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Note: page numbers in bold type refer to illustrative figures or tables. ÐÐÐÐÐÐ Abrahams, D. 83 n failure to integrate political and accommodation shortage in military wings of 91 townships 35 guerrilla warfare by 5, 28: activist ACT (Alexandra Township) 150 opposition to 89 action see direct action influence at grassroots level 88 Adler, G. 83 n Kabwe conference 90 Adler, J. 15, 216 non-racialism, commitment advisory boards 28 to 115 as base for radicalized politics 45 as political culture 169 extension of system of 44 political struggle by, increased radicalization of 46 emphasis on 60 African National Congress programme for government led (ANC) 3, 44, 46, 48, 53, by 138 60±1, 73, 78, 93, 125, 180, propagation of ideology of 100 186, 193, 269 round-up of activists after `African Claims' document of 46 Sharpeville 49 in Alexandra township 145, 147 shack dwellers, policy on 149 armed struggle of see guerrilla support by civics movement in warfare election campaign 9 armed wing () and trade union movement 15 of 92 turn to armed struggle (1961) 3 building loyalty to 100 Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) (armed Charterists and Africanists wing) 149 in 49±50 unbanning of 207 and civics movement: changing urbanization, view of 149 view of 60; links between 207; as vanguard of liberation opposed to primary role movement 5 for 208±9; recent deterioration version of national anthem 101 of relationships between 220; in Western Cape 48 roles played 207 and Xhosa nationalism 169 colours of 101 Youth League 37, 46 conflict with Inkatha Freedom see also people's power; Party 20 Reconstruction and confrontation with state by 4, 40 Development Programme; consultation around South African Natives' development 219 National Congress and elections in Northern Alexandra Accord 153 Cape 129 Alexandra Action Committee 146 embracing neoliberal development Alexandra Civic Association policies 22 (ACA) 145 exiled, assuming leadership 75 ideological orientation of 147

236 Index 237

Alexandra Civic Organization harassment 167; maintenance (ACO) 20, 80, 145, 217 of social order in 156; class as category of social division mediation of disputes in 156; in 149 Mozambicans in 151; night hostels, attitude to 149 vigil and ancestor ritual in 157; ideological orientation of 147 persistence of landlord±tenant origins of 146 relationship in 152; purchase policy on yard organization 161±2 of expropriated yard by returned relationship with ANC 145, exiles in 153±4; rent boycotts 149, 150 in 153; sangoma (healer) view of new arrivals 148 in 157; social drinking in 157; see also ACT standholder (mastant) in 152; Alexandra Land and Property tenant composition in 155; Owners' Association transformation to communal (ALPOA) 145±6, 150, 217 control (case study) 154±7; see also East Bank Residents Tshabalala family in 152; Association violence and political Alexandra Liaison Committee 149 affiliation 169; see also Alexandra Residents' Association Shabangu, D. (ARA) 146 `Mozambique' shack settlement Alexandra Township (case study) 157±60; ACO ( Johannesburg) 12, 31, 41, 73, failure in 157; attempts to form 145±74 committee in 159, 168; attitude ANC/ rivalry to violence and crime in 159; in 146; ethnic nature of 156 cleaning programme in, lack area committees 147 of 159; conditions in 158; block committees 147 dispute resolution in 159; civic structures in 145 illegal immigrants in 158; committees in 147; see also area; origins of 158; RENAMO block; street; yard guerrillas in 159; residents' description 145 view of 158; response to death East Bank Residents' Association in 159; social cohesiveness in, in 146 lack of 158±9; spatial structure history 145 of 158; toilets in 158; violence inequalities in 217 in 169±70; see also Shabangu, influx into 147 David Inkatha Freedom Party in 146, 149 new arrivals in 148: radicalization Kwa-Madala hostel in 146 of 148; returning exiles as 149 Lusaka, yards in 151±7; ACO yard political hegemony in 147 committees (case study) 151±6; property-owners and shack dwellers age, gender and marital status in, schism between 146±50 changes in 161; allocation of Shabangu, D. (political space 155, 156; area committee, entrepreneur, Lusaka) (case lack of 161; best-organized 152; study) 160±73; allocation of burial societies in 156; as space, control over 164±5; as community 154; dismantling of `chairman of Lusaka' 161; fences in 155; ethnic conflicts decline in legitimacy 165, 171±2; in 170±1; lack of ANC concern at description 160; and violence and police `Linda' 164; position in ACO and 238 Index

Alexandra Township, Shabangu (cont.) crime control and `alternative ANC 165; private army 167; justice' by 100 protection of 160; reliance government, splits in 28 on coercion 161, 164, 165; illiberal public authority as roots claimed 160±1; legacy of 23 shack settlement committee international disapproval of 1, 28 attempts 162, 166; social transition from, to relationships and 163±4; democracy 15, 176 support for ANC and see also segregation ACO 161, 166; unifying area committees 8, 12, 72, 73, 189 community 162, 167±8 `classic revolutionary' perspective shack settlements in 147; of 89, 90 civic structures in 148; dispute resolution by 104 committees, attempts to elections at 103 establish 166; crime and residents' relation to 104 squalor associations 149; see also civics movement; political movements in 148; Kwazakele; street committees see also `Mozambique' armed struggle see African National spatial order in 146±50 Congress streets: committees 147 Asian Committee for People's yards 147; and ACO Organization 56 representation 151; as Atkinson, D. 38, 51 n, 215 basic unit of civic Atteridgeville-Saulsville Residents' organization 147; Organization (ASRO) 11, committees 162; new 175±203 arrivals in 149; social authentic' and `inauthentic' organization in 151; as leadership 193±4 social and political focusing on getting rid of unit 151±7; see also African apartheid 187 National Congress; Lusaka future of 185±91 Altbeker, A. 177 mass meeting and ballot, views `alternative justice', street and area on 191±206 committees in 100 responses to World Bank housing Althusser, L. 180 project 195±6 amabutho 102, 103, 109 as sole representative of Ambler, C. 51 n community 192±3 America see civil rights movement tactics, localism and political Anacleti, O. 25 n mythology 198±203 ANC see African National after transition 193 Congress see also civics movement Anti-Pass Campaign 40, 48 Azanian People's Organization conference in Johannesburg 47 (AZAPO) 26, 61, 94, Anti-Republic Day 65 106±7, 193 Anti-South African Indian Council Azanian Students' Organization 65 (AZASO) 26 Anyang'Nyong'o, P. 16 apartheid Baines, G. 39 changing nature of () 61±2 balkanization of rural communities civic organizations after 205±24 along ethnic lines 23 Index 239

Bantu councils 28 Cape urban, on Cape peninsula 49 archives 35 Bapela, Obed 150 franchise 39 Barrell, H. 54, 60±1, 83 n, 90, 91 Cape Areas Housing Action Baskin, J. 202 Committee (CAHAC) 27, BCM see Black Consciousness 62, 67 Movement Cape Civic Associations, Beckman, B. 25 n Federation of 27 beer brewing 43 Cape Colony 30, 121±2 protests over women's right Cape coloured 129 to 43±4 Cape Flats 20 beer halls, municipal 43 Cape Province 3 boycott of 40, 48 see also Northern Cape see also shebeens; sorghum Cape Times 224 n beer Cape Town 20, 27 Beinart, W. 36, 51 n African resistance in 48±9 benefit societies see stokvel campaigns for city council Benoni (East Rand) 42 representation in 45 Bickford-Smith, V. 51 n elections in 207 Bill of Rights limitations demanded Moslem communities 20 by PAGAD 21 ratepayers' associations in 61 Black Community Programmes 28 see also Surplus People Project Black Consciousness Movement capital punishment return (BCM) 28, 83 n, 101 demanded by growing questioning of 58±9 PAGAD 21 's Convention 28, 60 Carter, C. 70, 73, 146, 147 102 Cato Manor Residents' Bloom, H. 29±30, 31 Association 27 Bonner, P. 41, 42, 43±4, 45, Champion, A.W.G. 40 46, 51 n Charterist movement 5, 49±50, 185 Boonzaier, R. 118 origins of 5 Border Civic Association 27 Chatsworth (Durban) 60 Botha, P.W. regime of 28 Cherry, J. 7±8, 86±113 Brakpan (East Rand) 41±2 Christianity 130±1, 140 ANC in 48 Christianson, D. 217 campaigns for city council city councils, campaign for direct representation in 45 representation on 45 political mobilization in 47±8 civic activism: decline of 47±50; as Bremner, L. 216 continuing force 206 Broederbond 136, 143±4 n civics movement Buffalo River see East London active citizenship, dependence Bundy, C. 3, 26±51 on 11 bus boycotts 145 addressing issue of civic order 20 bus fares see transport costs after apartheid 192, 205±24 Buthelezi, Mangosuthu 146 and ANC, disagreements over local Butterworth () 13 government 10, 13 anti-liberalism of 7 Calata, Fort 95 anti-pluralist nature of in Callaghy, T. 17 1980s 185 240 Index civics movement (cont.) mandate for, from mass assemblies attacks on ANC local governments of township residents 8 on tariffs and rates 13 marginalization of 14 and authoritarian tendencies in Marx-Lenin reading group government 192 in 187±8 autonomy, growing sense of 208 mass meeting and ballot balkanization of 11 in 191±206 and boycotts 218 organizational form of 7 changes in, post-1990 110±12 organization building in 54±5, 71 and 186 as organ of resistance 198 and civil society 75 origins of 1±3, 26±7 civil struggle as preparatory for participation in 106±7 political 55 `people's courts' of 8 claiming transition to democracy `people's power' concept in 55, 63 as victory 9 perceived as part of ANC confusion about organizational revolutionary strategy 89 status 11 and pluralist contests 8 as corporatist institution policing by 220±1 participants 222 political mobilization in 55 as counterparts of trade unions 75 as political parties 222±3 courts of, informal 6, 186 and political violence 8, 11 danger of reduction to and power in local implementing projects for government 10 others 13 power over routine township in democracy 206±11 administration 10 as democratic assemblies 6 as quasi-governmental and development 75, 141, 214±20 institutions 6±7, 186, 189±90 dispute settlement by 220±1 rebuilding after disbanding of doubts regarding liberal UDF 79 democracy 176 and representative effect of democratic local democracy 105, 107, 178 government on 205 and resuscitation of `Congress eschewing political struggle 4, 5 tradition' 4±5 financial aid for: from abroad 12, rise and decline of, since 213; from development 1990 205 schemes 213; from and scepticism towards the subscriptions 213±14 ballot box 8 financial problems of 13, 14, 76, and secrecy of political 212±13 allegiances 8 freedom of speech in 105 secret ballots in, lack of 107±8 as fundamental arm of in shack settlement upgrading 215 Charterists 5 single structure in, problems future of 2, 13±24, 175±203, 221±3 of 200±2 in liberal democratic as `social movement' 6 polity 175±203 and state urban policies, opposition loss to ANC of civic leaders to 62 from 12±13 strategic thought in: building management of development of local organizations projects by 15 in 54; development of Index 241

(1977±90) 52±85; gradualist and the market 17 campaigns around civic role in early South African issues 54; independence from democracy 18 state structures in 54; limits social movements and 16 to 54; local government 189; under representative non-racial democracy as ultimate democracy 16±24 goal of 53; non-violent action universal, requirements for in 54; reformulation of 64, 71; creation of 24 and township revolt 70±5 see also civics movement struggles of, and political class mobility in African struggles 64, 188 population 14 tolerance in 106±7 clientelism 38 in townships 69 Cloete, Manie 120, 126, 128±30, trade union view of 89 131, 133±8, 139, 141 in transition to democracy 9±13 Cloward, R. 26, 27, 32, 45, 83 n as vehicles for action 62 Cobley, A.G. 38 as `voluntary association' 6 coercion and deprivation, see also Alexandra township; urban 29±32 area committees; Coetzee, J. 102 Atteridgeville-Saulsville Residents' Cold War Organization; civic struggles; end of 7, 9 civil society; Leliefontein; reconciliation and end of 9 Namaqualand; South African and subsequent negotiations National Civic Organization; between former enemies 9 street committees; township and `victory' of liberal organizations; transition to democracy 9 democracy Collinge, J. 203 n civic structures see area Committee of Ten see Soweto committees; civics communal land, distribution of 22 movement; Kwazakele; Communist Party of South Africa Port Elizabeth townships; (CPSA) 37, 40, 46±7, 48 street committees dissolution of 50 civic struggles 20; community councils delinked from civics' opposition to 62 constitutional change 80 councillors in, as agents of over-politicizing 66; and repression 29 political struggles 64 protests against 27 under-organizing 66 replacing Bantu councils and civil rights movement, advisory boards 28±9 American 54, 55 Community Councils Act (1977) 61 civil society Community Education and as check to power of Information Project (EI) authoritarian state 16 ( Johannesburg) 53 civics in 81 community media see media civics reconceptualized as 75 Community Police Forums in economic reorganization 17 (CPFs) 221 as embryo of new popular community policing 20 democratic order 16 Community Resource and future for 13±24 Information Centre 64 242 Index

Congress Alliance 3 history' 177±8; and direct Congress of the People (1955) 3 democracy 179; limits Congress of South African Students to 197±8 (COSAS) 26, 93, 102 and scepticism towards the Congress of South African Trade ballot box 8 Unions (COSATU) 5, 15, 125, transition to see transition to 127, 143 n, 180, 193 democracy consumer boycotts 108 democratic revolution, see national Convention for a Democratic South democratic revolution Africa (CODESA) 50 n, 209 Department for Coloured Cooper, C. 84 n Affairs 118 Coovadia, Cas 78, 79 Department of Local copper mines 119 Administration, Housing COSAS see Congress of South and Agriculture 118 African Students development projects, cost of living in townships 35 government 13, 14 Council of Fifteen 49 imposed on township Council of Unions of South residents 179 Africa 143 n as `people-centred' 214 Cousins, B. 124 SANCO view of management CPSA see Communist Party of of 215 South Africa undermining local cultural Cradock (Eastern Cape) 7, 65, 70, 78 autonomy 114±15 people's power in 72 see also African National Cradock Residents' Association Congress (CRADORA) 70 De Villiers, M. 74 taking over some state roles 72 Diamond, L. 17 Crankshaw, O. 216 diamond mines 119 Creecy, B. 65 `dipping' of African workers 40 crime control direct action, non-violent, civic bodies in 20 township organizations street and area committees in 100 and 26±51, 54 Crush, J. 51 n dispute resolution 20, 73 civics role in 220±1 Dahl, R. 178, 191 street and area committees in 100 Dalling, D. 124 Douwes-Dekker, L. 216 Davenport, R.T. 51 n Dube Civic Association 27 Davidson, B. 183 Durban 27 De Beers 127, 134 advisory board creation 40 36, 48, 49 African politics in 40 de Klerk, President F.W. 92, anti-gangsterism organization 176±7, 204 in 21 democracy campaigns for city council direct 8 representation in 45 future under representative 16±24 Housing Action Committee generating increasing diversity 19 (DHAC) 62, 67 as means towards revolution 8 Indian landlords in 40 representative 196; and strategic rethinking in 59 `beginning of end of strikes in 26 Index 243

East Bank Residents Association elections (Alexandra township) 217 first (1994) 207 Eastern Cape 7, 27, 70 second (1999) 19 ANC and civics in 220 see also local government Eastern Cape Civics electrification 111 Organization 78 Ellis, S. 90 Eastern Native Township employment, new opportunities ( Johannesburg) 41 for, post-war 45 East London 31 see also unemployment campaigns for election to Engels, F. 182 advisory boards 47 Ensor, L. 84 n campaigns for city council entrepreneurship 19 representation in 45 Escobar, A. 114 case study of 32±8 ethnic identity, sacrifice for 19 Communist Party in 37 linguistic 19 European/Natives Joint European Commission funds to Council in 35 anti-apartheid groups 76 forced removals from 33 Evans, M. 84 n housing in 34 Eye, The (Pretoria) 53, 64±5 immigration into, from Ciskeian hinterland 37 family ties, disruption of, in infant mortality in 33±4 townships 32 location advisory board in 34 Fazzie, H. 93 location committee in 34 Federation of South African Trade mass meetings to Unions (FOSATU) 63, 143 n influence advisory Ferguson, J. 25 n board and vigilance food costs, protests over 46 association 36 franchise in the Cape 39 Natives' Vigilance Freedom Charter 3, 5, 67, Association 34±5 73, 101 population growth in 33 see also Charterist movement resistance by locals, first freehold communities, removal recorded 33 of 50 wages in 34 free markets 177 East Rand 12, 13 FRELIMO (Mozambique) 174 East Rand People's Friedman, S. 217, 222 Organization 84 n economy, Gabriels, H. 127 corporatist dynamic in 17 Galela, C. 95 social and political quiescence gangsters in 18 counter-marches by 21 see also liberalization; market PAGAD action against 20±1 education General Workers' Union of South and civics 190 Africa 94 grievances 70 Germiston (East Rand) 42 political 101 Glaser, D. 208,222 Education Crisis Committee Godlo, R.H. 34, 37 (Kwazakele) 93 Godolozi, Q. 95 Eglitis, O. 83 n Goniwe, M. 7, 65, 70, 93, 95 244 Index

Goodhew, D. 43, 51 n Hyslop, J. 90 Gordhan, K. 65 Gordhan, P. 59±60, 65 Town Council (Port government property, Elizabeth) 96 destruction of 9 ICU see Industrial and Commercial Grahamstown 31±2 Workers' Union Gramsci's theory of revolution 92 IICU see Independent ICU Grassroots (Cape Town) 53, 62, 64 IMF see International Monetary 27 Fund removal of Africans Independent ICU (IICU) 36, 37 under 27, 28, 61 Industrial and Commercial Workers' Guardian, The 37 Union (ICU) 35, 36, 40, 41 guerrilla warfare see African National see also Independent ICU Congress industrialization, effect on location Guguletu (Cape Town) Operation advisory boards Khululekani 221 inequality within African residential Guguletu Civic and Welfare areas 216±17 Association 49, 206 Inkatha Freedom Party, conflict with Guguletu Vigilance Association 49 ANC 20, 146, 216 Gumede, J.T. 40 insurrectionary period (1984±86) 5 Gumede, W.M. 206, 224 and election boycotts 6 Integrated Serviced Land Project Hani, C. 91 (Cape Town) 219 Harsch, E. 16, 25 n International Monetary Fund Hashe, S. 93, 95 (IMF) 197 headmen 38 Isizwe (UDF) 73, 85 n health care Issel, J. 58±9, 64, 83 n infrastructure 18±19 by street and area Jack, M. 94, 98, 99, 108, 112 committees 73, 190 Jaxa, S. 221 Heymans, C. 217 Jochelson, K. 74 Hirst, P.Q. 17, 18 Johannesburg Hlongwane, M. 206, 211, 213, anti-gangsterism organization 218, 219, 220, 222 in 21 Hobsbawm, E. 29 ethnic violence in 12 Horowitz, D. 184 inner-city slums of 41 hostels, `ethnic cleansing' in 12 Jordan, P. 178 House of Representatives 142 n housing, inadequate, protests Kabwe conference (1985) 186 over 57 Kadalie, Clements 36, 37 housing policy 147 Kagiso Residents' Organization 65 ANC taking over lead from Kagiso township (West Rand) 65 SANCO 14 Kagiso Trust 76±8 SANCO accusations of business/ Kensington Ratepayers' and Tenants' government collaboration Association (Cape Town) 62 on 219±20 Killick, T. 17 Hudson, P. 183, 204 Kimberley 31, 129 Hunter, M. 31 King William's Town 30 Huntington, S.P. 2, 17±18 Kinkead-Weekes, B. 48±9 Index 245

Klerksdorp Community communal livestock system in: Development Trust (Western Melville Report on 124; Transvaal) 215 perceived environmental Koch, E. 41 destructiveness of 118; Kohlakala, S. 112 `unproductiveness' of 116 Krugersdorp 69 fenced paddocks, proposals Kwazakele township (Port for 116 Elizabeth) 12 land struggles in 10±11, 114±41 ANC support in 102 Nama claims to `traditional lands' approval of street and area in 10, 115±16 committee structures 109 preferential access to `Nama' background 87 residents in 10, 115 democratic education in 109 privatization of commonage economic structure of 87±8 in 115, 117; qualifications for grassroots organization in 88 tenancy in 117 political participation in 86±112 rotation grazing, proposals services and facilities in 88 for 116 social structure of 87±8 scientific farming claims 115 street and area committees in 87, state land sold in 115 88±109; formation and see also Namaqualand structure 93±5; as logical Leliefontein Management outcome of grassroots Board 116, 117 organization 89; opposition to 125: tax participation 102±9; roles and boycott in 125±6 tactics 95±102; strategy 88±92 Lemarchand, R. 25 n, 172, 173 support for civics in 87 Lenin, V.I. 7, 59, 181 KwaZulu-Natal, elections in 207 Lephunya, P. 61, 79 liberal democracy 9 Laclau, E. 200 pedigree in South Africa 21 La Hause, P. 51 n see also pluralist democracy 9 land struggles, in Leliefontein liberalization with effervescence of (Namaqualand) 10±11 civil society 18 Lanegran, K. 206, 209, 211, 223 liberation movement, challenge Langa (Cape Town) 39, 43, 44, 46, to representative democracy 47,48 in 179 Advisory Board 49 Lingelihle township strike in 49 (Cradock) 93 Vigilance Association 48 living standards in Lebelo, S. 41 townships 32, 39 Lefort, C. 184 local government 5±6 legal codes, multiplicity of 22 attractions of, for civics Leliefontein (Namaqualand) personnel 121±31 `economic units' proposal: bridging loan to cover rent conflict subsequent on 117; boycotts 78 opposition to proposals for 116; civics as alternative to 74, 76 as solution to overgrazing 117; civics negotiations with 10 story of 117±18 civics redefining character commercial farming in, state's aim of 10 of promoting 117 democratization of 207, 210 246 Index local government (cont.) Mass Democratic Movement elections to 6, 68: boycott (MDM) 198 of 76; results of defiance campaign 26 (1995±96) 210 Matiwana, M. 28, 51 n non-compliance campaign by 9 Mayekiso, Moses 16, 25 n, 85 n, in townships 32 204 n, 206, 211, 212, 217, 220, Local Government Negotiating 222, 223 Forum 209 Mayekiso, Mzwanele 80, 223 Local Government Transition Act Mayer, I. 34, 36, 37, 38 (1993) 209 Mayer, P. 34, 36, 37, 38 location advisory boards 3 McAdam, D. 83 n location committees Mdakane, R. 148, 161, 166, 168 (subsequently location 38 advisory boards) 3 MDM see Mass Democratic Movement locations, urban 29±32 media, alternative and see also townships community 64±5, 71 Lodge, T. 34, 37, 38, 44, 46, Media Workers' Association 64 84 n, 90, 142 n, 208 Melville Report (1890) 124 Louw, S. 204 n Methodist Missionary Society 118 Lucas, J. 19, 145±74, 174 n Mhlana, K. 112 Mhlawuli, S. 95 Madiba, P. 197 migrant labourers 119 Mafeje, A. 32, 51 n Ministry of Justice and PAGAD 22 Maglaya, F. 57, 83 n Minkley, G. 38, 51 n Maharaj, N. 60 Mission Stations and Reserves Act Mail and Guardian 223 n (1909) 118 Makhanda, D. 66 Mkandawire, T. 16, 25 n Making People-Driven Development Mkhonto, S. 95 Work (SANCO) 214±15 Mogane, V. 84 n Malgas, E. 93 Mohamed, Y. 59±60 Mamase, M. 112 Molefe, P. 61, 67±8, 69±70, 72, Mamdani, M. 22±3 79±80, 84 n Mandela, N. 101 Molobi, E. 77, 79 Mandela Plan see M-Plan Moore, D. 114 Manthata, T. 60 Moosa, M. V. 60 Manuel, T. 62 Morobe, M. 77 market economy Moroka Civic Association 27 civil society and 17 Morris, A. 83 n `only' economic system 177 Motherwell 87 see also liberalization, economic Motor Assemblers' and Marx, A. 83 n, 84 n, 181±2 Component Workers Union Marxism (MACWUSA) 66, 93±4 rejection of representative Mpetha, O. 49 democracy in 180 M-plan (Mandela Plan) 93 Russian 4 Mthembu, P. 164 Third World 4 Mufson, S. 93 Masakhane (Operation Self Reliance) municipalities in townships campaign 218±19 see local government Masondo, A. 69 Musemwa, M. 39, 43, 44, 46 Index 247

Namaqualand Nama language in 137 ancestry of Nama in 125 overgrazing in 120, 122 basters in 131, 135±7, 141 Port Nolloth nuclear waste dump characteristics of Namaqualanders in 138 in 129 racial discrimination against civics in land struggles 132 in 126±31 referendum on belonging to coloureds, attitudes Northern or Western Cape towards 132±4 Province 129 communal land tenure system rural reserves in 143 n in 119, 120, 125, 139; Surplus People Project in 142 n arguments for preservation Tswana-speakers in 138 of 125 UDF influence in 130 conflict between management Xhosa-speakers in 132, 138 boards and community see also Leliefontein; Northern committees 119 Cape conservationist arguments Nasson, B. 90 in 120, 121±5 Natal 3, 40 description of 118±19 (NIC) 59 economic units in: arguments National Anti-Pass Council 45 against 123±4; Cape Town national democratic revolution University's role in arguments (NDR) for 123±4; and communal ambiguities of 179±85 tenure, conflict over 119±251; and apartheid 184 factions in 126; hiring indeterminacy of 180 conditions for 121; NGOs' role origins of 179±80 in 123±4; Supreme Court ruling National Economic Development on 125; threat of 119; and Labour Council undemocratic nature of (NEDLAC) 205 implementation of 124 nationalist opposition see African Gemeentskapkommittee (community National Congress; civics committee) 119, 130 movement; ; history of coloured reserves South African Communist in 118±19 Community identity, culture and community National Liberation League 46, 48 in 131±8 national liberation movements 4 incorporation into Northern national parliaments for coloured Cape of 138 and Indian people inkomers as threat 133, 134, 140 (proposed) 5 job insecurity in 119 National Party (NP) 9, 50, 76, 129, Khoi in 131, 135±7 176 land struggles and civic activism National Peace Committee 125 in 114±41 National Union of Mineworkers land tenure reform 133±4 (NUM) 126±7, 143 n Legal Resources Centre in 142 n National Union of South African market orientation of community Students (NUSAS) 62, 63, 64, farmers 120, 139 84 n mineral resources in 138 Native Affairs, Department of, in Nama identity in 122±3, 131, 139 housing policy 50 248 Index

Native (Urban Areas) Act 50 (1923) 31, 32, 35, 39 see also anti-pass campaign; see also Group Areas Act National Anti-Pass Council Ndabeni (Cape Town) 38 patriarchal forms of family and Ndukwana, S. 217 economic life 22 Ndzotoyi, M. 112 patronage 38 New Brighton 47 `people's courts' 20, 90, 189±90 newspapers, community-orientated people's power 70, 71±2, 147 53 see also African National Congress Ngcokoto, B. 221 People United Against Gangsterism Ngubeni, M. 212, 219 and Drugs (PAGAD) 20 Nkwinti, G. 79 Bill of Rights limitations Non-European Unity Front 27, 48 demand by 21 Ten-Point Programme of 46 capital punishment non-racialism 5, 54 demands by 21 ANC commitment to 115 militant Islam in 21±2 in political education 101,128 as symptom of weakness of Northern Cape liberalism 22 economy of 129 Philippines 56 elections in 129, 131, 133 Phillips, R. 43 Ntlonti, P. 206, 213, 219, 220 Phoenix, council housing NUSAS see National Union settlements in 61 of South African Phoenix Working Committee 59±64 Students Phola Park shack settlement Nuttall, T. 40±1 ( Johannesburg) 209, 215±16 Nzimande, B. 25 n, 81, 85 n Piven, F. 26, 27, 32, 45, 83 n Planact 85 n, 76 Odendaal, A. 31, 34, 51 n Planact report 76 Oliphant, V. 66 Plattner, M. 17 Operation Self-Reliance pluralist democracy 9, 198 see Masakhane divergent voices in 14±15 Orange 70 obfuscatory nature of 181 Organizing People for Power 56±8, trade unions in 15±16 62, 67, 83 n see also liberal democracy Orlando ( Johannesburg) West Civic police Association 27 corruption 22 raids 39, 43, 48 PAGAD see People United see also Community Police Forums Against Gangsterism policing by street and area and Drugs committees 73, 220±1 Pan Africanist Congress political democratization: slow rate (PAC) 101, 107, 193 of progress towards 80 Panitch, L. 17 tactics and myth in 199±200 Parfitt, T. 16 political diversification in Parkman, P. 83 n townships 12 parliamentary representation 177 ethnic 12 Parliamentary Voters political mobilization 55, 59 Registration Act street and area committees in 100 (1887) 30 see also Cloete Index 249 political organizations 8 strike at Ford factory in 27 banning of black 26 Uitenhage (Langa) massacre 95 as vehicles for extension for power of youth forum 94 capitalist state 208 see also Education Crisis political participation in Kwazakele Committee; Kwazakele; township 86±112 Port Elizabeth Black Civic political parties see political Organization; Port Elizabeth organization Women's Organization; Port political rights for Africans 45 Elizabeth Youth Congress political themes of future civil Port Elizabeth Black Civic society 19 Organization (PEBCO) 27, 62, politics 66, 70, 93±4, 95, 97, 102, extra-parliamentary, fragmented 103, 110 nature of 52 Port Elizabeth Chamber of local: ANC dominance in 211; Commerce 98 marginalization of civics Port Elizabeth People's Civic in 209, 211 Organization 97 of survival (1900±39) 38±44 Port Elizabeth Women's township: fusing with national Organization 93 organizations after WW2; Port Elizabeth Youth Congress radicalization of (1940s) 44±7 (PEYCO) 93±4, 101, 102 urban (1930s) 44 Posel, D. 45 poor people 31, 128 Pretoria-Witwatersrand-Vereeniging empowering through business (PWV) region 43, 66 deals 222 Price, R.M. 27, 50 n Port Elizabeth townships 30, 31 protest, African local political 3 ANC involvement in 38 public authority, illiberal, in South anti-gangsterism organization African heritage 23±4 in 21 campaigns for city council `Queen Adelaide Province' 33 representation in 45 Charterist tradition in 12 racialism and capitalism 182±3 City Council 39 91 consumer boycott in 94, Rala, A. 113 97±8, 108 Ramaphosa, C. 127 cultural homogeneity of Ramphele, M. 60 townships in 12 Rantete, J. 208 Ibhayi council, sit-in at 111 rates burden in townships 35, 61 ICU involvement in 38 Reader, D. 33 New Brighton Advisory Board Reconstruction and Development in 38±9 Programme (ANC) 214 political participation in 7±8, 12 refuse removal by street and area rebuilding of committees after committees 73 repression 97 Reitzes, M. 222 sewage and street cleaning removals, forced 28, 57 in 96±7, 111 from East London 33 street and area committees: as protests against 27 response to repression in 95±6; see also Group Areas Act role of 96±7 RENAMO (Mozambique) 174 n 250 Index rent boycotts see rent levels Second World War 3 rent levels effect on political and social agreement on (ANC/NP/ landscape 45 SANCO) 218 Seekings, J. 4, 14, 25 n, 29, 83 n, protests against 27, 39, 48, 57, 84 n, 87, 88±9, 93, 187, 205±24 66, 70, 75, 78, 111, 189, Segal, L. 59 192, 218 segregation of urban representation, direct municipal 39 communities 31 repression (late 1950s) 3 see also locations; townships reserves, future of 133 self-defence committees residents' organizations 4 (amabuthos) 20, 90 and transition to democracy 15 service charges revolution, `hegemonic' 92 agreement on (ANC/NP/ Rich, P. 51 n SANCO) 218 Riley, S. 16 boycotts 9, 218 Riordan, R. 87, 96, 98, 102 shack settlements 18, 148 riots 40 civics in upgrading of 215 roads in townships 35 Sharp, J. 118 91 Sharpeville shootings 49, 50 Roberts, A. 83 n shebeens (township bars) 41, 157 Robins, S. 10±11, 114±44 Shubane, K. 78, 85 n, 197, 204 n Rousseau and expression of single Sikhosana, M. 25 n, 81, 85 n will by people 186±7, 197 Silverman, S. 163 Rowbotham, S. 59, 84 n Sisulu, Z. 85 n, 204 n Rubusana, Dr W. 34 Sizani, S. 78 rural autocracy 23 Skocpol, T. 25 n Rural Coloured Areas Act Slovo, J. 183 (1963) 142 n slum yards, inner-city 31 rural reserves 143 n Smit, H. 120, 130±1, 140 Smit, P. 127, 131 Sachs, W. 114 Smuts, J. 45 SACP see South African Communist Sobukwe, R 106 Party social services, inadequacy of 22 SAIRR see South African Institute of Soggot, M. 223 n Race Relations Solidarity (Poland) 54 SANCO see South African National Solomon, M. 83 n Civic Organization Sophiatown ( Johannesburg) 31, 41 SANCO Investment Holdings 222 Non-European Residents' Sandberg, E. 25 n Association in 41 Sandi, D. 212 sorghum beer 32 sanitary conditions in municipal monopoly over 36, 40 townships 35, 39 South 79 Sapire, H. 41±2, 47, 51, 160 South African Communist Sarakinsky, M. 174 n Party (SACP) 3, 59, 60±1, 91, SASPU National ( Johannesburg) 53, 180±3, 193 64±5, 66 `classic revolutionary' perspective Schmitz, G.J. 25 n of 89, 90 Scott, J. 29 on foundation of national Sechaba, T. 90 democratic state 183±4 Index 251

leadership turnover in 211±12 Soweto Committee of on race and class as two sides of Ten 26, 50 n, 60 same coin 182 Soweto People's Delegation relaunch of 37 (SPD) 76, 78 as representative of working Soweto township (West Rand) 65 class 5 activists drawn to ANC 61 theory of NDR 182 intellectual and political see also Communist Party of ferment in 61 South Africa organization-building in 61 South African Congress of Trade rent boycott in 76, 78 Unions 49 uprising in (1976) 13, 25 South African Defence Force (SADF) Springs, campaigns for city council in Angola 28 representation in 45 South African Institute of Race squatters movement 3, 28, 78, 148 Relations (SAIRR) 50 n, see also shack settlements 66, 218 Stadler, A. 31, 51 n South African Labour Bulletin 66 Stagie, R. 21 South African National Civic Stalinism, end of 176 Organization (SANCO) 9, 13±15, State of Emergency 74, 95 110, 130, 205 partial 72, 95 effect of democratic local stayaways 108 government 205 Steinberg, J. 6, 11, 175±204, 208 housing policy decisions, excluded Steyn, L. 117, 118, 119, 127 from 205 Steyn Fund see Independent inability to adjust to post-apartheid Development Trust environment 14 Stofile, A. 72 investment arm of 14 stokvel (benefit societies) 41 in Local Government Negotiating street committees 8, 12, 70, 72, Forum 209 73, 221 marginalized 205, 219 `classic revolutionary' perspective membership of 14 of 89, 90 overshadowed by ANC 209 see also area committees; civics policy in local elections 210 movement; Kwazakele resource drought in 14 strikes voluntary commitment in, in Durban 26 declining 212 in East London 36 see also civics movement; local post-war 46 government student revolt 26 South African Natives' National suffrage see universal suffrage Congress (SANNC) (subsequently Surplus People's Project 127, 142 ANC) 35 Suttner, R. 73, 85 n 20 Swanson, M. 51 n Sowetan 174 n Swart, D. 96 Soweto Accord 80 Swilling, M. 16, 28, 78, 85 n, 88±9, Soweto-by-the-Sea shack settlement 187, 199 (Port Elizabeth) 87 Soweto Civic Association Tambo, O. 186 (SCA) 26±7, 61, 62, Terblanche, S. 120±1 65, 67, 69, 79, 84 n Theron commission 121 252 Index

Tintown settlement (Durban), Tsenoli, L. 211 flooding of 59 tuberculosis 128 townships civics in 69 UDF see United Democratic Front coercive violence of 31 Ukusa (Durban) 64 insurrection in 55, 70±5 Umbrella Rentals Committee life in 31 (Cape Town) 62 material pressures on residents unemployment 22 of 28 `ungovernability' 73, 89±90 new controls over 50 Union of Black Journalists 64 organizations in 7; and United Democratic Front non-violent direct (UDF) 7, 20, 27, 53, 68, action 26±51; 71, 73, 74, 78, 79±80, 84 n, see also civics movement 90, 93, 94, 125, 147 origins of 31 coercive measures of 102±3 revolt see insurrection detention and torture during see also Alexandra; Benoni; state of emergency 96 Butterworth; Cradock; Dube; disbanding after ANC's Eastern Native; East London; unbanning 79 Germiston; Grahamstown; notion of NDR in 180 Guguletu; Kagiso; Kensington; Unity Movement 62 Kwazakele; Langa; Leliefontein; universal suffrage 181±2 Mitchell's Plain; Orlando; urban associations 43 Phoenix; Ratanda; Sophiatown; see also civics movement; Soweto; Western Native vigilance associations `toyi-toyi' dance 101 Urban Focus 224 n trade union movement urbanization 147 creating tensions within ANC 15 urban residents 3 emergence of 28 growth since 1990 15 Vaal Triangle 70 impeding liberalization 17 Vaal uprising 90 legal basis of 15 Van Heerden, A. 63, 64, 67, 69, 84 n membership of 15 Veeplas shack settlement 87 recruitment of black workers into, Verwoerd, H. 50 post-war 46 vigilance associations 3 strategy similarities to civics as base for radicalized politics 45 movement 55 characteristics of 42±3 trading licences 35 first 30 transition to democracy 9±13 origins of 42 as moment at end of Cold War 9 radicalization of 46 see also Cold War representivity of 30 Transkei 13 see also urban associations transport costs, protest over 39, Vigilance League of Decency 49 46, 48 vigilante actions 21, 103 Transvaal 3, 27 Viljoen, G. 176, 204 disturbances in 43 violence in townships 31±2 Provincial Administration 78 voluntary associations 30±1 township politics in 41 Vorster, J. 50 trek boers in Namaqualand 118, 142 n Vryburg 69 Index 253 wages in townships 35 Witwatersrand 41 Wainwright, H. 59 women's issues 3, 22 Walters, S. 28, 51 n protests on 43±4 wards system 38 street and area committees on 100 Webster, E. 15 urban associations in 43 Weekly Mail Guardian 129 Wood, G. 102 Welsh, D. 51 n workshops, educational and Western Cape organization-building 53, consumer boycotts in 27 65, 71 elections in 207 World Bank 79, 194, 195, 197 Western Native Township Writers' Association of South ( Johannesburg) 41, 43 Africa 64 Western Province Advice Bureau 126 Xego, M. 101, 106, 113 Western Province Joint Vigilance 33 Association movement 48 Xuma, A.B. 44, 46 White, C. 87±8, 160 White, R. 98 youth movement 5 Wiehan Commission 126 Wilkinson, A.R. 183 Zimbabwe Willan, B. 31 communal livestock farming will of the people as conflict in 118, 141 between competing village development committees representations 185 in 141 Wilson, M. 32, 51 n Zulu royal house 40