Ethnobotanical Study of Hyacinthaceae and Non-Hyacinthaceous Geophytes in Selected Districts of Malawi

Home , Adenia, Ampelocissus africana, Cissus cornifolia, Dioscorea sansibarensis, Drimia indica, Hypoxis villosa

Ethnobotanical Study of Hyacinthaceae and Non-hyacinthaceous Geophytes in Selected Districts of Malawi

Research Elizabeth Mwafongo, Inger Nordal, Zacharia Magombo, Brita Stedje Abstract

This paper reports on the findings of an ethnobotanical gion from the Mediterranean to South-West Asia. (Stedje survey of geophytes used in 15 selected districts of Ma- 1996a). Members of Hyacinthaceae occur in a great va- lawi. The survey was initially driven by the need to as- riety of habitats. Most species are adapted to seasonal sess the conservation status and use of Lilioid monocots climates that have a pronounced dry or cold period unfa- of the family Hyacinthaceae. Altogether, 49 geophytes vorable for plant growth and during which the plants are were documented as useful for food (24%), medicine dormant. Evergreen species are restricted to subtropical (58%) and other purposes (18%). The most commonly re- forests or savannah, temperate grasslands and perenni- ported species was Dioscorea odoratissima Pax. (Diosco- ally moist fynbos (Manning 2004). A few species grow in reaceae). Monocots represented 45% of the total. Mem- marshes or along streams and some even grow only in bers of the family Hyacinthaceae were only represented the spray of seasonal waterfalls. The above ground parts by 3 (6%) species Albuca abyssinica Jacq., Ledebouria (leaves and stems) of deciduous species die down when cordifolia (Baker) Stedje & Thulin and Ledebouria revoluta the plant enters dormancy. The plants thus survive peri- (L.f.) Jessop. The study has further explored six alterna- ods that are unfavorable for growth by retreating under- tive methods of evaluating sampling effort and estimating ground (Manning 2004). species richness. Michaelis-Menten Means estimator ap- Some members of the family Hyacinthaceae for exam- peared to be the best estimator of species richness but ple Drimia maritima (L.) Stern (synonym Urginea mariti- was not able to accurately predict species richness for all ma (L.) Baker), the sea onion, has been in medicinal use the data combined. A bootstrap estimator was found to be since earliest times and was mentioned as early as 1554 more accurate. It was also apparent from the survey of B.C. in the Papyrus Ebers of the Middle Empire of Egypt geophytes that species in the Asteraceae and Fabaceae as a cure for dropsy (Manning 2004). Bufadienolides iso- are more sought after for food and medicine than hya- lated from D. maritima and Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop cinthoide monocots evidenced by fewer representatives are cardioactive steroids that have digoxin-like effects mentioned by respondents.

Introduction Correspondence The family Hyacinthaceae Elizabeth Mwafongo, National Herbarium, P.O. Box 528, Zom- ba, MALAWI. [email protected] The family Hyacinthaceae formerly part of the monocot- Inger Nordal, Department of Biology, University of Oslo, P.O.Box yledonous Liliaceae sensu lato (Engler & Prantl 1930) 1045, Blindern N-0316, Oslo, NORWAY. [email protected]. was not accepted as a separate family until the work of no Dahlgren (Dahlgren et al. 1985, Dahlgren & Rasmussen Zacharia Magombo, National Herbarium, P.O. Box 528, Zom- 1983) and continues to be recognized as a distinct fam- ba, MALAWI. [email protected], ily (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group 2003, Stevens 2001). Brita Stedje, Botanical Garden, Natural History Museum, Uni- versity of Oslo, P.O. Box 1172, Blindern, N-0318 Oslo, NOR- The family comprises ± 40 genera and some 900 spe- WAY. [email protected] cies widely distributed in temperate to tropical regions, Ethnobotany Research & Applications 8:075-093 (2010) with the highest diversity in southern Africa and in the re- Published: April 21, 2010 www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol8/i1547-3465-08-075.pdf 76 Ethnobotany Research & Applications

(Manning et al. 2004). In South Africa, several species such as Ledebouria cooperi Jessop, Ledebouria inquinata 33E 36E Jessop, Ledebouria ovatifolia (Baker) Jessop, Ledebouria revoluta (L.f.) Jessop, Ornithogalum saundersiae Baker, Ornithogalum thyrsoides Jacq., and several members of subfamily Urgineoideae are poisonous to grazing animals (Manning 2004). The toxic compound (scilliroside, a bufa- dienolide) is used for poisoning rats (Pohl et al. 2000). In Malawi ethnobotanical uses are known for some members ZAMBIA TANZANIA of the family, e.g., Albuca sp. from which an infusion is made of the roots that is drunk as a remedy for chest ail- 2H ments (pneumonia) (Morris & Msonthi 1991)

Hyacinthaceae are only occasionally used for human con- sumption. In Greece, the bulbs of Muscari comosum (L.) 2E Mill. are eaten pickled, and in France, the inflorescenc- 2D es of Ornithogalum pyrenaicum L. are eaten as a vegeta- 12S ble (Pohl et al. 2000). In Africa, bushmen eat the bulbs of Ledebouria apertiflora Jessop and L. revoluta (Pohl et al. 2000). Hyacinthaceae are broadly employed for purposes MOZAMBIQUE ranging from the treatment of hangovers, rheumatic fever, sprains, syphilis and cancer, to the bewitchment of neigh- MALAWI bors and securing of good fortune (Pohl et al. 2000). Many species feature prominently in the top ten regional me- 2G dicinal plants in trade, the most important being Bowiea volubilis Harv. ex Hook.f. Eucomis autumnalis (Mill.) Chitt., 2C and Scilla natalensis Planch. (Pohl et al. 2000). With 13 hyacinthaceous species identified from a total of 198 taxa 2B catalogued in their medicinal plant survey, this family was 2A second only to the Aloaceae in popularity in Southern Af- 1B 1B rica (Pohl et al. 2000). Lilongwe 2F More important is the use of various species of Hyacin- 15S 1A thaceae as ornamentals and cut flowers. Species of Ch- ouardia, Hyacinthoides, Hyacinthus, Muscari, Othocal- MOZAMBIQUE lis, Puschkinia, and Scilla are spring flowers of Northern Hemisphere parks and gardens. In southern Africa, spe- 3C cies of Eucomis, Galtonia, Veltheimia and others are culti- vated as ornamentals. Ornithogalum thyrsoides and relat- 3E 3B ed species are important as cut flowers (Manning 2004). 3A In Malawi, some species of Ledebouria and Scilla are also used as ornamentals (personal observation). 3D Geographical, Botanical and Demographic aspects 0 50 100 km N Malawi (Figure 1) is situated in Central Africa between 9o 22’ and 17o 01’S and 32o 43’ and 35o 55’ E (Mwanyam- bo & Nihero 1998). It is divided into three administrative Figure 1. Malawi and the districts visited during the regions; Northern, Central and Southern. There are 26 geophyte survey: 1A. Balaka, 1B. Mangochi ; 2A. Dedza, districts. The Great Rift Valley traverses the country from 2B. Lilongwe, 2C. Mchinji, 2D. Mzimba, 2E. Nkhata bay, north to south, and in this deep trough lie Lake Malawi, 2F. Ntcheu, 2G. Ntchisi, 2H. Rumphi; 3A. Chikwawa, 3B. the third-largest lake in Africa, comprising about 20% of Mulanje, 3C. Mwanza, 3D. Nsanje, 3E. Thyolo. Malawi’s area. agricultural sector contributes about 63.7% of total income Malawi is a landlocked, densely populated country. Its for the rural population, 65% of manufacturing sector’s economy is heavily dependent on agriculture which, rep- raw materials, and approximately 87% of total employ- resents 34.7% of the gross domestic product and repre- ment (reviewed in Mwanyambo & Nihero 1998). The pop- sents about 80% of all exports. Nearly 90% of the popu- ulation is presently estimated at 12 million of which 90% lation engages in subsistence farming (BAA 2008). The live in rural areas. Agricultural products account for 90%

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol8/i1547-3465-08-075.pdf Mwafongo et al. - Ethnobotanical Study of Hyacinthaceae and Non- 77 hyacinthaceous Geophytes in Selected Districts of Malawi of Malawi’s exports; tobacco, tea and cotton are the major tribes of Malawi (Mwanyambo 1994). The study by Mwan- export commodities (NSO 1992). yambo & Kananji (2001) on edible tubers lists some of the species that are edible especially during famine and some White (1976) proposed a chorological classification of Af- eaten in the form of relish. The list includes the orchids rican vegetation and Malawi falls within the Zambezian Satyrium buchananii Schltr. and Satyrium sp. (both locally region. Floristically, Malawi is included in the Flora Zamb- known as mbuyeuye, a Nyanja term which refers to a esiaca region together with the following countries; Mo- type of vegetation with Brachystegia and Jubernadia), Sa- zambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, and the Caprivi tyrium carsonii Rolfe, Disa robusta N.E.Br. and Disa ukin- Strip of Namibia. It is known to be one of the richest in its gensis Schltr. specific diversity, and the main vegetation which charac- terizes this region is different forms of woodland and thick- The urgent need to carry out ethnobotanical surveys in et lacking evergreen rain forests (White et al. 2001). Zam- Malawi has been expressed by several workers (reviewed bezian woodlands comprise three major types: 1. miombo in Mwanyambo 1994) because of concern about steady (dominated by Brachystegia spp.), 2. mopane (dominated loss of plants and tribal traditions through decline in natu- by Colophospermum mopane (J. Kirk ex Benth.) J. Léon- ral vegetation and urbanization. The present study, there- ard), and 3. undifferentiated woodland. The total number fore, addresses this issue by focusing on the geophytic of plant species in Malawi is estimated at between 5500- flora, with particular emphasis on Hyacinthaceae. 6000 (Msekandiana & Mlangeni 2002). Malawi presents a rich mosaic of different habitats brought about by its var- Geophytes are plants which posses underground resting ied topography and altitudinal ranges (37-3002 m) and buds attached to storage organs such as rhizomes, tu- rainfall regimes with the average rainfall ranging from 700 bers, bulbs or corms (Esler et al. 1999) but in this study, to 3000 mm (White et al. 2001). From May to August, the only bulbs and tubers are considered. A tuber is a thick- climate is cool and dry. Average temperatures rise from ened underground stem, and the stem tissue serves as September to November and the rainy season begins to- the primary storage tissue; but unlike a corm, it has no wards the end of November and extends to April or May basal plate. Meristems occur on the tuber and are com- (NSO 1992). monly called “eyes” on a potato. A true bulb is comprised of a compressed stem, or basal plate, and modified leaves The populations of developing countries worldwide con- called scales serve as the primary storage tissue. Exam- tinue to rely on the use of wild plants as a source of food ples include tulip, lily, allium (e.g., onion). In the present and traditional medicine as their primary source of health study the collective term ‘underground parts’ will be used care. This has created a demand for forest products, to refer to both bulbs and tubers which cannot be met from rapidly dwindling indigenous forests (Hardcastle 1977). Ethnobotanical surveys con- Although some geophytes are known to be evergreen, ducted throughout Africa confirm that native plants are the many of them survive periods of environmental stress such main constituent of traditional African medicines (reviewed as summer drought or winter cold by dying back to these in Cunningham 1993). With 70-80% of Africa’s population underground storage organs (Dafni et al. 1981). When the relying on traditional medicines, the importance of the role conditions are favorable, they resprout new foliage with of medicinal plants in the health care system is enormous inflorescences imaging before, during or at the end of the (Cunningham 1993). Mwanyambo & Nihero (1998) noted vegetative growing season. Geophytes are generally tar- that, in Malawi, modern health care provided principally by geted by people for food, medicine and ornamentals. This Ministry of Health and Population (MOHP) is highly com- act causes serious damage to the targeted plants and in plemented by services from herbalists especially in the most cases the whole plant is uprooted and dies back. Al- rural areas where 90% of the population lives. Herbalists though few data are available on the impact of harvesting are the people, who handle most local health problems. underground organs, i.e., whole plants, local depletion of On a national scale, there is one herbalist to every 138 plants targeted has been recorded elsewhere (reviewed persons. This is in contrast to a doctor to population ratio in Cunningham 1994). The present investigation sought to of 1:27,000 and a nurse to population ratio of 1:14,000 for document ethnobotanical uses of geophytes of the family the period 1985-1990 (Anon. 1997). Hyacinthaceae but since no previous ethnobotanical work has been done exclusively on geophytes of Malawi, this Interest in ethnobotany of Malawian plants dates back to also included non-Lilioid plants to gain an overview of their the 1970s with a benchmark study by Williamson (1974). use and to assess their conservation status. Furthermore, In his book, he documented useful plants of Malawi. This the study explored methods of measuring sampling effort was the first comprehensive study of all useful plants of and species richness among the 15 selected districts us- Malawi as a nation, and in her book she listed 122 plant ing non-parametric methods adapted from mark-recapture species. Other notable investigations are generally on the applications for estimating population size (reviewed in use of medicinal plants in Malawi (Hagreaves 1994, Mali- Williams et al. 2007). These methods require no assump- wichi 1997, Morris & Msonthi 1996, Msonthi 1994, Msonthi tions about community structure (Colwell & Coddington & Seyani 1994, Mwanyambo & Nihero 1998, Ndibwami et 1995). The estimators are also known to be homologous al. 1998) as well as non-medicinal plant uses of the other in that richness is estimated from the preponderance of

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol8/i1547-3465-08-075.pdf 78 Ethnobotany Research & Applications rare species (Colwell & Coddington 1994), i.e., the higher EstimateS (Colwell 2006) was used to plot a species ac- the proportional abundance of rare species, the greater cumulation curve/collectors curve, which is a plot of cu- the probability of encountering more new species with in- mulative number of species discovered within a defined creased sampling effort (Williams et al. 2007). area as a function of some measure of the effort expend- ed to find them (Colwell & Coddington 1994). According to Methodology Williams et al. (2007), if sampling is incomplete, the curve will show an upward trend illustrating the extent to which An understanding of geophyte use in Malawi and their sampling effort might have to be increased to accumu- conservation status required the administration of group late more species. Six non-parametric species richness and household interviews through the administration of estimators, namely: ICE, Chao 2, first order and second- a structured questionnaire. The survey was conducted order Jackknife, bootstrap and Michaelis–Menten Means, from the period January to March 2007 in three phas- appropriate for incidence-based data (observed species) es; Phase 1 (Mangochi and Balaka Districts); Phase 2 were run to evaluate their performance in estimating species richness. The sample order was randomized 100 50 (Rumphi, Mzimba, Nkhatabay, Ntchisi,30% Mchinji, Lilongwe,

45 times to compute the mean estimator and expected spe- 25%

Dedza, Ntcheu Districts) and Phase 3 (Nsanje 40 Chikwa- wa, Mwanza, Mulanje and Thyolo Districts). See35 Figure cies richness for each sample accumulation level the end 30 result of which was a smooth curve. The 15 districts vis-

1 for list of the districts numbered in phase order.25 Phase 13% 12% 20 ited are here treated as samples. A thorough description 1 was conducted to pretest the designed questionnaireFrequency respondends of 15 8% 8% and formulae of the species richness estimators used in 10 and adjustments were made to some4% of the questions

5 the present are well documented in Colwell & Coddington

before going into the second phase. All in all, 870 ques- Yao Sena Ngoni Tonga

Chewa (1994). Tribe Tumbuka tionnaires were administered in the 15Khokhola selected districts mostly to individuals and in some cases to groups. The 30 districts were selected to include different tribes repre- Results sented in Malawi. Data collected included personal par- ticulars, knowledge of geophytes and uses. To asses the Fifty nine percent of people interviewed in the survey were economic significance and conservation status of geo- female. Most respondents were from the Sena25 tribe (30%), phytes data on cost and availability was also collected. and the least proportion from Yao tribe (4%) (Figure 2). Plants names were recorded on site and both scientific Regarding age groups of respondents, 18% were over 50 and vernacular names recorded. All names were verified years old, over half of them, 52% were 35-49 years old, 4% Yao

Fig 2 20 at National Herbarium in Zomba by technicians. 26% were 21-34 years old, and the least proportion, 2% 30% Sena

were less than 20 years old. Khokhola 8%

13% Ngoni Data analysis was achieved by using three programs; Mi- Tribe 25% Chewa

12% crosoft Excel 2003, PAST (Hammer & HarperTribe 2004) and Table 1 summarizes the results of interviews about plants.Tumbuka

15 8% EstimateSWin800 (Colwell 2006). Microsoft Excel was When asked if they were familiar with geophytes aroundTonga 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 used for univariate analysis whereas PAST was employed them, the majority (88%) indicated that they were familiar Frequency of respondends for cluster analysis. Cluster analysis is a family of multivariate statistics which 10 attempts to subdivide or partition a set Yao 4% Responses of Frequency of heterogeneous objects into relatively homogenous groups (Höft et al. 1999). Khokhola 8% 8% Dice similarity index, also known as 12% 5 25%

Sorensen Index, was used in the clus- 13% tering analysis. This index is useful for To n g a 8 % 30% calculating the similarity index of presence/absence or positive/negative re- Tumbuka 12%Yao 4% Khokhola To n g a 8 % Tumbuka Ngoni Chewa Sena 0 ply data (qualitative) (Höft et al. 1999). Tribe The mathematical algorithm calculates Ngoni 13% the degree of similarity or dissimilar- ity and clusters the objects according Chewa 25% to their overall most similar attributes,2 Fig i.e., it projects clusters of objects that Sena 30% are more similar to each other than any other specimen (Sneath & Sokal 1973). Data on presence/absence of species 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 collected from all the districts were Frequency of Responses used in the cluster analysis and the re- sultant table of similarity indexes were Figure 2. Percentage of respondents based on tribe as interviewed in Malawi projected as a dendrogram. about familiarity with geophytes.

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol8/i1547-3465-08-075.pdf Mwafongo et al. - Ethnobotanical Study of Hyacinthaceae and Non- 79 hyacinthaceous Geophytes in Selected Districts of Malawi , abortion, Skin rash Rheumatism, diseases Venereal Disease treated Stomachache, fertility, Stomachache, fertility, sore skin, cleaning the birth canal of a woman, Aphrodisiac, diarrhoea Aphrodisiac Headache New Castle disease in chickens Protection from thugs, headache, cough, rheumatism, stomach pains, sore throat, attract members of the opposite sex, liwombo aphrodisiac Wounds, Pound leaves and rub where the rash is. The Pound leaves and rub where the rash is. underground part is eaten after boiling. Pound, soak and administer to patient three times a day. Preparation (note that the dosage per treatment is 100ml unless indicated otherwise) Pound underground parts, soak, and take three For sore skin, pound underground parts times a day. and add to bath water. Keep underground part in pocket. The underground part is peeled, boiled and eaten like any other potato. Eaten after boiling. Sliced, dried and processed into powder added to porridge or tea. Cut into smaller pieces and added to drinking water. Burn and add salt. For stomach pains, sore throat and rheumatism roots are dried pounded into powder and a teaspoon is added to tea or porridge. U U U U U U U U

U/L

Part used Other 1 4

X X Medicine 3

X X X X X X

X Use Food 2 X X X (Man), Thengeza (Ch) Local names Chimbozya (Tu) Nkali (Kho), Anyezi wa mthengo Chimemene (To) Kangale (Lo) Madumbe (Lo) Palibekanthu (Ch) (Lo), Palijekanthu (Tu) Nyenze (Sen)

(L.) (L.f.) Baker L. Sond. Oliv. Gloriosa superba Boophone disticha Herb Raphionacme welwitschii & Rendle Schltr. Colocasia esculenta Schott Dicoma anomala Boscia salicifolia Crinum macowanii Gonatopus boivinii (Decne.) Engl. Stylochiton puberulus N.E.Br. Colchiaceae Plant species Amaryllidaceae Apocynaceae Araceae Asteraceae Capparaceae . Geophyte plants identified by informants in Malawi and their respective uses. Local languages (Ch=Chichewa, Kho=Khokhola, Lo=Lomwe, Man=Mang’anja, Lo=Lomwe, Kho=Khokhola, (Ch=Chichewa, languages Local uses. respective their and Malawi in informants by identified plants Geophyte 1 . Table Use (F=Food, M=Medicine, O=Ornamental). Part used (L=Leaves, U=Underground part) Tu=Tumbuka). To=Tonga, Se=Sena,

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol8/i1547-3465-08-075.pdf 80 Ethnobotany Research & Applications Swollen body Immunity booster, treat skin rash Disease treated Skin rash Snake bites, Headache, skin rash Stomachache, yellow improve fertility fever, in women, spleen enlargement, anal prolapse, appetizer, porridge for kids, rheumatism, love potion, diarrhoea in children Pound underground parts, soak and take three treat skin rash, rub leaves on affected To time a day. area after taking a bath. Pound underground part, soak in water and give to patient three time a day. Preparation (note that the dosage per treatment is 100ml unless indicated otherwise) Peel underground part and eat raw. Cooked in water for several hours and served with fish, meat or vegetables. Underground part washed and cooked for long treat To hours decanting the water in process. area. skin rash underground part rubbed on affected Cooked in water for several hours and served with fish, meat or vegetables. Cooked in water for several hours. However, in this Cooked in water for several hours. However, case water is decanted several times to remove poisonous chemicals. Most of the times it is cooked over night and eaten the following day. Underground part pounded and rubbed on the area. affected Cooked and eaten as a vegetable. The underground part is cut into pieces, dried and made into flour which is then used to make porridge. As a medicine the underground part is soaked and swollen treat a child’s To taken three times a day. spleen the underground part is cut into two and belly. rubbed on a child’s L U U U U U U U U

U/L

Part used

Other Medicine

X X X X X

Use Food X X X X X X X X

(To) , Chilazi (Ch) Local names Nkhakathengo (Se) Nyanya Zinyanya (Lo) Nyamandwa (Ch) Chilazi (Ch), (To) Viyawu Makhuthi (Man), Ndiya , Mtama (To) Miole (Lo) Chidya Nkhumba (Sena) Mpira (Ch) Mwinimunda (guardian of the garden) (Ch), Dinde (Sen), Dinda , Khazikhazi Madinda

(L.)

Sond. Müll. Arg. Müll. Cucumis hirsutus Dioscorea bulbifera (Kunth) Pax Momordica foetida Dioscorea dumetorum Schumach & Thonn. Schumach & Dioscorea esculenta Burkill (Lour.) Dioscorea odoratissima Pax Dioscorea sansibarensis Pax Dioscorea sansibarensis Pax Tacca leontopetaloides Tacca Kuntze Manihot glaziovii Plant species Cucurbitaceae Dioscoreaceae Euphorbiaceae

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol8/i1547-3465-08-075.pdf Mwafongo et al. - Ethnobotanical Study of Hyacinthaceae and Non- 81 hyacinthaceous Geophytes in Selected Districts of Malawi Disease treated Stomachache New Castle in chickens, fish poison, pesticide, used to strengthen clay pots diseases Venereal with Aloe sp. New Castle in chickens, rheumatism, dysentery, scabies, shingles Bloody diarrhoea, boils, stomachache Rheumatism, fertility in women Protect new born babies from diseases Cough, asthma Preparation (note that the dosage per treatment is 100ml unless indicated otherwise) Pound the underground part, add water and soak them as with any detergent. clothes. Wash Cut underground parts into pieces, soak and drink 3-4 times a day. Pound underground parts and sprinkle in water To treat New Castle the fish will float to surface. disease the pounded roots are added to drinking As a pesticide pound the underground part, water. soak and spray the infected plants. Pound underground part and smear product on bird trap. Pound underground parts, boil and give to patient. cut into smaller pieces and soaked in Washed, The patient is given three times a day. water. and Cut into smaller pieces, soaked in water, take three times a day. Pound underground part and add to bath water. Peel and eat raw. Cook together with an orchid and used as a relish. Cut into small pieces, boil, add eggs and honey and administer to patient three times a day. U U U U U U U U U U U

Part used Other 5 6 7 8

X X X X Medicine

X X X X X X X

Use Food X X (Tu), (Tu), (Tu) Namandephule (Kho), Local names Nthupa (Ch), Ngunga (Lo), Dema Chateta (Ngoni), Thetha (Sen) Chikwakwa (Ch) Nkhonkho (Ch) Chamkhwere Suzya (Tu) Nkhonkho (Ch) Nkhunga (Tu) Chikolanyenje, Chibato (Ch), Chimati (Tu), Katupe (Ch), Chibata (Lo), Ombwe (Sen), Njowera (Tu)

Baker Jacq. Taub. sp.] [ Dolichos Dolichos kilimandscharicus Taub. Elephantorrhiza goetzei (Harms) Harms fassoglensis Tylosema (Kotschy ex Schweinf.) & Hillc. Torre Albuca abyssinica Dolichos trinervatus Eminia antennulifera Taub. (Baker) Ledebouria cordifolia Thulin (Baker) Stedje & Mucuna poggei Ledebouria revoluta (L.f.) Jessop Neorautanenia mitis (A.Rich.) Verdc. Plant species Fabaceae Hyacinthaceae

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol8/i1547-3465-08-075.pdf 82 Ethnobotany Research & Applications Immunity booster, Immunity booster, aphrodisiac, yellow stomach fever, Trichomonas pains, vaginalis (Libale) Disease treated Stomachache, swellings, stomach ulcers, rheumatism, skin rash, high blood pressure, heart palpitations, fever Gonorrhoea Cut roots into pieces, boil and give to patient. Preparation (note that the dosage per treatment is 100ml unless indicated otherwise) Washed and boil underground parts then add to Washed bath water to treat swellings. Squeeze and drink treat stomachache. For high blood pressure powdered underground part is added to porridge. Pierce middle of underground part and insert a string made of sisal. Peel and eat raw or boiled. Cook and eat during famine. Then, sieve dry and pound underground part. Wash, The powder is cooked in water to get fine powder. together with Sodium bicarbonate or pot ashes. Pound part and rub on the affected area. Pound part and rub on the affected Wash and boil part in water then eat. Wash U U U U U U U U

Part used Other 9 10

X X Medicine

X X X

Use Food X X X X X , (Ch), (To), (To), (Tu) (Tu) Bwantete (Ch), Bwangulu Jangulu Ekhwiya (Lo) Njovu yayenda (Man), Chikhazika , Chikhaziko , Mchende , Phavuwa (Ch), Mambo (Se), Mlozi wanalume Vindindi Local names Buye (Kho) Nyika (Sen) Chikande (Ch), Chinaka (Tu) Chikande (Ch) Thobodimbo Mwanamphepo (Ch, Lo)

Van Geel Van L.f. Baill. sp. Pyrenacantha kaurabassana Hypoxis villosa Plectranthus esculentus N.E. Br Nymphaea caerulea Savigny Disa sp. Gladiolus dalenii (Harv.) Harms (Harv.) Adenia gummifera Habenaria Icacinaceae Plant species Hypoxidaceae Lamiaceae Nymphacaceae Orchidaceae Iridaceae Passifloraceae

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol8/i1547-3465-08-075.pdf Mwafongo et al. - Ethnobotanical Study of Hyacinthaceae and Non- 83 hyacinthaceous Geophytes in Selected Districts of Malawi Disease treated Oral sores Appetizer, cure Appetizer, swollen spleen, heart palpitations, love portion stomachache Wounds, Wounds Diarrhoea Easy delivery Headache, skin rash ( mwanamphepo ) Rheumatism Preparation (note that the dosage per treatment is 100ml unless indicated otherwise) Boil and season leaves eat as relish. Pound underground part and use to treat oral sores in children. Dry underground part, grind into powder and add As a love potion, dry and a teaspoon to porridge. burn the underground part into ashes together with hearts of a male and female pigeon add This will to relish which your husband will eat. The trigger him into showering you with all his love. herbalist also said that instead of pigeon hearts, one This can use hearts of a male and female sheep. mixture is more powerful than the former because it is believed that the man will be acting like a sheep in the relationship, i.e., wife will be charge. Pound underground part, soak and administer to area with patient. For wounds clean the affected the solvent. Pound underground part and smear product on wound/swollen area. Pound, boil and drunk three times a day. Cut into small pieces, soak and administer on expectant woman. Pound, boil and take three times a day. Pound, boil and drink. Powder in tea or porridge. Eat after boiling. U U U U U U U U

U/L

Part used Other 11

X Medicine

X X X X X X X

Use Food X X X X (Tu) (Se) (To), (To), (Tu) Local names Nyamgogwa (Man) Mtimaumodzi (Ch), Bwangulu Jangulu Mwanamphepo (Ch, Lo) Mwanamphepo (Ch, Lo) Mwanamphepo wa ntawaleza (Lo) Mwanamphepo (Ch, Lo) Mwanamphepo (Ch, Lo), Mbumbu Nyakatambe Kanamwalicheche (Ch)

L. (Baker) (Welw. (Welw.

Portulaca oleracea Eriospermum abyssinicum Baker Ampelocissus africana (Lour.) Merr. (Lour.) Ampelocissus obtusata ex Baker) Planch. (Welw. Planch. Cissus aristolochiifolia Cissus cornifolia Cissus integrifolia (Baker) Planch. (Baker) Planch. Cissus rubiginosa ex Baker) Planch. Cissus zombensis Gilg & M. Brandt Plant species Portulaceae Ruscaceae Vitaceae

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with the plants. Those who were not familiar (12%) were all between age 21 and 49. A total of 49 species were recorded in the survey as being used by the respondents either for food (24%), medicine (18%), or other uses (58%) including as ornamentals, pesticides, for child’s play and laundry. Figure 3 illustrates the eight most commonly reported or popular geophytes reported with other species mentioned fewer times. Plant parts used were reported as either leaves only (4%), leaves and underground parts Diarrhoea, rheumatism, swellings, blood booster, given to weak babies make them strong again Sore throat, yellow cleaning the fever, uterus and birth canal Disease treated (6%) or underground parts (90%). Prescriptions for preparation of remedies and diseases treated were also recorded (Table 1). The 49 species listed were lumped into three major use categories (food, medicinal and other) and then

35 further grouped into 16 use categories (Table 2). 31 30 25 20 18 30 31 15 13 15 13 12 11 10 Number mentionedtimes of 10 5 0 . 9. Used as a pesticide. 10. The underground part is part underground The 10. pesticide. a as Used 9. nyenje . 25 Herbanaria sp Neorantanenia mitis Tacca leontopetaloides Dicoma anomala Sond. Dioscorea odoratissima Plectranthus esculentus Dolichos kirimandscharicus Pyrenacantha kaurabassana 20 18 Pound, boil and taken three times a day. For Pound, boil and taken three times a day. swellings, cut underground part and rub on area. affected dry and pound. Pounded underground parts Wash, The powder is then are then sieved to a fine powder. or bicarbonate Sodium with together water in cooked pot ashes. Preparation (note that the dosage per treatment is 100ml unless indicated otherwise) 15 U U

Part used 15 Other

13 13 Medicine 12 X X

1 Use

10 1 Food 10 Number of Times Mentioned Times of Number 5 (Tu) 0 sp. Chikasu (Ch) Local names Mwanamphepo (Lo), Mbumbu mitis anomala

esculentus odoratissima

Habenaria kaurabassana leontoptealoides Dicoma kirimandscharicus Neoautanenia Tacca Dioscorea Plectranthus Dolichos Kaempferia rosea Schweinf. ex Baker Cyphostemma junceum Desc. ex Wild (Webb) & R.B. Drumm. Pyrenacantha Fig 3 Zingiberaceae Plant species Other uses: 1. Used as an ornamental. 2. Underground part used as a food. 3. 4. Leaves Underground used part medicinally. kept in pocket as a lucky charm. as known insects catching for Used 8. pesticide. a as Used 7. soap. as Used 6. laundry. for Used 5. This is also used as a love potion. Children make a playing wheel out of the underground part. 11. used as a toy. times eight than less mentioned were that Species Malawi. in survey a from reported geophytes popular Most 3 . Figure were excluded.

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol8/i1547-3465-08-075.pdf Mwafongo et al. - Ethnobotanical Study of Hyacinthaceae and Non- 85 hyacinthaceous Geophytes in Selected Districts of Malawi Table 2. Medicinal geophytes identified by informants in Malawi and sorted into major use categories. (See Figure 5.) Species Medicinal Use Categories Food Digestive System Problems Sores, Wounds, Skin Rashes Gynecological Headaches Respiratory System Problems Circulatory System Problems Blood Booster Snake Bite Immunity Booster Infant/ Newborn Care Aphrodisiac, Love Potion Protection from Thugs Abortion Poultry Diseases Fish Poison, Pesticides Adenia gummifera X Albuca abyssinica X Ampelocissus africana X X Ampelocissus obtusata X Boophane disticha X X Boscia salicifolia X Cissus aristolochiifolia X Cissus comifolia X Cissus integrifolia X X Cissus rubiginosa X X Cissus zombensis X Colocasia esculenta X Crinum macowanii X X X X X Cucumis hirsutus X Cyphostemma junceum X X X X Dicoma anomala X X X X X X X X Dioscorea bulbifera X X Dioscorea dumetorum X Dioscorea esculenta X Dioscorea odoratissima X Dioscorea sansibarensis X X X X Disa sp. X Dolichos sp. X Dolichos kilimandscharicus X X X X Dolichos trinervatus X Elephantorrhiza goetzei X X X Eminia antennulifera X Eriospermum abyssinicum X X Gladiolus dalenii X Gloriosa superba X Gonatopus boivinii X Habenaria sp. X Hypoxis villosa X X X X Kaempferia rosea X X X Ledebouria cordifolia X

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Species Medicinal Use Categories Food Digestive System Problems Sores, Wounds, Skin Rashes Gynecological Headaches Respiratory System Problems Circulatory System Problems Blood Booster Snake Bite Immunity Booster Infant/ Newborn Care Aphrodisiac, Love Potion Protection from Thugs Abortion Poultry Diseases Fish Poison, Pesticides Ledebouria revoluta X Manihot glaziovii X Momordica foetida X Mucuna poggei X Neorautanenia mitis X X Nymphaea caerulea X Plectranthus esculentus X Portulaca oleracea X X Pyrenacantha kaurabassana X X X Raphionacme welwitschii X X Stylochiton puperulus X Tacca leontopetaloides X X X X X X Tylosema fassoglensis X

Food Plants Medicinal plants

A number of geophyte species are used for food (24%) The 29 geophyte species identified as medicinal are most- being consumed raw or boiled in water. The only mem- ly used in preparations which are powders, decoctions and ber of the family Hyacinthaceae which falls into this cat- ashes (Figure 4). In this category, the only members of the egory is L. cordifolia. This bulb is mixed together with or- family Hyacinthaceae mentioned were Albuca abyssinica chid tubers to make cakes that are used as relish. Five and L. revoluta. Dicoma anomala was mentioned as the species of yams (Dioscorea) are however the mostly tar- most popular medicinal plant (Figure 3) by respondents geted for their tubers especially during periods of fam- because of its diverse uses. Figure 5 sorts the diseases ine. Dioscorea odoratissima was frequently mentioned by treated by the underground parts of the plants reported respondents as being the most important tuber species into major use categories. Interestingly, half of the uses (Figure 3), meaning that it was preferred over the other account for the three largest categories with 17% each. tuber species. Dioscorea species are known to have vary- ing proportions of an alkaloid dioscorine that is bitter and Some members of the genus Hypoxis, commercially toxic (Mwanyambo & Kananji 2001). This is why some known as “African potato,” are taken to boost the immune species known to be poisonous are cooked for long hours system especially by people infected with HIV (Ncube mostly overnight to remove toxicity. Water is decanted 1998). In the category of boosting the immunity of hu- several times in the process of cooking. Another popu- man beings, especially those infected with AIDS, the geo- lar famine tuber is Nymphaea caerulea, locally known as phytes involved are used in combination with other tubers nyika (Sena). The underground part is yam-like and the and the end product of this is administered in powder most popular famine food amongst the Sena people in form. One of the respondents, a traditional healer claimed Nsanje district. This species is very scarce such that men that the drug (Figure 4A), which is a combination of sev- must travel by boat for six hours across the Shire River to eral tuber species “has been proven to purify blood and harvest it because it has been over-exploited and hence raise the CD4 cell count of patients suffering from AIDS” scarce (Mpaka 2008). It is harvested underwater by div- and further claimed that “most patients had gained weight ing. It is peeled and boiled before consuming. It is served after taking the drug.” The vast number of medicinal plant together with vegetables. However, people complain that species as opposed to food species is an indication of the the underground part is bitter. Other tubers are eaten raw. important role played by geophytes in the health care sys- These include Eminia antennulifera, Momordica foetida tem of Malawi. and Plectranthus esculentus.

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Fig 5a 1%1%1% 3% 3% 18% Wounds, Sores & skinrushes 3% Circulatory system problems 3% Digestive System Diseases Gynecological 4% Headaches Fig 5b Respiratory system problems Love portion/aphrodisiacs 9% 17% Infant/newborn care Circulatory Snake bites Poultry diseases 4% Immunity booster Circulatory System Problems Blood booster B Protection from thugs A 6% Digestive Fish poison/pesticides 16% Abortion FigureDigestive 4. Geophyte-based System Problems remedies documented in Malawi are usually prepared in the form of (A) powders and (B) 11% decoctions. (Photos by D. Mpalika) Wounds Wounds, Sores, Skin Rashes Fig 5b Circulatory 16.90141 12 1% Gynecological Circulatory Gynecological Circulatory System ProblemsDigestive 16.90141 12 2% Love potion Wounds 16.90141 12 Digestive Aphrodisiac, Love Potion Digestive System Problems 17% Headaches Gynecological 12.67606 9 Wounds Headaches Wounds, Sores, Skin Rashes 4% Infant Love potion 7.042254 5 Gynecological Infant/Newborn Care Gynecological Headaches 5.633803 4 4% Pountry Love potion Poultry Diseases Aphrodisiac, Love PotionInfant 4.225352 3 Respiratory Poultry 4.225352 3 Headaches Respiratory System Problems 4% Headaches Blood boost Respiratory 4.225352 3 Infant Blood Booster 17%Infant/Newborn Care Immunity Blood boost 2.816901 2 Pountry 6% booster Immunity Booster Poultry Diseases Immunity booster 2.816901 2 Abortion Respiratory Abortion Respiratory System ProblemsAbortion 1.408451 1 Piscacide/pesticide 1.408451 1 Blood boost Fish Poison, Pesticides 7% Blood Booster Protection 1.408451 1 Immunity booster Protection from Thugs Immunity Booster Snake Bite 1.408451 1 71 17% Abortion Snake Bite 13% Abortion Fish Poison, Pesticides . Medicinal geophytes identified by informants in Malawi sorted into major use categories. n=71 total uses. See Figure 5 Protection from Thugs Tables 1&2 for details of plants and uses. Snake Bite www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol8/i1547-3465-08-075.pdf 88 Ethnobotany Research & Applications

The local term mwana wa mphepo (Chichewa) which the whole plant. Most respondents indicated that in most means “Child of the wind” is the common name refer- cases the plant died after harvesting the tubers. 72% ring to plant species and the diseases that they treat. In also indicated that tuber plant species have decreased this study, the term was allocated to seven species, all if they compare with their availability now to five to ten vines, one, Adenia gummifera, in the Passifloraceae is years ago. Despite the apparent decrease in populations introduced to Africa from South America. The other six of geophytes, their domestication is not popular among are native African members of the Vitaceae family: Am- the public because most believe that they grow naturally pelocissus africana, Ampelocissus obtusata, Cissus aris- in forests and that they are difficult to cultivate. During tolochiifolia, Cissus cornifolia, Cissus integrifolia, and Cy- the survey, most people said that they have seen some phostemma junceum. The traditional category of plant people, especially traditional healers, grow them around species is also known to treat different types of ailments their yards; the major reason being easy access for their as well (Tables 1 & 2). As a condition in the body, mwana- medicinal value. mphepo (Chichewa, Lomwe), which is an abbreviation for mwana wa mphepo (Chichewa) refers to an upset stomach, stomach pains or sore skin.

Other Uses

Young boys used L. revoluta to catch insects. The bulb is ground and smeared close to where insects are flying and they get caught in the process. Dolichos kirimandscharicus and Neorautanenia mitis are used to treat poultry diseases such as Newcastle. Newcastle disease is a highly contagious zoonotic bird disease affecting many domestic and wild avian species. The disease is endemic in many countries including Malawi. In some parts of Malawi, N. mitis is also used as a fish poison and is known to kill a lot of fish when sprinkled in water. Figure 6. A respondent using a hoe to dig a tuber in Malawi. (Photo by D. Trading of geophytes Mpalika)

Half of the respondents also said that they sold the underground parts especially D. odoratissima which is an important famine food and D. anomala which is popular amongst herbalists and is sold as a single tuber or as a pile. In most cases these tubers are mixed with roots belonging to different species and processed into powder. These are then sold at a price of US$7 (2006) per packet locally but the price varies when the powder is sold to foreigners (Dr. Kaunda personal communication).

Method of harvesting and availability

All respondents indicated that they harvested the tubers by digging with hoes Figure 6) or just uprooting (Figure 7). Geophyte digging is the most destruc- Figure 7. A respondent holding a Hypoxis species after uprooting it by hand tive kind of harvesting because it kills in Malawi. (Photo by D. Mpalika)

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16 Chikwawa

15 Balaka

14 Mangochi

13 Mwanza

12 Nsanje

11 Ntcheu

10 Lilongwe

9 Ntchisi

8 Mchinji

7 Nkhatabay

6 Mzimba

5 Mwafongo et al. - Ethnobotanical Study of Hyacinthaceae and Non- 89 Rumphi

4 Dedza

3 Mulanje

2 Thyolo hyacinthaceous Geophytes in Selected Districts of Malawi 1 1 0 ,1 0 ,9 0 ,8 0 ,7 0 ,6 0 ,5 0 ,4 0 ,3 0 ,2

Similarity Cluster analysis The curve concludes with an upward trend indicating that sampling effort might have to be increased to accumulate Figure 8 illustrates similarities of responses about geo- more species (see Heck et al. 1975) in order to approach phyte species recorded in the 15 districts surveyed and an asymptote. reveals the existence of two groups (one consisting of Chikwawa district, the other of the remaining 14 districts) Estimating species richness from samples that are largely different, separating early in the dendrogram. Based on this cluster analysis, no districts are high- Figure 10 presents the performance of six non-parametric ly similar with each other and at most they form into seven estimators of species richness compared with the species groups with one, two or three districts each that are some- accumulation curve from the research. Since a good esti- what similar but each other still showing much distinctive- mator of species richness is supposed to reach, or close- ness. The division into groups is however not consistent ly approach a stable horizontal asymptote sooner, i.e., with geography except in one instance: Thyolo and Mu- with fewer samples, for this data set, Michaelis–Menten lanje are both from southern Malawi and are adjacent to Means (MM Means) provided the least biased estimates each other. based on small number of samples (ca. 2 samples) with Chao 2 a close second and ICE third. The rest of the esti- Species accumulation curve as a mators are rising parallel with the accumulation curve and measure of sampling effort seem to reach a horizontal asymptote after 15 samples. The MMMeans estimates generate the highest estimate Figure 9 presents a species accumulation curve from (54 species) of species richness and Chao 2 the lowest Thyolo Mulanje Dedza Rumphi Mzimba Nkhatabay Mchinji Ntchisi Lilongwe Ntcheu Nsanje Mwanza Mangochi Balaka Chikwawa 1 Figthe geophyte8a study of the 15 selected districts of Malawi. estimate for the samples with 47 species. The bootstrap 0 ,9 0 ,8

0 ,7

0 ,6

0 ,5 Similarity

bay 0 ,4

0 ,3

0 ,2

0 ,1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Dedza Balaka Rumphi Ntchisi Mzimba Nsanje Chikwawa Mulanje Lilongwe Mangochi Mchinji Mwanza Thyolo Nkhata Ntcheu ......

1.0 3E 3B 2A 2H 2D 2E 2C 2G 2B 2F 3D 3C 1B 1A. 3A 0.9 0.8

0.7 Fig 8b 0.6 0.5 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.4 Similarity 0.3 Fig 8a 0.2 0.1 0.0

Figure 8. Phenogram cluster analysis with Sorensen Index based on presence/absence of geophyte species used in 15 districts surveyed in Malawi using PAST (Hammer & Harper 2004).

Similarity www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol8/i1547-3465-08-075.pdf 15 90 Ethnobotany Research & Applications Fig 9 Cumulative Number of Species 14 13 estimator however best approximated SO 95% CI Upper Bound 12 the known species richness followed by

50 Species Observed (SO) 11 Chao 2. SO 95% CI Lower Bound 10 Discussion and 40 9 Conclusions 8

7 In the present study, members of the 30 family Hyacinthaceae were less popu- 6 lar with only 3 species (6% of the 49)

5 probably because people are spoilt with 20 choices from other plants, both geo- 4 phytes and non-geophytes, with which

3 they could treat various diseases. In ad- 10 Bound Upper CI 95% SO SpeciesObserved (SO) Bound Lower CI 95% SO dition to this, we noticed that plants in 2 Number of Malawi Districts Sampled the Hyacinthaceae were scarce in the

1 field. This could be because most are Cumulative Number of Species 0 low lying species growing in grasslands, 0 10 2 3 4 5 0 6 7 0 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

5 40 3 2 10 hence they can be very cryptic. Although 15

Fig 9 Number of Malawi Districts Sampled Hyacinthaceae were less popular in this

14 study, members of the family have been Figure 9. Species accumulation curve (middle curve) from a study of documented elsewhere (Arnold et al.

Fig 10 13 traditionalCumulative use of geophytes Number in 15 selected of Species districts of Malawi. Plotted with 2002) as being used for medicinal pur- 95% confidence intervals (upper and lower curves). Analysis conducted poses ranging from the treatment of 12 using EstimateS (Colwell 2006). hangovers, rheumatic fever, sprains,

11 syphilis, cancer, pneumonia the current study documented only 3 species of the 90 ICE 10 Chao 2 family as being used as food and medi- Chao 2 Bootstrap SpeciesObserved 80 MM Means Bootstrap 9 cine Although the family is quite promi- Jack 2 Species Observed nent in ethnomedicine, a few species 8 70 Jack 1 have been chemically investigated so 60 7 far (Louw et al. 2002). In addition to this, the family suffers from serious taxonom- 50 6 ic problems and is in need of revision ICE Means MM Jack 2 Jack 1

5 (Manning 2004, Stedje 1996). 40 4 This research has indicated that peo- 30 ple use more underground parts that 3 20 above ground parts of geophytes. The 2 reason people say that they use more Number of Malawi Districts Sampled underground parts than leaves (90%) is

10 1 the fact that leaves are less bitter than

Cumulative Number of Species tubers hence they believe that the con- 0 0

1 90 2 80 3 470 560 650 740 8 30 9 20 10 10 11 12 13 14 15 centration of the compounds is more in Number of Malawi Districts Sampled the tubers than in leaves. Fig 10 Figure 10. Species accumulation curve (species observed) from a study Bulbous plants, though studied less in- of traditional use of geophytes in 15 selected districts of Malawi compared tensively than herbs and trees regarding with six non-parametric estimators of species richness (ICE, Chao 2, first their medicinal potential, have proven to order and second-order Jackknife, bootstrap and Michaelis–Menten Means) contain a range of unique biologically for the same data set. Descriptions and formulas of the species richness active compounds. The presence of ste- estimators used may be found in Colwell & Coddington (1994). The sample roids, cardiac glycosides and alkaloids order was randomized 100 times to compute the mean estimator and in some species can often indicate tox- expected species richness for each sample accumulation level the end result icity. Several studies have documented of which was a smooth curve. Analysis conducted using EstimateS (Colwell poisoning with symptoms such as diar- 2006) and following the protocol of Williams et al. (2007). Estimators of rhoea, abdominal pain, emphysema and species richness-non-parametric estimates were used since these require increased pulse rate, which can be fatal no assumptions of plant community structure. (Louw et al. 2002, Van Wyk et al.1997).

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol8/i1547-3465-08-075.pdf Mwafongo et al. - Ethnobotanical Study of Hyacinthaceae and Non- 91 hyacinthaceous Geophytes in Selected Districts of Malawi The present study similarly reports that bitter tubers used clear from these curves that more sampling was required as food such as Dioscorea are boiled for long periods and would have increased the species inventory. decanting water in the process of cooking to reduce the amount of poison. Similarly, species used as medicines The geophyte survey was driven by the need to document are also diluted in water and taken in low doses because the use of Liliopsid monocots of family Hyacinthaceae and the respondents indicated that decoctions could prove to assess their conservation status. It is apparent from the be fatal if taken in highly concentrated doses. The amount survey that members of the Fabaceae and Asteraceae of poison is determined by tongue testing. are more sought after for food and medicine than Lilioid monocots evidenced by fewer hyacinthoide representa- Dioscorea odoratissima is a famous famine food plant tives mentioned by respondents. in most districts of Malawi and is also known to be rare. Members of this genus are also widely used around the The most common anthropogenic pressure to all geo- world for both food and medicine. Wild yam species (e.g., phytes is tuber digging and clearing of woodlands for Dioscorea villosa L. and Dioscorea batatas Decne.) have farming. The survey listed about 49 plant species that are for centuries been used as sources of medicine and food most utilized. This number only represents a small propor- by the Aztec and Mayan peoples for a wide range of ail- tion of all geophytes in Malawi. Some species were not re- ments including many female problems and to relieve the ported here because they could not be spotted during field pain of child birth (Bergeron 1997). The other famine food searches. Future work is therefore needed especially to which is said to be rare is Nymphaea caerulea. Its tubers go through the existing literature which will help generate are known to have a higher calcium, phosphorus, and fat- new research ideas. Although this study has identified 49 ty acids (Chawanje 1998). geophytes from Malawi the actual number is not known. This problem is compounded by lack of a national check- In this study, boiling of tubers used as food sources was list which usually acts as a guideline for such surveys. very common and respondents said this act has a double Support should also be provided for more taxonomic work function; enhancing the flavour of the tubers and reduc- in problematic genera, more ethnobotanical surveys and ing the poison which they contain. [This method is univer- research towards sustainable use and conservation of sally used around the world (Arnold et al. 2002, Banguar these plants. 1993).

Morris (1989) and Hargreaves (1994) identified 50 kinds Acknowledgements of mwana wa mphepo and saw this category as not spe- The current work was funded by the Norwegian Coun- cific but referring to plants which store water and are able cil for Higher Education’s Programme for Development to produce flowers and leaves during the windy season. Research and Education (NUFU). Thanks is also due to The problem with this definition is that not all such plants Donald Mpalika, Edwin Kathumba and Moffat Thera (Her- are mwana wa mphepo. This is probably why folk tax- barium Technicians) for helping with administering ques- onomy is very difficult to adopt because it may repre- tionnaires and plant identification, the National Herbari- sent different behavioral responses of people related to um and Botanic Gardens of Malawi for providing transport the salience of each organism (Hays 1982). Furthermore, and the driver and for helping out with all necessary field Brown (1985) pointed out that people’s vocabulary is re- arrangements. lated to their long-term interests. There is need to further research this term and see if indeed it is related to plant form and function or behavior of the people using the spe- Literature Cited cies included in this phenomenon. The term also contains unresolved species and hence more research into spe- Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. 2003. An update of the cies delimitation and taxonomy is needed since certain- angiosperm phylogeny group classification for the orders ty in species identification is a precondition for access to and families of flowering plants: APG II.Botanical Journal published species information related to, e.g., botany, eth- of the Linnean Society 141: 399-436. nopharmacology, conservation and propagation (Krog et al. 2006). Proper species identification is also important in Anonymous. 1997. Population and Family Planning in relation to consumer safety. Malawi: A community nexus approach. Government of Malawi and World Bank, Lilongwe. Species accumulation curves are known to enhance the value of ethnobotanical studies and create an opportunity Arnold, T.H., C.A.Prentice, L.C. Hawker, E.E. Snyman, M. for cogent arguments that advance scientific and practical Tomalin, N.R. Crouch, & C. Pottas-Bircher. 2002. Medici- knowledge (Williams et al. 2007). A comparative test of nal and Magical Plants of Southern Africa: An annotated species estimators in the present study raises a question checklist. Strelitzia 13. National Botanical Institute, Preto- of survey sampling sufficiency because of failure of 4 out ria, South Africa. of 6 estimators to approach a horizontal asymptote. It is

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