republic of Poland in Brussels and subsequently in Paris; Edvard Benesˇ, Prime Minister of the 21 May 1941, Instytut Polski i Muzeum member of the majority of Polish delegations to the government of Czechoslovakia, and im. gen. Sikorskiego, London League of Nations assemblies; from 1940 – in the US, W∏adys∏aw Sikorski (1881-1943), co-publisher of the periodical “New Europe”; after the Prime Minister of the government war – collaborator of the Paris-based “”. of the Republic of Poland (1939-1943) co-authors of Polish-Czechoslovak conventions about the post-war union of the two states. Instytut Polski i Muzeum im. gen. Sikorskiego, London Polish Freedom Movement Intermarium “Kultura”– thinking Europe according to federal clubs

“Both [...] the Polish national The PRW NiD activists established cooperation with representa- Idea of the creation of a federation/ Council was to be responsible for foreign policy. An Executive “Poland is capable of ensuring From the time of the establishment of the European Coal and tives of other independence-oriented movements from East-Cen- Department of the Union was to coordinate inner activity, and an Steel Community (ECSC) the “Kultura” milieu became involved interest – today, when we are tral Europe. NiD initiatives led to the creation in 1949 of the /confederation in East-Central Assembly of Union States was conceived as a legislative organ. independence and security for in discussions on the consecutive stages of all the aspects of inte- BIconcerned with an effective strug- Union of Polish Federalists, which became part of the Union of Europe was developed, i.a. by the The project foresaw the creation of two supreme tribunals: an herself only in a federation gration, with pride of place given to a European political-cultur- European Federalists, and the Polish-Czechoslovak studies group Arbitrage Tribunal for considering controversies between the P al union which offered hope for the participation of Poland in this gle for independence, and tomor- in New York (which published the quarterly “East-Central Euro- federal clubs established by political union states, and a Constitutional and Administrative Tribunal system. Every federation is particular form of cooperation. row, when the goal will be a permanent pean Federalist”), with the participation of a Hungarian mem- exiles from the East-Central European for examining complaints about the violation of Union law or civic always a sum of compromises. The times The question of a European federation was considered by Alek- securing of independence – and a realistic ber. Members of the PRW NiD acted in, i.a. the European Move- states, which referred to the conception of rights within the Union. Taking into consideration the estab- when we federalised others are long gone. sander Kawa∏kowski, who spoke in favour of a gradual realisation ment, the Assembly of Captive European Nations (ACEN) in New lishment of a European multi-step federation, plans were made of the federation projects: assessment of the development of interna- York, and the permanent East-Central Europe Conference in the Intermarium – a union of states for the Intermarium to join a continental organisation and then Today, a federation is possible only “[…] should be solely the core of a future enti- tional relations require that Polish foreign Washington. The organisation reached its zenith in the 1955- located between the Baltic, the Mediterranean a global community. according to the principle of absolute ty. Europe in the full meaning of the word could emerge only -1957 period, and its press organ was “Trybuna”. In 1948 the government of the Republic of Poland in exile after the liberation and organisation, according to federal prin- policy be based on federal premises […].” and the Adriatic. The clubs commenced established an Office of East-Central European Studies at the equality. At present, we are unable to ciples, of the area between the Odra-Nysa-Sudety line and the Polish Institute of International Affairs Studies in London, R. Pi∏sudski, Polish Federal Programme their work at the time of the Second World realise a federation of the nations of eastern borders of the non-Russian lands […].” which set up close contacts with the federal clubs, supporting Aleksander Kawa∏kowski, Kapitulacja czy wyzwolenie The Polish Freedom Movement “Independence and Democracy” War, and their greatest activity took place them with expert studies and forwarding their research mate- Central and Eastern Europe, but we (Capitulation or liberation) “Kultura”, no. 6/44, 1951. (Polski Ruch WolnoÊciowy “Niepodleg∏oÊç i Demokracja” – PRW in the years 1945-1952. rial to “Biuletyn Intermarium”, published in Rome in the years should consider the question of the NiD), which existed from 19 February 1945 to 19 November 1946-1950. In a speech given in 1951 at the Congress for Cultural Freedom 1994, attracted representatives of assorted political currents in Berlin, Józef Czapski linked the question of a European fed- The programme documents of the federal clubs included: Nasze The clubs did not establish contact with the European movement liberation of those countries already referring to independence-oriented and democratic traditions, eration with the right to self-determination for countries behind cele (Our Targets, London 1945), Karta Wolnego Mi´dzymorza in the West, nor did they create a joint representation. They crit- and concentrated predominantly members of the political and as our joint problem.” the Iron Curtain. Into this group he included also the nations of (A Charter of the Free Intermarium, Rome 1946) and Projekt icised the idea of integration limited to Western Europe. The intellectual emigration. The head of the first Council was Andrzej J. Mieroszewski, O mi´dzynarodowà brygad´ europejskà the USSR, and mentioned the example of Ukraine which, in his Konwencji Paƒstw Intermarium (A Project of the Convention of Western countries denied the federal clubs the right to partici- Pomian, and the first and long-term chairman (for 37 years) of opinion, has “more historical connections (with Europe) than the the Intermarium States, Paris 1948). According to a Paris Club pate in such integration initiatives as the Hague Congress or lat- the Central Executive Committee was Rowmund Pi∏sudski. average European is aware of”. project the Intermarium union was to link all the states of the er on the Council of Europe. The clubs’ activity began to wane at During the post-war period the “Kultura” milieu first joined The establishment of PRW NiD was a reaction to the resolu- Józef Czapski, W Berlinie o Zjednoczonej Europie region: Albania, Bulgaria, Byelorussia, Croatia, the Czech Repub- the beginning of the 1950s, and after final cessation in 1952 was a debate on the consequences of the Second World War and the (In Berlin about United Europe) “Kultura”, no. 9/47, 1951. tions of the , and the first programme from lic, Estonia, Hungary, Greece, , Lithuania, Poland, Roma- taken over by the Union of Polish Federalists. division of Europe, and then, at the turn of the 1940s, a dis- October 1945 included a declaration about active cooperation nia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine. Plans were made cussion about the future of Europe as well as the attitude of Juliusz Mieroszewski maintained that in Polish politics the term with the liberation movements of other nations in order to for the creation of a regional confederation. Western Europe towards divided Germany, the , “independence” must contain the federation idea. By following ensure freedom for a united and democratic Europe, and thus The convention project proposed a number of supranational insti- and the states of the Soviet bloc. “Kultura” closely observed the example of J. Czapski, he postulated that all representatives also for Poland. tutions with strongly defined competences, limited primarily to all the conceptions of European federations, always taking as of Central and Eastern Europe who lived in free countries should The programme premises, passed at the I General Assembly of foreign and defensive policies (the union was to be pacificistic) its point of departure the position of Poland (visualized as inde- sign a joint commitment that they would resolve controversial the PRW NiD on 8 December 1947, subsequently supplement- and the coordination of economic cooperation. A Confederation pendent in the future) among her neighbours, and viewed in territorial issues only after the creation of a European federa- ed in 1956, and finally brought up to date in 1989, were com- a European perspective. tion and by taking into consideration “the welfare of Europe as posed of two parts: Karta Wolnego Cz∏owieka (The Charter of the A prominent motif in the debate, perpetually tackled by Juliusz a whole”. To this postulate he added the expansion of a centre Free Man) and Karta Wolnego Polaka (The Charter of the Free Co-founder of the Polish Freedom Movement Mieroszewski, one of permament collaborators of “Kultura”, was for the education of young people from behind the Iron Curtain Pole). We read therein that a permanent guarantee of national “Independence and Democracy” (NiD) and subsequently the necessity of Poland recognising the independence aspirations in a federal spirit and upon the basis of Coll¯ge d’Europe Libre independence relies not on nationalism and unlimited state sov- its leader for many years, regarded as the ideologist of of Ukraine, Lithuania and Byelorussia (in other words, the in Strasbourg. His third proposal concerned an international ereignty, but on a new international order, based on the princi- the movement. acknowledgment that they too had a right to create independent East-Central European brigade as part of the European armed ples of regional federalism and a regional and universal system NiD, initiator of the establishment in 1949 of the Union states on territories which in the Second Republic remained with- forces. of equal rights for all nations. The conceptions launched by the of Polish Federalists (ZPF), influenced directly its work in the frontiers of the Polish state) and the conciliation of the Juliusz Mieroszewski, O mi´dzynarodowà brygad´ europejskà PRW NiD rested on two foundations: a multi-step federation (the – thus it is sometimes difficult to separate the activity of Poles and their eastern neighbours, signifying a voluntary res- (For an international European brigade) “Kultura”, no. 11/49, 1951. federation of East-Central Europe as an element of a European ZPF and NiD. ZPF, similarly to NiD, devised the conception ignation from all claims to Lwów and Wilno, with a simultane- federation) and the establishment of a “crystallisation centre” of long-term undertakings, including multi-step regional ous defence of the affiliation to Poland of its western territories. (Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary, owing to their industrial federalism, endeavoured that its programme would reach Just as important was the arrangement of good neighbourly base). This was the best-prepared and motivated project of a mul- political centres both in the West and the USA, and tried cooperation with Russia and Germany. The opinions voiced by ti-step federation, proposed by the émigré circles. Rowmund Piłsudski (1903-1988) to influence Poland by supplying information on Instytut Polski i Muzeum im. gen. Sikorskiego, London federalism (books, bulletins, Radio Free Europe J. Mieroszewski were representative for the line propounded by broadcasts). the editors of “Kultura”.

“INTERMARIUM, the fate of 150 000 000 Europeans!” – propaganda slogan from the cover of “Biuletyn Intermarium” no. 9, March 1948 While NiD focused on joint interest, the federal clubs of East-Central Europe frequently referred to moral , by J. Czapski arguments. House in 91, avenue de Poissy 1955, Instytut Literacki Kultura Seat of the editorial staff of “Kultura”.