An Analysis of Oral Literary Music Texts in IsiXhosa Mavis Noluthando Mpola A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Humanities at Rhodes University for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Supervisor: Professor Russell H Kaschula 15 February 2007 i CONTENTS Page Declaration v Acknowledgements vi Acronyms vii Abstract ix CHAPTER ONE Introduction 1.1 Aim and Motivation of Study 3 1.2 Scope of Study 5 1.3 Context of Research 5 1.4 Research Orientation 6 1.5 Problem Statement 7 1.6 Method of Approach 8 1.7 Data Analysis 9 CHAPTER TWO Historical Background 2.1 Early Xhosa Choral Composers 10 2.2 The Missionaries and isiXhosa Music 12 2.3 Ntsikana 15 2.4 Healdtown 19 2.5 Lovedale 20 2.6 St. Matthews College 21 2.7 Music Education 22 2.8 Teacher Training 24 2.9 The Role of Lovedale Press 26 ii CHAPTER THREE Composers in their Personal and Socio-Political Contexts 3.1 Bokwe, John Knox 31 3.2 Foley, Jabez 34 3.3 Gwashu, Enoch Fikile 35 3.4 Jonas, Albert 36 3.5 Jorha, Henry Duke 37 3.6 Mangali, Philip Mlungisi 38 3.7 Masiza, Hamilton John 40 3.8 Matshikiza, Todd 41 3.9 Matyila, Archibald Mxolisi 44 3.10 Mfamana, Richard Mbuyiselo 45 3.11 Mjana, Makhaya Hector 47 3.12 Moerane, Michael Mosueu 49 3.13 Mtyobo, Julius Thomas 50 3.14 Myataza, Benjamin 52 3.15 Ngqobe, Christian Thanduxolo 53 3.16 Ngxokolo, Michael 55 3.17 Nzo, Mbulelo 59 3.18 Qwesha, Chambers Bonisile 60 3.19 Sontonga, Enoch Mankayi 62 3.20 Tyamzashe, Benjamin Peter John 64 3.21 Vumazonke, Thamsanqa 69 CHAPTER FOUR Classification of Song Texts 4.1 Introduction 70 4.2 Metaphor 73 4.3 Events 96 4.4 Conclusion 135 CHAPTER FIVE Texts Depicting Aspects of Culture, Protest and Unity 5.1 Introduction 136 iii 5.2 Culture 143 5.3 Protest 163 5.4 Unity 173 5.5 Conclusion 186 CHAPTER SIX Texts Depicting Personal Circumstances, and the Relationship Between Religion and Nature, Lullabies. 6.1 Introduction 187 6.2 Personal Circumstances 192 6.3 Relationship between Religion and Nature 219 6.4 Lullabies 228 6.5 Conclusion 232 CHAPTER SEVEN Summary and Conclusion 7.1 Summary 233 7.2 General Conclusion 235 7.3 Recommendations 239 APPENDICES 241 BIBLIOGRAPHY 245 iv Declaration I declare that this thesis is my own work, both in conception and creation. ................................................... ...................................................... MN MPOLA DATE v Acknowledgements I sincerely wish to express my profound thanks to the following people: • Professor Russell Kaschula for his support and guidance. Were it not for his encouragement and positive motivation, I would not have had the will to get up and go on again. Thank you, Professor, for being there for me whenever I needed help. To you I say, ukwanda kwaliwa ngumthakathi, nangamso! • The two gentlemen at Cory Library, Mr Vena and Mr Gacula, for being so eager to help me find material whenever I called on them. Singoonyongande nje kukudlelana. • The Dean of Research, Dr S. Fourie. • Donald Smith, who so ably typed this thesis. • Dr Kevin Goddard for assisting with editing. • Denver Wannies, my colleague, who supported me in so many ways. • My children: Luvuyo, Sinoxolo and Sinovuyo, who had to put up with a mother who did not have time to play or even chat with them, I hope that they will forgive me when they read this work, even after I am no more. • Rhodes University, particularly the School of Languages (African Language Studies: isiXhosa), for fulfilling my lifelong wish a “red gown”. • The Almighty God, who gave me the strength and wings to fly. • Whenever I felt my spirit flagging, I was motivated by the book of Isaiah: “Those who trust in the Lord for help, will find their strength renewed” (Isaiah 40: 29-31) vi Acronyms ANC African National Congress ATASA African Teachers’ Association of South Africa BA Bachelor of Arts B.Mus Bachelor of Music B.Paed Bachelor of Pedagogics BBC British Broadcasting Corporation CATU Cape African Teachers’ Association DDT Davidson Don Tengo (Jabavu) etc. et etcetera (and so on) Ff Fortissimo (very loud) HPTC Higher Primary Teachers” Course IDAMASA Interdenominational African Ministers” Association of South Africa MAVA Modern Association of Vocal Artists MEC Member of Executive Council NATU Natal African Teachers’ Union NCF National Choir Festival NISCC National Inter-School Choir Competition NPH Native Primary Higher NRF National Research Foundation NTSC Native Teachers’ Senior Certificate OFSATA Orange Free State African Teachers’ Association PAC Pan Africanist Congress PH Primary Higher PTC Primary Teachers’ Course RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme Rev. Reverend SABC South African Broadcasting Corporation vii SATICA South African Tertiary Institutions Choral Association SADTU South African Democratic Teachers’ Union SAMRO South African Music Rights Organisation SATB Soprano, Alto, Tenor, Bass SC Soprano, Contralto SOS (Societas Socialis) Save Our Souls SSC Soprano, Soprano, Contralto TRACA Transkei Choral Association TUATA Transvaal United African Teachers’ Association UNISA University of South Africa WCOTP World Confederation of Organisations of the Teaching WECMA Profession Western Cape Choral Music Association viii Abstract This study examines the relationship between composed songs in isiXhosa and the field of oral literature. In traditional Xhosa cultural settings, poetry and music are forms of communal activity enjoyed by that society. Music and poetry perform a special social role in African society in general, providing a critique of socio-economic and political issues. The research analyses the relationship that exists between traditional poetry, izibongo, and composed songs. It demonstrates that in the same way that izibongo can be analysed in order to appreciate the aesthetic value of an oral literary form, the same can be said of composed isiXhosa music. The art of transmitting oral literature is performance. The traditional izibongo are recited before audiences in the same way. Songs (iingoma) stories (amabali) and traditional poetry (izibongo) all comprise oral literature that is transmitted by word of mouth. Opland (1992: 17) says about this type of literature: “Living as it does in the performance is usually appreciated by crowds of people as sounds uttered by the performer who is present before his/her audience.” Opland (ibid 125) again gives an account of who is both reciter of poems and singer of songs. He gives Mthamo’s testimony thus: “He is a singer… with a reputation of being a poet as well.” The musical texts that will be analysed in this thesis will range from those produced as early as 1917, when Benjamin Tyamzashe wrote his first song, Isithandwa sam (My beloved), up to those produced in 1990 when Makhaya 1 Mjana was commissioned by Lovedale on its 150th anniversary to write Qingqa Lovedale (Stand up Lovedale). The song texts total fifty, by twenty-one composers. The texts will be analysed according to different themes, ranging from themes that are metaphoric, themes about events, themes that depict the culture of the amaXhosa, themes with a message of protest, themes demonstrating the relationship between religion and nature, themes that call for unity among the amaXhosa, and themes that depict the personal circumstances of composers and lullabies. The number of texts from each category will vary depending on the composers’ socio-cultural background when they composed the songs. Comparison will be made with some izibongo to show that composers and writers of izibongo are similar artists and, in the words of Mtuze in Izibongo Zomthonyama (1993) “bathwase ngethongo elinye” (They are spiritually gifted in the same way). 2 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Aim and Motivation of the Study IsiXhosa song analysis is a field that is rooted in oral literature. It is argued in this thesis that song composition is a vehicle for transmitting culture orally in the same way that performers of izibongo transmit cultural knowledge. The song texts chosen in this study will show the relationship between the language and culture of a society, and for the purposes of this thesis, that of the amaXhosa. The chosen texts will reveal certain events, and a way of life that represents certain eras of amaXhosa existence. In amaXhosa traditional life a man’s wealth is, for example, measured by the herd of cattle he has in his kraal. In his song Ixhaka likaBawo (Father’s Bull), Enoch Gwashu affirms this, when he is reminiscing about the olden days. He begins his song with a call, Yizani, sivume iingoma zamandulo zakwaXhosa, zookhoko bethu, ezweni labo (Come let us sing songs of the olden days of the amaXhosa, of our ancestors, in their land). He uses phrases like Kusengw’ inkomo (cows being milked). He talks about imitshotsho (traditional dance occasions) when men would dance in a boastful manner. Another composer who confirms this view is Phillip Mangali in his song, which begins Thina maXhosa sivele kududw’ esiXhoseni, sikhuliswa ngamazimba, sisisizwe ngezithethe (we amaXhosa were born in traditional marriage, we were fed by folktales, we were a nation socialised by traditions). To date, these song texts have never been analysed as belonging to a particular social setting. Through orality a perspective is given concerning socio-cultural 3 existence at the time a particular song was produced. Thamsanqa Vumazonke in his KwaTshangisa (at Tshangisa’s place) talks about a clan of the amaNgwevu group. In doing so he provides a “slice of life” concerning the daily existence of these people. This is taken further by Jabez Foley in his song Ntshangase. This is also the clan name of the amaZotsho. Foley uses words like Ndincede undincazele (please give me some of your tobacco), bafondini uyavimba lo mfo, bafondini uligqolo lo mfo, igqolo lakwa Ntshangase (Folks, this man is stingy, folks, he is a miser, a miser of Ntshangase).