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University of Cape Coast Islam and Gender in Dagbon © University of Cape Coast https://erl.ucc.edu.gh/jspui UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST ISLAM AND GENDER IN DAGBON MUSTAPHA ABDUL-HAMID 2017 Digitized by Sam Jonah Library © University of Cape Coast https://erl.ucc.edu.gh/jspui UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST ISLAM AND GENDER IN DAGBON BY MUSTAPHA ABDUL-HAMID Thesis submitted to the Department of Religion and Human Values of the Faculty of Arts in the College of Humanities and Legal Studies, University of Cape Coast, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy in Religion and Human Values JULY 2017 Digitized by Sam Jonah Library © University of Cape Coast https://erl.ucc.edu.gh/jspui DECLARATION Candidate’s Declaration I hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my own original work and that no part of it has been presented for another degree in this university or elsewhere. Candidate’s Name: ………………………………………………………. Signature ………………………………………………………………. Supervisor’s Declaration We hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of the thesis were supervised in accordance with the guidelines on supervision of thesis laid down by the University of Cape Coast. Principal Supervisor Name…………………………………………………………………….. Signature………………………. Date…………………………………. Co-Supervisor Name………………………………………………………………………. Signature………………………... Date…………………………………… ii Digitized by Sam Jonah Library © University of Cape Coast https://erl.ucc.edu.gh/jspui ABSTRACT Gender has become a central issue in world discourse. It is more so in Islam because there is a general perception that the theology of Islam is built on gender injustice. The Dagomba people of Ghana converted to Islam in droves after the conversion of their King, Naa Zangina in about 1700. Since then, Islam has become the state religion of the Dagomba people and all their customs and traditions have become underpinned by Islam, including the negotiation of gender. There is a palpable gender imbalance in Dagomba life and thought. But what factor(s) account for this gender imbalance? This study therefore sought to investigate and to find out the extent to which Islam is or is not responsible for the male-female dynamics in Dagbon. In doing this, a qualitative method of data collection was employed. Questionnaires were administered, in-depth interviews were conducted and focus group discussions were held. The descriptive research design was also used to interpret the primary data that was collected. It was found out that gender relations in Dagbon are heavily biased in favour of men. The Afanema, who are the guardians of Islamic lore, teach a theology of Islam that purports to subjugate women. This theology has become accepted norm. However, a few women are beginning to find their voices and to challenge male dominance. This research recommends that more women take up the role of mufassirs (interpreters of the Qur’an) in order to balance the male centered interpretations that pervade the society. Education is also a leveler and tends to give people a voice. If more girls would be educated, it would iii Digitized by Sam Jonah Library © University of Cape Coast https://erl.ucc.edu.gh/jspui contribute to a greater awareness of the fact that more feminine voices can only contribute to the development of the society rather than retard it. iv Digitized by Sam Jonah Library © University of Cape Coast https://erl.ucc.edu.gh/jspui ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My foremost gratitude goes to the two supervisors of this project: Dr. Rabiatu Ammah and Dr. Simon Appiah. I am privileged to have benefited from their repertoire of knowledge. They exercised a lot of patience and understanding, which contributed greatly to the completion of this work. I am also indebted to Dr. Mahamudu Bawumia, the Vice President of Ghana, for paying the first set of fees that enabled me to begin the course. My gratitude also goes to the President, Nana Addo Dankwa Akufo-Addo for his encouragement and financial support that kept me on the programme. Prof. Edoh Torgah was the “tormentor-in-chief” who ensured that I never gave up. I am grateful to all my colleagues in the Department of Religion and Human Values at the University of Cape Coast for their support, especially those that served as Heads of Department in the period of my study: Dr. Yaw Sarkodie Agyeman, Prof. Eric N. B. Anum and Prof. Samuel Awuah-Nyamekye. My students, Shaykh Muhammad Abubakar Abdul-Moomin, George Anderson Jnr. and Hackman Alex Aidoo played various roles in the course of writing this thesis. Dr. Collins Ayine of the Faculty of Forest Resources Technology, KNUST served as my data analyst and I am grateful. Nana Attobrah Quaicoe is the young man who has always believed in me. I am grateful to him for the confidence. Dr. Abena Animwaa Yeboah-Banin tutored me on how to set the table of contents. No knowledge gained is small. And I appreciate Prof. De-Valera Botchwey of the History Department who has been a huge pillar of support. Dr. Roger Asempasa and Dr. Emmanuel Saboro, both of v Digitized by Sam Jonah Library © University of Cape Coast https://erl.ucc.edu.gh/jspui the English Department of the University of Cape Coast gave me useful material that helped in my understanding of theories. I thank them. My former student, Iddrisu Dawuda administered the questionnaires, while my protégé and political mentee, Akbar Khomeini, conducted the research on Dagbon culture and the political leadership of women. I am indebted to them as well. My thanks go to my family, for their sacrifices in the period of conducting this research. I cannot thank the University of Cape Coast enough for the opportunity it gave me to both teach and pursue this study. vi Digitized by Sam Jonah Library © University of Cape Coast https://erl.ucc.edu.gh/jspui DEDICATION To Prof. Audrey Gadzekpo for introducing me to gender studies. To my daughters, that they may find their voices and speak up. vii Digitized by Sam Jonah Library © University of Cape Coast https://erl.ucc.edu.gh/jspui TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ii ABSTRACT iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v DEDICATION vii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Research Context 1 Background to the Study 3 Statement of the Problem 8 Aims and Objectives of the Study 8 This study was carried out to among other things; 8 Methodology 9 Research Design 9 Study Area 10 Population 10 Sampling Procedure 11 Data Collection Instruments 13 Data Collection Procedures 14 Data Processing and Analysis 15 Theoretical and Conceptual Framework 15 Islamic Feminism 16 Existentialist Feminism 18 African/Black Feminism 23 Literature Review 24 Theoretical underpinnings of gender in Islam 24 Authority, exegesis and gender in Islam 31 viii Digitized by Sam Jonah Library © University of Cape Coast https://erl.ucc.edu.gh/jspui Historical evolution of gender in Islam 40 African/Black Feminism 47 Significance of the Study 49 Organisation of the Study 51 CHAPTER TWO: ‘THE MALE IS NOT LIKE THE FEMALE:’ GENDER DYNAMICS IN ISLAM 54 Introduction 54 Sources of Law in Islam 56 The Qur’an 56 The Sunnah 57 Ijma 57 Qiyas 58 Law & Gender in Islam 59 The Qur’an & the Status of Women at Creation 59 Conflicting Interpretations of Juridical Sources Regarding Gender Issues 65 Conflicting Interpretations: Processes of Religious Inculturation 78 Negotiation of Gender in Sacred Space 81 Prayer Leadership as Man’s Space 82 Men are Audible, Women Murmur 87 The Curtain or Veil in the Mosque 89 Negotiation of Gender in Profane Space 91 The veil as curtain 91 Profane Space as Man’s Space 96 ix Digitized by Sam Jonah Library © University of Cape Coast https://erl.ucc.edu.gh/jspui Gender and Leadership in Islam 98 The Prophet, Women and Gender in Islam 102 Concepts of Leadership in Islam 105 Muslim Women Leaders 108 Abu Bakra and the curse of women leaders 110 The Era of Women’s Restriction 114 Conclusion 116 CHAPTER THREE: ‘DO LOOW:’ CONSTRUCTIONS OF MASCULINITY AND FEMINITY IN DAGBON Introduction 118 The Founding of Dagbon 119 Masculinity and Feminity 121 Social Life of the Dagomba 122 Family and Kinship 123 Social Classes/Stratification 130 Rites of Passage 135 Birth Rites 135 Marriage 137 Death 140 Festivals 141 Bugum 141 Damba 143 Political Organisation 145 Gundogu 151 Military Organisation 155 x Digitized by Sam Jonah Library © University of Cape Coast https://erl.ucc.edu.gh/jspui Economic Life 157 Religious Life 162 Conclusion 168 CHAPTER FOUR: MUTED VOICES OR MURMURS OF PROTEST? Introduction 170 The Afanema as determiners of Islamic practice in Dagbon 172 The Afa and Gender in Sacred Space 177 The Afa and Gender in Domestic Space 180 The Afa and Gender in Public Space 187 Analysis & Interpretation 190 Islam & Gender in Dagbon’s Sacred Space 192 Islam & Gender in Dagbon’s Domestic Space: Urban Setting 195 Islam and Gender in Dagbon’s Public Space: Urban Setting 204 Islam and Gender in Dagbon’s Domestic Space: Rural Setting 209 Islam and Gender in Dagbon’s Public Space: Rural Setting 211 Conclusion 211 CHAPTER FIVE: MAKING SENSE OF IT ALL: A THEORETICAL APPRAISAL Introduction 215 Gender Justice 215 “Can the Subaltern Speak?” 221 Education, Intellect and Gender 224 Hermeneutics 231 Existentialist Feminism and the Concept of the ‘Other.’ 243 Islamic Feminism 250 xi Digitized by Sam Jonah Library © University of Cape Coast https://erl.ucc.edu.gh/jspui African/Black Feminist Thinking and Gender in Dagbon 253 Conclusion 257 CHAPTER SIX: WE ARE THE PEOPLE TOO REFERENCES 271 xii Digitized by Sam Jonah Library © University of Cape Coast https://erl.ucc.edu.gh/jspui CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Research Context Dagbon refers to the geographical area occupied by the Dagomba ethnic group in the Volta Basin in Ghana’s administrative region called the Northern Region.
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