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Brief Contents

PART I: Comparative Political Analysis 14 Race, Ethnicity, and Gender 325

1 The Comparative Approach: An Introduction 1 15 and Religion in Modern 348 2 Theories, Hypotheses, and Evidence 23 PART V: The Comparative-International Nexus PART II: The , Development, , and 16 Comparative Politics and International Relations 372 3 The State 46 4 Political Economy 70 PART VI: Country Profi les and Cases

5 Development 96 Brazil 399 6 Democracy and Democratization 119 China 412 7 Authoritarian Regimes and Democratic France 427 Breakdown 145 Germany 441 India 455 PART III: of Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran) 468 8 Constitutions and Constitutional Design 171 Japan 482 9 Legislatures and Legislative Elections 198 Mexico 496 10 Executives 226 Nigeria 510 11 Political Parties, Party Systems, and Interest Russia 525 Groups 252 United Kingdom 539 PART IV: Politics, , and Culture United States 553

12 and Contention 277 13 Nationalism and National Identity 304

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Insights xi How Theories Emerge and Are Used 27 Preface xiii Types of Evidence 29 Maps of the World xxiv Hypothesis Testing 31 Correlation 31 Causation 33 Critiques: Using Theory and Evidence 39 Empirical Critiques: Using Deviant Cases 39 Theoretical Critiques: Improving Theories PART I: Comparative Political Analysis and Hypotheses 39 The Challenges of Measurement: Biases, CHAPTER 1 Errors, and Validity 41 Th e Comparative Approach: THINKING COMPARATIVELY Qualities of Good Analysis An Introduction 1 and Argumentation 42 Asking Why: Research Questions in Comparative Step 1: Asking Good Questions: Why? 43 Politics 2 Step 2: Hypothesis Testing: Generating Good Hypotheses Major Questions in Comparative Politics 4 and Testing Them Fairly 43 Empirical Arguments Versus Normative Arguments 6 Step 3: Balancing Argumentation: Evidence, Originality, Solving Intellectual Puzzles: A Contemporary Analogy 7 and Meaningfulness 43 Concepts 9 Features of Good Concepts 9 Conceptualization 10 Operationalizing: From Concepts to Measures 11 Empirical Evidence 12 Facts and Evidence 12 PART II: The State, Development, Cases and Case Studies 13 Democracy, and Authoritarianism The Comparative Method 14 CHAPTER 3 Variables and Comparison 14 The Most-Similar-Systems Design 15 Th e State 46 The Most-Diff erent-Systems Design 18 Concepts 48 Comparative Checking 18 The Modern State 48 Within-Case Comparison 20 State Capacity 49 Is the Study of Politics a ? The Limits of the Failed States 50 Comparative Method 20 The State–Society Relationship 50

CHAPTER 2 Types 52 Characteristics of Modern States 52 Th eories, Hypotheses, and Evidence 23 Bureaucracy 52 Introduction to Theories, Hypotheses, Impersonality 53 and Evidence 24 Sovereignty 54 Theories 25 Traditional Functions of States 55 Hypotheses 25 Defense 55 iv

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Policing 55 Institutions: Beyond the Market–State Debate 106 Taxation 56 Culture and Development 107 Order, Administration, and “Legibility” 57 Civil Society, Social Capital, and Trust 107 Causes And Effects:Why Did States Emerge Religion 109 and Expand? 57 Value Systems 109 Political/ Theories 58 Systems and Structures: International and Domestic 110 Economic Theories 60 Domestic Economic Structures and Class Interests 111 Cultural Theories 61 International Economic Structures and Class Interests 111 Diffusion Theories 62 Geography 112 THINKING COMPARATIVELY THINKING COMPARATIVELY Great Britain, the United Explaining the Development Kingdom, or Neither? State and Nation in England of North and South Korea 114 and Scotland 65 CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 4 Democracy and Democratization 119 Concepts­ 121 Political Economy 70 Democracy and Democratic Regimes 121 Concepts 72 Procedural (Minimal) Definitions of Democracy 122 Inequality 73 Substantive Definitions of Democracy 123 Employment and Inflation 75 Regime Change and Democratization 124 Types 76 Types 125 Markets and States in Modern Economies 76 Types of Democracy 125 Markets and Economic Performance 77 Representative Democracy 126 States and Economic Performance 79 Direct Democracy 128 Economic Functions of Modern States 82 Types of Democratization 129 States and Economic Management 82 Democratic Transitions 129 Investments in Human Capital: Education and Health 83 Democratic Consolidation 129 Infrastructure and Other Public Goods 85 Welfare State Functions 85 Causes and Effects: What Causes Democratization? 131 Modernization 132 Causes and Effects: Why Do Welfare States Emerge? 86 Culture and Democracy 134 Cultural Changes 87 The International System 135 Industrial 87 Domestic Institutions 136 Mobilization and Political Action 89 Agents and Actors: The of Individuals and Groups 137 International Learning Effects 92 Combining Arguments and Theories: Multiple Causes 139 THINKING COMPARATIVELY Welfare States in the Nordic THINKING COMPARATIVELY Is American Democracy Countries: What Can We Learn and How? 93 a Model? 141

CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 7 Development 96 Authoritarian Regimes and Democratic Concepts 97 Breakdown 145 Types 97 Concepts 147 Poverty 97 Authoritarianism and Authoritarian Regimes 147 Social Outcomes and Human Development 99 Transitions to Authoritarian Regimes 148 Gender Relations and Racial and Ethnic Identities 100 Types 148 Satisfaction and Happiness 101 Types of Authoritarianism 148 Cultural Development 102 Totalitarian Regimes 148 Sustainability 103 Theocracies 149 Causes And Effects: Why Does Development Personalistic Dictatorships 149 Happen? 103 Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes 151 Institutions: The Market–State Debate, Revisited 104 Hybrid and Semi-authoritarian Regimes 151

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Types of Transition (or Nontransition) to Authoritarianism 152 Types 202 Authoritarian Persistence 153 Unicameral and Bicameral Legislatures 202 Democratic Breakdown 155 Electoral Systems 205 Transition to Hybrid or Semi-authoritarian Regime 157 District Systems 205 Causes and Eff ects: What Causes Authoritarian Regimes Proportional Representation (PR) 208 to Emerge and Persist? 158 Mixed or Hybrid 209 Historical Institutionalist Theories 159 –Legislative Relations 211 Poverty and Inequality 160 Causes and Eff ects: What Explains Patterns State Weakness and Failure 162 of Representation? 213 Political Culture Theories of Authoritarian Persistence 163 Patterns of Representation 213 Barriers to 164 Electoral Systems and Representation 215 Special Causal Circumstances Surrounding Hybrid Legislative Decision Making and Representation 218 and Semi-Authoritarian Regimes 166 Executive–Legislative Relations and THINKING COMPARATIVELY Why Did Zimbabwe Become Representation 220 and Remain Authoritarian? 167 THINKING COMPARATIVELY Representation in New Zealand and Beyond 222

CHAPTER 10 Executives 226 PART III: Institutions of Government Concepts 228 Types 229 CHAPTER 8 Executive Structures: Presidential and Parliamentary 230 Constitutions and Constitutional Design 171 Formal Powers 232 Concepts 174 Partisan Powers 235 Coalitions 235 Constitutions 174 Informal Powers 240 Constitutional Design 175 Types 176 Causes and Eff ects: What Explains Executive Flexible and Rigid Constitutions 177 Stability? 240 Stable and Unstable Regimes: Presidentialism, Parliamentarism, Separation of Powers: Judicial Review and Parliamentary and Democracy 240 Sovereignty 178 Stable and Unstable Executives: Styles of Presidential Federalism and Unitarism 180 Rule 243 Federalism 180 Stable and Unstable Executives: Patterns of Parliamentary Unitarism 182 Rule 246 Authoritarian and Democratic Constitutions 183 THINKING COMPARATIVELY Beyond the American Causes and Eff ects: What Are the Eff ects of Federal and British Models 247 Constitutions? 184 Are Federal Constitutions Good for Social Stability? 185 CHAPTER 11 Are Federal Constitutions Good for Democratic ? 187 Are Federal Constitutions Good for the Economy? 188 Political Parties, Party Systems, and Interest Judicial Review and Democracy 190 Groups 252 THINKING COMPARATIVELY What Explains the Similarities Concepts 255 Between the Brazilian and South African Political Parties 255 Constitutions? 193 Party Systems 255 Interest Groups 256 CHAPTER 9 Types 257 Legislatures and Legislative Elections 198 Political Parties: , Mass, and Catch-All Parties 258 Concepts 200 Party Systems: Dominant-Party, Two-Party, and Multiparty What Legislatures Are 200 Systems 259 What Legislatures Do 201 Interest Groups: Pluralism and Corporatism 264

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Causes and Eff ects: Why Do Party Systems Emerge, Cultural Boundaries 317 and What Eff ects Do They Have? 267 Material Interests 318 Party Systems and Representation 267 Rational Calculation 318 What Factors Shape Party Systems? 267 320 How Do Party Systems Shape Political Outcomes? 269 THINKING COMPARATIVELY Ending Ethnic and National Interest Groups and Representation 272 Violence 321 THINKING COMPARATIVELY Party Systems in Sub-Saharan CHAPTER 14 Africa 275 Race, Ethnicity, and Gender 325 Concepts 327 Race and Ethnicity 327 Gender 328 Sexual Orientation 329 PART IV: Politics, Society, and Culture Types 329 Disentangling Race and Ethnicity 329 CHAPTER 12 Discrimination Based on Race and Ethnicity 332 Revolutions and Contention 277 Gender Discrimination 333 Concepts 279 Empowerment of Women and Minority Groups 334 What Is “Contention”? 279 Causes and Eff ects: What Factors Infl uence Revolutionary and Non-Revolutionary Contention 279 the Political Representation of Women and Types 280 Minority Groups? 337 Social Movements 280 Mobilization 337 Revolutions 284 Political Parties Based on Gender or Ethnicity 339 Insurgencies and Civil Wars 287 Institutions for Promoting Women’s and Minority Group Representation 341 Terrorism 287 “Everyday Resistance” 289 THINKING COMPARATIVELY Indicators of Gender Thinking About Contention: Summary 290 Empowerment 344

Causes and Eff ects: Why Do Revolutions CHAPTER 15 Happen? 291 Relative Deprivation 291 Ideology and Religion in Modern and Political Politics 348 Opportunities 292 Concepts 350 Rational Choice 294 Modernity and Modernization 350 Culture or “Framing” Explanations 296 Ideology 351 THINKING COMPARATIVELY The “Arab Spring” of 2011 298 Religion 351 Secularization, Religion, and Modern Politics 352 CHAPTER 13 Religious Confl ict 353 Nationalism and National Identity 304 Types 354 Concepts 306 Modern 354 Identity 306 354 Nationalism and the Nation 306 355 356 Types 307 Modern Forms of Religion in Politics 357 Primordialist Approaches 307 Lay and Religious States 358 Perennialist Approaches 308 Denominationalism 359 Modernist Approaches 308 Types of Nationalism 311 Causes and Eff ects: Why Do Religion and Ideology Remain Prevalent in Modern Politics? 360 Causes and Eff ects: What Causes Ethno-national Why (and How) Does Modernization Alter Religion’s Role Confl ict? 313 in Politics? 360 Primordial Bonds 316 Modernization Theory and Secularization 361

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The “Religious Economies” Approach 362 CASE STUDIES 407 Institutional Theories 363 Does the Global Economy Help or Hurt Developing Nations? Why Didn’t Ideology (and History) End? 364 (Chapter 5) 407 THINKING COMPARATIVELY Two Lefts in Latin Democratic Consolidation in Brazil (Chapter 6) 408 America? 367 Electoral Rules and Party (In)Discipline in Brazil’s Legislature (Chapter 9) 409 Brazil’s Landless Movement (Chapter 12) 410 Gender and Political Representation in Brazil: Where Has Progress Come From? (Chapter 14) 410

PART V: The Comparative-International China 412 Nexus PROFILE 412 Introduction 412 CHAPTER 16 Key Features of Contemporary China 412 Historical Development 414 Comparative Politics and International Regime and Political Institutions 417 Relations 372 Political Culture 418 Concepts 375 Political Economy 419 Issues 376 CASE STUDIES 420 Globalization and Trade 376 How Did China Become an Economic Power? International Institutions and Integration 380 (Chapter 5) 420 Immigration 382 Is China Destined for Democracy? (Chapter 6) 421 Environment and Sustainability 384 Who Governs China? (Chapter 10) 423 Transnational Networks 387 The Chinese Party System (Chapter 11) 424 Nuclear Threats and Terrorism 388 The Chinese (Chapter 12) 425 Causes and Eff ects: What Are the Main Causes in International Relations? 390 France 427 Realism 390 PROFILE 427 Liberalism 393 Introduction 427 Constructivism 394 Key Features of Contemporary France 427 395 Historical Development 430 THINKING COMPARATIVELY The EU and Levels Regime and Political Institutions 431 of Analysis 395 Political Culture 432 Political Economy 433 Duisburg GERMANY CASE STUDIES Essen Leipzig 434 Düsseldorf Kassel Dresden Cologne The State in France (Chapter 3) 434 Bonn Authoritarian Persistence in Nineteenth-Century France (Chapter 7) 436 PART VI: Country Profi les and Cases Electing the French President: What Do Runoff s Do? (Chapter 10) 436 The French Revolution (Chapter 12) 437 Brazil 399 Religion and Secularism in France (Chapter 15) 438 PROFILE 399 Globalization and Culture in France (Chapter 16) 439 Introduction 399 Key Features of Contemporary Brazil 399 Germany 441 Historical Development 401 PROFILE 441 Regime and Political Institutions 405 Introduction 441 Political Culture 405 Key Features of Contemporary Germany 441 Political Economy 406

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Historical Development 443 Regime and Political Institutions 446 Japan 482 Political Culture 447 PROFILE 482 Political Economy 448 Introduction 482 CASE STUDIES 449 Key Features of Contemporary Japan 482 The German State: Unification and Welfare (Chapter 4) 449 Historical Development 484 Democracy and Authoritarianism in Germany Regime and Political Institutions 487 (Chapter 7) 450 Political Culture 488 Institutional Design: Germany’s Bundestag and Bundesrat Political Economy 488 (Chapter 9) 451 CASE STUDIES 490 Consensus-Based Politics in Germany (Chapter 11) 452 State-Led Development in Japan (Chapter 4) 490 Ethnic Boundaries of the German Nation? (Chapter 13) 453 The Hybrid Electoral System of the Japanese Diet (Chapter 9) 491 India 455 How Did Japan's Dominant Party Win for So Long? (Chapter 11) 491 PROFILE 455 Importing National Identity in Japan? (Chapter 13) 493 Introduction 455 Gender Empowerment in Japan? (Chapter 14) 493 Key Features of Contemporary India 455 Resource Management in Japan (Chapter 16) 494 Historical Development 457 Regime and Political Institutions 460 Political Culture 461 Mexico 496 Political Economy 462 PROFILE 496 CASE STUDIES 463 Introduction 496 What Explain India’s Recent Growth? (Chapter 5) 463 Key Features of Contemporary Mexico 496 Democracy’s Success in India: What Can We Learn from Historical Development 498 a Deviant Case? (Chapter 6) 464 Regime and Political Institutions 501 Federalism and Differences in Development in India Political Culture 502 (Chapter 8) 464 Political Economy 503 Ethnicity and Political Parties in India (Chapter 14) 465 CASE STUDIES 504 India in the Twenty-First Century: Domestic Politics, Identity, The Mexican State and Rule of Law (Chapter 3) 504 and Security (Chapter 16) 466 Mexico’s “Perfect Dictatorship” and Its End (Chapter 7) 505 Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran) 468 The PRI and Corporatism in Mexico (Chapter 11) 506 PROFILE 468 Industrialization, Modernity, and National Identity in Mexico (Chapter 13) 507 Introduction 468 Why Aren’t There Major Ethnic Parties in Mexico? Key Features of Contemporary Iran 468 (Chapter 14) 508 Historical Development 470 Regime and Political Institutions 473 Political Culture 474 Nigeria 510 Political Economy 474 PROFILE 510 CASE STUDIES 475 Introduction 510 Democratic Features of Authoritarian Systems? The Case of Key Features of Contemporary Nigeria 510 Iran (Chapter 7) 475 Historical Development 512 Constitutional Design: Theocracy in Iran (Chapter 8) 476 Regime and Political Institutions 515 Iran’s Islamic Revolution and “Green Revolution”? Political Culture 515 (Chapter 12) 478 Political Economy 516 Gender in Post-Revolutionary Iranian Politics CASE STUDIES (Chapter 14) 479 517 Religion and Politics in Iran (Chapter 15) 479 What Is a Weak State, and Can It Be Changed? The Case of Nigeria (Chapter 3) 517 Iran and the Politics of Nuclear Proliferation (Chapter 16) 480

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Why Are Natural Resources Sometimes a Curse? CASE STUDIES 546 The Nigerian Case (Chapter 5) 518 The State in the United Kingdom (Chapter 3) 546 Federalism and the States in Nigeria: Holding Together Political Economy of Britain (Chapter 4) 547 or Tearing Apart? (Chapter 8) 519 No Constitution? No Supreme Court? Constitutionality in the The Presidency in Nigeria: Powers and Limitations United Kingdom (Chapter 8) 548 (Chapter 10) 521 The Mother of Parliaments: The United Kingdom and the The Nigerian Civil War or Biafran War: Nationalism and Ethno- Westminster Model (Chapter 9) 549 National Conflict in a Post-Colonial Society (Chapter 13) 522 National Identity in the United Kingdom Religious Difference and Conflict in Nigeria: Disentangling (Chapter 13) 550 Ethnicity and Religion? (Chapter 15) 523 Liberal Ideology in the United Kingdom (Chapter 15) 552 Russia 525 PROFILE 525 United States 553 Introduction 525 PROFILE 553 Key Features of Contemporary Russia 525 Introduction 553 Historical Development 527 Key Features of the Contemporary United States 553 Regime and Political Institutions 531 Historical Development 555 Political Culture 532 Regime and Political Institutions 558 Political Economy 532 Political Culture 559 CASE STUDIES 533 Political Economy 560 Oligarchy, Democracy, and Authoritarianism in Russia CASE STUDIES (Chapter 7) 533 561 Did Free Markets Help the United States Get Rich? Will They in Executives in Russia: Formal and Informal Powers the Future? (Chapter 4) 561 (Chapter 10) 534 Is American Democracy in Trouble? (Chapter 6) 562 Personalism and the Party System in Russia (Chapter 11) 535 Is Judicial Activism in the United States a Problem? The Russian Revolution (Chapter 12) 536 (Chapter 8) 563 Communist Ideology in Practice—Russia and the Soviet Union The United States Congress: Dysfunctional or Functioning by (Chapter 15) 537 Design? (Chapter 9) 564 “The Most Powerful Person in the World”? Checks on American United Kingdom 539 Presidents (Chapter 10) 566 PROFILE 539 The United States and the World: A Love–Hate Relationship? Introduction 539 (Chapter 16) 567 Key Features of the Contemporary United Kingdom 539 Historical Development 541 Notes 569 Regime and Political Institutions 544 Glossary 582 Political Culture 545 References and Further Reading 000 Political Economy 545 Credits 000 Index 000

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