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Contemporary Political Performing Arts in South Africa CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL PERFORMING ARTS IN SOUTH AFRICA Luvuyo Dontsa Thesis submitted in fulfilment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Ethnomusicology - Performing Arts, in the Faculty of Arts, at the School of Oriental and African Studies, in the Centre of Music Studies, University of London. April 1990 ProQuest Number: 10731639 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10731639 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 /3 ABSTRACT Despite the fact that 'transculturation1 between Africans and Europeans in South Africa has been going on for more than two centuries, African contemporary political performing arts continually reflect indigenous performing arts' genres of the pre-colonial era. Although a contemporary political performing artist does not play exactly the same role that is played by the traditional artist, who 'criticises the chiefs for perverting the laws and the customs of the nation and laments their abuse of power and neglect of their responsibilities and obligations to the people' (Mafeje, 1967: 195), he still represents the public: in this case a much wider public, and expresses the views which are shared by Africans throughout the whole country. The thesis surveys the political roles of contemporary African performing arts in South Africa. It demonstrates how performing arts have been systematically used as a mechanism to 'step in arenas' where one would dare not with political vehicle, and conveying political messages to promote the struggle for national liberation. The work shows the unique manner in which political performing arts are implemented, and to what degree they have succeeded. It also reveals an element of fear among both Africans and Europeans as being an overt manifestation of the national struggle by the Africans, which has resulted in harassments and detentions of the former, and the loss of privileges to the latter. Lastly, it reflects frustration among the Africans, as their endeavours for national liberation are thwarted. /4 The research has covered the techniques employed by the performing artists to convey political messages. It also assesses the relationship between the traditional and the avant-garde (non-conventional) performing arts, and evaluates the reasons for the change in tactics. Reactions of resentment to change in cultural and social life are discussed; how the Government has ruthlessly responded to such addresses; and how people have reacted to harsh response from the Government. The work also reveals how performing arts have appealed for international attention to address the South African situation, and how international artists have used an international forum to highlight the South African situation. Lastly, the work analyses South African contemporary political performing arts in worldwide context. 'YIDLAN' UMNGA NIQHELISELE, NINGABANTU BENKOSI EZONDEKAYOr. SARILI (Adhere to your traditions, you belong to a loathed 'chief') /5 TABLE OF CONTENTS page No. ABSTRACT 3 CONTENTS 5 PREFACE 21 APPROACH FOR THE READING OF THE THESIS AND CITATION FORMAT 25 CHAPTER 1: CONJECTURES AND DISCOURSE 2.7 1.1. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 1.1.1. Purpose j Scope and Corpus 1.2. CONCEPTS AND MEANINGS 36 1.2.2. Politics and performing arts 1.2.2. 'Working class' 38 1.2.3. Cultural invasion and culture alienation 40 1.3. REVIEW OF THEORIES AND CASE STUDIES ON POLITICAL ROLES OF PERFORMING ARTS IN SOUTH AFRICA 42 1.3.1. Concentration predominantly on pre-colonial political performing arts 1.3.2. Passing reference 43 1.3.3. Class struggle 44 1.3.4. Performing arts as a propaganda weapon 46 1.3.5. Concentration mostly on stage performance 47 /6 CHAPTER 2: MANIFESTATION OF THE DETERMINANTS THAT ACTUATED THE EMERGENCE AND ESCAIATION OF POLITICALPERFORMING ARTS 49 2.0. INTRODUCTION 2.1. SPIRIT OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM 2.1.1. From local to national issues 2.1.2. Yearning for freedom 50 2.1.3. Land dispossession 52 2.1.4. National consciousness 55 2.1.5. Assertion of national and individual identity 56 2.1.6. Creation of the Bantustans 57 2.2. OPPOSITION TO CONQUEST 58 2.2.1. European occupation 2.3. PERFORMANCES PREDOMINANTLY BASED ON URBAN EXPERIENCES 63 2.3.1. From rural to urban performance 2.3.2. Injustice and oppression 64 2.3.3. Reflection of the problemsof the African people 66 2.3.4. Struggle to survive 67 2.3.5. Soldiers in the townships 68 2.4. POLITICAL LEADERS AND DETENTIONS 69 2.4.1. Praising political leaders 2.4.2. Crying for jailed and exiled political leaders 70 2.4.3. Impact of the detentions for indefinite period 71 p CHAPTER 3: CONTINUITY AND CHANGE 73 3.0. INTRODUCTION 3.1. CONTINUITY WITH THE PAST 3.1.1. Advocating the preservation of African culture 3.1.2. Suspicious of the arrival of the missionaries 76 3.1.3. Adoption of indigenous techniques 79 3.1.4. Belief in ancestral powers 81 3.1.5. Use of amagwijo and izitibili tunes 82 3.1.6. Political heroes and past events 83 3.2. USE OF POPULAR GENRES 84 3.2.1. Implementation of current genres 3.3. BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS MOVEMENT (BCM) AND PERFORMING ARTS 86 3.3.1. Link between cultural and political fronts 3.3.2. Psychological liberation of the Black mind 87 3.3.3. Back to the grassroots 89 3.3.4. Anti-Eurocentrism 90 3.3.5. From page to stage performance 92 3.3.6. Non-action technique 93 3.3.7. From extemporal performance to written works 3.3.8. Language mixing 94 3.4. DRAWING FROM OTHER CULTURES 97 3.4.1. Poetry combined with drumming 3.4.2. Situation depicted by the instrumental performance 93 3.4.3. Picketing 101 /8 3.5. RELIGION 103 3.5.1. Its role in politics 3.5.2. Ridiculing some religious activities 105 3.6. WORKERS AND THE PERFORMING ARTS 105 3.6.1. Promoting unity 3.6.2. Employment: a political issue 107 3.6.3. Confidence in the worker's union 108 3.7. CONDESCENSION AND OPPORTUNISM 110 3.7.1. Romanticising the struggle 3.7.2. Bringing in petty issues 111 3.8. COMMERCIAL PURPOSES 112 3.8.1. Profit-making movies 3.8.1. Mandela concert 113 3.9. MANIPULATION OF PERFORMING ARTS 114 3.9.1. Funerals and other religious beliefs 3.9.2. Financing artists to promote political organisations H 5 3.10. COUNTER-MANIPULATION 116 3.10.1. The Government propaganda 3.10.2. Network stations and record industries 118 3.10.3. International manipulation 119 n CHAPTER 4: FEAR: A DISTINCT ELEMENT REFLECTED IN CONTEMPORARY PERFORMING ARTS 12i 4.0. INTRODUCTION • • 4.1. BEHAVIOUR AND REACTIONS: SIGNALS OF FEAR 123 4.1.1. Symbolism 4.2. USE OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE AND AMBIGUITY AS AN INDICATION OF FEAR 128 4.2.1. Religious camouflages 4.2.2. Other camouflage techniques 132 4.2.3. 'TaIking-to-the-people' approach: non-committal criticism 133 4.2.4. White fear 136 4.2.5. Story behind the dance 137 CHAPTER 5: FRUSTRATION - THE ROOT OF THE AVANT-GARDE POLITICAL PERFORMING ARTS 139 5.0. INTRODUCTION 5.1. ANC NATIONAL (ANC BEFORE 1955) AND PERFORMING ARTS 5.1.1. Protest songs as an indication of defiance 5.2. PAN-AFRICAN CONGRESS (PAC) AND PERFORMING ARTS 141 5.2.1. Themes of determination /10 5.3. THE TURNING POINT: THE END OF NON-VIOLENT METHODS 143 5.3.1. Survey of the determinants for the change of strategy 5.3.2. Independence by 'any means necessary1 145 5.3.3. Poverty - a drive for liberation 146 5.3.4. Patriotic slogans 5.4. ANC CONGRESS ALLIANCE (ANC AFTER 1955) AND UNITED DEMOCRATIC FRONT (UDF) PERFORMING ARTS 148 5.4.1. The 1 struggle continues' 5.4.2. Use of slogans advocating drastic measures 149 5.4.3. Toyi-toyi ■ * 150 5.4.3.1. As a non-political performance 151 5.4.3.2. As a political performance 152 5.4.3.3. The performance technique 154 5.4. 3.4. Psychological warfare technique 155 5.4. 3.5. Toyi-toyi: counter-productive 156 5.5. DEJECTION, EXASPERATION AND VIOLATION OF TRADITIONAL RULES 158 5.5.1. Lamentation 5.5.2. Non-poetic approach 181 5.5.3. Inflamatory tactics 182 CHAPTER 6 : THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE POLITICAL PERFORMING ARTS, AND THEIR CONTEXT WORLDWIDE 185 6.0. INTRODUCTION /II 6.1. THE GENERAL ROLE OF POLITICAL PERFORMING ARTS 166 6.1.1. Drawing attention to police brutality 6.1.2. Objection to bourgeois culture 167 6.1.3. Resisting foreign culture 168 6.1.4. Performing arts serve as therapy 170 6.1.5. Boosting morale 171 6.1.6. Bringing the struggle into focus 172 6.1.7. A form of education 173 6.1.8. Vehicle for the recording of history 174 6.1.9. Advocating unity 176 6.1.10. Promoting political ideologies 6.2. INTERNATIONAL ROLE 177 6.2.1. Cultural boycott 6.2.2. International artists and the world consciousness 179 6.2.3. Highlighting issues 182 6.2.4. Putting pressure on the international community 183 6.2.5.
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