Psi Possibilities Hannah Jenkins Masters (Hons) Philosophy University of New South Wales 2003 Abstract This thesis undertakes an analysis of the current status of the evidence for psi. It argues that the current situation could indicate that modern science is in a crisis stage of a Kuhnian scientific revolution. This is based on an analysis of the nature of the dispute between those who maintain that psi does not exist and those who believe that psi is a possibility. In the course of this discussion the thesis looks at the representation of psi in general philosophy texts. It is shown that when psi is mentioned (often it isn't) the evidence is usually dismissed as insubstantial, this is contrasted with the growing field of academic inquiry into psi effects and the evidence presented for psi. Finally, some comm~nts are made about areas for future research in philosophy if psi is accepted as a possibility. Psi Possibilities: Abstract Contents Psi possibilities Introduction Chapter 1 What is Psi? 11 Chapter 2 What evidence is there for psi? 39 Chapter 3 What is being done with the evidence for Psi? 75 Chapter4 How can philosophy help? 95 Chapter 5 What are the psi possibilities? 114 Psi possibilities Conclusion 146 Psi possibilities Bibliography 151 Psi Possibilities: Contents Psi Possibilities: Introduction Facts do not cease to exist because they are ignored Aldous Huxley The study of psi is a little-known and much maligned area of inquiry into the anomalous phenomena more commonly known as extrasensory perception and psychokinesis. It is also a fascinating field of investigation into phenomena which may hold the key to a new understanding of time, space, causality and consciousness. Psi and the possibilities that its possible existence entail are the topics of this thesis and have given it its name: Psi Possibilities. 1 Philosophical relevance Due to the anomalous nature of psi, discussion about it is difficult. The issues raised touch on many philosophical areas of inquiry: epistemology, the mind/body problem, the history and philosophy of science and the philosophy of religion to name a few. This is because the evidence for psi poses us with a challenge. The challenge is this: there is a substantial body of evidence for something which contemporary science says doesn't exist. Some scientists and philosophers are currently investigating it as a paranormal phenomenon but it has traditionally been understood as a supernatural phenomenon. 1 'Psi' can be used as both a noun and an adjective. In this thesis the words 'psi (n)' and 'psi (adj) phenomena' will be used to describe anomalous phenomena associated with action at a distance and communication. The elements of psi are defined and discussed in Chapter 1. It should also be noted that the evidence for psi is putative and that psi is understood in this thesis to be an ostensibly paranormal phenomenon. (See Chapter 1 p.14 & 41 respectively for further discussion.) To aid in the clarity of expression psi will not be prefaced with these qualifiers but references to psi should be understood in this context. Psi Possibilities: Introduction The tension that this situation creates raises some interesting questions: What are we to make of the evidence for psi, should we consider it an area worthy of philosophical investigation and if so, how do we go about it? The tentative answers this thesis puts forward are that: yes, there is a substantial enough (if controversial) body of evidence for psi, the nature of which is hard to conceive through scientific inquiry alone and that finally, the best place for current discussion to take place is within the discipline of philosophy. This thesis asks and answers five questions, which inform the discussion of psi phenomena from this perspective. It is assumed that the reader has little knowledge of the current status of the evidence for psi phenomena so the initial chapter sets the scene for a discussion pertinent to the philosophical issues raised by the evidence for psi. The questions are: What is psi? What evidence is there for psi? What is being done with the evidence for psi? How can philosophy help? What are the psi possibilities? Below is a chart which outlines the thesis in more detail. The structure is discussed further afterwards. Psi Possibilities: Introduction 2 Evidence for psi Experimental Spontaneous I I Possible interpretations of the evidence for psi Supernatural Humean Skeptic Ostensibly paranormal Philosophy of religion ( not dealt with in this thesis) Kuhn No change to laws - modification of laws..- change of laws J l l l Psi possibilities to explore in philosophy Epistemology ~ Philosophy of mind Philosophy of science time space causality Psi Possibilities: Introduction 3 In the first chapter the elements of psi are defined and their problematic nature discussed. The second chapter presents an overview of what evidence there is for psi and places psi in the context of prevailing scientific naturalism. The third chapter takes a look at the current representation of psi in philosophy texts. It is shown that if psi is mentioned at all it is also usually also noted that there is little substantial (or no) evidence for it. It is then shown that this prevalent assumption most likely stems from a modern interpretation of Hume's miracle argument. The fourth chapter argues that this perspective is representative of only one of three interpretations of the evidence for what appears to be psi, and that this could indicate that we are in the crisis stage of a scientific revolution. The final chapter elaborates on this and looks at what constitutes a Kuhnian scientific revolution and what role psi might be seen to play in such an event. A short conclusion follows in which psi possibilities are discussed and some areas for future research are suggested. Addressing all of the philosophical issues raised by these questions is beyond the scope of this thesis. The focus will be on coming to an understanding of how those interested in psi should progress and what contributions philosophers have made to this area in the past. Some points particularly pertinent to the issues discussed in this thesis require some initial further clarification. These are the notion of possibility and the use of Thomas Kuhn. This will be done after the initial parameters have been set. Setting the parameters The scope of this thesis is limited to a traditional western investigation of psi. There is worldwide interest in psi phenomena and to take into account all countries that have institutes for the study of psi would take far too much space and time than the scope of this thesis allows. As the resources available to me are mainly from English-speaking publications and books, attention will be focussed on these sources. The centres for the study of psi in Britain and the US are responsible for producing the major parapsychology publications and the universities in mainland Europe and Australasia which have parapsychology units often publish their findings in these journals. Consequently, in focusing on this area most of what is going on in contemporary academia is covered. Psi Possibilities: Introduction 4 What will be missing though are esoteric interpretations of psi phenomena as well as experiential ones. There are many and varied attempts to understand psi outside the scope of western science. These areas of inquiry are worthy of a thesis all to themselves. This thesis will not attempt to cover them, only to acknowledge that other interpretations from other cultural perspectives are available and worth considering in the future. Two points are made in the thesis pertinent to this issue. Firstly that there are supernatural interpretations of the evidence and secondly that psi has traditionally been accepted as a supernatural phenomenon. Only since the late 1800s has psi been the target of investigation as a paranormal phenomenon and this thesis takes this understanding of psi one step further and advocates that psi is best treated as an ostensibly paranormal phenomenon. In terms of modern day naturalism psi, understood in this context, can be explored through philosophy as a phenomenon which is at this stage unexplained but not necessarily unexplainable. A discussion about this important distinction forms part of Chapter 2. Possibility This thesis advocates that the possibility of the reality of psi phenomena should be accepted and acted upon. This requires some understanding of what is meant by the use, in this thesis, of the word possibility. The use of possibility in philosophy can have many interpretations and levels of understanding: logical, metaphysical, nomological, epistemological, temporal and conceivable. The areas most pertinent to this thesis are logical, nomological and epistemological. Below the logical possibility of psi will be briefly discussed. Logical possibility has been defined by Ruth Barcan Marcus as: cp is logically possible; its negation entails a contradiction (Honderich, 1995, p. 706) Psi Possibilities: Introduction 5 This definition is, however, too narrow applying only to necessary or logical truths (which are, of course, logically possible). A better definition of logical possibility is proposed as follows: X is logically possible iff it is not the case that x entails a contradiction. An example often cited of such contradictions is the notion of a three-sided square. Is it possible that there is a square that doesn't have 4 sides? This is impossible because a square, by its very nature and definition, must have 4 sides. Understanding this in terms of the above definition we would say: the proposition that a three-sided square exists does entail a contradiction, namely that something has three sides but does not have three sides. A three-sided square is therefore logically impossible.