Cover Design The cover design is based on one of the Eight Auspicious symbols of Tibetan Buddhism; the Eternal Knot. The eternal, continuous flow of this symbol has been used in order to illustrate the possible continuous assimilation and integration of the Tibetans into other cultures, and in turn how other cultures and societies are influenced by the presence of the Tibetans and their culture. For each culture and society (Tibetan, Indian and Chinese) ten images related to the cultural and social signifiers of each have been used, such as the national flag, (previous) national leaders, religious symbols, people, language and architecture. These three sequences are continuously repeated along the flow of the Eternal Knot. This in turn forms a rhythm and because of the crossings in the Eternal Knot they merge together at nine different points. Design by Bart Weber, Mediamogul Website: www.mediamogul.nl | [email protected] Contents Acknowledgements v Maps of Tibet, the PRC and India vii List of Tables, Figures and Boxes ix Acronyms and Abbreviations xi Conversions xi Glossary of Tibetan Words xiii 1 Introduction 1 General outline of the problem 1 Migration and Integration in a Development Perspective 1 Theoretical and Policy-related Debate about Integration 3 Research Objectives and Central Research Question 5 Structure of dissertation 6 2 Theoretical Framework and Methods & Techniques of Research 7 2.1 Relation between Migration, Development and Integration 7 2.2 Integration: A Theoretical View 10 2.2.1 The Integration Concept 11 2.2.2 Two Dimensions of Integration: Structural and Social-Cultural 12 2.2.3 The Mechanisms of Integration 13 2.2.4 Indicators for Social-Cultural Integration 15 2.2.5 Indicators for Structural Integration 19 2.2.6 The Influence of State Discrimination Policy on Level of Integration 21 2.2.7 Analytical framework 23 2.3 Research Questions 25 2.4 A Short History of Tibet since 1949 26 2.5 Research Methods and Techniques 28 2.5.1 Context of Research in China and Tibet 28 2.5.2 Case Studies 29 2.5.3 Selection of the Case Studies 30 2.5.4 Choosing the Sample 30 2.5.5 Interviews 31 2.5.6 Informant Interviews 31 2.5.7 Interpreters 31 2.5.8 Participant Observation 32 2.5.9 Participatory Mapping 32 2.5.10 Study of Literature 32 2.5.11 Validity, Reliability and Limitation 33 3 Case 1: Lhasa, Tibetan Autonomous Region, P.R.C. 35 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Structural Integration 36 3.2.1 Labour 36 3.2.1.1 Income and Inequality 39 3.2.1.1 Ownership 39 3.2.2 Education 41 3.2.2.1 Education in Lhasa 43 3.2.3 Housing and Spatial Concentration by Ethnicity 45 3.3 Social Cultural Integration 46 3.3.1 Ethnocultural Identity 46 3.3.2 Language 47 3.3.3 Religion 48 3.3.4 Perception of Dominant Culture 50 3.3.5 Social Contacts 50 3.3.6 Mobility 51 3.3.7 Active Preservation of Culture and Identity 51 3.4 Difference in Generations 52 3.5 Summary 53 4 Case 2: Xiahe, Gansu Province, P.R.C. 55 4.1 Introduction 55 4.2 Structural Integration 56 4.2.1 Labour 56 4.2.1.1 Ethnic Division of Labour 56 4.2.1.2 Income and Ownership 58 4.2.2 Education 59 4.2.2.1 Education in Xiahe 60 4.2.3 Housing and Spatial Concentration by Ethnicity 62 4.3 Social Cultural Integration 63 4.3.1 Ethnocultural Identity 63 4.3.2 Language 64 4.3.3. Religion 65 4.3.4 Perception of Dominant Culture 67 4.3.5 Social Contacts 68 4.3.6 Mobility 69 4.3.7 Active Preservation of Culture and Identity 69 4.4 Difference in Generations 71 4.5 Summary 72 5 Case 3: McLeodGanj, Himachal Pradesh, India 75 5.1 Introduction 75 5.2 Structural Integration 76 5.2.1 Labour 76 5.2.1.1 Ethnic Division of Labour 77 5.2.1.2 Income 78 5.2.1.3 Unemployment 80 5.2.2 Education 81 5.2.2.1 Education in McLeodGanj 82 5.2.3 Housing and Spatial Concentration by Ethnicity 85 5.3 Social Cultural Integration 87 5.3.1 Ethnocultural Identity 87 5.3.2 Language 88 5.3.3 Religion 88 5.3.4 Perception of Dominant Culture 89 5.3.5 Social Contacts 90 5.3.6 Mobility 92 5.3.7 Active Preservation of Culture and Identity 93 5.3.7.1 Education and Preservation of Culture and Identity 94 5.3.7.2 GOI Policy on Preservation of Tibetan Culture and Identity 95 5.3.7.3 Institutions for the Preservation of Tibetan Culture and Identity 96 5.4 Difference in Generations 97 5.6 Summary 98 6 Analysis and Conclusion 101 6.1 Structural and Social-Cultural Integration in the Three Case Studies 101 6.2 Future Development Perspectives of Tibetans in the Three Cases 106 Bibliography 109 Appendix 1 Interviews conducted in McLeodGanj, India 117 Appendix 2 Topic List 119 Appendix 3 Statistics on Total Number of Workers in State-Owned Units in the TAR 123 Appendix 4 The Panchen Lama: A Brief History (by ICT) 125 Acknowledgements First of all I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all the Tibetan respondents inside China and the Tibetan Autonomous Region, without whom this research and thesis would not exist. For reasons of security they cannot be named. I am grateful to Tsering Namgyal, Sonam Dagpo, Thubten Samphel, Lhasang Tsering, Thupten Dorjee, Nyima Topgyal, Pema and many other government- and NGO officials for their help during my research time in India. I would especially like to thank my supervisor Dr. Lau Schulpen for his guidance and for giving me the opportunity to conduct this study inside Tibet. I would also like to thank Chris Maas, Tsering Jampa, Karina de Winter, Stijn Wouters, Marianne Riphagen and Lea Hukema for inspiration and valuable suggestions during the writing of the research proposal and this thesis. I would like to thank my parents for supporting me during this last year of university in many different ways. In addition I must thank my brother Bart Weber for using his excellent skills for the design of the front cover. I am especially indebted to Elliott Ripley who read through the drafts and made a great many improvements and for his support throughout the journey and the writing of this thesis. Maps of Tibet, the PRC and India Tibet before the Chinese invasion in 1949/50 Source: Free Tibet Campaign, UK. The Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR) within the PRC since 1965 Original source: Travel China Guide Three case studies: Lhasa, Xiahe and McLeodGanj Xiahe McLeodGanj Lhasa Original source: Free Tibet Campaign, UK. McLeodGanj in India T A McLeodGanj R Original source: MTCP List of Tables, Figures and Boxes Tables Table 2.1 Interviews conducted in all three case studies 29 Table 3.1: Staff and workers in State-owned units in the TAR 1999-2003 37 Table 3.2: Cumulative Loss and Gain in Staff and Worker Employment Relative to 2000 37 Table 3.3: Cadres Employment in State Owned Units 38 Table 3.4: Illiteracy rates among the population aged 15 and older, 1998 to 2002 41 Table 3.5: Education levels of the population aged six and older, 2002 survey 42 Table 3.6: Education levels of the population aged six and older by ethnicity, 2000 Census 42 Table 4.1: Proportions of Tibetans and Chinese in different kind of work in Xiahe 56 Table 4.2: Illiteracy rates among the population aged 15 and older, 1998 to 2002 59 Table 4.3: Education levels of the population aged six and older, 2002 survey 59 Table 4.4: Education levels of the population aged six and older by ethnicity, 2000 Census 60 Table 5.1: Average income in India, Himachal Pradesh and Tibetan settlements 79 Table 5.2: Type of education among respondents. 82 Table 5.3: Education level attained among respondents 83 Table 5.4: Enrolment participation percentage (of the Tibetan community in India) 84 Table 5.5: School Enrolment (India) 84 Table 5.6: Neighbours of respondents by ethnicity 86 Table 5.7: Interest in Indian culture among respondents 89 Table 5.8: Opinions about the difference between Tibetan and Indian culture 90 Table 5.9: Indian contacts among respondents 91 Table 5.10: Medical preference among Tibetans in India. 92 Table 6.1: Indicators with score for structural and social-cultural integration in each case 105 Figures Figure 2.1: Possible positive effects of a successful integration on the country of origin, the host country and individual migrants 10 Figure 2.2: Four ideal integration profiles 14 Figure 2.3: The salience of ethnocultural identity 17 Figure 2.4: Aspects and indicators of Social-Cultural Integration 18 Figure 2.5: Aspects and indicators of Structural Integration 20 Figure 3.1: Patriotism exhibition 37 Figure 4.1: Billboard on a roof of one of the buildings in the main street of Xiahe 63 Boxes Box 2.1: Economic discrimination, Political discrimination and Cultural discrimination further specified. 22 Box 3.1: Railway Golmud- Lhasa 40 Box 3.2: Patriotic Education 44 Acronyms and Abbreviations CCP Chinese Communist Party CPSY China Population Statistical Yearbook CSY China Statistical Yearbook CTA Central Tibetan Administration DIIR Department of Information and International Relations EU European Union GOI Government of India HHDL His Holiness the Dalai Lama ICT International Campaign for Tibet IOM International Organisation for Migration IOSCPRC Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China ITFA Indo-Tibetan-Friendship Association NGO Non-Governmental Organization PLA People’s Liberation Army PRC People’s Republic of China TAR Tibetan Autonomous Region TCV Tibetan Children’s Village TIN Tibet Information Network TIPA Tibetan Institute for Performing Arts TSY Tibet Statistical Yearbook TWA Tibetan Women Association TYC Tibetan Youth Congress UN United Nations WTO World Trade Organisation Conversions 10 Chinese Yuan one Euro in July 2004 54 Indian Rupees one Euro in October 2004 Glossary of Tibetan Words Amdo Former Tibetan province in North Eastern Tibet.