高 雄 行 為 科 學 學 刊 The Journal of Kaohsiung Behavior Sciences 民 9 8 ， 1 卷 ， 1 期 ， 1-24 2009, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1-24

Possible Factors Affecting or Relating to Psi and Psi’s Difficulty

Yung-Jong Shiah1 and Frances Chang 2

1 Department of Psycjology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan 2 Applied Foreign Language Department, Chienkuo Technology University, Taiwan

Article number：9801-2；Received：Jan, 16, 2009；Revised：Jan, 21, 2009；Accepted：Feb, 2 , 2009.Address correspondence and reprint requests to：Yung-Jong Shiah, Department of Psychology at Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan ( Email: [email protected] )

Psi is the scientific study of experiences that cannot be explained by the existing science. Psi is a general term including both extrasensory perception (ESP) and psychokinesis (PK). ESP is a general term used for information acquisition other than by conventional sensory processes of sight, sound, taste, touch and hearing; PK is an ability that influences the environment seemingly by intention or other mental activity alone without motoric intervention. The investigation of Psi might contribute to our knowledge of brain-environment relationships or interaction. Many researchers have carried out a large number of studies examining the possible existence of Psi with positive results, though some researchers do not agree with this point. Seven factors seemingly have a possible link with Psi performance are: aging, relaxation, emotional response, experimenter effects, magnetic field, personality and belief. Notwithstanding the above, this new scientific subject is confronted with the issue of fraud and replicability by different researchers. Studies with a testable model under well-controlled methodology for the Psi training process are wanted.

Key words: Psi, extrasensory perception (ESP), psychokinesis (PK), replicability, fraud, methodology

General Psi and Watt (2007), the contents of parapsychology include extrasensory perception (ESP), psycho- Parapsychology is the scientific study of kinesis (PK), poltergeist experiences, near-death experiences that cannot be explained by the experiences, out-of-the-body experiences, appari- existing science that we have developed. aritional experiences, and reincarnation experi- Generally speaking, according to the book “An ences. introduction to parapsychology”, written by Irwin Extra-sensory perception is a general term

Part of this paper has been presented at the Meeting of Taoism, Thoughts and Science Conference (Shiah, 2007)

2 Yung-Jong Shiah Frances Chang used for information acquisition other than by initially developed the study of Psi phenomena in conventional sensory processes of sight, sound, terms of setting scientific standards, developing taste, touch and hearing; PK is an ability that methods and accumulating data (Rush, 1986). influences the environment seemingly by Joseph B. Rhine is considered as the father of intention or other mental activity alone without experimental Psi. He and his colleagues conducted motoric intervention; poltergeist experiences refer the first ESP study about clairvoyance in 1927 at to movements of objects, noises, fires, water Duke University in North Carolina, USA. Their inundations, bites, scratches, pinches, or demonic work was summarised in a book entitled persecution caused by a deceased person (Irwin & “Extra-Sensory Perception After Sixty Years” Watt, 2007). In addition, the possibility of the (Pratt, Rhine, Smith, Stuart, & Greenwood, healing effect of prayer is also included in this 1940/1960). They designed five special cards, anomalous science (Walach & Schmidt, 2005). which were a star, a circle, a square, a cross, and Since only a limited extent can be presented, only wavy lines. Participants attempted to guess the Psi will be discussed in this paper. Psi is a general order of randomised packs of cards carrying the term, which is presumed to be working all the images of these five symbols. Rhine also time and includes both ESP and PK (Carpenter, developed the statistical means to evaluate the 2005). data, as well as a well-controlled experimental procedure in order to eliminate sensory cues. The Why Should We Study Psi? results of his studies suggested significant effects Within the broad field of science, the study in telepathy, clairvoyance and precognition of Psi might contribute to our knowledge of respectively. Telepathy refers to mind-to-mind brain-environment relationships or interaction. communication via ESP perception; clairvoyance For instance, the investigation of paranormal refers to paranormal acquisition of any infor- ways of experiencing and reasoning opens new mation directly from a physical source, other than avenues for psychology and neuropsychiatry. directly from the five senses; and precognition The prestigious journal “Cortex” recently refers to ESP awareness of a future event (Irwin & presents a special issue with 10 papers regarding Watt, 2007). this topic (Brugger & Mohr, 2008). This might If we regard J. B. Rhine’s work as the start of provide us with the opportunity to understand the experimental Psi, then obviously, experimental Psi formation of beliefs and their function. Other reasons are “what science knows about the is really a young science established for 82 years. nature of universe is incomplete”, “the capa- For instance, historically speaking, five major Psi bilities and limitations of human potential have experimental paradigms have been developed, been underestimated”, “fundamental assump- including the card guessing ESP paradigm in the tions and philosophical beliefs about the separa- Rhine centre at Duke University (1927 – 1950); tion of mind and body may be incorrect” and the Maimonides ESP dream paradigm “assumptions about the divine nature of "mira- (1962-1979), the ganzfeld technique begun in cles" may have been mistaken” (Radin, 1995). 1974 (Honorton & Harper, 1974) and the PEAR PK paradigm (1979-2007) (Odlingmee, 2007). Psi in the West The Maimonides ESP dream paradigm refers to Many researchers have carried out a large the investigation of ESP performance while number of studies examining the possible dreaming – at the Maimonides Medical Centre, existence of Psi. The Society for Psychical Brooklyn, USA (Sherwood & Roe, 2003). The Research (SPR), founded in 1882 by a group of ganzfeld technique is the method of having distinguished Cambridge scholars in the United participants experience target-related imagery Kingdom, was the first to scientifically invest- under sensory deprivation conditions (Irwin & tigate anomalous phenomena. The SPR attracted Watt, 2007). The ganzfeld refers to a total field, the most talented people of that time. The earlier and this procedure includes a receiver, a sender investigators paid attention to a variety of Psi and targets. The receiver undergoes a series of phenomena, such as telepathy, clairvoyance, progressive relaxation exercises at the beginning hypnosis, apparitions and hauntings. The SPR of this procedure, placed in a reclining chair in an Possible Factors, Psi, Psi’s Difficulty 3 acoustically isolated room, and his or her trained using the Qigong practices described internal somatic noise is reduced by wearing a earlier. These include abilities such as clairvo- pair of translucent ping-pong ball halves over the yance, out of body experiences, telepathy, pre- eyes, whilst wearing headphones playing white cognition, PK, healing, and reincarnation. These noise. The sender is also placed in an abilities seem to go beyond what we would acoustically isolated room. The sender concen- ordinarily expect. Chinese culture is supportive of trates on the target and the receiver tries to the potential existence of such abilities and their “receive” that target. The target is a visual trainability in some individuals. They would be stimulus, such as an art print, photograph or a seen as natural abilities and as involving new brief videotape clip. At the end of the procedure, principles of nature. Obviously, they require to be the receiver is presented with four stimuli and further scientifically explained and explored. asked to rate to what degree those stimuli match Si-Chen Lee is a professor of in the Elec- his/her mental images during this procedure. trical Engineering Department of the National Finally, the PEAR PK paradigm refers to Taiwan University and is the Principal of the most Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research prestigious university in Taiwan. He is a pioneer (PEAR) lab investigating whether people can at the study of exceptional human abilities in alter the activities of random events generators Chinese society. His early work in Qigong was only by mental intention (Walach & Jonas, supported by the Taiwan National Science Council 2007). (Lee, 1989, 1990; Lee & Chang, 1991), and his major findings were that when practicing Qigong, Robert L. Morris (1942-2004) is respected there is an enhancement of the brain wave with α as an important apostle in the field of academic rhythm and the emitting of infra-red radiation or Psi. He held the Koestler Chair of para- absorption of environmental infra-red radiation by psychology in Edinburgh University from 1985 will from the hands while practising Qigong. A till 2004 and was a central figure in para- positive relationship between an enhanced α brain psychology for nearly 40 years. One of his major wave in the EEG and telepathy was discovered. accomplishments was to establish Psi as an He also investigated a Taiwanese man who academic subject. There are currently around 10 claimed to be psychic. A very strong magnetic departments in the United Kingdom where field was measured from the subject’s head while parapsychology is being studied. Morris pro- performing PK. The maximum magnetic strength moted topics, such as minimising participants’ was 115 Gauss (the local magnetic field was 0.3 fraud in parapsychology laboratories (Morris, Gauss) when measured at a two cm distance from 1987), experimental systems in mindmatter his right hand (Lee & Shih, 1993). research (Morris, 1999) and research methods in experimental parapsychology (Morris, 2001). He Lee then began to focus on finger reading doubtlessly has succeeded in the attempt to link from 1993 by way of a developed training paradi- parapsychology to science. In fact, there are gm (Lee, 1998). This training paradigm comprised many scholars who have made very valuable three serial stages of training to have different Psi contributions to parapsychology and their works abilities. The entire training paradigm includes the will be discussed later. finger-reading ability, connected with the infor- Training Psi in Chinese Culture mation field ability, clairvoyance and PK training. In the first stage of finger-reading training, a More recently, attempts have been made to quarter of children appeared to be able to investigate parapsychological claims in Chinese determine the identity of targets by means of society. Chinese society seems to incorporate directly touching a two-digit number or a complex beliefs about a number of remarkable mental character varying in four different colours printed practices which can be used to enhance human using an ink printer on paper. Some Chinese potential. According to a historical report (Chen, children were able to finger read and reported that 1999), 318 Psi stories or reports were found the targets appeared in their minds as a real visual among Chinese authorized history, local historic- image even when other senses such as vision were al chronicles and historical notes. It is often ruled out. Interestingly, some children who claimed that exceptional human abilities can be

4 Yung-Jong Shiah Frances Chang subjectively reported seeing an opaque screen in Possible factors affecting or relating to Psi perfor- their minds seemed to be able to see brightness -- mance to see a bright person or hear voices while According to the existing data, there are touching special words, such as Jesus or Buddha, seven factors that might have a possible link with printed in Chinese, English, Tibetan, Hebrew or Psi as follows. Arabic, without seeing the words themselves (Lee, 2002, 2003; Lee & Chang, 2001; Lee, Aging Chen, & Tang, 2000; Lee, Tang, & Kuo, 2004). Over the years, researchers have noticed that This effect was only found to accompany sacred children might be a potential group for demon- words or symbols, referred to as a “connecting strating Psi ability (Bourgeois & Palmer, 2002; with the information field” (Lee et al., 2000). Rhine, 1965; Roll, 1997). Many parapsycho- Physicists have found that four major fields, logical studies have focused on investigating the such as a strong interaction field, a weak existence of Psi in adults, with little research interaction field, a gravitational field and an examining Psi in children. In practice, there are a electromagnetic field explain the physical world. lot of difficulties in conducting parapsycho- In addition to these four fundamental fields, Lee logical studies with children. The issues in deve- lopment of Psi abilities are little known (Alvarado, et al. (2000) suggested that by means of 2001; Drewes, 2002). Many experiments designed finger-reading ability, a form of information field for adults might not be suitable for children. exists in which people can connect with special Adults, obviously, are more available since most visual and aural experiences through directly or researchers are working in universities in which indirectly touching sacred words. participants are studying. It will be more difficult In the second stage of finger-reading to get permission from children’s parents, as well training, the children were asked to touch from as from ethics committees. outside a target within a folded paper. Moreover, Although it is not easy to conduct para- sometimes the children were trained to touch a psychological experiments with children, children black container (for holding a photographic film) might provide us with particular performances and containing a target within a folded paper with a phenomena that cannot be seen in adults positive result. Finally, in the third stage of finger-reading training, psychokinesis, bending a (Alvarado, 2001). It has been suggested that Psi metal rod or breaking a match, was trained (Lee, might occur in childhood (Rhine, 1965). For 1999). Two of the participants demonstrated PK. example, 148 letters from Dr. Louise Rhine’s (1891-1983) more than 30,000 letters about Some researchers (Alvarado, 2003; J. E. spontaneous Psi experiences involved children Kennedy, 2003; Morris, 2001; C. Watt, 2005) aged 10 to 18 between 1961 and 1977 (Drews , contended that parapsychologists have done a 2002). They contained 157 Psi experiences and are good job in developing well-controlled metho- categorized in Table 1-1. Though only 148 out of dology to evaluate Psi phenomena scientifically. 30,000 letters in Dr. Louise Rhine’s collection Many researchers (Bem & Honorton, 1994; Bem, related to the children’s Psi experiences, the Palmer, & Broughton, 2001; Broughton, 2002; results firstly provide an initial framework for Carpenter, 2004, 2005; Dunne & Jahn, 2005; understanding children’s tendencies in Psi abi- Ertel, 2005; Palmer, 2003; Radin, Nelson, lities. Further investigations on those claimed to Dobyns, & Houtkooper, 2006; Utts, 1995; have Psi abilities and more data regarding chil- Walach & Schmidt, 2005; D. B. Wilson & dren’s psi ability, as well as investigations com- Shadish, 2006; Wooffitt & Allistone, 2005) paring child Psi to adult Psi abilities are needed. consider that there are enough results from Van J. G. Busschbach conducted a series of studies with rigorous methodology to have studies on children psi (Van Busschbach, 1953, shown that the existence of Psi. Over 50% of 1955, 1956, 1959, 1961) and found that children introductory psychology text books (N=173) produced significant results in a general extra published from 1980-2002 mention these Psi sensory perception (GESP) test, additionally studies (McClenon, Roig, Smith, & Ferrier, younger children seemingly performed better than 2003). Possible Factors, Psi, Psi’s Difficulty 5

Table 1-1 Frequency of experience types an explanation. Children are easily prone to merge different senses, perhaps, as well as ESP senses, to Type of Experience N % form their experiences at the same time. Extensive Precognitive dreams 82 52 functional connections between the brain areas Precognitive intuition and impressions 10 25 that promote the different sensory modalities were Clairvoyance 22 14 discovered in the young animals of several species, including human, many of which were lost during Telepathy 16 10 maturation through synaptic pruning (Gogtay et al., Total 157 100 2004; H. Kennedy, Batardiere, Dehay, & Barone, 1997; Standring, Ellis, Healy, Johnson, & older children. GESP means that the participants Williams, 2004). It would make sense to suggest might rely on clairvoyance or telepathy in the that humans might experience Psi early in life, and ESP test. The total results were significant that pruning of cross-modal connections results in (p<0.05). Later, several studies indicated a having less Psi experience. negative relationship between age and Psi Next, as will be noted later, Psi occurs in a performance. One thousand participants aged quiet mental state with a low cortical arousal. One three to 70 were tested in the GESP task (Spinelli, of the most important indicators of a quiet state of 1977), although this study was criticized for its mind is through EEG, especially in the α wave statistical methodology (Berger, 1989) and lack (8-13Hz) or below. The normal adult EEG pattern of replication (Blackmore, 1984). The parti- is established between the ages of 25 and 30. The cipants below eight years old demonstrated a dominant cortical activity gets higher when aging significant result (p<0.01) and the youngest (Davidson, Jackson, & Larson, 2000). According participants aged three to four even showed to Davidson et al. (2000), at two years old significantly better scores than the older children show their dominant maximum rhythm participants. Similarly, the first graders (aged six value of 2Hz in the EEG, while at ten years old to nine) scored better in the ESP task than older children show their dominant maximum rhythm children (Shargal, 1987). One hundred and value of 10Hz. The normal adult EEG pattern is twenty children of age five to 10 were tested on established between the ages of 25 and 30, which an ESP computer task and younger children did could reach over 40Hz. Thus, aging might result in not score significantly higher than older children a loss of Psi abilities due to increased cortical (Bourgeois & Palmer, 2002). By contrast, activities resulting in increasing internal somatic significant Psi-missing in older African-Ame- noise to interfere with perception of Psi signals. In rican children was found. (Psi-missing means an fact, the evidence only indicates that children have ESP performance is significantly below that lower brain activities than adults. It is not certain expected by chance (Irwin, 2004)). that children have a quiet mental state most of the Several possible reasons might account for time. why children perform better in ESP tests. First of A spiritual approach might explain why all, children have been considered to be excellent children are a potential group for demonstrating parapsychological experimental participants be- Psi ability. One study found that Psi experience cause of their earlier Piagetian developmental was related to spirituality (J. E. Kennedy & stage, that is, before the concrete operational Kanthamani, 1995). One of the meanings of stage (between ages seven and 12) (Spinelli, spirituality involves a mentality that is refined, 1977). During the concrete operational stage, the sensitive, naive and non-materialistic. Children are child begins to reason logically and organize usually considered to be naive, whereas adults thoughts coherently. A plausible inference is that mainly become more sophisticated when aging. more logical thinking might decrease Psi performances. In fact, non-logical thinking Children are more inclined to seek attention (‘creative’ thinking) is one of the suggested and to please adults (Drewes, 2001). This might explanations to account for Psi hitting, as will be serve as a real need for children to use Psi. mentioned later. Participants’ Psi abilities might be manifested via giving them a real need for using Psi (Broughton, Second, cross-modal effects might provide

6 Yung-Jong Shiah Frances Chang

1988). Finally, children are easily suggestible how to manipulate Qi through controlled breathing, and tend to be believers in Psi experiments, movement, and acts of will. Individually, two of which is a positive characteristic linked to Psi the twenty participants who performed a GESP performance. task while practicing Qigong were found to yield a significant result (p<0.05) better than mean chance Altered States of Consciousness expectation (Lee & Shih, 1993). Note that getting Many attempts have been made to explore two in 20 “significant” results might be due to the the relationship between Psi and altered states of chance. In an operational behavioural definition, a consciousness. Relevant studies relating to this quiet mind after practicing Qigong refers to the issue published from 1882 to 1998 were “emptiness” of one’s mind in a wakeful state and categorised under seven headings: hypnosis, me- openness to perceptual information (Lee & Chang, diumship, motor automatisms, multiple perso- 1991). Similarly, some participants performed nality, fugue state, dreaming, and the ganzfeld well in ESP tasks with a reported mind being technique (Alvarado, 1998). Among them, only engaged in a “blank” state (Rao, 2001). It is hypnosis, dreaming and a quiet or drowsy state believed that such “emptiness” may enhance of consciousness, including the ganzfeld normal perception (Carter et al., 2005; Lama, 2005) technique, have been studied recently, as will and perception of paranormal information (Lama, now be presented. Psi performance occurs best 2005). Apparently, the claim of Qigong with ESP in a quiet state of consciousness (Rao, 2001; needs to be further scientifically explained and Targ & Katra, 2001), suggesting that a quiet explored. mental state has a functional role in facilitating According to a review of over 40 ESP studies Psi performance. of dreaming from 1962 to 2002 (Sherwood & Roe, One common explanation for this functional 2003), the overall results indicate a positive role is that it serves to reduce internal somatic finding that participants correctly identified the noise and increase the Psi signal-noise ratio, target at better-than-chance levels. Hypnosis is which is considered to enhance a person’s Psi also considered an enhancer for ESP performance performance (Bem & Honorton, 1994). In a (Ryzl, 1962, 1966; Ryzl & Pratt, 1962). Twenty review study (Honorton, 1977), ten of the 13 psi studies were reviewed to compare Psi performance studies used relaxation. These ten studies in hypnotic induction and control conditions (E. I. involved 16 experimental series and nine of them Schechter, 1984). The group under hypnotic had significant results. The Ganzfeld technique induction had higher Psi scores than the group in can be regarded as involving a quiet state of the control condition. This point was further consciousness similar to a hypnagogic state supported by a meta-analysis of 25 studies in- (Vaitl et al., 2005) with an aim to reduce internal volving hypnosis (Stanford & Stein, 1994). somatic noise (W. G. Braud, Wood, & Braud, 1975; Honorton, 1977; Honorton & Harper, 1974; An electroencephalograph (EEG) is frequent- Parker, 1975). According to the accumulated ly used to measure the relationship between data, the Ganzfeld technique typically elicited cortical activity and Psi performance. Brain waves ESP performance at above chance levels (Bem & are measured by an EEG machine, which records Honorton, 1994; Bem et al., 2001; Palmer, 2003). small voltage signals from the scalp (Salinas & With respect to spontaneous Psi, 90% of cases Sejnowski, 2001). It is believed by some that Psi occurred during activities requiring minimal occurs in a quiet or a rather drowsy state of cognition, such as sleeping or sitting (Irwin, consciousness with low cortical arousal such as α 1994). (8-12Hz), delta (1-3Hz) and theta (4-7Hz) (Honorton, 1977; Honorton, Davidson, & Bindler, Likewise, within the Chinese tradition there 1971; Lee & Shih, 1993; McDonough, Don, & is an important conceptual framework for Warren, 1994; McDonough, Warren, & Don, 1989; relaxation - Qigong. Qigong literally refers to Stanford & Palmer, 1975; Targ & Puthoff, 1974). energy (Qi) cultivation (gong). Over one thousand methods of practicing Qigong have Cerebral hemisphere dominance been developed over thousands of years. It has It has been claimed that one area of the brain been claimed that these methods teach people Possible Factors, Psi, Psi’s Difficulty 7 involved in Psi might be the right hemisphere according to a review of studies of experimenter (Broughton, 1976, 1978; Ehrenwald, 1984; Roll effects (Smith, 2003), there are four ways that the & Persinger, 1998). In particular, it has been experimenter can affect the results of experiments. claimed that this effect has been observed in a The first experimenter effect is that the study of the psychic, Sean Harribance (Roll & experimenter can be biased. Experimenters with Persinger, 1998), although it is not observed in more positive attitudes might consciously or ‘normal’ people (Alexander & Broughton, 2001; unconsciously produce positive Psi results to Broughton, 1978), Clearly, this issue requires support their beliefs. This bias might lead to errors further research. in designing, conducting and interpreting the study. Emotional Response The emotional system might play an The second way is that an experimenter may important role in interpreting paranormal be fraudulent in terms of committing deception information (Broughton, 2002). One of the through faked data, allowing participants to cheat promising ideas is presentiment (Radin, 1997, during experiments or setting ridiculously weak 1998). One common method is to use the skin controls. The third method involves experimenter- conductance response (SCR) to detect future participant interaction. The experimenter might try information, such as a shocking picture or a loud to affect participants’ attitudes, beliefs, motivation noise. SCR refers a change in the ability of the and performance in tasks. For example, in a study skin to conduct electricity, caused by an (R. Wiseman & Greening, 2005), participants emotional stimulus. Another method is to watched a videotape that a faked psychic placed a employ slow cortical potentials (SCPs) in the bent key on the table. The verbal suggestion brain to show the significant difference between condition was in which the faked psychic before a light flash and before a no-flash suggested that the bent key was bending. condition (Radin & Lobach, 2006). The other Participants were more likely to report that the key measures are heart rate (McCraty, Atkinson, & was bending in a verbal suggestion condition than Bradley, 2004a, 2004b; Sartori, Massacessi, those who did not receive any verbal suggestion. Martinelli, & Trissoldi, 2004) and event-related The last possibility involves experimenter Psi. potentials (ERPs) (McCraty et al., 2004a, 2004b). Experimenters might use their own Psi ability to Many researchers have successfully replicated influence participants’ performance. This possibi- the result that emotional system plays an lity cannot be excluded, if Psi exists. It is still important role in interpreting paranormal premature to decide this possibility since we do information (Bierman & Radin, 1997; Bierman not have firm evidence of Psi’s existence. & Scholte, 2002; May, Paulinyi, & Vassy, 2005; Radin, 2004), though one study failed to support Magnetic Field this idea (Broughton, 2004). The results might One possible important characteristic of Psi reveal a possible explanation for how the information might be related to magnetic fields. emotional system perceives paranormal Biological cells in all organs and non-biological information (Broughton, 2004, 2006), although targets, such as electronic noise random event such possible explanations cannot entirely generators (REGs), radioactive decay detectors exclude the experimenter effect (May et al., and pseudo-random algorithms commonly used in 2005). Psi research, are capable of emitting elec- Experimenter Effect tromagnetic radiation (Stevens, 1997). Some researchers seem consistently to In addition, we live in the earth’s magnetic achieve positive Psi results; by contrast, others field -- the geomagnetic field, primarily created by appear to have more negative Psi findings. A the current of molten iron in its inner core. There study (C. Watt & Ramakers, 2003) indicates that are two distinct types of information from the participants tested by Psi-believing experimen- earth’s magnetic field (Johnsen & Lohmann, ters had higher scores on the Psi task than those 2005). The first one is directional or compass tested by disbelieving experimenters. This is information, such as north and south. The other called an experimenter effect. In general, one, the more complex one, is that magnetic

8 Yung-Jong Shiah Frances Chang features are subject to several geomagnetic & Lohmann, 2005). Relatively little is known parameters, such as inclination angle and field about the neural and biophysical mechanisms that intensity. underlie magnetic perception. Primary receptors involved in detecting magnetic information have Thus, a common idea is that magnetic fields not been successfully identified in humans. affect human performance. Much research has focused on the role of magnetic field in affecting Paranormal Belief, Personality, Intelligence and human performance as well as Psi performance. Intuition Some further investigations have discovered that Paranormal belief is the belief in paranormal geomagnetic activity might affect people’s me- phenomena which are considered to violate the mory retrieval (Persinger, 2002) and complex basic principles of physical science (Broad, 1953). perception, such as presences, fears, and odd The detailed examples of paranormal belief can be smells (Booth, Koren, & Persinger, 2005; seen in a recent paper (Brugger & Mohr, 2008). Persinger & Healey, 2002). Regardless of whether paranormal belief is Psi performance might be less effective associated with real experience, many attempts under higher geomagnetic activity (Dalton & have been made to explore the relationship Stevens, 1996; Spottiswoode, 1990). A positive between paranormal belief and its relevant relationship was found between successful Psi variables. One of the basic but important questions tasks and lower geomagnetic activity (Berger & many researchers have frequently asked is why Persinger, 1991; Broughton & Alexander, 1997; paranormal belief is widely held by many people. Persinger & Krippner, 1989), as well as quiet Among the orthodox reasons, paranormal belief geomagnetic activity (Persinger, 1985, 1989). It may serve a psychological function, satisfying is believed that too much magnetic activity one’s emotional, motivational, social and spiritual might act as a form of noise resulting in needs (Houran & Lange, 2001; J. E. Kennedy, difficulty for a participant to perceive paranor- 2005). Specifically, believers in paranormal mal information (Stevens, 2002). appear to link to some psychological and biological variables, such as absorption (French & In fact, electrical charges form the magnetic Wilson, 2006; J. E. Kennedy, 2005), fantasy field, including the human body in spite of its proneness (J. E. Kennedy, 2005; R. Wiseman & slight electrical charges. One might think that Watt, 2006), hypnotic suggestibility (French & magnetic field generated by a person affects Wilson, 2006), humanistic world view (Lindeman another person’s behaviours or brain activity. It & Aarnio, 2006), less perceived childhood control has not been firmly determined that a magnetic (C. Watt, Watson, & Wilson, 2007) and asymmetry field made by a human will affect another of body and brain (Schulter & Papousek, 2008). person’s behavior. The altered state of one brain They tend to take artificial coincidences seriously was found to cause predictable EEG waves of (Brugger & Taylor, 2003) and demonstrate another distant brain, which may be genetically non-logical thinking (Aarnio & Lindeman, 2005; related (Persinger, Koren, & Tsang, 2003) or not Dagnall, Parker, & Munley, 2007; Hergovich & (Richards, Kozak, Johnson, & Standish, 2005; Arendasy, 2005; Lindeman & Aarnio, 2006), false Standish, Kozak, Johnson, & Richards, 2004; memory (French, 2003; K. Wilson & French, 2006) Wackermann, Seiter, Keibel, & Walach, 2003). and affirmative bias (Blagrove, French, & Jones, These correlated neural signals were even 2006). This theme is understood as the idea of detected by fMRI (Richards et al., 2005). In misattribution by some researchers (R. Wiseman Radin’s study (Radin & Schlitz, 2005), altered & Watt, 2006), assuming that people who posses waves of one brain caused predictable EEG paranormal beliefs have misattributed paranormal waves of another distant brain producing a causation to normal experiences. different mood, such as positive, negative, calm, or neutral emotions. A thought from a healer also Further, the paranormal belief might have a caused a predictable EEG waves of another relation to mental disturbances, such as emotional distant brain (Achterberg et al., 2005). instability (Lindeman & Aarnio, 2006), schizophrenia (Thalbourne, 1994), schizotypal The mode of transmission for the magnetic tendencies (Genovese, 2005; Hergovich, Schott, & effect remains unknown in any animals (Johnsen Possible Factors, Psi, Psi’s Difficulty 9

Arendasy, 2008; Hergovich, Willinger, & et al., 2003). Other studies also reported the Arendasy, 2005; Houran, Irwin, & Lange, 2001), positive relationship between ESP performance dissociation (Houran et al., 2001; Sharps, and creativity (Dalton, 1997; Honorton, 1967; Matthews, & Asten, 2006), depression (Sharps et Moss, 1969; Roe, McKenzie, & Anowarun, 2001; al., 2006), delusion and reports of traumatic Schlitz & Honorton, 1992). It is considered that childhood (Perkins & Allen, 2006). creative people might be more receptive to perceive visual images related to the targets (Bem In the past decade, personality has been & Honorton, 1994). regarded as playing a major role in Psi hitting, which, in contrast to psi missing, refers to having Intelligent or highly educated participants the correct target identified beyond chance. have been shown to have less paranormal belief Empirical studies have shown extroverts to have (Blum & Blum, 1974; Jahoda, 1970; Killen & higher levels of paranormal belief and alleged Wildman, 1994). General cognitive ability might paranormal experience (Honorton, Ferrari, & be a critical underlying variable correlating with Bem, 1992; Schmeidler, 1982). Further, a meta- paranormal belief because that general cognitive analysis of 60 independent studies comprising ability is negatively correlated with belief in the 2,963 participants was conducted and showed paranormal (Musch & Ehrenberg, 2002). On the that extroverted people performed better in Psi contrary, no correlation between paranormal belief hitting than did introverted people (Honorton, and intelligence was found (Irwin, 1993). This Ferrari, & Bem, 1998), though some literature issue needs to be further examined. indicated extroversion was not associated with paranormal belief (Rattet & Bursik, 2001; Intuition might be a possible predictor of Psi Windholz & Diamant, 1974). Later, this idea also abilities (Broughton & Bourgeois, 2001). For was supported by additional studies (Morris, instance, it is generally assumed that business Summers, & Yim, 2003; Storm & Thalbourne, executives often make intuitive judgments, and 2001). By contrast, social anxiety was found to they had heightened precognitive performance be correlated with Psi missing (Carpenter, 1991; compared to other participants (Dean, Mihalasky, Palmer, 1977). Highly defensive participants Ostrander, & Schroeder, 1974). A study of were found to tend to score lower than less Intuitive Trader as a screening tool for identifying defensive participants (Haraldsson & Houtkoo- intuitive talent was suggested for future research per, 1995; Haraldsson, Houtkooper, Schneider, & (Broughton & Bourgeois, 2001). More data is Backstrom, 2002; C. A. Watt, 1994; C. A. Watt needed to support the positive relationship & Morris, 1995). Also, hightension participants between intuition and Psi. performed poorer in ESP tasks than low-tension Psi Training and Visual Imagery Training in Psi participants (Storm & Thalbourne, 2001). Some studies have investigated if Psi is tra- There are two possible reasons why out- trainable. For instance, it has been claimed that Psi going participants tend to perform better in Psi ability could be trained (W. G., Braud, & Wood, tasks. The first reason is that outgoing people are 1977; Honorton, 1970; Ryzl, 1962, 1966; Ryzl & more social and seek novelty (Bem & Honorton, Pratt, 1962; Targ & Tart, 1985; Tart, 1966, 1975, 1994; Morris et al., 2003).The other reason 1977, 1986; Tart, Palmer, & Redington, 1979). By might be that outgoing people are more relaxed contrast, many researchers (Beloff, 1967; Delanoy, and comfortable resulting in a lower cortical 1986; Fourie, 1977; Gissurarson, 1990; Jackson, arousal during ESP experiments (Bem & Franzoi, & Schmeidler, 1977; Morris, Robblee, Honorton, 1994). Neville, & Bailey, 1977; Stanford, 1977b; Utts, 1995; Vitulli, 1983) do not agree with this Creative personality might be one factor assumption. Clearly, this point remains influencing Psi hitting (Carpenter, 2004, 2005; unresolved. Morris, Dalton, Delanoy, & Watt, 1995). 40 creative people (22 musicians and 18 visual Visual imagery occurs when perceptual artists) were recruited to act as receivers in a information is accessed from memory, giving rise ganzfeld experiment and they obtained to the experience of “seeing with the mind's eye” significant results, with a 37.5% hit rate (Morris (Kosslyn, Ganis, & Thompson, 2001). Visual

10 Yung-Jong Shiah Frances Chang imagery has been widely used to generate Psi the records. The best way to rule out potential abilities (Blackmore & Rose, 1997; George, fraud is via replication studies by different 1981). During Psi performance, participants researchers. anticipated seeing images and they then reported Most results come to an agreement that the experiencing subjective images of targets. For participants seemingly perceived Psi information instance, participants were asked to imagine the with a low cortical arousal (below α EEG wave) targets in ESP tasks (Blackmore & Rose, 1997; and higher magnetic fields might interfere with Psi George, 1982; Honorton, 1975; Honorton, Tierney, & Torrey, 1974; Price, 1973; R. performance, although the exact role of the Schechter, Solfvin, & McCollum, 1975), PK magnetic field in affecting human behavior is not tasks (Gissurarson & Morris, 1990; Morris, clear. A good idea is to monitor the magnetic field Nanko, & Philips, 1982), remote viewing during experiments and keep away possible (Dunne & Jahn, 2005; Puthoff & Targ, 1976) and sources magnetic waves if magnetic detectors are in the ganzfeld technique. The results from the available. Similarly, the emotional response is a ganzfeld technique and remote viewing were good indicator of Psi. Suitable instruments to considered positive. measure the emotional response is needed. Regarding personality and beliefs, the apparent In brief, although little is known about temporary conclusion is that participants who are child psi, children may be a useful resource to be believers, outgoing and creative seem to have explored in Psi in terms of some relevant factors better Psi hitting. noted above. Experimenter effects unveil an There is no firm conclusion about the idea important issue that any Psi experimental that Psi is trainable. With regards to visual designs might have some limitations of their imagery and Psi, their relationship is still obscure. controls even under perfect safeguards. Three One enduring problem is to explain what and how sources affecting Psi performance cannot be participants’ visual experiences relating to targets entirely eliminated as follows. consist in. One might ask the questions: How does Psi ability of the participants or the this visual experience come about? Does experimenters: target-related visual imagery really constitute real visual imagery? They might influence each other by using their Psi abilities. Given the unknown nature of In conclusion, among the factors affecting or Psi, concerns regarding the aspect of Psi in- relating to Psi performance, it seems that seven fluence do not appear to be of immediate factors have a possible link with Psi performance: importance. aging, relaxation, emotional response, experimen- ter effects, magnetic field, personality and belief. Experimenter’s attitude -- believing in Psi or not: The Difficulty of Psi This might affect participants’ Psi perform- General Problem ance. However, the details of how this can Notwithstanding the above, this new happen are still unknown (Smith, 2003; C. Watt scientific subject receives little attention from & Ramakers, 2003). One possible strategy to mainstream science (Alvarado, 2003; McClenon et solve this problem is to allow monitoring of this al., 2003; Odling-Smee, 2007; Schmidt, Schneider, possibility -- that is, that the experimenter and Utts, & Walach, 2004). Empirical data are emerg- co-experimenter’s beliefs in Psi should be ing only slowly. The total amount of work done in measured. Psi is equivalent to no more two months work in Experimenters or co-experimenters cheating, psychology in total (Schouten, 1998). Para- whether deliberately or unconsciously: psychological studies are often criticised and Experimenters or co-experimenters could confronted with a voluminous amount of questions. cheat in a variety of ways, such as making One basic but important question - the existence of detectable marks on the targets, allowing or parapsychological phenomena has long been a helping participants to cheat, or even changing matter of intense debate. Since replicability is considered the basic requirement for scientific Possible Factors, Psi, Psi’s Difficulty 11 research, all experimental paradigms in Psi are example, they may seek academic reputation or confronted with the issue of replicability by financial rewards and so forth. This can scarcely different researchers (Parker, 2003). For this be de- tected or prevented. reason, many researchers (Alcock, 2003; Bosch, The fact is that many adults have attempted Steinkamp, & Boller, 2006a, 2006b; Burns, 2003; psychic cheating (Hansen, 1990, 1992; Hyman, Jeffers, 2003; Milton & Wiseman, 1999, 2001) 1985; Morris, 1986), as well as many children have argued that no convincing evidence has (Nicol, 1985). Apparently psychical powers might supported the existence of Psi. This problem be demonstrated using standard conjuring leads to other serious problems, such as techniques (Hansen, 1992; R. Wiseman & Morris, unpredictability, lack of progress, methodologic- 1995). al weakness, and failure to propose coherent explanatory theories (Alcock, 2003; Burns, 2003; Concluding Remarks Diaconis, 1978; J. E. Kennedy, 2001, 2003; Regarding the finger-reading training effects, Marks, 1986, 1987; Morris, 2000; Sarma, 1986). no one has previously demonstrated that ESP and Within this special context in the laboratory, Psi PK can be trained by a serial training procedure. is in a difficult situation due to the lack of The finger-reading training procedure was the first replication of strong manifestations of Psi to have claimed that ESP and PK could be trained (Palmer, 2003). through a serial training procedure, thus the The Specific Problem of Fraud in Psi Studies finger-reading effect is worth further invest- Many psychical abilities have been the tigation. Specifically, the possible existence of subject of interest of academic society, such as finger-reading ability gives rise to three impor- Psi. Nevertheless, some claims to Psi abilities tant issues: First, whether ESP is trainable re- were found to involve cheating. For instance, in mains unknown. Even if ESP phenmena are real, 1988, five scientists and one member of staff of there are no reliable methods to elicit these the Executive Council of the Committee for the abilities. Lee (1998, 1999) argued that Psi ability Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Para- could be trained step-by-step through the normal went to Mainland China to do a pre- finger-reading training procedures, showing the possibility that Psi is trainable. How this training liminary test of several kinds of ESP abilities, such as a psychic woman claiming to be procedure works is worth investigating. able to diagnose illness by seeing into a person’s Secondly, the results of ESP studies have body, a Qigong master claiming to be able to generally been found to be elusive, weak, transmit his external Qi to a person for some unreliable and lacking in quality (Alcock, 2003; J. healing purpose and children claiming to have E. Kennedy, 2001). For instance, only 1% of clairvoyance by touching. They found no remote viewing participants have shown sig- evidence of any psychical ability of the psychic nificant results (Utts, 1996). In addition, para- woman and Qigong master. Even the positive psychologists have not agreed upon whether there results with the children were found to contain has been sufficient evidence to support the clear evidence of cheating (Kurtz et al., 1991). existence of ESP. Based on Lee’s findings, nearly How will fraud happen? First of all, weak a quarter of unselected participants were capable safeguards will increase the likelihood of of showing finger-reading ability after training. attempting fraud and they are the most important This is a decisive effect, suggesting that a strong issue to be dealt with. Secondly, motivation and reliable finger-reading ability might exist. needs to be investigated. Several possible The third issue is that the quality of the motivations are validating one’s psychical ability, subjective visual imagery reported by participants obtaining financial rewards, increasing attention plays a key role in successfully identifying targets. from a variety of observers, increasing personal This might indicate that vivid imagery is a good power or, sometimes, increasing self-esteem predictor of finger-reading ability. If finger through fooling scientists (R. Wiseman & Morris, reading is real, one would expect its manifesations 1995). Even worse, researchers themselves to be predictable. might commit fraud to satisfy their needs; for A possible way to begin would be to examine

12 Yung-Jong Shiah Frances Chang

the first claim of the finger-reading effects, since secret codes from another person and switching if it is true and the other claims, such as the original target, might be used to produce indirectly touching of a target, a connection with distortion of ESP abilities. One useful method to the information field, or PK, can be explored evaluate the likelihood of trickery is to survey a later. As noted before, the finger reading effects participant’s history (Hansen, 1990), such as any have a lack of stringent safeguards. The first psychic claims being made before or training in author’s previous finger reading studies have magic. identified relevant research questions (Shiah & Safeguards must ensure that the experimental Tam, 2005). In a recent paper, modified design rules out unwanted interpretations with finger-reading procedures with robust controls respect to poor observation, sensory leakage and were described (Shiah, 2005). If the fraud (Milton, 1996; Morris, 1999, 2001; finger-reading effect can be replicated under Steinkamp, Milton, & Morris, 1998). Many efforts robust and credible conditions, then perhaps have been made to develop a strict methodology more research resources could be attracted to for experimental Psi to test apparently paranormal investigate the possibility of exceptional and abilities in a controlled laboratory situation and parapsychological finger-reading abilities in statistical methods (W. Braud, 1999; Brier, 1999; J. children. E. Kennedy, 2004; Lamont & Wiseman, 1999; In fact, Psi is in a difficult situation due to Milton, 1996; Morris, 1987, 1999, 2001; Palmer, the lack of a repeatable experiment of strong 1986; Stokes, 2002; R. Wiseman & Morris, 1995). manifestations of Psi (Alcock, 2003; Milton & Different researchers have different concerns and Wiseman, 1999, 2001). One of the solutions is to requirements for safeguards in their studies. Thus, learn how Psi can be trained so that we can have this issue cannot be specified in this paper. Taken reliable ESP results. If Psi is trainable, many together, obviously, no Psi experimental designs questions remain, in addition to those mentioned can provide perfect safeguards against fraud. above. A central issue is how do subjects know Worse, experimenters themselves may attempt what to learn (Stanford, 1977a)? For this reason, deceit. How do we deal with this problem? In a Psi training model is needed to answer these normal science, actually, studies are hardly ever questions. The construction of an appropriate accepted until they are replicated. The possible theoretical Psi training process will be important best way to rule out fraud is to have replication to examine whether the concepts employed can with stringent safeguards by different re- be sufficiently operationalized to enable a searchers. scientific test of the assumptions for the future In sum, given the long road ahead, the study. challenge is to see if Psi can be observed and It is a good strategy that researchers should described. The principal aim of the former is to assume the participant has a certain degree of support if Psi exists, while the latter is more motivation to undertake cheating. Adopting this concerned to find out how Psi works. This premise, strict fraud controls should be im- phenomenon, if Psi exists, must first be given a plemented while conducting Psi experiments. To theoretical explanation before future research into become really proficient at conjuring is not its nature can be undertaken. Consequently, in the achieved in a day (Lewis, 1990), but a greater context of the problem of constructing a appreciation can be had with less effort since a well-developed ESP theory, the investigation of more fruitful discussion with professional finger-reading might also give us a chance to magicians has been suggested. The book “Magic achieve this goal. Indeed, a major challenge for in Theory” (Lamont & Wiseman, 1999) aimed at Psi research lies in the elusive evidence of Psi. A presenting the theoretical elements of conjuring testable model of the Psi training process is as understood by competent and experienced wanted. Investigating the Psi may serve to conjurors. This book helps parapsychologists authenticate the evidence of the interaction investigating psychical claims to be more aware between the mind and the matter. The goals are of the deceptive magic performances. Methodo- still a long way down the road, and more studies logical strategies, such as controlling the selec- are needed to take steps toward the direction of tion of information, marks, glimpses, receiving exploring the possibly elusive Psi. Possible Factors, Psi, Psi’s Difficulty 13

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影響 Psi 現象的可能因素及 Psi 現象的困境

1 2 夏允中 張秀英

1 高雄醫學大學心理學系

2 建國科技大學應用外語系

Psi是不可能用現有的科學經驗解釋的科學研究。Psi包括超感知覺 和念力，超感知覺泛指訊息的獲得不是用經由傳統的視覺、聽覺、嗅 覺、觸覺和聽覺;念力指似乎只以意志力，不碰觸環境情況下而影響環 境。Psi的研究可能提供我們了解心智與環境的關係及相互作用。很多 研究指出Psi可能存在，但仍然有些學者不認同這個觀點的。七個因素 可能與Psi現象相關，包括：年齡、放鬆、情緒反應、實驗者作用、高 的磁場、個性和信仰。然而，這個新的科學被質疑其研究結果有瑕疵 及研究結果可否被不同研究者複製等問題。目前需要更多的研究在嚴 謹的方法學下來探討與測試Psi的訓練模式。

關鍵詞：Psi、超感知覺、念力、複製、瑕疵、方法學