A REFLECTION ON THE SILENT MINORITY Spencer L. Reeder 1

Abstract

“I do not think of the hearing actors as being hearing or the deaf actors being deaf. I experience the performance as an art form per se because I am able to bring out the aesthetic soul in me. Thanks to the beauty of the art form in question. I am able to experience the impact of the whole aesthetic process” (Baldwin, 1993). -John B. Welch, editor of Baker’s Plays in Boston

What comes to mind when the average theatregoers hear the words “Deaf theatre?” Perhaps they have heard of or seen Mark Medoff’s “Children of a Lesser God.” They might even be familiar with the 2004 musical revival of “Big River,” which featured Deaf and hearing actors working in tandem. Or, perhaps, they know nothing at all. How can actors perform and interact if they cannot hear the person on stage with them? Why did this style of acting even start?

This thesis intends to discuss not only the history of Deaf theatre to show its progression as an art, but also to focus on the importance of Deaf theatre and its effects on a hearing audience and Deaf audience alike. Finally, the present state of Deaf theatre will also be addressed not only to show how far this art form has advanced, but also to predict the possibilities Deaf theatre could have in the future.

It should be noted here the difference between “Deaf” and “deaf.” While the word “deaf” denotes a person who cannot hear, the term “Deaf” specifically refers to the group of people who identify with Deaf culture and use American Sign Language (ASL) as a primary form of communication. However, not all writers and researchers use this distinction, so careful attention must be paid to the context in which the way “deaf” is used.

For the purposes of this paper, “deaf” will be used to encompass all forms of theatre that incorporate actors who cannot hear, while “Deaf” will be used to reflect actors who specifically use ASL in their performances. Quotes and references from other research that use the term

“deaf” or “Deaf” will not be altered in respects to the authors’ works. A REFLECTION ON THE SILENT MINORITY Spencer L. Reeder 2

As “Deaf in America: Voices from a Culture” (1998) worded it: “…we use the lowercase deaf when referring to the audiological condition of not hearing, and the uppercase Deaf when referring to a particular group of deaf people who share a language—American Sign Language

(ASL)—and a culture” (Humphries & Padden, 1988).

It is important to understand there are various forms of signed communication used in the non-hearing community, including ASL, Signed English (SE), Pigeon Signed English (PSE), writing and gesturing/miming. While there are differing views about all of these forms of communication, each has its place in not only non-hearing cultures but in theatre as well.

A REFLECTION ON THE SILENT MINORITY Spencer L. Reeder 3

A Reflection on the Silent Minority:

The History, Importance and Potential of Deaf Theatre

History

Before the National Theatre of the Deaf (NTD), American deaf theatre was found in mime shows, signed songs or a Deaf club. Sometimes a mime would reenact a Charlie Chaplin routine while the older Deaf generation would complain about “talkie movies,” something that had pushed this group of people into deeper seclusion. There were also state residential schools for the deaf that would perform one-act shows, sometimes sign-singing or dancing. Deaf theatre was designed for Deaf audiences only; no voice translations existed at these gatherings “because there was no one who needed to hear it” (Humphries & Padden, 2005).

Additionally, New York City held three main “deaf grass-roots theatre groups” (Baldwin,

1993). They included the Metropolitan Theatre Guild of the Deaf, the New York Hebrew

Association of the Deaf and the New York Theatre Guild of the Deaf. Again, these groups produced more mime shows and sing-sign productions but never any full-length pieces. Their shows were by the Deaf, for the Deaf and often did not include an interpreter. Though Deaf performers were clearly using their acting skills, it was not until 1961 when Gallaudet University created a college theatre program that deaf actors could attend a school to hone their performance techniques.

The creation of NTD is said to stem from the collaborative efforts of Anne Bancroft and

Dr. Edna S. Levine. Bancroft was playing the role of Anne Sullivan in William Gibson’s play

“The Miracle Worker” and to research her role further decided that she would visit deaf schools.

In her pursuit, she met Levine, a psychologist who worked with Deaf clients and had a passion A REFLECTION ON THE SILENT MINORITY Spencer L. Reeder 4 for both theatre and the Deaf community. The two formed a friendship and began working together to create what would become NTD in Connecticut (Baldwin, 1993).

David Hays, who had designed sets on Broadway, also contributed to their vision and founded NTD in 1967. When NTD began performing, the theatre relied on translations of previously performed shows and classics, such as “Gilgamesh” (See Appendix: Figure A1). In

1973, NTD created its first original piece that worked to include both hearing and Deaf audience members. “My Third Eye” was a collaboration of stories created from the Deaf actors’ imaginations (See Appendix: Figure B1). They introduced their ideas to hearing audiences and played a word game where they used a certain handshape that could be incorporated within different signs (Baldwin, 1993). For example, the sign for “five” is literally an open palm with five fingers displayed. But, this open-five handshape can represent different signs when used in different locations: with the thumb placed on the forehead, it becomes the sign for “father,” but if placed on the chin, it becomes the sign for “mother.”

Deaf actors began to look at their signing “not as explanation but as object.” Through this game-turned-performance, the Deaf actors “took their language out of the flow of everyday life and made it into an object for theater” (Humphries & Padden, 1988). Ben Bahan, in the clip

“Signed Introduction,” signs that this play “shows the beginning of the experimental thinking about language, analyzing how to use signing in a unique way using different techniques and adjusting” (Bahan, 2006). The play reveals what was happening with the Deaf community at the time through the actors’ signing.

As people began to respect sign language as a form of true language, William Stokoe, arguably the father of ASL, proposed that signs should be organized not on their definition but by “smaller units: its handshape, its movement, and its location on the body.” In turn, Deaf A REFLECTION ON THE SILENT MINORITY Spencer L. Reeder 5 performers started to analyze how they used their language to communicate their thoughts and ideas. As ASL became recognized as a science, it also began to be appreciated as an art as well.

Finally, Deaf performers who had previously worked only for their community with occasional pay were being respected and now could mine “the rich resource of their language” within a professional theatre (Humphries & Padden, 1988).

However, even though “My Third Eye” marked an important step in Deaf theatre and did have hearing audience members, there was still the issue that the play showed “the difference between theater of the deaf and theater for the deaf.” This show still was more popular with the

Deaf world than hearing—possibly because hearing audiences could not relate to the topics or felt the shows were too political in nature. Bernard Bragg made the comment that “the sad truth that sank into me is that deaf audiences are simply too small a minority to sustain a thriving deaf professional theatre” (Baldwin, 1993). Bragg realized that in order to keep a theatre open, Deaf theatre had to appeal to a hearing audience—the small number of people in the Deaf community alone could not generate the profit needed to support a theatre solely for the Deaf.

Yet, a change came about when the production of two shows that featured Deaf characters as large roles became mainstream: Robert Wilson’s “Deafman Glance,” which Wilson created from his experiences with a black deaf boy and Mark Medoff’s “Children of a Lesser

God,” which was actually a love story written to a past NTD player, Phyllis Frelich. Frelich, who originated the role of Sarah, was praised for her performance; the play was highly successful with the hearing world and went on to win three Tony awards for best actor and actress, as well as best play (Baldwin, 1993).

A decade later, a movie version was created with Marlee Matlin as the lead; she set the stage for Deaf Hollywood actors, being not only the youngest person to win an Academy Award A REFLECTION ON THE SILENT MINORITY Spencer L. Reeder 6 for best actress, but also the first Deaf person. The show was a huge stepping-stone in paving the way for Deaf theatre being appreciated by hearing audiences.

“Pictures in the Air” attributes three reasons to the theatrical success of “Children of a

Lesser God.” First, the show featured a Deaf actress in a leading role rather than a hearing person. Second, the “sign language was given sincere exposure, and the beauty of the language was demonstrated for artistic and cinematic interest.” Finally, the play explored Deaf issues sufficiently but did not push them onto the audience. Rather, there were not any negative beliefs on Deaf culture expressed in the show but instead the issues Deaf people faced were presented to the audience via a love story. Had the story drilled a relentless “deaf point of view” and included an overwhelmingly Deaf cast, chances are the story would not have been accepted or relatable to the hearing audience NTD needed to reach (Baldwin, 1993).

While NTD made important strides in Deaf theatre, it was not the only organization to do so. In 1991, the Deaf West Theatre (DWT) was founded to “directly improve and enrich the cultural lives of deaf and hard of hearing individuals who live in the Los Angeles area.” Both hearing and Deaf actors work simultaneously in this theatre’s productions to tell stories to adults and children alike. While the theatre has contributed countless shows to the Deaf community, it gained national attention with its revival of the musical “Big River” in 2004 and won a Tony

Honors for Excellence in Theatre (See Appendix: Figure C1 and C2). DWT toured the show and brought attention to the Deaf community as both Deaf and hearing actors worked in tandem to create this physical performance (Deaf West Theatre 2, 2012).

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Importance and Effects

Though Deaf theatre has a definite importance in Deaf Culture, it also has set examples for the hearing world as well. Importance of movement is a factor in hearing or deaf acting styles. In fact, George Detmold, former dean of what would become Gallaudet University and also director of several of the university’s Deaf plays, commented on the strengths of style in a deaf actor:

“[The deaf actor] may or may not need the kind of sensitivity training that is given to American actors these days. He usually learns fast, possibly because he is accustomed to express himself kinesthetically rather than vocally; and surprisingly, no matter how seriously he may suffer from stage fright, he is always perfectly composed on stage—again, possibly because of his language, he has a physical sense for his tensions” (Baldwin, 1993).

Yet, Deaf theatre is more than just a type of performance that fascinates hearing actors with its stylized movement and visual language—it is part of the sinew that holds Deaf culture together. Despite this factor, “only a handful of original Deaf productions see the light of day”

(Peters, 2006). Often Deaf people literally do not have a medium to make themselves heard— mainstream movies rarely feature an entire Deaf cast and not all Deaf people have a strong command over the written word. Or when there are Deaf roles available, they are played by hearing actors anyway, which some, like David Hays who said that “casting performers who can hear in deaf roles is like putting a white actor in blackface to play Othello,” feel is an insensitive choice (Conley, 1999).

But like hearing actors, Deaf actors also use plays to express their frustrations with the world or protest something that they feel is wrong. The latter idea was the drive behind the 1993

Deaf play, “Institution Blues,” which was presented in a Deaf community theatre located in

Washington, D.C. A REFLECTION ON THE SILENT MINORITY Spencer L. Reeder 8

At the time, deaf schools were closing down across the country. Aside from the Deaf family, schools for the deaf are the very lifeblood of Deaf culture—to continuously close down these schools chokes the growth of their society. Thus, this show enticed Deaf theatregoers; many joined the actors in the protest as they came down the theatre aisles, signing “Keep the institution open!” Hearing people are ubiquitous; Deaf people are not. While hearing people may enjoy an interactive show, it could be said that an interactive Deaf show holds more significance to its Deaf audience than it would to its hearing counterpart (Peters, 2006).

Therefore, though Deaf theatre is similar to other minority drama in that it draws “on both indigenous and conventional elements,” it holds a different importance to its viewers—no longer are actors the only ones to break the fourth wall but instead are joined by their audiences as well. It is through the participation in the art form of theatre that regardless of “staging, acting or simply viewing it…Deaf Americans construct and revel in their identity” (Peters, 2006).

Typically, when a hearing audience attends a voiced play, there is this expectation that when the lights go down, people will stay in their seats and be entertained by a group of actors who will stay at a safe distance tucked away in their proscenium hideout. While this approach is sometimes challenged, in Deaf theatre it is the norm, not the exception. There is an “expectation of an intimate connection between actors and spectators.” This is not just an artistic decision but also a practical need: in a hearing show, actors can project their voices or use a microphone, but

“there is no practical way to magnify the face and hands” in a Deaf show. Deaf audiences prefer a more intimate space with only a few actors on stage at a time—they want to have eye contact with the performers to ensure clear communication. To the Deaf theatre world, a performance should not be seen as a “passive spectacle” (Peters, 2006). A REFLECTION ON THE SILENT MINORITY Spencer L. Reeder 9

Another underlying importance of Deaf theatre is that it is a medium in which this culture can make itself known. Typically, those in the mainstream are so caught up in their own world that they are oblivious to any society outside of their own—this is no different in the mainstream’s view of Deaf culture. Often people will rely “on neat stereotypes to make sense of things.” An example of this concept can be see in the early 90’s TV show, “The Stand” where deaf people were shown as great speech readers who easily fit into mainstream society when in reality the majority of Deaf people do not speech read well and typically identify better in Deaf communities. The existence of Deaf theatre allows plays by the Deaf for the Deaf to help counteract these current stereotypes (Peters, 2006).

Additionally, Deaf theatre is sometimes compared to ancient Greek theatre because both can be seen as “cultural encyclopedias.” Ancient Greeks would often use theatre as a means of bringing together a group of scattered people. These plays allowed them to create a “cultural identity and thus a shared loyalty,” which helped give the Greeks a collective history but also a bonding to help them to resist common enemies (Peters, 2006). Much in the same way, Deaf theatre not only connects a culture, but it preserves a part of their history in a living medium. In fact, Deaf plays are sometimes accused of having too much cultural information. Cynthia Peters comments in an article on this interesting characteristic of Deaf plays, saying:

“In Deaf American theater, the creation of and delight in a feeling of collectivity take precedence over the more narrow assessment of literary and artistic values. The aim is not to put on a well-made, classical, three- to five-act comedy or tragedy but to bring together and foster cultural pride and identity in a widely scattered people” (Peters, 2006).

Finally, it is imperative for hearing audiences to understand the visual and physical elements that make up Deaf theatre. Typically, nativist Deaf theatre performances ignore a classical or linear approach; that is, “they disregard the conventional separation of the high A REFLECTION ON THE SILENT MINORITY Spencer L. Reeder 10 genres from the low genres, high behavior form low behavior, tragedy from comedy.” This choice shows some relation to the way William Shakespeare approached his plays—there is not one specific genre his plays identify with but instead incorporate everything from crude humor to romance to violence. To those who view theatre as only a high-brow art, Deaf theatre may sometimes come off as unsophisticated because of its farce-like physicality and its tendency for

“the simple and clear over the abstract” (Peters, 2006).

However, Deaf theatregoers are often bored when viewing an interpreted hearing play— to people so dependent on a visual and physical language, the small movements of the mouth and metaphorical prose in a hearing play can be incredibly dull. The amount of verbal discussion in these plays creates serious eyestrain for the Deaf viewer. Often times this need for a more physical, rather than verbose play, contributes to the still-existing stereotype that “stems from the days when they [Deaf people] were regarded as stupid or retarded.” Even in the hearing theatre, which “is supposed to be the most liberal-minded of professions,” there is still a hesitancy to incorporate Deaf theatre because of this typecast. Ironically, the hearing theatre world is so concentrated on creating the vocal rise-and-fall of line delivery it forgets “how important manual gesture was in classical and Elizabethan drama” (Conley, 1999). Thus, simply because the deaf rely more on visual stimulation to communicate, it does not make them any less mentally able than a hearing person.

As a result, when staging a production for the Deaf, it cannot simply be a play with sign language added as an afterthought. Special attention must be paid not only to physicality, but also to technical elements such as costumes that are not distracting, fewer actors on stage and the performers’ positioning. The physicality of Deaf theatre should be in a commedia dell’arte- and vaudeville-like style in order to create the desired effects of a Deaf performance. As Peter A REFLECTION ON THE SILENT MINORITY Spencer L. Reeder 11 concludes in her article: “Give us a Deaf playwright or actor, and we will give you a jester facilitating the theatric metadiscourse,” meaning that Deaf performers will commit their whole body to get their idea or commentary across (Peters, 2006).

Present and Future

According to “Inside Deaf Culture,” (2005) while the majority of Deaf theatre history did not use voice, presently, almost all of Deaf theatre done in today’s society “will be accompanied by voice.” Though the progression of voice in Deaf theatre has gone from nonexistent, to interpreting, to finally the simultaneous action of signing and speaking, this change was “not without consequence” (Humphries & Padden, 2005).

True, Deaf theatre has now become more accessible to a hearing public, but when Deaf actors made the choice to combine voice and sign language in their performances, they lost a part of their acting style. Because today a Deaf theatre must appeal to a hearing audience in order to financially survive, Deaf actors changed not only their performance style but also what they performed.

In the past, between the 1930s and 50s, Gallaudet was known for having “readers” who would interpret the Deaf plays but would be hidden behind black screens so their “uncostumed bodies would not mar the staging” (Humphries & Padden, 2005). Today, however, Deaf actors almost have to acknowledge an interpreter as another character on the stage. While they may not always interact with them directly, the attention is shared between the actor and the interpreter.

In “Deaf in America: Voices in a Culture,” (1998) the author makes the comment that:

“… Today’s performers are much more self-conscious, what we would call analytical, about their language. A modern sign performance may focus on the elements of signed language; in this way, the language itself may be both the medium and the subject of the performance” (Humphries & Padden, 1988).

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As a result, today’s hearing audience is captivated by the ASL used in these performances, but the focus is often on the medium used, not the actual content of the show.

There is also an element often lost in ASL when performed in front of a hearing audience: exaggerated facial expression. Just like a hearing actor might put emphasis on a certain spoken word or change the vocal inflection in a specific phrase, Deaf people (actors and non-actors alike) replace the vocal intonation with facial expressions. To denote something is silly or stupid,

Deaf people will stick our their tongues while they sign. If something is particularly large or fat,

Deaf people will puff out their cheeks as they describe the situation. However, this “intensely expressive and intimate acting style of Deaf actors” is not so readily accepted into the hearing world and often seen as “grotesque.” This change can be traced back to even NTD’s beginnings when Hays wanted the Deaf actors to “control and choreograph their faces to show more restraint.” Hays liked the “expressive” hands of the Deaf culture but wanted to omit the facial part of the language (Humphries & Padden, 2005).

The book “Inside Deaf Culture” (2005) even goes so far to say that:

“The rubbery faces characteristic of Deaf theater—the wide-open eyes, the exaggerated mouth, the distended wagging tongue, the mobile shoulders, and the shaking head—had to go” (Humphries & Padden, 2005).

Therefore, it calls into question: is today’s theatre for the Deaf for the Deaf or for the hearing? Is it fair for a hearing director or producer to tell Deaf actors to forsake a part of their culture and language just so others find it more appealing? One could argue that this censorship is the same as telling a black actor he cannot incorporate African dance in his work or a Hispanic actor to never speak Spanish on stage. While other minorities can speak out against this unfairness, the Deaf minority literally does not have a voice. A REFLECTION ON THE SILENT MINORITY Spencer L. Reeder 13

There is also the problem with “one-shot deals” of hearing directors or playwrights including a Deaf performer. Often, “the novelty of deafness and American Sign Language tends to wear off,” and there is this “suspicion about whether or not deaf actors are being exploited for mere spectacle” (Conley, 1999). This predicament explains why the Deaf community is “bound together by certain needs so compelling, so crucial, that they can be met only through a strong political realization such as a state”—the Deaf make up their own culture, regardless of theatre involvement (Humphries & Padden, 1988).

Despite this controversy, hearing actors have a lot to gain from their Deaf counterparts, especially when it comes to physical elements and commitment of a performance.

Detmold, as referenced earlier in his comment concerning the deaf actor’s strengths, also had a theory predicting what would result from this art form:

“A theater of deaf actors, in the medium of communication used by the deaf, has contributed to the American theater, and should have a brilliant future. There is poetics to the sign language also, and we must find signs with smooth and easy transitions” (Baldwin, 1993).

ASL can be used as teaching or performance tool in hearing theatre, and it also adds a kinesthetic element to any acting exercise, such as readers’ or children’s theatre. Additionally,

ASL can help with line memorization—the combination of a physical and verbal language increases synapses in the brain and may assist hearing actors whom have large amounts of lines

(Snoddon, 2012).

However, Deaf theatre is making strides today that hopefully mean a greater representation of Deaf theatre in the future. In the summer of 2012, “Deafinitely Theatre,” a group based in London, took a step for Deaf culture by performing “Love’s Labour’s Lost” in

British Sign Language at the Globe, making it the first full-length Shakespearean play to be executed in this manner (See Appendix: Figure D1). The Deaf audience members were actually A REFLECTION ON THE SILENT MINORITY Spencer L. Reeder 14 in the majority, and “the people set apart were those who take hearing for granted.” Actor

Stephen Collins, who played Ferdinand in the show, said that “Deaf theatre has been around for quite a long time, but it’s part of a minority, and I think we had a major impact because it was the Globe, and we really made our mark on deaf theatre history for the first time” (Wright,

2012).

DWT, along with NTD, continues to successfully put on performances that appeal to the

Deaf and hearing. DWT has a great influence on “mainstream perspectives of the culture and ability of individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing” and “consistently sets the standard of innovation for inclusive theatrical experiences of the highest quality” (Deaf West Theatre 2,

2012). Recently, DWT teamed up with the Fountain Theatre to produce a new play entitled

“Cyrano” that focused on a Deaf poet in love with a hearing woman. The show incorporated not only Deaf actors with hearing voice-overs, but it also used the technology of TV screens and

Facebook, Twitter and cell phones on stage. The Examiner praised the show as “…as a poignant, inventive, riotously funny and marvelously satisfying masterpiece” (Deaf West Theatre 1,

2012).

While Deaf theatre has fluctuated in popularity with hearing audiences, the recent play,

“Tribes,” which premiered in 2010, may be a sign of rejuvenation in this art form. The play tells the story of Billy, who was born deaf and raised in a hearing family. He cannot sign and must resort to reading lips. When he meets Sylvia, a woman who can sign because of her Deaf parents but is slowly becoming Deaf herself, Billy is exposed to sign language. The play is rekindling an awareness of Deaf culture as the script “delves into the politics and psychology of being deaf, going deaf and the deaf community's place in greater society” (Santilli, 2012). Additionally, the A REFLECTION ON THE SILENT MINORITY Spencer L. Reeder 15 show won the Outstanding Play 2012 Drama Desk Award and received a largely positive response (Gans, 2012).

Therefore, while Deaf culture may be a minority, through Deaf theatre and plays about

Deaf characters, a greater appreciation and understanding of their lifestyle can be garnered. Until the majority are made aware of Deaf politics and experiences, the issues a Deaf public face will be unnoticed. Theatre, however, appears to be one effective venue to create this awareness by calling attention not only to this performance style but also to this culture.

Conclusion

Perhaps what theatre executive George White said about the premiere show of NTD actors will still ring true in the future, and the non-hearing world will continue to make “new meaningful contributions by the deaf to the American performing arts” (Conley, 1999). Though the struggles for the Deaf community in theatre, as well as society in general, are plentiful, they are not in vain. The creation of Deaf theatre has not only had an intricate history and beginning but has become an art form full of importance and potential. Now, it is more than just a vessel for the Deaf community to connect with each other but is evolving into a medium that connects hearing audiences as well. Deaf theatre has not simply created a voice for itself; it has a created a voice that will be heard.

“Watching African American, Hispanic American, and Asian American theatre artists come of age in the entertainment industry, I sense that our time will come, too. That will not happen, however, unless Deaf Theatre artists regroup and make a concerted, driven effort to achieve a standard of excellence that equals or goes beyond the level of professional hearing theatre” (Conley, 1999). –Willy Conley, 1999

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References

Bahan, B. (Performer) (2006). Signing the body poetic: Signed introduction [DVD].

Baldwin, S. C. (1993). Pictures in the air: The story of the national theatre of the deaf. (1st ed.,

Vol. 1, p. 4, 18, 36, 49, 53). Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press.

Conley, W. (1999). Away from invisibility, toward invincibility: Issues with deaf theatre artists

in america. In L. Bragg (Ed.), Deaf World (1st ed., Vol. 1, p. 51, 53, 55, 63). New York,

NY and London, England: New York University Press.

Deaf West Theatre 1. (Producer) (2012). Cyrano preview [cc][Web]. Retrieved from

http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=iZba0ixCgls

Deaf West Theatre 2. (2012, November 14). Now playing. Retrieved from

http://www.deafwest.org/

Gans, A. (2012, June 3). Once, tribes, follies, salesman, audra mcdonald, danny burstein and

more are drama desk winners. Retrieved from

http://www.playbill.com/news/article/166621-Once-Tribes-Follies-Salesman-Audra-

McDonald-Danny-Burstein-and-More-Are-Drama-Desk-Winners

Humphries, T., & Padden, C. (1988). Deaf in america: Voices from a culture. (1st ed., Vol. 1, p.

2, 74, 76, 79, 81, 113). Cambridge, MA and London, England: Harvard University Press.

Humphries, T., & Padden, C. (2005). Inside deaf culture. (1st ed., Vol. 1, pp. 101-103, 105, 110).

Cambridge, MA and London, England: Harvard University Press.

Marcus, J. (Photographer). (2003). Tyrone giordano as "huck" & michael elroy as "jim". [Web

Photo]. Retrieved from http://www.rogermiller.com/images/cast2web.jpg

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Mark Taper Forum. (Photographer). (2003). Melissa van der schyff & alexandria wailes in the

deaf west theatre staging of big river, the adventures of huckleberry finn . [Web Photo].

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Peters, C. (2006). Deaf american theater. In H. L. Bauman, J. L. Nelson & H. M. Rose

(Eds.), Signing the body poetic: Essays on american sign language literature (1st ed.,

Vol. 1, pp. 71-72, 75, 78, 82, 87-90). Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of

California Press.

Santilli, P. (2012, March 5). 'Tribes,' off-broadway play, tells story of a deaf son struggling to be

heard. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/03/05/tribes-off-broadway-

play-_n_1322118.html

Snoddon, Kristin (2000). Sign baby sign. Magazine of the world federation of the deaf.

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Appendix A “Gilgamesh”

Figure A1: “Howard Seago (second from left) starred in the second ‘Gilgamesh’ production in 1981. The bamboo sticks became a popular NTD stage property that afforded countless creative uses” (Baldwin, 1993).

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Appendix B “My Third Eye”

Figure B1: “The company strikes a pose in ‘My Third Eye’ during the 1971-1972 tour season. Photo by Jay Aare, from NTD” (Baldwin, 1993).

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Appendix C “Big River”

Figure C1: Deaf West Theatre’s revival of the musical “Big River.” Here Jim and Huck are on a raft during the song “Muddy Water” (Marcus, 2003).

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Figure C2: Deaf West Theatre’s revival of the musical “Big River.” This is a scene from “You Oughta Be Here With Me” (Mark Taper Forum, 2003). A REFLECTION ON THE SILENT MINORITY Spencer L. Reeder 22

Appendix D “Love’s Labour’s Lost”

Figure D1: “Deafinitely” Theatre performs "Love’s Labour’s Lost” (Wright, 2012).