AUSTRALIA

Commonwealth of Australia

AUSTRALIAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

TWENTIETH ANNUAL REPORT

Being the Commission's Report for the Year Ended 30 June 1972 J,•. AUSTRALIA ,(<- C o m m o n w e a 1 t h o f Australia AUSTRALIAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION AUSTRALIAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

The Minister of State for National Development The Honourable Sir Reginald Swartz, K.B.E., E.D., M.P. To the Honourable Sir Reginald Swartz, K.B.E., E.D., M.P., Minister of State for National Development, Parliament House, Canberra, A.C.T.

Members of the Commission During the Year 1971-72 Sir, Chairman In accordance with Section 31 of the Atomic Energy Act, Sir Philip Baxter, K.B.E., C.M.G., B.Sc., Ph.D.(Birm.), F.A.A., F.R.A.C. 1953-66, we submit the Twentieth Annual Report of the Australian (To 15 April 1972) Atomic Energy Commission, covering the Commission's operations for the financial year ended 30 June 1972. R. W. Boswell, O.B.E., M.Sc. (From 16 April 1972) Financial accounts for the year, with a report on the accounts by the Auditor-General as required by the Act, are appended to the report. A statement of the Commission's capital assets as at 30 June Deputy Chairman 1972 is also appended to the accounts. R. G. Ward, M.A., Ph.D.(Cantab.)

Members K. F. Alder, M.Sc., F.I.M. Yours faithfully, L. F. Bott, D.S.C., B.Com. R. W. BOSWELL, Chairman. M. C. Timbs, B.Ec., A.A.S.A., F.A.I.M. R. G. WARD, Deputy Chairman. (Executive Member) K. F. ALDER, Member. Secretary L. F. BOTT, Member. W. B. Lynch, B.A. M. C. TIMBS, Executive Member.

45 Beach Street, Coogee, N.S.W. 2034 16 August 1972 Contents INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 8 Uranium Mining and Export 8 ADVISORY COMMITTEES Uranium Enrichment 9 Nuclear Power 10 Appointed under Section 20 of the Atomic Energy Act, 1953-66 Effects of Radiation 10 Radioisotopes 11 International II Safety Review Committee NUCLEAR POWER DEVELOPMENTS 12 Survey of World Developments 12 Professor Sir Sydney Sunderland, C.M.G., M.D., B.S., D.Sc.r F.R.A.C.P., F.R.A.C.S., F.A.A., Chairman. Australia 13 Dr. C. J. Cummins, M.B., B.S., D.P.H. Regulatory Experience in USA 14 D. J. Stevens, O.B.E., B.Sc., A.Inst.P. URANIUM INDUSTRY AND NUCLEAR FUEL 16 World Demand for Uranium 16 Function: To review periodically the health and safety standard} and procedures adopted Upgrading of Product 18 by the. Commission in the operation of its reactors and in the use of radiation, radioactive 19 substances, and toxic materials. Commission Processing Studies Uranium Enrichment 20 Nuclear Reactor Fuels 20 24 Atomic Energy Advisory Committee Reprocessing of Power Reactor Fuel Heavy Water 25 A. W. B. Coady, C.M.G., B.A., B.Ec. URANIUM ENRICHMENT 26 Sir Willis Connolly, C.B.E., B.E.E., B.Com., M.I.E.Aust. Significance of Enrichment in World Nuclear Power Programs 26 Sir Lionel Hooke, S.M.I.R.Amer., F.I.R.E.Aust. Technology of Uranium Enrichment 29 Professor M. C. Kemp, B.Com., M.A., Ph.D. International Developments 33 Sir John Phillips, K.B.E., B.Ec. Commonwealth-States Power and Siting Studies 34 Professor J. W. Roderick, M.A.(Camb.), M.Sc., Ph.D.(Bristol), F.A.A., Basis of Australian Interest 35 M.I. StructE., M.I.C.E., A.F.R.Ae.S., M.I.E.Aust., M.A.S.C.E. R. A. Simpson, B.E., F.S.A.S.M., M.I.E.Aust. NUCLEAR POWER — NATIONAL PROGRAMS 37 Professor R. Street, B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D.(Lond.) Australia 37 L. W. Weickhardt, M.Sc., F.R.A.C.I., F.A.I.M. Assessment of Reactor Systems 39 Regulatory Framework 49 Function: To advise the Commission on 51 scientific, industrial and economic matters Other Countries relating to atomic energy research and 53 development. Tables of World Nuclear Power Stations Contents Contents

URANIUM EXPLORATION AND MINING 59 11 GENERAL 122 Exploration for Uranium 59 Commission Membership 122 Disporal of Rum Jungle Assets 68 Legislation 122 Analysis of Uranium Ores 69 Terms and Conditions of Employment 122 Health and Safety in Mining and Milling of Radioactive Ores 69 Staff Numbers 123 Environmental Studies in the Northern Territory 70 Information Services 123 Long-Chain Amines Pollution Studies 71 Advisory Committee on Uranium Mining 125 Symposium on Uranium Mining and the Environment 76 Computer Summer School 125 Overseas Developments 76 Extramural Research 125 Overseas Attachments 125

7 RADIATION AND MAN 80 Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering 126 Australian School of Nuclear Technology 129

8 THE RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT 84 APPENDICES Research Objectives and Program 84 A Financial Accounts 132 Organisation 89 B Auditor-General's Report 134 C Senior Staff of Commission 135 RADIOISOTOPES AND RADIATION 96 D AAEC Research Projects 138 Radioisotope Applications Research 96 E AAEC Research Contracts 140 Radiation Research 100 F AINSE Research and Training Projects 141 Radioisotope Production and Services 106 G Technical Papers by Commission Staff 145 Radioisotope Survey 107 H Public Concern Over Radiation 151 Supply and Distribution Statistics 108 Product Research and Development Ill Gamma-Ray and Electron Beam Irradiation Services 115

10 INTERNATIONAL 116 Fourth Geneva Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy 116 IAEA Safeguards 118 Co-operation Between Japan and Australia 118 Overseas Liaison 119 Loan of Commission Experts and Overseas Visits 119 Distinguished Visitors to the Commission i20 hexafluoride. This is the feed material for uranium enrichment plants, and it may well displace ycllowcakc as the standard article of commerce. Should a major 1 enrichment plant be built in Australia, local production of hexafluoride would be a prerequisite. Australian industry is capable of building and operating a plant for the production of uranium hexafluoride. Processing of uranium ores and conversion of yellowcake to uranium hcxa- lluoride (of very high purity) have formed an important part of the Commission's INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY research. The possibility of preparing a uranium product of nuclear purity at the mine site is being investigated. Optimisation studies have continued on a laboratory scale for the production of nuclear-grade uranium dioxide. Studies of further stages in the fabrication of nuclear fuel are included in the Commission's program, which is designed to establish within Australia an In Australia, as in other countries, the period was to a large extent one of understanding of all aspects of fuel performance, embracing fuel design, manu- stocktaking. The great potential of recent uranium discoveries in Australia was facture and service. An important part of this program is in post-irradiation established, and the Commission has been studying in detail how these might be examination and testing. Such examination of defective fuel and diagnosis of exploited to the best advantage. Other countries have, been reviewing their nuclear faults is an important back-up for a nuclear power industry. power programs, and devoting much attention to procedures of regulation and licensing. Other aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle which have been investigated are the possibilities of establishing reprocessing plant for spent nuclear fuel, and methods of disposal of radioactive wastes. URANIUM MINING AND EXPORT There was no production of uranium in Australia during the period, the URANIUM ENRICHMENT Rum Jungle operation having been closed down in 1970-71. However, in view of A further major step in the establishment of an Australian nuclear fuel the expected increase in the world's needs for uranium in the coming decade, industry could be the construction of a uranium enrichment plant. A large increase there was considerable activity among mining companies. Exploration reached a in the demand for enrichment services is foreseen in the early 1980s. The only record level during the year. Mining companies also showed an increasing interest major plants in the Western World at present are in USA, and these, together in treatment methods for uranium ores, and in methods of establishing mining with smaller plants which exist in Britain and France, will have a combined out- operations with a minimum of disturbance to the environment. The Commission put by 1981 of less than 30,000 tonnes separative work units (SWU) per annum. promoted this last aspect by assisting in an environmental survey of some poten- By 1980, 36,000 tonnes SWU will be needed annually for nuclear power stations, tial uranium mining areas, and by providing advice and guidance in various and by about 1985, this requirement is expected to double. Until 1981, foresee- aspects of health and safety. able needs can be met from increased current production and stocks, but new Important new discoveries include some exceptionally high-grade ore. In the enrichment plants will have to be commissioned no later than that year. Alligator Rivers area of the Northern Territory alone, reasonably-assured reserves The possibility is being explored of setting up an enrichment plant using the of uranium oxide recoverable at less than $10 per pound could exceed 100,000 gaseous diffusion process in Australia as a multi-national venture. At the invitation tons. At 31 December, Australia's reasonably-assured reserves recoverable at less of USA, interested countries, including Australia, Japan, Canada and others, than $10 per pound amounted to 92,000 short tons, and geological reserves, participated in discussions on the possible use of US technology. In March, proven and indicated, were 167,000 short tons. Australia and France agreed to carry out the first stage of a joint feasibility study There is today an over-supply of uranium, but this could turn to a shortage of the technical and economic aspects of building an enrichment plant in Australia, early in the 1980s. By 1990, requirements for power stations in the Western using French gaseous diffusion technology. The study will take about one year to World could amount to 200,000 tons annually, whereas total Australian domestic complete; there is no commitment beyond this. Officers of the Commission, in demand is not likely to exceed 3,000 tons up to that date. There are thus consid- collaboration with Commonwealth and State instrumentalities, have been making erable possibilities for establishing important exports, with Western Europe and a preliminary assessment of locations and energy sources which might be suitable Japan as the major customers. Uranium-producing countries have begun to for a large-scale enrichment plant. organise in anticipation of these export possibilities, and Australia participated in Several processes are possible for enrichment, but gaseous diffusion is the international discussions. As a sequel, the Commonwealth Government encouraged only one so far employed for large-scale production. An alternative is the centri- Australian producers to organise as a group. fuge process, which has only recently begun to be developed on an industrial Rather than export uranium in the form of crude mine concentrate scale, and the economics of the process will not be established for some years to "yellowcake" — there would be advantages in up-grading the product to uranium come. The Commission has been carrying out research on this process since 1966.

8 to the community are appreciated. Unless this can be achieved, it is unlikely that NUCLEAR POWER there will be a balanced approach in the future to matters which are of vital Despite problems of rising costs, and increasing public concern over the interest to the country — viz., the introduction of nuclear power, the development environment, 42 new nuclear units with an aggregate capacity exceeding 40,000 of the uranium industry, and the use of radioisotopes for diagnosis and therapy, megawatts, were ordered or otherwise committed during the year. Throughout the and for industrial purposes. world more than 83% of all nuclear plants now committed are light-water systems. In USA, a decision of the Court of Appeal in July 1971 substantially enlarged RADIOISOTOPES the responsibilities of the United States Atomic Energy Commission for safe- guarding the environment. Considerable delays resulted while the new situation A further substantial increase took place in the demand for radiopharma- was being assessed, and .satisfactory licensing criteria established. Other countries, ceutical preparations as hospitals continued to expand their capacity for using particularly in Western Europe and Japan, have been facing similar problems. radioactive diagnostic techniques. The Commission has successfully developed In June, the Commonwealth Government again deferred a decision on the new products for this purpose. Jervis Bay nuclear power station. While safety standards and operating practices A wide range of radioisotopes was produced for therapy, research, and were being reviewed in USA, and Britain had not selected the reactor system industrial applications. There was a 17% increase in total shipments. for the next nuclear power stations, the Government considered it inappropriate to take a decision. Gamma irradiation is becoming of increasing industrial importance, particu- larly for sterilisation and for promoting chemical processes. The Commission con- Environmental studies continued at Jervis Bay, supported by the Commission ducts research in this field. It also provides advice and experimental gamma and research program, which in this field ranges from environmental aspects of waste electron beam irradiation services, for which there is an increasing demand by control and radiobiology, to detailed reactor safety analytical studies. These will outside research workers. help to provide guidelines on reactor safety and siting for the introduction of commercial nuclear power in Australia. On-stream analysers, based on radioisotope X-ray analytical systems developed by the Commission, were installed in two major mineral processing plants during By maintaining an active research program, the Commission continued to the period under review. Commission research during the year further increased develop its role of being ready and able to provide detailed technical advice on the sensitivity of the radioisotope X-ray techniques to low concentrations of metals the performance, evaluation, and safety assessment of future nuclear power stations. in tailings and residual streams. Over recent years, most attention has been given to water-cooled reactors of all <*~> types. However, some work is now being done on the fast breeder system. This Tests in the field confirmed the high accuracy and reliability of the method work will be assisted by the commissioning of the Critical Facility, which was of measuring gas flow by means of radioactive krypton gas. This could be used officially opened by the Prime Minister in June. extensively in natural and coal gas supply lines, and in the chemical and other industries. EFFECTS OF RADIATION INTERNATIONAL The Commission is concerned at the extent to which the fear of radiation has been built up within the community, and considers there is a danger that Five papers by Commission staff were accepted for the Fourth Geneva this could reach quite unrealistic proportions contrary to the public's best interests. Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy. In addition, a paper on Mankind has always been exposed to low levels of radiation, from cosmic Peaceful Nuclear Explosions was presented by a senior Commission staff member radiation and from the naturally-occurring radioactive elements present in soils on behalf of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The Australian and rocks and even in the human body. The level of this background radiation is delegation included representatives of the AAEC, CSIRO, Commonwealth and fairly constant but, in a few areas, it may be much more than the average. State instrumentalities, industry, and universities. Research is being undertaken in these areas to identify possible ill-effects of An agreement with Japan for co-operation in the peaceful uses of atomic radiation, but at present the results do not show differences which are significant. energy was signed in February. This is expected to facilitate sales of uranium The community is also exposed to radiation from radioactive constituents of by private industry. It opens the way to arrangements for the exchange of informa- building materials and luminous wristwatches, to increased radiation levels in tion, materials and equipment, exchange of experts, and similar forms of collabora- high-flying aircraft and to other minor sources, all of which are thought to be tion. Safeguards procedures will be administered by the IAEA. harmless. Increasing close relations with Japan and France led to the appointment of The potential risks associated with additional man-made radiation are well two Commission staff members as Counsellor (Atomic Energy) respectively to the recognised. Protection from them demands proper control of man's working and Australian Embassies in Tokyo and Paris. living environment to keep radiation levels within acceptable limits, and such Under the various bilateral agreements, a continuous flow of information and control is practised in the Commission's Research Establishment. exchanges of staff took place between Australia and other countries. Commission The Commission is anxious to ensure that radiation and its effects on the staff attended a number of specialist conferences and symposia. A large number human body should be seen in perspective, and that its tremendous advantages of distinguished persons visited the Commission and its Research Establishment.

10 11 nuclear power plants are expected to continue to capture an increasing share of the market. Japan, for example, despite some decline in the economy, has 2 just revised its nuclear power program upwards, aiming at 32,000 MW by 1980, compared with the 1970 estimate of 27,000 MW; in the USA the level of orders for 1972 is expected to reach a record high. In the longer term, utilities in Japan, the USA and many other countries can see no alternative to nuclear power as a means of satisfying their rapidly growing energy needs. NUCLEAR POWER DEVELOPMENTS Despite the problems mentioned earlier, 43 new nuclear units with an aggregate capacity in excess of 40,000 MW were ordered or otherwise committed during the past year. Of these, 23 units (23,500 MW) were ordered by US SURVEY OF WORLD DEVELOPMENTS utilities, five units (4,650 MW) by Spain, and five units (4,700 MW) by Sweden. France, Finland, Germany and Japan also ordered additional units. These bring the total number of units (capacity over 10 MW) now committed throughout the World nuclear power developments are influenced to a very large extent world to 339, with an aggregate capacity in excess of 207,000 MW. Fifteen new by policies and activities within the United States of America. For some years units with a combined rating of about 8,000 MW came on line during the year. the US nuclear power program has been beset by licensing problems and delays About five other units in the USA have been virtually completed but are awaiting which have increased considerably during the past 12 months, largely because operating licences. of the efforts of numerous environmental protection groups (see later). For approximately 17 months (since January 1971), no full power operating licences Over 83% of all nuclear plants now committed are of the light water type — were issued. Several controversial environmental-safety issues are still under pressurised water reactors (PWR) and boiling water reactors (BWR). In the USA, investigation, and these may not be resolved completely for another year. high temperature gas-cooled (HTGC) reactors have begun to capture a share of the market, six units (5,380 MW) being ordered over the past year. Apart from these In other areas, Western Europe and Japan particularly, utilities are now and a small prototype fast breeder unit in Germany, all new units ordered through- having to face similar problems, and decisions on some new stations are being out the world were PWRs or BWRs, mainly the former. However, in order to deferred pending the outcome of investigations. The power construction programs recapture a share of the market lost to its competitors, General Electric of the of several other countries, particularly the United Kingdom, are being stretched USA has considerably modified its BWR concept; it is claimed to have certain out in time because of current general economic trends, and because the type of additional safety features, while at the same time offering significant cost savings. reactor to be selected in the immediate future has not been determined. The costs of nuclear plant were discussed in the Commission's Nineteenth Annual Report; they continue to escalate because of additional environmental AUSTRALIA investigations, licensing delays, modification of designs, the incorporation of The more immediate prospects for nuclear power in Australia cannot be additional safety and environmental protection features, and inflation generally, assessed at present, and until certain problems have been resolved overseas and particularly site labour costs. costs stabilise, there is little point in attempting such an exercise. In an attempt to overcome some of the above problems, and because of the increasing shortage of suitable sites in some locations, several US consortia The position in Australia is also somewhat confused. Australia has not been are developing floating nuclear power stations which can be shop-fabricated faced to any large extent by the environmental problems associated with con- and located off-shore. A letter of intent for such a plant — a 2,300 MW* station ventional power plants, which could significantly increase conventional plant comprising two pressurised light water reactor units — was recently placed with and power costs. The full impact of recent world price increases on Australian the Westmghouse-Tenneco group by the Public Service and Gas Corporation of fossil fuel production costs and prices has yet to be felt. Significant reserves New Jersey. This station is tentatively planned to be on line in 1978. of natural gas have been discovered, mainly in the more remote parts of Australia, but its role in the future Australian power generation field is rather It must be emphasised that the abovementioned problems, cost increases, obscure. Government policy in relation to the exploitation and export of such etc., are not confined to nuclear power plants. In some areas, conservationists reserves will have a considerable bearing on this question. are successfully opposing or delaying the construction of hydroelectric stations; in others, dependent on coal and oil, the environmental standards which have On a straight comparison of US nuclear power and Australian conventional been set can only be met by burning imported high-cost, low-sulphur fuel. power costs, the prospects for economic nuclear power in Australia seem rather Alternative solutions to the problem, such as the pre-treatment of fuel and/or remote. However, this does not recognise the different conditions prevailing removal of sulphur from flue gases, may be forthcoming ultimately; but they in the USA and Australia — environmental issues, high engineering and labour will significantly increase fuel or capital costs. Because of such problems and costs, higher escalation rates, etc. If nuclear power plants were constructed in the difficulties faced by utilities in obtaining long-term fossil fuel contracts, the same way in Australia as conventional plants with similar ground rules applying, one could expect about the same small percentage difference in costs as MW — nu'nainitts electrical, unless otherwise stated. applies between nuclear and conventional plants in the USA.

12 13 and greatly enlarged its licensing and regulatory organisation. This will necessitate REGULATORY EXPERIENCE IN USA an increase in regulatory staff from 804 to 917 by 1973. The USAEC is also Licensing and regulation of nuclear power stations and other nuclear instal- revising and streamlining its procedures. lations is required by law in all developed countries with significant nuclear energy The US licensing procedures provide for a public hearing before the award programs. Licensing authorities have been established to undertake this regulatory of a construction licence. This procedure was extended recently to cover proposed function which is considered essential for the protection of the health and safety regulatory rules, and two rule-making public hearings were initiated in late 1971. of the general public. These related to proposed numerical guides for the limits on radioactive releases The essence of the licensing procedure is a thorough, independent, technical from light water power stations and the design criteria for emergency core cooling evaluation of the design and construction of the proposed nuclear installation, to systems. The first of these public hearings has made considerable progress and ensure its safety. A decision by the US Court of Appeal in July 1971 in respect final recommendations were expected in mid-1972. The second public hearing on of the licensing of the Calvert Cliffs nuclear power station, considerably enlarged criteria for the performance of emergency core cooling has attracted considerably the scope of licensing requirements in the USA. In conformity with the National more publicity, mainly due to intensive legal cross-examination of technical Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), the USAEC is now responsible for witnesses. A major point at issue has been the lack of convincing experimental evaluating the total environmental impact of nuclear power plants, and for verification of the design codes used, and accordingly the USAEC has intensified assessing this impact in terms of the available alternatives and the need for elec- its research in this field. tric power. This broadened regulatory responsibility requires the development of These regulatory developments in the USA are being watched closely by new assessment concepts within the USAEC. overseas authorities and are likely to have a significant impact on national licensing The large new workload on environmental reviews is superimposed on other policies and reactor development programs in a number of countries. technical, legal and administrative problems, and has resulted in delays in making licensing decisions. The first full-power operating licence issued by the USAEC since March 1971 was that granted to the Virginia Electric and Power Company's Surry 1 unit early in June. These delays are critical in relation to threatened near- term shortages of electrical energy in the USA. Currently there are 29 nuclear power reactors under review for construction permits, and 56 units under con- struction or in the review process for operating licences. These reactors represent a total of some 87,000 megawatts, or about 24% of the present installed electrical capacity. Thirteen of the plants, which are either completed or near completion, are critical to meeting the nation's electrical requirements for the summer of 1972 and winter of 1972-73. In amending its regulations to implement the Court of Appeal's decision on Calvert Cliffs, the USAEC recognised the need for some flexibility during the transition and provided for temporary part-load operating licences while still under NEPA review. In particular, it was hoped that these interim licences would help meet emergencies where utilities were short of generating capacity. Interim licences would be issued after a preliminary environmental review, pending com- pletion of the full NEPA review. This provision was successfully challenged, and a US District Court on 13 December 1971 issued a temporary injunction restrain- ing the USAEC from issuing an operating licence for 50% of full power for the Quad Cities nuclear power plant. While the ruling specifically applied to Quad Cities, it has far reaching implications for other licensing cases. The USAEC appealed against this decision, but because of delays in obtaining a hearing and because of a possible adverse decision being handed down, legislation was pro- posed to achieve the same objectives through amendments to the National Environmental Policy Act and the Atomic Energy Act. At the end of the period under review, Congress had passed amendments to the Atomic Energy Act which permit interim licensing. Amendments to the National Environmental Policy Act are still before Congress. To meet the increased commitment in regulatory responsibility and to cut down future delays in licensing procedures, the USAEC completely reorganised

14 15 Other factors which must be taken into account when estimating the short- term demand for uranium and the likely Australian market are: 3 (i) The US embargo on imports of foreign uranium for domestic consump- tion. (ii) Supply, by US manufacturers of nuclear reactors, of fuel related to reactor sales. (iii) The fact that France obtains uranium from Gabon, Niger and from URANIUM INDUSTRY AND NUCLEAR FUEL domestic sources, and that French demand is satisfied from French producers only. France also is likely to supply French uranium to Switzerland, Belgium and Italy. WORLD DEMAND FOR URANIUM (iv) Great Britain has contracts for its uranium requirements up to 1984. Other factors which will affect the demand for uranium in the future, and Nearly all the uranium produced today is sold in one form or another to the which cannot accurately be predicted at present are: operators of nuclear power reactors for use as fuel. Uranium is expected to (i) Releases from government stockpiles. become the basic fuel for man's energy needs in the latter part of this century and into the next century. There may be an additional substantial demand for (ii) The introduction of commercial fast breeder reactors, both in respect uranium in the last decade of the century, for use as fuel in nuclear-powered of date, and of the doubling time of fuel inventory that will be achieved, merchant ships. (iii) Depleted uranium being recycled successfully in gas-cooled graphite- The bases of the forecasts of uranium demand are projections of individual moderated reactors. national nuclear power programs which, in turn, involve projections of each (iv) The enrichment of depleted uranium. USSR has offered to enrich country's total power growth. The projections of power demand in themselves depleted uranium, and France has sent material to the USSR for trial, reflect forecasts of economic and technological development in the countries (v) Supplies of enriched uranium being offered by the USSR to the Western concerned. World. USSR is known to have significant unused enrichment capacity, The basic unit of uranium demand is expressed as short tons (2,000 Ib) of and the offer of enriched uranium or of toll enrichment cannot be uranium oxide (U:SOS). Mine concentrates of uranium, known as "yellowcake", discounted. contain up to 80-90% of uranium oxide. (vi) In the future, major consumers can be expected to develop their own In 1970, the Western World's annual consumption of uranium was 11,200 short tons of uranium oxide. Recent estimates show that demand will increase captive supplies of uranium. rapidly after the late 1970s, in line with the expected increase in the rate of The question of releases from government stockpiles is a most important installation of nuclear power plant. By 1990, the Western World's uranium oxide one for the world's uranium industry. In October 1971, the United States Atomic requirements could be some 200,000 short tons a year. The forecast cumulative Energy Commission announced that it proposed to release the civilian stockpile demand by the same year is approximately two million short tons. progressively from 1974 until 1984. Because of opposition from the United States Thereafter, the introduction of the fast breeder reactor (FBR) will probably uranium industry, the USAEC recently modified its proposals. It intends to use lead to a reduction in the rate of increase in demand. The magnitude of this the excess capacity of US gaseous diffusion plants to pre-produce enriched uran- reduction will depend on the economic and breeding performance of the FBR, ium for the remainder of this decade, at the same time raising the tails concen- which will remain difficult to predict until the late 1970s, by which time experi- tration. Part of the additional feed required will come from 50,000 short tons of ence will have been gained with prototypes. civilian stockpile. Canada has announced that portion of its stockpile is for sale, and South Africa and France may adopt similar attitudes. Factors Influencing World Demand In the short term, the factors which will influence the demand for uranium Possible Australian Contributions to World Market are variations in the forecast growth of nuclear power, the uranium 235 content in the depleted uranium tails rejected from enrichment plants, and the extent to On present predictions, supply and demand for uranium could be balanced which plutonium is recycled in reactor fuel elements. Estimated consumption of in the early 1980s for the Western World. A shortage of uranium could develop uranium is based on 0.25% uranium 235 content in depleted uranium tails apply- in the 1980s, despite the release of government stockpiles, resulting from increased ing after 1975. (USA recently announced increases in tails assays. See Chapter 4.) demand. If the tails from enrichment plants have a higher uranium 235 content, more Export can be expected to become the mainstay of our local industry, since uranium oxide must be produced and processed to provide a given quantity of the total Australian domestic demand is unlikely to exceed between 2,000 and enriched fuel for power reactors. Plutonium recycle will reduce the amount of 3,000 short tons of uranium oxide up to 1990 for the country's expected nuclear uranium oxide needed to supply new reactor fuel. It has been assumed that power program. Australian cumulative demand to the turn of the century should plutonium recycle will begin in light water reactors from 1975, and in heavy not exceed 50,000 short tons. water reactors from 1980. 17 16 With the US embargo likely to continue until about the end of the 1970s, and The preceding discussion refers to the manufacture of uranium hexafluoridc Tor export. Should a major enrichment plant be built in Australia, the local manu- the possibility then of only a partial relaxation, Australian uranium producers can look only to Western Europe and Japan for exports. facture of uranium hexafluoride would be essential. This could be carried out near the enrichment plant, and surplus production of non-enriched uranium hexa- The uncommitted world market for uranium is estimated to be about 12,000 fluoride could be exported. short tons of oxide between now and the end of 1977, and probably an additional 45,000 short tons in the three-year period 1978-80. Future Australian production, especially in 1978-80, will be competing for a share of the world market against well-established overseas organisations, some of which have government backing. COMMISSION PROCESSING STUDIES For further production details, see Chapter 6. The production of uranium ore concentrates (yellowcake), their conversion to uranium hexafluoride, and reconversion to uranium dioxide, will become increas- UPGRADING OF PRODUCT ingly important in the future in Australia. Programs of work relevant to the For processing in an enrichment plant, uranium must be converted to the processing of uranium ores and the conversion of yellowcake to hexafluoride have compound uranium hexafluoride (UFc). There are five uranium hexafluoride plants continued in the Chemical Technology Division. at present in the Western World (in USA, Great Britain, France and Canada), with Work has continued to improve the standard amine solvent extraction pro- a capacity to treat about 34,000 short tons of uranium oxide a year. The demand cess used at most uranium mills to purify the uranium in the sulphate leach liquor. for uranium hexafluoride will overtake existing plant capacity about 1975. How- Although a considerably improved product can now be obtained routinely, cer- ever, present plants could be expanded easily at relatively low capital cost. tain elements — especially iron, cadmium and silicon — appear in the product It is possible, and may be desirable, to establish a uranium hexafluoride at concentrations above the limits for nuclear purity. The factors influencing the plant in Australia, whether or not an enrichment plant is built in this country. extraction of iron have been examined further with the aid of iron 59 tracer, to There are indications that eventually natural uranium may be traded generally in improve the degree of removal of this clement. Similar work has started with the hexafluoride form and not, as at present, as yellowcake. This marketing trend, cadmium. together with die added value (estimated to be about one dollar a pound) of the further processing, may encourage the production of uranium hexafluoride in There is some interest at present in the possible production of uranium tetra- Australia. fluoride of nuclear purity at mine sites. In principle, the integration of ore treat- The advantage to buyers would be the elimination of additional con- ment and refining can simplify the overall process by eliminating the precipitation, tractual problems, and reduction in transport and inventory charges. Logically, filtration and drying of yellowcake. It is not regarded as feasible to produce tetra- this development would favour conversion to hexafluoride in the uranium-produc- fluoride at the mine site by the high-temperature heterogeneous phase reactions ing countries. normally used at a central plant, and several aqueous methods have been sug- gested in the past in the USA and France. More recently the PNC process In the Australian scene, there are on one hand the extra capital costs developed by the Power Reactor and Nuclear Fuel Development Corporation in involved, the short-term uranium marketing problems, and the difficulties of Japan has been claimed to be economically attractive. The Commission investi- entering a marketing area dominated and largely controlled by the five existing gated the use of this type of aqueous process on synthetic solutions of uranium uranium hexafluoridc companies. On the other hand, by the late 1970s, there will and major impurities, and on leach liquors derived from Australian ores. The be a rapidly-increasing demand for hexafluoride, and the international uranium principal stages involved are solvent-extraction by a long-chain amine, followed trade v/ill probably become more and more one involving the hexafluoride to the by transfer of the uranium from a sulphate solution to a chloride solution, and gradual elimination of yellowcake. reduction from the hexavalent to the tetravalent state before precipitation as a An economic hexafluoride plant would be capable normally of processing hydrated fluoride. Preliminary results indicate that good decontamination of the the output of more than one uranium mine. An additional point is that the hexa- major impurities can be achieved, but that emulsification problems can arise in fluoride plant need not be located close to the uranium mines, since yellowcake the solvent extraction stage. Studies are continuing to evaluate alternative solvents can be transported easily and at relatively low cost. and reductants to reduce cost, and to compare the various alternative processes The financing, construction and operation of a hexafluoride plant for pro- technically and economically. cessing Australian uranium would be well within the capacity of Australian industry, and is a project which the Australian mining and chemical industries Programs of work relevant to production of uranium hexafluoride include: should be encouraged to investigate. The gross value added to uranium export (i) Construction and commissioning of a laboratory plant to produce 1 kg sales by conversion of yellowcake to hexafluoride within Australia could amount FL./hour by electrolysis of HF in an electrolyte of KF.2HF.

to about $10 million a year by 1980. In addition to the added export value, there (ii) Development of an experimental facility to produce 4 kg UF(i/h by an are possible advantages in reduced transport costs and also in inventory charges improved process which does not require the use of elemental fluorine. due to the high value of material in stock or in transit. Against these advantages, (iii) Chemical and structural studies of metal fluorides of importance in the however, it is necessary to weigh the fact that customers may prefer "to shop" corrosion of construction materials, and as impurities in the uranium for uranium oxide and for conversion services separately, in an endeavour to obtain the lowest prices. products. 19 18 Optimisation studies have continued at the pilot-plant scale on processes for the production of nuclear-grade uranium dioxide ((JO;..). For example: (i) Solvent extraction purification of uranium from nitric acid solution, using 20 volume % tributylphosphate in kerosene. (ii) Precipitation and filtration of ammonium diuranate (ADU) using aque- ous and gaseous ammonia as the precipitant. (iii) Reduction of ADU to uranium dioxide in a pulsed iluidised bed. (iv) Concentration of uranium solutions in a thcrnv.vsyphon evaporator, and denitration of uranyl nitrate to uranium trioxide in a lluidiscd bed. An example of the results of the optimisation studies is the reduction of the nitric acid consumption by 80% in the feed preparation and solvent extraction processes, compared to the high-acid flowsheet used initially and based on early published practice at Springfields.

URANIUM ENRICHMENT Uranium enrichment is covered in more detail in Chapter 4, but reference is necessary here to underline its importance to the uranium industry and to the question of nuclear fuel as a whole. Scale model used for the piping design and layout of a pilot plant fluorine ceil facility tinder construction at Lucas Heights. Fluorine is essential for Enriched uranium will be in increasing demand as fuel for nuclear power the production of uranium hexafluoride. stations until at least the end of the century, when the rate of increase in demand may diminish, leading to a flattening of the growth curve. This levelling of demand is based on the assumption that the introduction of fast-breeder reactors using plutonium fuel wilt reduce the demand for uranium enriched in uranium 235. This forecast is by no means certain, however. There are indications that an FBR may reproduce its initial inventory of plutonium only once in every 20 years of its operation — this is referred to as a doubling time of 20 years. If the national nuclear power growth requires a doubling of installed generating capacity every ten years, there will be insufficient plutonium to sustain a nuclear power program based on FBRs only. The nuclear fuel gap thus created, could be filled either by continuing to build thermal power reactors based on enriched uranium fuel, or by operating FBRs themselves with an initial charge of highly enriched uranium (20%-30% uranium 235 enrichment, compared with the 2%-3% uranium 235 enrichment for thermal reactors). Alternatively, both measures might be adopted according to the circumstances in any particular country. In any event, these problems underline the uncertainties surrounding forecasts of growth in demand for uranium enrichment after 1990. It is certain, however, that there will be a strong and continuing requirement for enrichment capacity (even if not a rapidly growing demand) well into the next century.

NUCLEAR REACTOR FUELS Although many components of a nuclear power reactor are conservatively designed with substantial margins between operating and failure conditions, this is not so with reactor fuel. The fuel does not have to last for the life of the reactor, but only for sufficient time to achieve the burnup allowed. Typically, a fuel assembly remains in a water-cooled reactor for between one and two years. Fur- ther, a small incidence of defects within the fuel is accepted, provided such defects Pulsed fluidiscd reactor far (lie continuous conversion of iimmonnnn diuranate to nuclear t>nule uranium dioxide powder, tin- final atep in u are not sufficiently severe or numerous to interfere with normal operation and pilot plant for the conversion of uranium mine concentrates (yellowcake) to safely of the reactor. uranium dioxide for the manufactuie of reactor fuel elements.

20 21 Scintillation counters follow the mass transfer of corrosion products (crud) in a high temperature (300° C), high pressure (1,000 pound per square inch) water loop. The counters measure the radio- active crud deposited in the loop's boiling test section (zirconium tube 0.5 inch outside diameter x 24 inch long).

Above: Fluidised bed reactor for the continuous ilcnit ration of molten Thus the broad philosophy guiding fuel design, manufacture and service is uranyl nitrate hexahydrate to form uranium trioxide, the first of the high to achieve an economic optimum between fuel performance and fuel failure. A temperature reactions required for the clear understanding of both factors is important in establishing the operating production of uranium hexafluoride. conditions in a particular system, in relation to both economics and safety. For example, even with an established power reactor, the introduction of a new operating schedule of load-following in place of steady power operation could lead to a rapid increase in the number of leaking fuel pins, which in turn may require power reduction or shutdown. The Commission's fuel research program is, therefore, largely oriented towards establishing within Australia an understanding of all aspects of fuel performance. The work is spread over three Divisions — Engineering Research, Materials, and Chemical Technology. The various topics covered include: • Core performance calculations which deal with heat production and its distribution, and with the burnup limits. Left: Packed columns for washing • Theoretical and experimental studies of the transfer of heat from the fuel solvent used in the purification of a nitric acid solution of uranium mine to the coolant, and the thermal conditions at the fuel surface. concentrates (yellowcake) in a pilot • Studies of the mechanical stability of the fuel assembly, its vibrational plant for the production of nuclear modes and the influence of these on fuel wear and abrasion. grade uranium dioxide. • Investigations of the conditions within the fuel rod, including the behavi- our of the fuel material and of the cladding. • Studies of chemical influences such as corrosion of cladding and the deposi- tion on the fuel pin surface of particulate and colloidal matter (crud). The work is being carried out using both in-reactor and out-of-reactor tests designed by Research Establishment staff. The out-of-reactor experiments involve the use of sophisticated apparatus to study heat transfer, and vibrational and storage of wastes in solution form, followed by conversion to insoluble or encap- chemical effects. In addition, special rigs have been developed to examine aspects sulated solids. Large-scale pilot studies in the USA have confirmed the economic such as the interactions between fuel pellets and the cladding. The in-rcactor possibility of waste conversion to a highly stable form to overcome problems of work will centre largely on the use of the HIFAR rig X-170 now nearing com- environmental release. A domestic nuclear program would involve Australia in pletion. This major equipment will enable a single fuel pin to be operated under radioactive waste storage by the early 1990s. Any earlier reprocessing of overseas conditions similar to those experienced in large power reactors. fuel in Australia would advance this date. A major effort in this program is in post-irradiation examination which The potential economies of large-scale reprocessing inherent in these opera- involves testing of highly radioactive materials. The ability to examine defective tions could establish Australia as a toll processor of irradiated fuel. The prob- fuel and to diagnose fault conditions is an important backup to any nuclear power lems and implications of overseas developments in this area are being reviewed industry, and this requires both expensive equipment and highly specialised staff. by the Commission in relation to the evolution of an appropriate long-term policy. Work at the Research Establishment has been continuing on improving the equip- Present research includes background studies on the separation of transuranic ment for fuel examination in the high-activity handling cells, and it is expected elements (plutonium, americium, curium) from fission products, together with a that experience of working with water-cooled power reactor fuel will be gained small development effort on solvent extraction equipment. Commission staff have from the X-170 series of experiments. explored areas where a change in the conventional philosophy of plant design Over the past few years, the techniques and apparatus necessary for the and layout and of the approach to operational and maintenance procedures may manufacture of experimental fuel pins have been developed, and will be used lead to a reduction in capital cost. The long-term storage and disposal of radio- to produce the X-170 elements. Although this aspect of the work is limited, it active fission-product wastes is kept under review, including research programs provides an opportunity to examine novel processes which could lead to savings in major overseas countries and plans for disposal of radioactive wastes. in the cost of fuel production. Finally, a watch is kept on overseas developments in fuel for advanced systems, including fast reactors. Considerable work is being done in a number HEAVY WATER of countries on the development of fast reactor fuels, which present some prob- Heavy water remains in critically short supply. The Canadian plant at Port lems beyond those experienced on thermal reactors. Since the future performance Hawkesbury has not yet reached its design capacity of 400 tonnes a year. The and large-scale adoption of fast reactors will depend critically on fuel perform- Bruce plant, under construction in Canada, is scheduled to begin production at ance, and will eventually affect world requirements for uranium and its enrich- 400 tonnes a year (half its ultimate capacity) by the end of 1972. The Canadian ment, assessment in these fields is important to Australia. Government has decided to rebuild the Glace Bay plant, using fresh water instead of salt water as feed. It will be some years before this plant can be brought into production. REPROCESSING OF POWER REACTOR FUEL Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. (AECL) has been forced to shut down Irradiated or "spent" fuel discharged from nuclear reactors contains valuable temporarily the Douglas Point reactor (208 MW) in order to provide heavy water fissile uranium and plutonium. Reprocessing to recover these materials is capital- for start-up of the third 504 MW power reactor at Pickering. However, Douglas intensive . Spent fuel is highly radioactive, hence chemical reprocessing Point will be required to be on line by the end of 1972 to provide steam for plants pose special problems in radiological control. The unit cost of reprocessing the Bruce heavy water plant. Replacement heavy water for Douglas Point may is largely dependent on both the scale of operation and the degree of plant utilisa- have to be obtained by shutting down the Gentilly power reactor and several tion. Plants are unlikely to be economic below an input capacity of 300 tonnes* of research reactors. AECL is negotiating for the supply of 130 tonnes of heavy water uranium a year, and the trend is towards capacities of 1,500 tonnes of uranium from the USSR, and has made enquiries to obtain any spare supplies from China a year. and other countries. The anticipated Australian nuclear power program will generate arisings India has a small heavy water plant in operation and several plants under of irradiated uranium of 300 tonnes a year to the mid-1990s, increasing to 500- construction. By early 1974 total production capacity should be about 300 tonnes 700 tonnes a year by 2000. It appears, therefore, that the minimum economic a year. An additional plant is planned for operation in 1975 at Kalpakkam with capacity could not be justified by expected cumulative Australian arisings alone, a capacity of 100 tonnes a year. Early in 1972 the French plant at Mazingarbe before about 1988. However, there have been some expressions of overseas was damaged extensively by an explosion. interest in possible nuclear fuel reprocessing in Australia as this country has In March 1972 the US Atomic Energy Commission increased the price of geographic advantages as a regional reprocessing centre. heavy water from US$30 to US$39 a pound. The problems of reprocessing are intimately linked with those of storage and The AAEC continued its watching brief on heavy water supply and demand. ultimate disposal of radioactive wastes. Present disposal philosophy is for interim It is believed that the world shortage will continue at least until the late 1970s. After this there may be over-supply unless substantial orders are placed for 1 tonne 1 metric ton 1,000 kg = 2,205 Ib. reactors using heavy water as moderator and/or coolant.

24 25 material. The measure of the separation effort involved in enrichment is called separative work, and is expressed in separative work units (SWU) expressed 4 as some number of kilograms or tonnes SWU a year. In the previous example, to produce one tonne of 3% enriched uranium would reqiMf" nn enrichment plant effort of 4.3 tonnes separative work units. It is important to note that although SWUs are expressed in units of weight, kilograms or tonnes, they arc URANIUM ENRICHMENT not weights of uranium, nor of plant feed, product, or waste. World Requirements for Enrichment Services At present, the only major enrichment plants are in the USA. These plants, which are not operating currently at full capacity, have a design capacity of about 17,000 tonnes SWU a year. USA is taking steps to improve and uprate these plants, and plans to increase their output to about 28,000 tonnes SWU a year SIGNIFICANCE OF ENRICHMENT IN WORLD by 1981. NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMS The only other production plants outside of Communist countries are in Britain and France, each of which has a capacity of about 400 tonnes SWU a year. USSR recently began to supply a small amount of enrichment service In a nuclear power station, the steam to drive the turbo-generators is to France and is negotiating possible sales to other Western countries. produced from heat liberated in a nuclear reactor which takes the place of fuel burners in the boilers of fossil fuel stations. In most presentday power reactors, By 1980, nuclear power stations under construction or planned will generate heat is generated by the fission of uranium, usually in the form of a ceramic about 285,000 MW and will require enriched uranium corresponding to a oxide contained or "canned" in stainless steel or zirconium alloy tubes. In cur- plant capacity of about 36,000 tonnes SWU a year. These requirements are rent commercial reactors, steam is generated either directly by boiling in the expected approximately to double between 1980 and 1990. These power and water-cooled reactor core, or indirectly in an external boiler with the aid of an SWU requirements are not in simple proportion because of inventory requirements intermediate heat transfer medium, such as carbon dioxide, helium, or pressurised for fuel fabrication, etc., the influence of higher fuel burnups in the new, larger water. stations, and the expected use of some plutonium recycled to thermal reactors after the late 1970s. Uranium, as it occurs naturally, contains about 0.7% uranium 235, which undergoes nuclear fission in reactors and is the primary nuclear fuel; the remainder Figure 1 shows the expected growth of demand for enrichment services, in is mainly uranium 238. Although certain types of nuclear reactor can operate relation to nuclear power installations. Figure 2, which is based on analysis of with natural uranium fuel, the use of this material raises difficulties in reactor core individual national power programs, illustrates the way in which world demand designs because of the need to minimise neutron losses. These difficulties can be for enrichment services is expected to be distributed. Mere than half of the overcome — as for example in the early British and French gas-cooled reactors demand will come from the United States. Within Europe, the biggest require- and in the Canadian heavy water reactors — most current nuclear power reactors ments will be for Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Sweden and Spain. Outside of are designed to operate with uranium fuel which contains a larger proportion of Europe and USA, the major demand for enrichment services will come from the isotope uranium 235. Typically, the range is 2-3% as compared with the 0.7% Japan, which is planning a rapid build-up of nuclear powei stations (to 60,000 present in natural uranium. MW by 1985). Certain classes of reactor, including research reactors and fast reactors, may The broad trend of growth in demand through to the period 1985-95 can require uranium containing a much higher proportion of uranium 235. The be predicted with confidence. The graphs show a reduction of rise in demand Commission's research reactor, HIFAR, is fuelled with uranium containing 80% over that period, but it is difficult to predict confidently to the year 2000. This uranium 235. The future commercial fast breeder reactors (FBRs), if they use is because of difficulties in predicting the technological and commercial success uranium, will require about 20-25% uranium 235. (FBRs will use plutonium, of the fast breeder reactor, which ultimately should breed more fissile material which is a superior fast reactor fuel, if enough is available.) (plutonium) than it consumes. Eventually this will allow the use of world stocks of depleted uranium, i.e., enrichment plant tails and partly "burnt" uranium The process of increasing the proportion of the isotope uranium 235 is called recovered in fuel reprocessing plants. However, no large prototype FBR is yet enrichment. For example, about 5* tonnes of natural uranium would be required operating — the first is to start up in 1973 and probably it will be 1978-80 to produce one tonne of fuel enriched to 3% uranium 235, the residual 4i tonnes before the first commercial-scale FBR comes on line. Predictions of performance, (tails) being stored as depleted uranium with 0.2% uranium 235 (tails assay). economics, and therefore of rate of installation, and the effects on uranium and The amount of effort involved in providing a specified amount of uranium enrichment demand, thus involve very considerable extrapolation and must be enriched to some particular concentration of uranium 235 depends on the concen- treated with caution. Nevertheless, they are very important factors in the long- tration to be achieved and on the concentration of uranium 235 left in the residual term planning of new enrichment plant.

26 27 All existing enrichment plants were built initially for military purposes, i.e., for production of highly enriched uranium, and subsequently have been required NUCLEAR POWER to meet the demand for less highly enriched uranium for power reactors. (MEGAWATTS ELECTRICAL) * iO'J Clearly there will be a gap between demand for enrichment services and supply by the early 1980s, unless new capacity is constructed and commissioned in the meantime. Until then, requirements will be met with the aid of some pre- production and stockpiling. URANIUM Figure 3, which was presented by the United States Atomic Energy Com- 3 (SHORT TONS If3a8)*!0 mission in Washington in November 1971 at talks on uranium enrichment, illustrates a possible way of meeting this demand, based on the construction of plants of American design. The new plants shown in this diagram as coming on ENRICHMENT line between 1980 and 1985 would represent a capital investment of over (TONNES SEPARATIVE WORK UNITS) $5,000 million, excluding power supplies, which could cost another $2,000-$3,000 million. Even these large sums amount to less than 5% of the world's prospective investment in nuclear power during the same period. Between now and 1985, total world investment in nuclear power stations alone seems likely to be around $200,000 million. The exact date at which new enrichment plant will be required to come on 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 tine, and the capacity required, will be affected by variations in individual YEAR national programs. It is certain, however, that present enrichment capacity will have to be supplemented no later than 1981, and that there will be a dramatic A hove: Figure 2. World demand for increase in the demand for enrichment services during the period 1980-85. enrichment. Although the problem may seem to lie well in the future, it is important to note that the time required for the planning, design and construction of a new, large diffusion plant is around eight to ten years.

Left: Figure 1. Growth of nuclear TECHNOLOGY OF URANIUM ENRICHMENT b- power and demand for uranium and enrichment. Since the isotopes of uranium have almost identical chemical properties, 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 physical methods have been developed for their separation. The methods depend YEAR on very slight differences in properties, and the separations obtained in any one step are slight, so that multi-stage processing is essential.

Gaseous Diffusion Process The gaseous diffusion process, the only one used so far for large-scale production, was developed originally in the United States during World War II, TOTAL FREE WORLD NEW PLANT CONTRIBUTION * and the first production plant was commissioned at Oak Ridge in 1945. Sub- REQUIREMENTS sequent US military plants were commissioned up to 1956. These plants are now substantially converted to commercial application. Other gaseous diffusion AVAILABILITY plants have been constructed in Britain, France, USSR and the Peoples' FROM IMPROVED US GASEOUS Each new plant |N P| Republic of China. DIFFUSION PLANTS ONLY provides 8 75 million separative work units In the gaseous diffusion process, uranium in the form of the gaseous com- per year pound uranium hexafluoride is allowed to diffuse through the fine holes of a porous membrane (diffuser or barrier). The lighter uranium 235 fluoride mole- cules possess slightly greater mobility and tend to flow preferentially through the barrier. Only part of the gas is driven through the barrier, the uranium hexaflu- 197! 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 oride thus being divided into slightly enriched and slightly depleted streams. YEAR The separation effect per stage is small. To effect an enrichment of the Figure 3. Cumulative enrichment capacity against requirements. uranium 235 to 3%, as needed for many power stations, about 1,000 diffusion

28 29 PRODUCT stages may be required. These are arranged in a "cascade", the enriched diffused stream passing to the next stage up the cascade, while the depleted stream is passed back to the previous stage. Compressors are used to drive the uranium PRODUCTION hexafluoride through the diffusers. The heat generated in pumping the gas must OB TOP STAGE be removed and an important component of the process is heat exchange and removal. Figure 4 illustrates the principles involved. In practice, the arrangement of process feed and recycle results in a plant ^:..^VM^wK>o FEED LINE consisting of stages of two or three sizes. In a plant of 6,000-10,000 tonnes SWU DEPLETED C HIGH PRESSURE a year capacity, the largest stages involve compressors of about 4,000 hp (3,000 T-RAtmON THREE COMPRESSOR BARRIER PRODUCT LINE kW). About 500 of these large units would be required, and an equal number STAGE of smaller stages. The complete plant would be very large and would require a CASCADE SECTION A MOTOR CASCADE large electrical energy input of high reliability. FEED The power requirements of a diffusion plant are mainly for the compressors; BEARING for each kilogram unit of separative work capacity about 2,500 kilowatt hours are required. This means that each 6,000 tonnes SWU a year requires a power \ capacity of about 1,700 MW. • ROTOR

Almost all this energy becomes waste heat which must be removed. The cool- TAILS OR ing requirements, therefore, are equivalent to about half those of the associated BOTTOM STAGE power stations, and the siting requirements related to cooling a diffusion plant STATOR are similar to those for the power stations. Apart from the size and multiplicity of units, the diffusion process is basically simple. The equipment is reliable and requires relatively little maintenance over Above: Figure 4. Cascade of gaseous long periods. diffusion stages. BEARING The diffusion process suffers from the disadvantage that the efficiency of separation at a diffusion barrier is very low; consequently many successive stages of separation are required, and a great deal of electrical energy is consumed. TAILS LINE Therefore, considerable research has been directed to finding a satisfactory alter- Right: Figure 5. Schematic diagram oj a countercurrent centrifuge. native process. The centrifuge process is the most favoured of the present alter- natives.

Centrifuge Process The centrifuge process was first examined in the United States and the 100,000 revolutions per minute with a ten centimetre diameter rotor. The effici- United Kingdom in the 1940s and abandoned. However, promising results were ency of the separation increases greatly as the speed and length of the rotor are obtained later by Zippe at the University of Virginia and published in unclassified increased. However, both these developments raise very difficult engineering and papers and patents in the late 1950s. This led to renewal of interest in many materials problems. countries. Currently research is proceeding in Britain, West Germany, the Nether- At the high speeds involved, centrifuge rotors are subject to forces compar- lands, France and USA; also, with smaller efforts, in France, Japan, Australia able with the tensile strength of the materials of construction. The development and Italy. Details of the research and development work have been kept classified of centrifuges involves materials such as aluminium alloys, special alloy steels, and in almost all countries. fibre composites with very high strength to weight ratios. The limitations of these The principle of the method is as follows. A pressure gradient is set up in materials restrict the possible size of individual centrifuges and the height of a gaseous uranium hexafluoride by high speed rotation in a centrifuge. The heavier centrifuge is not likely to be more than about one metre. uranium 238 fluoride molecules concentrate in the high pressure region on the In terms of isotopic separation, the centrifuge requires fewer successive stages periphery, and the lighter uranium 235 fluoride concentrates in the low pressure to achieve a particular degree of enrichment, i.e., the number of centrifuges in series region near the axis. Bleeding of gas from the centre and periphery of the centri- in cascade is relatively small. On the other hand, because of the small throughput fuge gives an enriched gas flow and a depleted gas flow. The separation effect is of the individual centrifuges, many cenirtfuges must be arranged in parallel to greatly increased by countercurrent flow, that is, by moving :hc streams of gas achieve a comparable total output. To build a factory with a separative capacity at the axis and the periphery in opposite directions. The method is illustrated in of 6,000 tonnes SWU a year would probably require about two to three million Figure 5. The centrifuge must operate at very high speed; peripheral speeds of centrifuges, depending upon the performance of the individual unit. 300-500 metres per second are required. This would mean, for example, 60,000 to

30 31 Future commercial development of the centrifuge will be critically dependent However, the supporters of this process hold out some hopes of achieving greatly upon the development of cheap, mass-produced units. They must also have a long, improved performance. trouble-free life, It appears that unless the average operating life of the individual centrifuge exceeds five years, the costs of replacement and maintenance could make Other Processes the process uneconomic. The three processes described above are essentially mechanical. Although In view of these difliculties, what are the particular advantages of this method they are simple in principle, they involve expensive engineering and, in two of uranium enrichment? The two major advantages are, firstly, the relatively low instances, considerable consumption of electric power. The need for multi-stage power consumption — probably not more than one-fifth that of the difl'usion operation results in high capital expenditure. process. The second advantage is that economies of scale would appear at much There are other possible mechanical methods of enrichment which seem smaller plant capacity, so that in practice it would bo possible to provide much likely to have similar characteristics. For example, instead of nozzles or centri- smaller increments of production capacity, and hence a more satisfactory pattern fuges, various types of vortex tube configurations could be used. of investment and market-following. Theoretically there is no reason why large amounts of energy should be It appears at present that the most advanced development effort on the required to separate isotopes, provided that sui'ncient difference in properties, centrifuge process is within the Tripartite Organisation, set up by Britain, West and exactness of separation can be found and applied. Unfortunately, there is Germany and the Netherlands, which involves joint production and research little difference in the ordinary chemical behaviour of the isotopes of such heavy companies established on a strictly industrial basis. The Tripartite Organisation elements as uranium. Chemical processes based on the multistage fractionation is still working at pilot plant scale, and plants with capacities of 25 to 50 tonnes principle using ion exchange have been explored, but despite some early extra- SWU a year are being constructed. Those involved in the project are optimistic vagant claims, these processes do not appear to have been found economic or that by the late 1970s the process: will have been developed to a stage at which promising. it v/ill be economically competitive in Europe with the diffusion process. There are some possibilities in the field of photochemistry, by taking advan- The United States announced recently that it will increase expenditure on tage of the slightly different energy levels involved in chemical transformation of research and development on the centrifuge to $100 million over the next three individual atoms. These are the subject of basic scientific research and no tech- years. Japan has also announced increasing expenditure on this technology. nical breakthrough has been achieved. Research into the centrifuge process has been carried out since 1966 at South Africa claims to have developed a new method of uranium enrichment, the Commission's Research Establishment, Lucas Heights. This research was on and is reportedly spending $70 million on a pilot plant, but no details of the a very small scale at first, but as confidence developed in the technical feasibility process have been released. of the approach, the Commission began to construct and operate laboratory-scale cascades. The centrifuge project is now one of the Commission's major research projects. Most of the study was carried out initially by Commission staff, with INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS some assistance from other Commonwealth laboratories and, in recent years, from Australian industry. An increasing participation by industry will be required The provision of additional uranium enrichment capacity, to meet the pre- to demonstrate the economic potential of the process. dicted requirements in the 1980s and possibly in the late 1970s, has aroused widespread international interest and led to considerable concern in countries whose economies could be seriously affected by a shortage of enrichment services. Nozzle Process Estimates of supply and demand have been closely examined and debated. Another alternative method known as the nozzle process has been developed While Figures I and 2 would be generally agreed, there is some confusion about on a laboratory and pilot plant scale by the Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Centre the exact timing of new plant requirements. USA recently announced that the in West Germany. Uranium hexafluoride gas diluted with a very much larger tails assay of its enrichment plants had been increased from 0.2% to 0.3% to 30 proportion of either helium or hydrogen, is forced to flow alonu a curved wall. June 1973, and thereafter it would be 0.275% or higher. The increased require- Subsequently, a knife-edge is employed to divide the gas stream into two fractions ment for uranium feed will be met from the US stockpile. This measure, the plan- which are pumped off separately. The deflection of the jet by the curved wall ned increase in the capacity of the existing US plants from 17,000 tonnes SWU a results in partial spatial separation of the components, the gas moving close to year to 28,000 tonnes SWU a year, and some pre-production in anticipation of the deflecting wall becoming enriched in the heavy isotope, while the gas moving demand, will stretch the requirement for new plant to be fully commissioned in at a distance from the wall is enriched in the light isotope. the USA until about 1982, if it is assumed also that new capacity of about 6,000 As with the two methods previously described, the nozzle process depends tonnes SWU a year comes into production outside the USA by 1981. on multiple stages arranged in cascade. However, as compared with the diffusion process, the rumber of stages required is somewhat smaller. At present it appears Washington Meetings that the nozzk- process will require very high power-consumption. More than twice In November 1971, at the invitation of the USA, representatives of certain the power needed for the diffusion process would be required for a given separa- interested European countries, Canada, Japan and Australia met to discuss the tive work capacity, and the capital cost would be comparable or "even higher. possible use of American enrichment technology in multinational plants situated

32 33 outside USA and subject to appropriate agreements and commercial arrange- Such selection will not imply any commitment to any one of these sites, ments. The results of these meetings were somewhat inconclusive and it was left nor elimination of any others which may turn out to be1 attractive. If the results for the American offer to be followed up bilaterally. The USAEC has since had of the studies appear attractive and lead to further more-detailed studies which discussions with representatives of US industry and USA seems to be moving would have to involve industrial participation, it could be expected that site towards the construction of further enrichment capacity at home. There is some selection would include full commercial evaluation of all promising locations. indication that this development reflects a growing concern to safeguard domestic supplies of enriched uranium, and USA has made it clear that its planning anti- cipates the commissioning outside USA of two further plants in the period BASIS OF AUSTRALIAN INTEREST 1980-83. The most favourable locations for future large-scale enrichment by the gaseous diffusion process will be in countries having large energy resources offer- French Initiative ing potential for low cost power, suitable sites, and adequate political and econ- France has made it clear that it expects the next major increment of enrich- omic stability to engender long-term confidence among potential investors and ment capacity outside USA to employ the diffusion process. Although French customers. Large uranium resources available for export would be an additional authorities would like French technology to be used, they do not preclude the use advantage. of technology from other sources; the intention is to obtain the most favourable There is no doubt that Australia meets these conditions. This is evident conditions. They have initiated separate feasibility studies with a European group in reports of discussions and opinions in overseas journals, and it is in itself suffi- (Britain, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands), with Australia, and cient reason for current Australian studies of the technology, likely economics, with Japan. While the Australian and European studies are essentially similar, and all other aspects of large-scale enrichment. The initiative for a definite project the Japanese study appears to be concentrating mainly on marketing and economic could arise overseas, whether or not one originates in Australia. In either event, aspects. it will be essential to have in Australia adequate knowledge and competence to Australian and French officials met in Paris in February to plan the joint assess such proposals, as the consequences in terms of natural resources, industrial feasibility study of the technical and economic aspects of building an enrichment and regional development in the vicinity, trade, strategic implications, foreign plant in Australia, using French gaseous diffusion technology. It was agreed, with- investment, etc., will be large in relation to such factors for any other industry. out any further commitment, to begin the first stage of the study, which will take Australia's own requirements for enriched uranium are likely to be slight about a year to complete. The study is being carried out in both France and before the mid 1990s, and any large-scale enrichment plant constructed in Austra- Australia, and takes account of market factors, likely plant costs, siting require- lia would necessarily depend upon overseas markets. The uranium feed required ments and power supplies. for such a plant would be substantial — probably in the range of 10,000-15,000 On the basis of their experience with the diffusion plant at Pierrelatte, and tonnes of yellowcake a year for a 6,000 tonnes SWU a year plant. There would be research, development and design studies, the French are considering plants with many advantages in obtaining this feed from local production. In broad terms this capacities in the range 6,000 to 10,000 tonnes SWU a year. All their collabora- would represent a local market for uranium worth $150-$200 million annually. tive studies assume that should definite projects emerge, they would be multi- The value of the enriched product would be about twice these figures. Such a pro- national and would include one or more major customer countries. ject, therefore, would offer the prospect of significant trading benefits, even after allowance for substantial foreign participation. Many other aspects have to be taken into account. For example, the use of COMMONWEALTH-STATES POWER AND indigenous fossil fuel reserves for the power supply for enrichment would have SITING STUDIES to be considered against the advantages of export, the likely advances in electrical grid and other industrial development, and their relation to regional development Officers of the Commission, in collaboration with officers of Commonwealth and employment; complex international issues would be involved; and the timing Departments, are working with departments and instrumentalities in all States of any Australian entry into large-scale enrichment would need careful study. and with the Northern Territory Administration, on a preliminary assessment of In examining the prospects and implications for Australia, it is essential to possible location and energy sources which might be suitable for large-scale assess and evaluate the possible technologies, also the question of the long- and uranium enrichment in Australia. short-term future of the diffusion process in relation to other possible processes — These studies began with the holding of a Commonwealth-States briefing particularly the centrifuge process. meeting in Canberra on 10 March, when Commission officers explained the nature Even those most optimistic about the centrifuge process do not expect it to of enrichment and the broad outline of requirements for gaseous diffusion plants. be ready for full commercial assessment before 1976, and it does not appear feasible to construct the millions of centrifuges required to supply all the additional To develop cost data for evaluation of the economic prospects of this tech- enrichment services needed in the early 1980s. For example, to meet a growth nology in Australia, it will be necessary in about mid-1972 to select two, or at in demand for enrichment by 6,000 tonnes SWU a year by installing centrifuges most three, potential sites in Australia for assessment purposes in the overall with an annual capacity of three kilograms SWU, it would be necessary to make studies of enrichment prospects, including the joint Australian-French study. and install at least two million machines a year.

34 35 However, apart from the export market, the centrifuge process may even- tually be of particular value to Australia, because of its adaptability to a smaller scale of production. A relatively modest expenditure in centrifuge plant could 5 provide enriched fuel for Australia's own requirements in the 1980s, whereas the diffusion process is completely uneconomic unless installed on a large production scale. It could be expected, however, that enrichment produced from centrifuges on a small scale would be very expensive. It is certain that a number of large-scale enrichment plants will be built in NUCLEAR POWER - NATIONAL PROGRAMS the Western World during the next one or two decades. Some of this new capacity could be in Australia. Decisions on the first one or two plants will have to be made over the next two or three years. If Australia were to be involved, the decisions to be taken would require AUSTRALIA consideration of many complex issues by Australian industry and commerce, as well as by Government. A major difficulty has been the provision of information, JERVIS BAY POWER STATION because enrichment technology has been highly classified for both strategic and commercial reasons. Completion of Works at Jervis Bay Site Whatever choice regarding uranium enrichment is made in Australia — even Following the decision by the Commonwealth Government in June 1971 to a decision to do nothing for the present — it must be made in the context of defer further consideration of the nuclear power station at Jervis Bay, the great international interest and concern about the supplies of a vital fuel material. Commission terminated the preparatory works already in progress at the site. This involved completion of some works and some restoration. The access road was completed in September 1971. This provides all-weather access to the site and greatly improves access to the picnic and camping ground at Green Patch. It also diverts tourist traffic away from the Jervis Bay village. Responsibility for control and maintenance of the section of the road beyond the boundary of the Commission's area has been taken over by the Department of the Interior. Access road batters were top soiled and sown by the Department of the Interior on the Commission's behalf to assist re-establishment of native vegetation along the road verges. Revegetation of the batters around the power station excavation is proceeding. The Department is also restoring small areas adjacent to the site, which were disturbed during geological and geophysical investigations. A drop bar discharge control feature has been constructed in the stormwater drainage channel leading from the power station excavation. During heavy rain, water collecting in the excavation is held long enough to allow silt to settle out before water is discharged into Jervis Bay. All work on provision of water, electricity, telephone and sewerage services to the site has been terminated, apart from completion of the necessary docu- mentation to enable the work to proceed expeditiously when required. An agreement has been entered into whereby the Shoalhaven Shire Council will maintain the 33kV power line from Tomerong to the Commonwealth Territory border, in return for its temporary use to augment electricity supplies to the Territory and nearby villages. All Commission staff have been transferred from Jervis Bay. Arrangements have been made for any routine maintenance at the site to be undertaken by other Commonwealth departments. However, a limited environmental studies program is continuing. Environmental Studies Environmental studies of Jervis Bay and its surrounding districts have been in progress since January 1970 under the review of a working party with representatives from the Commission, Commonwealth Department of Health, N.S.W. Department of Public Health, the Fisheries Branch of the N.S.W. Chief

37 Secretary's Department and the Electricity Commission of New South Wales. station, Australia would need to purchase a reactor from overseas. However, in The field work and associated laboratory and theoretical studies have been carried the USA, where light water reactors were developed, safety standards and out by the Commission, Electricity Commission and the Fisheries Branch. operating practices were being reviewed, and defining of safety criteria would The objectives of these studies were threefold. Firstly, to provide information take some time to complete. In Britain, the Central Electricity Generating Board upon which to base certain engineering decisions, such as the choice of location had not selected any reactor systems for the next generation of power reactors. for cooling water intake and discharge canals. Secondly, to formulate limits to The Government considered it would be inappropriate to take a decision on the be imposed on the permissible discharge of wastes in the effluent from the Jervis Bay power station under these circumstances. power station. Thirdly, to assess the impact of a nuclear power station on the The Minister said that the Commission would continue to study nuclear local environment. power station development and experience overseas, with particular attention Surveys of the residence and movement of population, terrestrial food to safety and environmental aspects. Collaborative studies would continue between production and land use around Jervis Bay were completed at an early stage. the Commonwealth and the States on establishing licensing and regulatory pro- Developments which are anticipated by the State Planning Authority, including cedures for nuclear power and nuclear fuel in Australia. The Commission would the effect of the power station itself, were taken into account in these studies. be encouraged to collaborate with State generating authorities to help ensure the The Electricity Commission's normal surveys and geological and hydro- protection of the public interest and the environment when nuclear power was graphic investigations for civil works associated with any power station were introduced in Australia. also completed. An interesting question arose regarding the so-called "Point As soon as progress had been made in these matters, the Government would Perpendicular Fault", which is marked on some maps. Further investigation again consider the question of a Jervis Bay nuclear power station. showed that there is no significant evidence of a major geological fault in the region of Point Perpendicular. The area is considered to be seismicly inactive. In May 1970, a small meteorological station was established adjacent to the ASSESSMENT OF REACTOR SYSTEMS power station site. Values for wind speed and direction, rainfall, air temperature COMMISSION'S ADVISORY ROLE and humidity were recorded routinely. Measurements of lapse rate were taken over a period of about two years, using thermometers mounted on the nearby The primary aim of the Commission in relation to nuclear power reactors Jindivik control tower. In addition, a new type of acoustic echo sounder, net is to develop and maintain sufficient expertise to be able to give detailed radiometers and an array of anemometers have now been installed near the technical advice readily on the performance, evaluation and safety assessment Jervis Bay settlement where research is being conducted into the vertical of future nuclear power stations. Most of the effort over the past several years distribution of mechanically and thermally generated turbulence. has been directed towards water-cooled reactors of all types. However, some Extensive investigation of currents and of turbulent diffusion characteristics attention is now being given to high temperature gas-cooled (HTGR) systems and have been carried out in the bay and in the adjacent ocean to enable predictions to the fast breeder reactor (FBR) concept, of which several prototypes will shortly to be made of effluent dispersion from the proposed power station. Techniques be operated overseas. included the use of recording current meters, wave and tide measurement, the The experience of the Commission in evaluating specialist aspects of water- observation of tethered drogues, and aerial photography of dye release plumes. cooled reactor power plants tendered for the Jervis Bay project was described in The Water Research Laboratory at Manly Vale carried out some detailed the Nineteenth Annual Report. This report describes new work and revised investigations and modelling experiments. A computer program based on the viewpoints developed in the current year. results of these investigations was brought to an advanced stage of development, The work falls into two broad overlapping categories. Firstly, survey, data but this work has now ceased. acquisition, and theoretical analysis of the performance of complete power The general effects of the station on the marine ecosystem are regarded as reactors in relation to their design and with particular attention to safety. of the greatest importance. In particular, any possible effects upon commercial Secondly, research aimed at solving problems or producing supplementary or amateur fishing are being carefully evaluated. A study of the marine ecosystem, information and understanding in carefully-selected technical specialities within such as mapping of weed growth and plankton productivity, is being carried the wide field of reactor technology. out and will continue at least until the end of 1972. The resources of marine The first category is mainly office and computer work, involving continuing foods are also being determined and the concentration of elements in certain study of the literature, and including data acquisition and storage for computer organisms has been measured. Changes of water temperature and currents and calculations. This requires a detailed knowledge of reactor core technology and the movement of sand are also receiving close attention. analysis methods, plus considerable computational skill. These studies will enable a realistic assessment to be made of the environ- The second category calls for laboratory work requiring specialised apparatus mental impact resulting from the construction and operation of a nuclear power and materials. Although the major skills are in particular branches of science — station at Jervis Bay. e.g., applied physics, metallurgy, chemistry — the problems studied can seldom Decision Again Deferred be regarded as contained within one discipline. Reactor technology involves a In June this year the Commonwealth Government again deferred a decision complex spectrum of specialists, whose activities are all interrelated. on the Jervis Bay nuclear power station. The Minister for National Development, In the absence of power reactors in Australia, reliance is placed almost Sir Reginald Swartz, said that in the event of a decision to proceed with the entirely on suitable laboratory models of situations representative of chosen

38 39 reactor conditions. In fact it is normal practice for most experimentation to be performed in out-of-reactor situations because of the inherent difficulty of in- reactor experiments. The effects expected in an actual power reactor must then be inferred by suitably combining the model results and complementary expc'rimentai data on in-reactor phenomena obtained elsewhere. If practicable, power reactor trials are then used to confirm the synthesis of the various independent laboratory findings. Much use is made at Lucas Heights of in-reactor data obtained overseas in related investigations, including special trials arising from Commission proposals. POWER REACTOR CORE PERFORMANCE When a power reactor is offered by tender, the vendor is, in general, unlikely to be either willing or able to provide full design details. Nevertheless, the claimed performance characteristics can be examined critically to determine Rig developed by the Engineering Research whether they are credible, and this highlights those areas of design to which most Division for out-of-reactor experiments on electrically heated fuel pins. The heat rating detailed attention must be given later. Such analysis is important in relation to achieved with hollow uranium dioxide fuel safety, as well as reliability and economics. pellets is comparable with that in a power This type of analysis has become the speciality of the reactor performance reactor. groups at Lucas Heights. To achieve such capability, assessors must be familiar in great detail with reactors of all types likely to be of interest to Australia, and this has to be done well, in advance of the need. Methods of Calculation in Neutronic Analysis Calculation of the behaviour of a reactor involves computing the relative probabilities of the possible fates of the neutrons produced by the fission process. Because of the large size and heterogeneous construction of power reactor cores, where most are available with reasonable accuracy. Some gaps remain to be a single complete calculation of the variation of the neutron population with filled. The Commission has contributed to this effort over many years and, in position and energy is not feasible, even though all the processes can be calculated return, has gained ready access to overseas data. individually with adequate precision. Neutron reaction rates vary continuously in a complicated fashion over the Instead, small regions or cells of the reactor, consisting perhaps of a fuel whole neutron energy range (from fractions of an electron volt to ten million clement, coolant channel and part of the moderating material, are first studied electron volts or more). The present standard data libraries on magnetic tape at in detail. Average properties for the regions are deduced and used in calculation Lucas Heights are based upon international data, and contain about a hundred of neutron and power behaviour across the whole core. thousand data points. They will have to be extended greatly to deal with fast reactor analysis. For adequate economic assessment of any reactor system, all these calcula- tions require large computer programs, whose development has taken tens of Thermal-Hydraulic Analysis man years of effort. With limited resources, the policy of the Commission has The economic incentive to increase the specific power output of water- been to acquire and modify suitable codes produced overseas, developing codes cooled power reactors forces designers to approach the physical limitation imposed locally only when necessary. One such AAEC code, Equicore — originally by sudden local overheating at the surface of the fuel cladding caused by steam developed for a continuously refuelled, heavy water moderated, pressure tube blanketing of the fuel. This effect is often termed dryout. Evaluation of the reactor — has been adapted recently to batch-refuelled light water moderated claims made for new or uprated designs depends critically on ability to predict reactors. the risk of dryout and consequent damage to fuel cladding under typical operating The exchange of results between different codes has usually involved manual conditions. intervention with resultant risk of human error, but the increase in both size of Despite two decades of experimentation and data correlation throughout the computer memories and power of computer software now makes it possible to world, no universally accepted method for predicting dryout conditions in the avoid this risk. The codes are being integrated into a modular system. When it is complex configurations of reactor coolant flow passages has been developed, finally developed, all codes will have automatic access to the results produced Many separate empirical formulae have been devised to predict dryout for a by the other codes, and all will use a self-consistent data library. given circumstance, but each is limited in its range of application and variable Nuclear Data Libraries in accuracy. Work has been in progress at Lucas Heights to develop ability to assess Meaningful calculation of reactor core performance requires accurate nuclear limitations of such formulae by direct comparison of predictions with experi- data on interactions of neutrons with materials in the core. A sustained inter- mental results. A substantial bank of data from world-wide sources has been national effort over the past 20 years has determined relevant data to the point 41 40 built up, and a computer code BACE developed which can apply preferred Systematic study of absorption cross sections also makes it possible to formulae by selected methods to each test condition in a chosen range, and can develop methods for estimating the average cross sections for fission products determine the errors of prediction and analyse the error distribution in the range. which, because of their instability, are not available for experimental study. Since these products accumulate in a reactor core, the extent to which they absorb Measurement of dryout power by direct testing of a complete model of a neutrons affects reactor operation. The analysis of these data is continuing as a fuel channel, containing a cluster of fuel rods, does not give adequate data for joint ORNL-Commission project. prediction of all real effects encountered in power reactors. It is necessary to account for the cross-flow in and out of the channel along its whole length, Number of Fission Neutrons caused by both steam void production displacing water and by turbulence. Attention, therefore, is being given to methods of building up the total perform- An important value required in the design of a nuclear reactor and in ance of the rod cluster from detailed analysis of the local fluid conditions in each assessment studies is the average number of neutrons emitted in each fission sub-channel. Once this is achieved, dryout correlations may be used which apply event. This number, known by the Greek letter nu barred (nubar), is in the to the relatively simple sub-channel unit. Such an approach is almost essential range two to three for the isotopes of uranium and plutonium which can be for dealing with pressure vessel reactors of the open-core type. used as nuclear fuels. The fact that this number is greater than one makes the nuclear chain reaction possible, and its actual value is of great importance in Analysis of Flow Instabilities determining nuclear reactor performance, economics and safety. In direct cycle reactors where net steam generation occurs in the primary At Lucas Heights, precision measurement of nubar has been in progress for circuit (usually where steam is fed directly to the turbine), substantial oscillations a number of years, and has now been completed for most of the available fissile may occur in the coolant flow. These could be large enough to cause dryout and isotopes. The data obtained are statistically the most accurate which are avail- local overheating. There are two main classses of flow instability — excursive and able, and satisfy most of the requirements for reactor design calculations. The oscillatory. The excursive and oscillatory effects have common features and, results have given an insight also into the way in which the large amount of indeed, merge under some conditions. energy released during a fission event is subdivided amongst the various particles Excursive instability has been investigated in relation to a new type of and radiation produced. annular fuel element recently adopted for the Commission's research reactor HIFAR. The power for instability has been shown to be very large compared Freon Scaling of Dryout with the normal operating power. Oscillatory instability has been analysed by Many experiments have been conducted throughout the world on the two independent mathematical techniques. Both effects are also being studied dryout power achievable in electrically-heated full-scale replicas of reactor fuel with a hybrid (electronic-analogue/digital) computer. element configurations, cooled by water in representative pressure, flow and temperature conditions. Such experiments are expensive, but work started Loss-of-Coolant Analysis originally by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) at In any safety assessment of a water-cooled power reactor, one of the most Winfrith has shown that water conditions can be simulated quite well at much important accidents considered is a loss of coolant initiated by rupture of part lower pressure, temperature and power, although retaining a full-size model of of the primary coolant circuit. It is important to be able to calculate the the fuel element, when the refrigerant fluid Freon 12 (a chlorine-fluorine sub- consequent behaviour of the reactor coolant. stituted hydrocarbon) is used as a substitute for water. One calculational method developed at Lucas Heights is being tested against A considerable effort has been in progress to establish reliability and the results of experiments carried out at the Centre for Information, Studies and applicability of scaling laws for this technique. A major undertaking has been Experimentation (CISE) in Italy. Transients were initiated in an electrically-heated a collaborative program between the Commission and the UKAEA in which model reactor channel by either a sudden flow blockage or a pipe rupture, and many trials of various annular test sections have been carried out in both water the mass of water in the channel was measured as a function of time. Comparison and Freon under corresponding conditions. The Freon work has been done at of these results with those from the calculational method shows excellent agree- Lucas Heights. The work has emphasised the important effects on dryout power ment. caused by minor changes to such features as the grids and spacers used in reactor fuel assemblies. In parallel, a detailed theoretical reappraisal of the LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS whole scope and basis of the scaling technique has been in progress. Neutron Cross Section Measurements The Freon rig at Lucas Heights can test full-length (e.g., 4 m) fuel bundles The attachment of a Commission staff member to the Oak Ridge National of up to seven rods, or short bundles (e.g., 1 m) of up to 19 rods. Increased Laboratory (USA) has led to a collaborative program of precision cross section flow and power capacity would be needed to test full-sized models of complete measurements. Data are measured with the Oak Ridge Linear Accelerator fuel elements containing several dozen rods. Some increase over present capacity (ORELA) with much greater energy resolution than has previously been possible. is under consideration, together with an examination of the validity of com- Priority has been given to the study of neutron absorption in materials used in parative tests on portions only of fuel assemblies and the problems of simulating partial cross-flow conditions. fast reactors (e.g., sodium, fluorine, calcium, chromium, zirconium, uranium 238).

42 43 Flow Oscillations A study has been made of the hydrothermal reactions of various transition metal oxides and hydroxides, which form a part of typical crud systems. Experiments on How oscillations have been in progress in two small fluid Particular emphasis has been placed on the formation of spinels, which are circulation loops — a low-pressure loop using Freon 113 and having glass-tube mixed oxides. Such information is essential to understanding the mass-transport test sections to enable optical observation of the flow movements, and a high process associated with corrosion products and radioactivity, and thus preventing pressure loop using water at a pressure of up to seven megapascals* in a or overcoming the operating problems which arise from their presence. stainless-steel tubular test section. The optimum operating conditions for minimum corrosion of the heavy In addition, a technique is being developed to predict the critical conditions water circuits of HIFAR-type reactors have been a continuing source of for flow instability, using the increase in amplitude with power level of the debate. The corrosion of aluminium in two out-of-reactor loops has been studied minor natural flow perturbations which occur at normal flows and powers. under a variety of operating conditions, and a basic understanding of the factors This may lead to an on-line diagnostic technique for measuring the margin to controlling corrosion behaviour obtained. instability in power reactors. Work continued on measurements of aluminium corrosion in in-reactor loops. Samples have been exposed in hollow fuel elements in HIFAR for periods Reactor Materials of two to 14 months. Present indications are that the rate of corrosion of Many uncertainties about the long-term behaviour of components in a aluminium is not grossly affected by the high neutron flux environment. nuclear power reactor arise from a lack of knowledge of the properties of constructional materials after prolonged exposure to the reactor environment. FAST REACTORS In any realistic assessment of performance and safety, it is necessary to consider Presentday nuclear power stations are based on thermal reactors, in which not only the properties of the materials at the commencement of service life, but the fast neutrons resulting from nuclear fission are slowed down or moderated also any deterioration under the combined influence of stress, corrosion and towards thermal energies. Fast reactors use no moderator, and most of the radiation. major industrialised nations arc heavily committed to the development of such The reactor materials research program seeks answers to some of these systems. The main reasons are: problems. For zirconium alloy pressure tubes, the topic of most interest is to estimate the maximum creep strain that can be safely tolerated and how this is (1) A fast reactor fuelled with plutonium should be able to convert uranium affected by radiation and by cyclic stresses imposed by pressure changes. For 238 present in the reactor into plutonium at a rate faster than plutonium reactors using steel pressure vessels, most concern centres on radiation embrittle- is destroyed. At a reasonably conservative specific power (of, say, 500 ment of the carbon steel and on the possible deleterious effects of stress corrosion kilowatts per kilogram), it should be practicable to develop eventually a cracks in the austenitic steel cladding. system which will double the reactor's fuel inventory in about ten years. Some preliminary work has begun on the use of acoustic emissions from (2) Whereas with a thermal fission reactor it is rarely possible to utilise more propagating cracks (so-called stress wave emission) with the objective of assessing than 1% of the potential energy available in natural uranium, 75% should its potential for research investigations, proof testing, and possibly on-line be achievable in the fast reactor. monitoring of pressure components. Prototypes of commercial fast reactors are under construction in Britain. USSR, France and Germany. Russia's program includes a reactor which will be Chemical Control of Primary and Other Circuits used for desalination as well as electricity generation. Reactors under construction are shown in the table below. In addition, at least seven others are planned for An important requirement in the safe and efficient operation of water-cooled operation before 1985, including some large (over 1,000 MW) reactors. reactors is an understanding of the behaviour of corrosion films and deposits of corrosion products (crud), and associated radioactivity, in aqueous systems Power Fast Reactors Under Construction containing iron and Zircaloy at high temperature, or aluminium at low tem- perature and in water purification systems. This understanding applies not only to Name Country MW MW Type Fuel Operational the primary circuit, but also, in direct cycle reactors, to all the other circuits (thermal) (electrical) by which are often thought of as conventional and not requiring further study. BW350 USSR 1,000 150* Loop — 1972 Particular attention must be paid to such areas as condenser design, condensate PFR UK 600 250 Pool PuO./UO, 1973 polishing, feed-heater corrosion and crud control at all stages from the initial PHENIX France 600 250 Pool PuO,/UO, 1973 technical assessment to final operation. BN600 USSR 1,500 600 Pool — 1976 For this work a high-temperature high-pressure out-of-reactor water loop SNR W. Germany 730 300 Loop PuO,/UO, 1975 for the study of the deposition and transport of crud in Zircaloy and steel systems has been installed. It has been chemically cleaned and commissioned, (* 4- 200 MW for desalination.) and the commissioning of several associated analytical systems is nearly complete. Although the USA does not appear in the above table, the development program on fast breeder reac'ors in that country cost $86 million in 1971, and $132 million is budgeted for 1972. The US program includes the construction of * Approximately 1,000 lb/in-.

44 45 a high-fast-flux test reactor facility whose prime function is to test fuel elements for fast reactors. There is considerable internal pressure in the USA for the construction of a prototype fast reactor, and negotiations to build the first demonstration plant are in progress. In all these cases development is geared to the sodium-cooled, mixed plutonium oxide-uranium oxide fuel reactor operating on the plutonium-uranium 238 fuel cycle. Eventually, however, carbide fuels are expected to give better performance, and proponents of steam- and gas-cooled systems claim further advantages for these variants. A more integrated approach is being taken to the safety and environmental aspects of the fast reactor than occurred in earlier thermal systems. The fast reactor does not have some of the safety problems of thermal systems — e.g., those associated with high coolant pressures — but the chemically active liquid metal coolant, very high thermal heat rating, large fuel irradiations and high fuel enrichments, present different safety problems. Although the capital costs of fast reactors are expected to be higher than those of their thermal counterparts, fuel costs should be low. The large capital investments required in fast reactor development (e.g., sodium component testing and experimental safety studies) and the likely introduction of commercial fast reactors in the near future, is limiting international access to facilities and co- operation programs except under commercial agreements. Development of Australian policies in the nuclear field in relation to future Overall view of the Spin-table Critical Facility at Lucas Heights. The remotely controlled moving table is farthest from the camera. The near table is fixed. Note the control/safety uses of natural resources, uranium and its enrichment, and nuclear power rods and supports, side supports, and T-slots on tables for positioning equipment. generation, must include consideration of the future role of the fast reactor. The introduction of even a few thermal fission reactors in Australia would generate tonne quantities of plutonium. This plutonium may be used to enrich fuel in thermal reactors, but it would be much more effectively used in fast reactors. A 1,000 MW fast reactor requires about three tonnes of plutonium. The use of plutonium as a nuclear fuel is a complex subject. For example, the isotopic composition of plutonium varies depending on its source (thermal, fast, or thermal followed by fast reactor use). Experience and expertise will be needed in future planning of fuel cycles involving plutonium, and in the introduction of fast reactors, particularly in the physics and safety fields. Many of the metallurgi- cal, engineering and safety issues require a quantitative understanding of the physical processes involved. The Commission is therefore planning a modest level of work in the fast reactor field, particularly in physics and safety.

Critical Facility A general-purpose machine for reactor physics studies, the Split-table Critical Facility, has been completed and commissioned. The facility was opened by the Prime Minister, the Right Honourable William McMahon, C.H., M.P., on 19 June 1972, in the presence of Senator Cotton (representing the Minister for National Development) and the Ambassador for France. The main contractor was the French firm Le Groupement Atomique Alsacienne Atlantique (GAAA), which was also responsible for the design. This machine provides the means of constructing and simulating a wide variety of reactors (including fast reactors) with an ease, flexibility and safety Mr. W. Gemmell, Acting Chief, Physics Division second from left) descinbis the . which make it ideal for research in support of developments in the nuclear of the spliHablc to (left to right) Mrs. McMahon, the Prime Minister, Mr. William McM a , Senator R. C. Cotton, Minister for Civil Aviation (representing the Minister for National industry. Development) and Dr. M. G. Mackay, Minister for the Navy.

46 47 When a reactor is split into two parts, separated to the extent that nuclear interaction between the parts is negligible, nuclear accidents arc impossible. The machine is based on this principle, and consists of two large, flat, horizontal tables which can be brought into contact by remote control. When fully separated, fissile and other reactor core materials can be assembled in discrete stages on the tables. After loading at each stage, the tables are brought together to ascertain if a critical reactor configuration is being approached. This degree of safety is achieved by simple design, but accurate and reproducible results demand high mechanical precision in construction of the tables and their guidance and drive systems. The machine has a full range of instrumentation and control equipment, but heat removal facilities are not required. Power is kept minimal to allow access to all parts of the system and manual handling of the fuel. This machine will provide first-hand experience on many aspects of reactor physics and associated engineering and safety technology, including the field of fast reactors. Experiments investigating design and fuel management problems will provide the experience and necessary know-how to advise on matters affecting operation and safety. Above: Control console of the Critical Facility, The operator can directly observe all activities and REGULATORY FRAMEWORK equipment within the shielded reactor cell by means of the In its Nineteenth Annual Report, the Commission described the need for television monitor and remotely controlled camera. and the nature of regulatory controls over nuclear energy. In 1970, the Com- monwealth-States Consultative Committee on Nuclear Energy, which was established by the Commonwealth Government to consider such matters, set up a Sub-Committee to report on the technical aspects of the licensing and regulation Left: The Lucas Heights Critical of nuclear installations in Australia, The Sub-Committee, under a chairman Facility's split-table drive motors provided by the Commission, submitted its report during 1971 for consideration and gearboxes mounted on the end by the Consultative Committee. of (he moving table. The forward motion motors are on the right, and the reverse motors on the left. Commission officers, in collaboration with officers from the Department of Shipping and Transport and other departments, are also studying the problems of the necessary regulatory control of nuclear-propelled merchant ships visiting Australian ports. Such controls will be necessary for public safety for the same reason that nuclear installations will be licensed and regulated. Only one nuclear- propelled merchant ship is in operation in the world, the West German ore carrier "Otto Hahn", and this has not yet visited Australia. However, there are indications that, with the increase in the cost of fuel oil, nuclear propulsion may become economically attractive within the next decade for large, high-speed ships. The problem of regulating the movement of nuclear-propelled vessels in Australian ports therefore is being studied in the light of possible requests for visits in the near future. Safety and environmental control are the essential bases upon which the technical aspects of licensing and regulatory requirements are formulated. They are highly relevant therefore to the development of nuclear power in Australia. In view of their importance, the Commission has established a Safety Assessment Section to develop safety criteria and guidelines within the context of licensing and regulatory requirements. The activities of this Section supplement, and to a large Right: A control and safety rod drive mechanism from the Critical extent focus, the Commission's research program in areas ranging from environ- Facility. The drive motor/gear box mental aspects of waste control and radiobiology, to detailed reactor safety and the rod position indicator analytical studies. transmitters can be seen at right. 49 48 Informal contact at a working level has been established already with development of standards and codes of practice. However, it is essential that these engineering staff of several State power utilities on various aspects of site selection three areas be fully integrated. Any effort to separate them into isolated functions and reactor safety. As a result of these studies, some of the practical problems will create interface problems which could have serious safety implications. likely to face a utility and a future licensing authority already are becoming The Commission is studying these areas with a view to determining the understood. essential requirements and the type of organisation to carry them out effectively. The Commission is also developing guidelines on reactor safety and siting as a Radiological Safety and Environmental Control basis for the introduction of commercial nuclear power in Australia. The results of the Commission's studies on the safe'y and environmental aspects of nuclear power have been reported in previous Annual Reports, and it is clear that there is a close interrelation between considerations of the environ- OTHER COUNTRIES ment, reactor safety and radiological safety. The selection of reactor sites, the Argentina specification of some key items of equipment (e.g., the waste treatment system) Bids on Argentina's second station of 600 MW were received on 2 May and the operational restrictions placed upon the plant, all depend upon the 1972. A decision is due late in 1972. results of environmental studies. Developments in international and national radiological protection standards Canada are being kept under review to determine the effect these have on the limits of The 508 MW Pickering 2 unit went on line in November 1971. Pickering permissible discharges from nuclear installations. The scope of the environmental 3, also 508 MW, went on line mid-May 1972. studies necessary to ensure compliance with these health standards is being studied with a view to producing guidelines for the benefit of the utilities. Tn general, there are three stages in the environmental study for a nuclear Egypt power station, and the Commission is attempfing to define the necessary con- Egypt has announced that it will install two nuclear power stations under ditions for each stage. its new ten-year plan. The first station will be built by the Soviet Union and will come on line by 1979, the second by 1981. Feasibility. For economic reasons, utilities will wish, in many cases, to purchase land suitable for reactor sites well in advance of any definite decision to proceed with construction. Some firm guidance and assurance is obviouslv Finland necessary to the effect that such sites would meet both State and Commonwealth The contract for the second 440 MW unit at Loviisa was formally signed in requirements for the operation of a nuclear installation. The information and August 1971 and excavation of the site has begun. data at this stage need not be detailed, and generally can be established from available information (e.g., population densities and general land utilisation). France Specification. This involves a decision to build a nuclear station on a The EOF stations St. Laurent 2 and Bugey 1 went on line during the year. chosen site. More detailed environmental data are required at this stage to deter- These are the last of the French graphite moderated, natural uranium, gas- mine the safe limits of discharges during normal operation, and the design cooled stations to be built. EOF has ordered two 930 MW PWRs for the Bugey requirements for plant equipment necessary to meet these limits. site, and has also ordered a second PWR of 980 MW to be built at the Fessenheim Operation. This stage, which is continuous throughout the life of the plant, site. is concerned with ensuring compliance with the discharge authorisation. It involves monitoring the discharges and carrying out surveys to ensure com- East Germany pliance with health standards. During the year a twin 440 MW PWR station was ordered and will be built at the Lubmin site. The reactors will be supplied by the Soviet Union. Reactor Safety The public must also be protected from accidental releases of radioactivity, West Germany the primary requirement being reactor plant of good design and high quality. If The 630 MW PWR Stade and the 612 MW BWR Wurgassen stations came accidents occur, their consequences depend on the performance of protective on line during the year. A 1,300 MW BWR station to be constructed at systems and engineered safeguards, as well as on the characteristics of the Kruemmel was ordered. Final approval was given for the 300 MW sodium- environment. cooled fast reactor to be built at Kalkar. This project is being undertaken jointly by West Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxemburg. The technical work necessary to ensure adequate safety in a nuclear power program covers three broad areas. Firstly, assessment of the design of the plant to ensure adequate safety under both normal and fault conditions. Secondly, Ghana inspections during manufacture, site erection, commissioning and later commercial The Volta River Authority is planning to install a 280-300 MW nuclear operation, to ensure compliance with licensing requirements (e.g., quality control plant for operation about 1981-82. Consultants are expected to be appointed and maintenance). Thirdly, guidance and technical support to industry in the during 1972.

50 51 India Some 23 new units (23,688 MW) were ordered during the year. They arc: Crystal River 4 897 MW PWR The Indian Government has given approval for the construction of a 200 Philadelphia Elec. (no site) 2 x 1,160 MW HTGR MW natural uranium, heavy water reactor to be built at Narora. Alvin W. Vogtlc 2 x 1,100 MW PWR Japan Beaver Valley 2 847 MW PWR Nine Mile Pt. 2 1,100 MW BWR Japan Atomic Power Co. ordered a 1,100 MW BWR for installation at Delmarva P & L (no site) 2 x 770 MW HTGR its Tokai Mura site. The sixth unit for the Fukushima station, a 1,100 MW Fermi 3 1,150 MW BWR BWR, was ordered during the year. Perryman 2 x 880 MW PWR Mexico Pilgrim 2 & 3 x 1,150 MW PWR Greenwood x 1,150 MW PWR Bids on a 600 MW nuclear station were due by 13 March 1972. An order Grand Gulf 1,250 MW BWR could be placed later in 1972. Perry 1 & 2 2 x ,100 MW BWR 2 x ,142 MW PWR Netherlands Seabrook 1 & 2 S. Cal. Edison (no site) L X 770 MW HTGR Bids on a 600 MW station were due by 1 March 1972. Public Service Electric and Gas has given Westinghouse a letter of intent for two 1,150 MW PWRs to be built on separate barge platforms about three Poland miles off-shore from the coast of New Jersey. This will be the world's first The Soviet Union will supply Poland's first nuclear power plant which is off-shore nuclear power plant. due on line about 1980-82. No details of type, size or site are available. USSR Spain The 410 MW PWR Novovoronezh 3 went on line early in 1972. Under During the year five reactors were ordered for installation at three sites. the current five-year plan (1971-75), 7,200 MW is scheduled to be built. They are: Lemoniz, 2 x 930 MW BWRs, Almaraz 2 x 930 MW PWRs, Asco 930 PWR. The 480 MW gas-cooled reactor Hospitalet has gone critical and Table 1 should be in commercial operation later in 1972. Installation of a second identical unit is under active consideration. NUCLEAR POWER UNITS IN OPERATION, UNDER CONSTRUCTION OR ON ORDER IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES AS AT 30 JUNE 1972 Sweden Under i Ringhals 3 and 4, two 900 MW PWRs and Forsmark 1 and 2, two 900 Country In Operation Construction On Order TOTAL BWRs, were ordered. The utility Sydkraft has ordered a second 580 MW BWR No. MW No. MW No. MW No. MW __ — — for its Barsebaeck station. Argentina — 1 319 1 319 Austria — — 1 700 1 700 — — — 1,660 Switzerland Belgium 1 10 3 1,650 — 4 Brazil — — — 1 600 1 600 —2 — 840 The 350 MW PWR Beznau 2 and the 306 MW BWR Muehleberg stations Bulgaria — — 840 — 2 went on line during the year. Canada 6 2,004 5 3,516 — — 11 5,520 Czechoslovakia 1 112 — — 4 1,680 5 1,792 2 860 — 2 860 Taiwan Finland — — — France 10 2,711 2 1,120 3 2,840 15 6,671 Bids on 2 x 800-900 MW units were due by 20 March 1972. East Germany 1 70 2 700 2 880 5 1,650 West Germany 8 2,125 8 5,316 5 4,474 21 11,915 United Kingdom India 2 380 4 808 1 200 7 1,388 2 — 5 1,341 Italy 3 556 785 — The UKAEA and the CEGB h^ve down-rated their Magnox stations Japan 5 1,269 13 8.773 5 4,220 23 14,262 because of corrosion problems. AGR stations totalling 6,000 MW are still under Korea — — 1 564 — — 1 564 512 construction. No decision has been taken yet on the type of reactor to be used in Netherlands 1 62 1 450 — — 2 the next station, or on the date of order. Pakistan 1 125 — — 1 200 2 325 Spain 3 1,093 1 450 5 4,650 9 6,193 Sweden 2 449 4 2,129 5 4,180 11 7,358 USA — — 3 1,006 Switzerland 3 1,006 — — Taiwan 1 604 1 604 2 1,208 Five stations went on line during the period: Palisades 1, 700 MW PWR; — — — 40 10,621 UK 29 4,158 11 6,463 — Vermont Yankee, 513 MW BWR; Quad Cities 1 and 2, 2 x 809 MW BWRs; USA 28 12,763 50 46,858 65 62,227 143 121,848 — 23 8,770 Pilgrim 1, 655 MW BWR; Surry 1 and 2, 2 x 780 PWRs. Some six other USSR 12 2,010 11 6,760 — stations are almost ready to go on line but are held up by licensing delays. TOTALS 116 30,903 124 89,565 99 87,455 339 207,923

52 53 Table 2 NUCLEAR POWER UNITS IN OPERATION, UNDER CONSTRUCTION OR ON ORDER AS AT 30 JUNE 1972—BY TYPE AND COUNTRY

Under Reactor Type In Operation Construction On Order TOTAL and Country No. MW No. MW No. MW No. MW LIGHT WATER (a) PWRs Belgium 1 10 3 1 ,650 4 1 ,660 Brazil — — — 1 600 1 601 — 2 840 — Bulgaria — — — 2 840 Czechoslovakia — — — 4 1,680 4 1,680 — o 860 i Finland — — — — 860 France 1 266 1 870 3 2,840 5 3,976 East Germany 1 70 2 700 ~> 880 5 1,650 West Germany 2 958 2 2,390 \ 1,240 5 4,588 247 — — • , — Italy 1 — 1 247 Japan 1 320 7 5,613 1 500 9 6,433 — — Korea — 1 564 — 1 564 Netherlands — — 1 450 — — 1 450 — Pakistan — — — 1 200 1 200 Spain 1 153 1 450 5 4,650 7 5,253 •j Sweden — — 1 809 1,800 3 2,609 2 700 — — — Switzerland — 2 700 USA 10 4,645 38 32,684 42 42,355 90 79.684 USSR 3 1,040 5 2,010 — — 8 3,050 TOTALS 23 8,409 66 49.890 62 56,745 151 1 1 5,044 (b) BWRs Austria 1 700 1 700 West Germany 4 1,104 3 2,504 3 2,934 10 6,542 380 — India 2 — — 2 380 1 154 — 9 Italy 1 750 — — 904 Japan 3 792 5 2,960 4 3,720 12 7,472 Netherlands 1 62 — 1 62 1 460 — — — Spain — — — — 1 460 Sweden 1 440 3 1,920 3 2,380 7 4,740 Switzerland 1 306 — — — 1 306 — — Taiwan — 1 604 1 604 o 1,208 USA 14 7,201 11 13,844 17 14,512 42 35,557 1 — USSR 70 — — — 1 70 TOTALS 29 10,969 24 22,582 29 24,850 82 58,401 (c) LWGRs USA 1 800 1 800 8 900 4 4,000 — USSR — 12 4,900 TOTALS 9 1,700 4 4,000 — — 13 5,700 GAS-COOLED GRAPHITE (a) Natural I aniuni France 8 2,372 8 2,372 Italy 1 155 — — — . — 1 155 — — Japan 1 157 — — 1 157 Spain 1 480 — — — — 1 480 UK 26 4,012 — — — — 26 4,012 TOTALS 37 7,176 — — — — 37 7,176

54 Table 2 (continued) Under Reactor Type In Operation Construction On Order TOTAL and Country No. MW No. MW No. MW No. MW (b) Advanced Gas-Cooled UK 1 32 10 6,213 !_!__ 6.245 (c) HTGRs West Germany 1 13 2 322 3 335 USA 1 40 T 330 6 5,360 8 5,730 TOTALS 2 53 3 652 6 5,360 11 6,065 HEAVY WATER (a) CANDU PHW Canada 5 1,754 5 3,516 10 5,270 India 4 808 1 200 5 1,008 Pakistan 1 125 1 125 TOTALS 6 1 .879 9 4.324 1 200 16 6,403 (b) SGHWR Types Canada 1 250 — 1 250 Italy 1 35 — 1 35 Japan 1 200 1 200 UK 1 100 1 100 TOTALS 2 350 2 235 585 — — 4 (c) CO, Cooled France 1 73 — 1 73 West Germany 1 100 — 1 100 Czechoslovakia 1 112 1 112 TOTALS 2 185 1 100 • — — 3 285 (d) Others Argentina 1 319 1 319 West Germany 1 50 — — 1 50 Sweden 1 9 1 9 TOTALS 2 319 — 37S 59 1 — 3 FAST BREEDERS France 1 250 1 250 West Germany 1 30'J 1 300 USA 2 77 2 77 USSR o 750 2 750 UK 1 14 T 250 2 264 TOTALS 3 91 4 1,250 1 300 8 1,641 TOTALS ALL TYPES 116 30,903 124 89,565 99 87,455 339 207,923

55 Table 3 Output Output Name MW Type State Name MW Type Slate WORLD NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS ATR 200 HW/BW C 'each Bottom 1 40 HTG Op The table lists nuclear power stations in operation, under construction or definitely Tokai Mura 2 1 100 BW Cm .a Crosse 50 BW Op committed. Stations of less than 10 MW have been omitted. Fukushima 6 1100 BW Cm Dresden 1 200 BW Op KOREA Dresden 2 800 BW Op GC = Gas Cooled Reactor PW — Pressurised Light Water Reactor Pusan 564 PW C Dresden 3 800 BW Op G — Graphite Moderated Reactor HW -- Heavy Water Moderated Reactor Yankee 175 PW Op BW — Boiling Light Water Reactor HW/HW = Heavy Water Moderated and NETHERLANDS Dodewaard 62 BW Op Connecticut Yankee 575 PW Op OM — Organic Moderated Reactor Cooled Reactor ndian Pt. 1 265 PW HTG = High Temperature Gas F — Fast Breeder Reactor Borselle 450 PW c Op PAKISTAN Hanford NPR 800 G/PW Op Cooled Reactor Op = Operating San Onofre 1 430 PW C = Under Construction Cm = Committed Karachi 125 HW/HW Op Op Roopur 200 Dyster Creek 640 BW Op PW Cm 625 WP A IM Mine Mile Pt. BW O*-s\Jp Output Output Xjl /A 1 1^1 Uinna 1 420 PW Type State Zorita 1 PW Op Name MW Type State Name MW 153 Op VIonticello 545 BW Op ARGENTINA Lingen 240 BW Op Zorita 2 450 PW C H. B. Robinson 2 700 PW Op Atucha 319 HW/HW C Obrigheim 328 PW Op S. Maria la Gorona 460 BW Op Vlillstone Pt. 1 652 BW Hospitalet 480 G/GC Op Op MZFR 50 HW/HW Op Point Beach 1 497 PW v AUSTRIA Lemoniz 1, 2 1560 PW Cm O-'pr Zwentendorf 700 BW Cm Niederaichbach 100 HW/GC c Vlillstone Pt. 2 828 PW (\_^ Stade 630 PW Op Almaraz 1, 2 1560 PW Cm Palisades 1 700 PW BELGIUM BW Op Asco 930 PW Cm Tihanpc 870 PW C Wurgassen 612 Point Beach 2 497 PW c Biblis 1 1150 PW c SWEDEN lj* V/V« | 1065 Docl 780 PW cV, Oskarsham 1 Browns Ferry 1 BW c Biblis 2 1240 PW c 440 BW Op Browns Ferry 2 1065 BW BRAZIL Brunsbuettel 770 BW c Oskarsham 2 580 BW C c Angra dos Reis 600 PW Cm Browns Ferry 3 1065 BW c Schemausen 300 G/GC c Ringhals 1 760 BW C Fort Calhoun 457 PW BULGARIA 864 BW Ringhals 2 809 c Philippsbur* * og 1 c PW C Indian Pt. 2 873 PW Kozloduy 840 PW C Cm cV~ Philippsburg 2 864 BW Barsebaeck 580 BW C Indian Pt. 3 965 PW c CANADA ISAR 870 BW C Ringhals 3, 4 !800 PW Cm Oconee 1 841 Cm PW cv_ NPD 22 HW/HW Op Neckar 770 BW Forsmark 1, 2 1800 BW Cm Oconee 2 886 PW c Douglas Pt. 208 HW/HW Op Nordenham 1240 PW Cm Barsebaeck 2 580 BW Cm Oconee 3 886 PW Pickering 1, 2. 3 1524 HW/HW Op Kruemmel 1300 BW Cm SWITZERLAND Quad Cities 1 800 BW O••_•• pP' Pickering 4 508 HW/HW C Kalkar 300 F Cm Beznau 1 350 800 PW Op Quad Cities 2 BW O•w py Gentilly 250 HW/BW Op INDIA Beznau 2 350 788 PW Op Surry 1 PW OV-^ p\J Bruce 1, 2, 3, 4 3008 HW/HW c Tarapur 1, 2 380 BW Op Muehleberg 306 BW Op Surry 2 788 PW c CZECHOSLOVAKIA Rajasthan 1, 2 404 HW/HW C TAIWAN Turkey Pt. 3 693 PW c Bohunice 1 112 HW/GC Op Madras 1 202 HW/HW C Chin Shan 1 604 BW C Turkey Pt. 4 693 PW c Bohunice 2, 3 840 PW Cm Madras 2 202 HW/HW C Chin Shan 2 604 BW Cm Vermont Yankee 513 BW Op Bukovany 1, 2 840 PW Cm Narora 200 HW/HW Cm UNITED KINGDOM Maine Yankee 790 BW c FINLAND Peach Bottom 2 1065 BW ITALY Calder 198 G/GC V-* |-' c Op 1065 Loviisa 420 PW C Latina 155 G/GC Op Chapelcross 198 G/GC Op Peach Bottom 3 BW c Loviisa 2 440 PW C Selni 247 PW Op Berkeley 276 G/GC Op Arkansas 1 820 PW c FRANCE Garigliano 154 BW Op Bradwell 250 G/GC Op Cooper 778 BW c Marcoule G2, G3 72 G/GC Op Caorso 750 BW C Hunterston A 250 G/GC Op Crystal River 3 825 PW c Chinon 1 70 G/GC Op Cirene 35 HW/BW C Hunterston B 1250 G/GC c Cook 1 1060 PW c Chinon 2 200 G/GC Op JAPAN Hinkley Pt. A 460 G/GC Op Cook 2 1060 PW c Chinon 3 480 G/GC Op Hinkley Pt. B 1260 Fort St. Vrain 330 HTG JPDR 11 BW O•*_»• pl~- G/GC c c St. Laurent 1 487 G/GC Op Trawsfynnyd 390 G/GC Op tCewaunee 540 PW c Tokai Mura 157 G/GC O^^ pr St. Laurent 2 518 G/GC Op Tsuruga 341 BW Op Dungeness A 410 G/GC Op Prairie Is. 1 530 PW c Bugey 1 545 G/GC Op Dungeness B 1200 Prairie Is. 2 530 PW Mihama 1 320 PW Opf- G/GC c c Chooz 266 PW Op Mihama 2 470 PW c Sizewell A 420 G/GC Op Pilgrim 655 BW Op EL 4 73 HW/GC Op Mihama 3 781 PW c Oldbury 400 G/GC Op Three Mile Is. 1 819 PW c Phenix 250 F c Wylfa 730 Three Mile Is. 2 905 PW Fukushima 1 440 BW O•M- pf G/GC Op c Fessenheim 1 870 PW c Fukushima 2, 3 1520 BW c Seaton Carew 1250 G/GC c Salem 1 1090 PW c Bugey 2, 3 1860 PW Cm Fukushima 4, 5 1520 BW Cm Heysham 1250 G/GC c Salem 2 1115 PW c Fessenheim 2 980 PW Cm Shimane 1 440 BW C SGHWR 100 HW/BW Op Zion 1 1050 PW c EAST GERMANY Takahama 1 , 2 1562 PW c DFR 250 F c Zion 2 1050 PW c Rhcinsberg 70 PW Op Genkai 500 PW c USA Beaver Valley 1 847 PW c Lubmin 700 PW C Onagawa 1 500 BW c Shippingport 1 90 PW Op Calvert Cliffs 1 845 PW c Lubmin 2 880 PW Cm Hamaoka 1 500 BW c Big Rock Pt. 70 BW Op Calvert Cliffs 2 845 PW c WEST GERMANY Ikata 500 PW Cm Humbolt Bay 69 BW Op Diablo Canyon 1 1060 PW c Ciimdremmingen 237 BW Op Ohi 1,2 2300 PW C Enrico Fermi 1 61 F Op Diablo Canyon 2 1060 PW c 57 Output j Output Name MW Type State Name MW Type State E. I. Hatch 1 786 BW C vlcndocino 1 728 PW ~Cm 6 Rancho Scco 1 804 PW C vlcndocino 2 128 PW Cm Brunswick ! 821 PW C Hanford 2 110 BW Cm Brunswick 2 821 PW C TVA (No Site) 1 175 PW Cm Duanc Arnold 530 BW C TVA (No Site) 2 175 PW Cm Hutchinson Is. 1 800 PW C Comm. Edison Scquoyah 1 1140 PW C (No Site) 1 1100 PW Cm Scquoyah 2 1140 PW C Comm. Edison URANIUM EXPLORATION AND MINING Fitzpatrick 821 BW C (No Site) 2 1100 PW Cm Enrico Fermi 2 1123 BW C Shcaron Harris 1 915 PW Cm Davis Bessc 872 PW C Shcaron Harris 2 915 PW Cm Trojan 1130 PW C Shearon Harris 3 915 PW Cm North Anna River 1 845 PW C Shcaron Harris 4 915 PW Cm North Anna River 2 845 PW Cm Crystal River 4 897 PW Cm North Anna River 3 900 PW Cm Philadelphia Elec. 1 2280 HTG Cm EXPLORATION FOR URANIUM North Anna River 4 900 PW Cm A. W. Vogtic 1, 2 2200 PW Cm Cm 847 Shoreham 819 BW Beaver Valley 2 BW Cm Uranium exploration in Australia is at a record high, and intensive explora- Arkiinsjis ^ 920 PW Cm Nine Mile Point 2 1080 BW Cm / 11 f\ (I 1 1 kjll T *•» tion was undertaken in a number of areas during the period, particularly in the La Salle 1 1078 BW Cm Deimarva 1, 2 1540 HTG Cm BW Cm Enrico Fermi 3 1123 PW Cm Northern Territory and South Australia. LL-~jLal SalikJtlllVc' 24* 1078 Cm Perryman 1, 2 1690 PW Cm IIvllllw imcricl 1 Vks I X 11 1065 PW PW Cm Pilgrim 2, 3 2300 PW Cm Important new discoveries have been made in Queensland, Northern I1_ jllllWimericl IWIkV ""* 1065 Verplank 1 1115 BW Cm Greenwood 1, 2 2300 BW Cm Territory, South Australia and, more recently, in Western Australia. Although Susquehanna 1 1052 BW Cm Grand Gulf 1250 BW Cm these resources are not yet delineated fully, it is clear that these additions to 1052 BW Cm Perry 1, 2 2200 PW Cm Susquehanna 2 2284 PW Cm Australia's uranium reserves will, in due course, ensure that Australia will rank Midland 1 492 PW Cm Seabrook 1, 2 818 PW Cm 3. Cai. Edison 1, 2 1540 HTG Cm as one of the world's leading uranium producers. Midlan1 T X | V4 1 H 1d 1 vl 2^ 829 PW Cm USSR JI , 1M T t . Furle1 CllIV'Jv' 1* 829 PW Cm Siberia (1-6) 600 G/PW Op The deposits in the Northern Territory include some exceptionally high-grade J. M. Farley 2 ore, and the Alligator Rivers Uranium Field must be regarded as of major world 900 PW Cm Novovoronezh 1 265 PW Op V. C. Surnner Novovoronezh 2 365 PW San Onofre 2 1140 PW Cm Op importance. Novovoronezh 3 410 PW O•V p|- San Onofre 3 1 140 PW Cm Novovoronezh 4 410 PW C From the data available, with continued exploration, the prospects for Forked River 1 140 PW Cm Melekess 70 BW Op 810 BW Cm discovery of further resources are promising. At the present rate of exploration, Zimmer 1 Beloyarsk 1 100 G/BW Op reasonably assured resources in this area at less than US$10 per pound could IE. I. Hatch 2 786 BW Cm Beloyarsk 2 200 G/BW Op Central Aguirre 583 PW Cm Beloyarsk 3 600 F C exceed 100,000 short tons of uranium oxide (U;(O8) within two years. Significant Waterford H65 PW Cm Kola 1 420 PW C discoveries of relatively lower-grade sedimentary uranium ore have also been Newbold 1 1067 BW Cm Kola 2 420 PW C made in the Lake Frome Basin of South Australia, and further discoveries seem Ncwbokl 2 1067 BW Cm Armenia 1 380 PW C likely as exploration continues. Although a number of uranium discoveries have Bell 838 BW Cm Armenia 2 380 PW C been made in Western Australia, it is too early to predict total reserves which will W. B. McGuire 1 1150 PW Cm Kursk 1 1000 G/PW C W. B. McGuire 2 1150 PW Cm Kursk 2 1000 G/PW C be proven in these new discoveries. Baiily 660 BW Cm Leningrad 1 1000 G/PW C This increased exploration took place within the framework of the Common- Watts Barr 1 1170 PW Cm Leningrad 2 1000 G/PW C WaUs Barr 2 1 1 70 PW Cm BN 350 150 F C wealth Government's amended uranium export policy (reported in the Commis- sion's Annual Report for 1970-71). It has added upwards of 70,000 short tons of uranium oxide to Australia's reasonably assured resources within the cost range up to US$10 per pound. Australia's estimated uranium resources at 30 June 1972 are shown in Table 1. These figures do not allow for resources known to exist in the Rum Jungle area, which in the absence of a treatment plant, must now be considered uneconomic; nor does it include allowances for uranium recovered by heap- leaching, or as a by-product of treatment of other mineral deposits such as phosphates, fluorite, vanadium and/or copper. The Commission has special powers of control vested in it by the Atomic Energy Act, 1953-66, and the Customs (Prohibited Fxports) Regulations and, in

58 59 TABLE 1: URANIUM RESOURCES ;i (I0 short tons U:tOs) REASONABLY GEOLOGICAL ASSURED AREA RESERVES RESOURCES (Measured and (Recoverable at less indicated) than US$10 per Ib) QUEENSLAND 33.9 16.0 NORTHERN TERRITORY 112.5 71.0 SOUTH AUSTRALIA 20.5 5.0 TOTAL 166.9 92.0 OENPELLI MISSION order to discharge its responsibilities, the Commission must keep abreast of all •"""QUEENSLAND developments in the uranium mining industry in Australia. Moreover, because of MINES LTD. its background of continuing experience in the uranium mining and treatment (Naharlok) industry, the Commission is able to assist the industry in all aspects of these operations. The nature and products of radioactive decay give rise to a number I PANCONTINENTALj of problems which are unique to uranium and thorium mining and processing. MINING LTD. The solution to these problems also requires experience and the use of extensive laboratory equipment not available at present in industry. The Commission has these facilities and undertakes such investigations, as a service to the mining and ARNHEM processing industries. MUDGINBARRY

BUREAU OF MINERAL RESOURCES RANGER URANIUM LAND Northern Territory MINES PTY. LTD: THE RANGER 1 RADIOMETRIC ANOMALY Alligator Rivers Uranium Field / MT. BROCKMAN f,f (SEE MAP) During the period, a geological survey was begun of the Alligator Rivers Uranium Field. The survey is expected to take three years and has a threefold NOURLANGIE ROCK objective: firstly, to produce a detailed map of the geology of the region at 1:100,000 scale, secondly, to investigate the genesis of the uranium ores with 4, To DARWIN specific reference to the source of the uranium and the lithological associations of ^ via MT.^UNDEY x NO RAN DA the mineralisation, and thirdly, to establish the relationship (if any) of the distri- *** *» AUSTRALIA LTD. bution of uranium ore to the unconformity between the older Lower Proterozoic rocks and the overlying Kombolgie Formation sediments of Carpentarian age. To DARWIN via STUART HWY. The newly discovered uranium deposits are localised in similar stratigraphic Figure 1. Location map of the positions within metamorphic rocks of Lower Proterozoic age, near the base of Alligator Rivers Uranium Field, chlorite-mica schists. The Lower Froterozoic rocks are overlain by a more or Northern Territory. less horizontal, predominantly sandstone sequence — the Kombolgie Formation — which forms the Arnhem Land Plateau and the cliffs bounding it on the west. Field evidence obtained to date suggests that the uranium deposits were formed before the plateau sandstone was laid down. The proximity of the known uranium deposits to the Kombolgie Formation scarp is interpreted as being mainly due to the better exposures of the older rock near the cliff faces; to the west the Lower Proterozoic rocks are blanketed by a deep cover of superficial deposits (including laterite) which adds immeasurably to the difficulty of discovering uranium deposits in such areas.

60 61 Thus, methods used during the survey include mapping of exposed rock, holes, have been evaluated. Although this revaluation will take some months to stratigraphic drilling to establish the identity of rocks obscured by superficial complete, the company has stated that a reduction in reserves tonnages is likely deposits, and systematic levelling of the unconformity surface at the base of the as against those previously published. Kombolgie Formation. Operations in the Mt. Isa area were curtailed to enable staff to concentrate In addition, a reconnaissance magnetometer and four-channel spectrometer on field activities in the Northern Territory. Field work in this area was limited survey of the Coburg Peninsula, Alligator River and northern half of the Mount to reconnaissance drilling on the Watta lease, and to a ground radiometric survey Evelyn 1:250,000 map-sheet areas was started in September 1971 and will be on the Pile lease. resumed in the second half of 1972. Airborne radiometric surveys were completed in the Deaf Adder Creek and Jim Jim Creek reserves. The radiometric results Northern Territory indicated that no anomalous uranium is present. In the Northern Territory, the area of most active uranium exploration was in the newly-emergent Alligator Rivers Uranium Field where, despite the down- Services for Prospectors grading of the Nabarlek ore reserves, further additions to Australia's uranium The Darwin Uranium Group continued to provide services for prospectors reserves were recorded. See location map, page 61. and mining companies, as well as for Bureau field parties operating in the Northern Territory. Peko Mines N.L.-E.Z. Industries Peko Mines N.L. continued its joint exploration program with the Electrolytic COMPANY EXPLORATION Zinc Company of (A'asia) Ltd. (EZI) to evaluate the Ranger group of uranium anomalies some 130 miles east of Darwin. Queensland The Ranger 1 anomaly appears to be the more important of the Ranger The areas of most active exploration were the Westmoreland and Mt. Isa- group of anomalies and a detailed radiometric survey has revealed the presence Cloncurry districts and, as in the previous year, the most active company in both of six areas of high radiometric intensity within this anomaly. The position of areas was Queensland Mines Ltd. the anomalous areas within the Ranger 1 anomaly are shown in Figure 2. The No. 1 anomaly area is the more important of these anomalies and the major Mary Kathleen Uranium Ltd. drilling program to further delineate and evaluate the orebody — the Ranger 1 The treatment plant and township at Mary Kathleen, Queensland, were kept deposit — continued during the period under review. on a care and maintenance basis pending an improvement in the uranium market. The Ranger 1 deposit is situated in the low foothills below Mt. Brockman Reconditioning of the plant and associated facilities is expected to begin in 1973. at latitude 12° 42'S, longitude 132° 45'E. The central portion of this deposit No uranium exploration was carried out during the year and reserves stand has been pattern drilled on a 50 metre interval and 48 diamond drill holes and unchanged at the previously-announced figure of approximately 10,000 short tons 22 percussion drill holes totalling 27,740 feet have been completed to date. uranium oxide. A drilling program consisting of nine diamond drill holes was also completed Sales contracts have been negotiated for the delivery of 3,887 short tons during the period on the No. 3 anomaly orebody, but the new information uranium oxide between 1974 and 1981, and negotiations are in progress for fur- obtained is still not sufficient to re-assess the uranium resource beyond the tonnage ther contracts to enable the company to operate at full capacity. nominated from the initial percussion drilling program. The Mary Kathleen orebody has a high rare earth content, and research was Drilling was carried out also on the No. 2, No. 4 and No. 5 anomaly areas, carried out during the year on a process for the economic extraction of rare all of which constitute the Ranger 1 project. The mineralisation encountered in earths in conjunction with uranium extraction. A pilot plant was constructed to the No. 5 anomaly is generally lower-grade and more patchy than that in either verify operating procedures developed in laboratory-scale tests, and to produce the No. 1 or No. 3 anomalies. Testing of the No. 4 and 5 anomalies is at an bulk samples for appraisal by potential buyers. The company announced that early stage and has not been included in any estimates of the stated uranium both the plant operation and the results obtained were satisfactory. resource. Queensland Mines Ltd. The Ranger I uranium resource is currently stated by the joint venture During 1971, the company continued its program of radiometric ground partnership as follows: surveys and drilling in the vicinity of the Red Tree Dyke at Westmoreland. This Orebody Contained U3OH program was designed to outline both the extent of secondary mineralisation and (metric tons) to test the small lenses of primary mineralisation in the fault blocks to the north Anomaly No. 1 51,500 and south of the shear zone. The company completed 22 diamond drill holes total- Anomaly No. 3 31,000 ling 11,022 feet and 124 percussion holes totalling 17,495 feet. The Ranger 1 deposit is jointly and equally owned by P°ko Mines N.L. and The company has announced that all its uranium reserves are being revalu- EZI as joint venturers. A company — Ranger Uranium Mines Pty. Ltd. — has ated and re-appraised, and that revised reserves statements will be made after the been formed to develop the deposit. This company is also jointly and equally results of this drilling program, together with data obtained from previous drill owned by the joint venture partnership.

62 63 I/ 4(1

Nn ^\ i • Ir •!! v \ 1 v i •% i

i

» • \ \ \ ii" 'l ) "''— —~ " ANGMAL C No 1 \ \ \ / \ \ \\T•"•)l; \ \ \ \ i \ \ W ! \ \, j \ \) 'v / V 4? ' Above: Aerial view of the Queensland Mines Ltd. Naharlek uranium deposit (centre ^ ^ •'/,*-. •'/ foreground and left of airstrip), and exploration camp immediately behind the deposit. Naharlek is 180 miles east of Darwin, Northern Territory, ' No 5 i*\\ 55 t V / ' /

^ \' \\ \\ •\ 1? v\ '— // / • \. \ 'l \ . i V0°° ' ' Y No G

' ^w1 .*f / * / f No 2 '

\ j ////./ I/ 4,1 ,

'°o-* t'"^ (/^•'t'v' •^/•'^i''^', TOTAL COUNT ^-RAY ^•^ X^. ^^' ! /^>'^ CONTOURS ' ^-*^ ^-^..^'^ (COUNTS PER SECONOl

i ! .' ' 1 ! ' ,' ' ' ' ' ,' '

{•"ifturc 2. 'I otul-fonnl i>uinnui-rii\ contours .show tlic position of tinoni(il(>ii.\ ureas within tin- Ranker I anonutlv.

Economic feasibility studies on the Ranger 1 deposit are in progress, and the company expects to begin production of uranium concentrates about 1976. The joint venture partnership is actively seeking sales contracts and reports Above: Uranium ore specimens from the considerable interest by utility corporations. The partnership announced recently Nabarlek deposit. This ore consists of that it had reached agreement in principle with two major Japanese utility pitchblende surrounded by gumnute. corporations for the supply of a total of 3,300 short tons of uranium oxide for Right: Nlmbitwah rises 750 ft above the delivery between 1977 and 1986. The proposed treatment plant will have a floor of the valley, a few miles north of designed capacity initially of 3,000 short tons uranium oxide a year, although fac- Naharlek. It is a prominent landmark in tors are recognised which may change this planned rate before production begins. Western Arnhem Land. The partnership is undertaking uranium exploration on a joint venture basis over a number of areas of good uranium potential in both the Northern Territory and Queensland.

64 PLATE 1 Above: A A EC laboratory at Jahint, A hove: Amphibious vehicle used by the Ranker exploration camp. The Pancontinental during the 1971-72 wet laboratory is the field centre for the season drilling program. The unit ferried environmental research program in men and equipment across flooded creeks the Alligator Rivers area. and billabongs. v *•<*• Left: Netting fish, part of an extensive environmental research study of areas close to the Alligator Rivers uranium . \ -••• deposits. ' V Below: Pancontinental Mining Ltd./ Getty Oil, like other uranium explora- tion companies in the Alligator Rivers uranium province, depends on aircraft to maintain essential supplies, especially during the wet season.

A bore: Core samples from Ranger Uranium Mines Ply. Ltd's uranium deposit, ten miles south of Mudginbarry Station and 130 miles from Darwin in the Northern Territory.

Right: Measurement of temperature distribu- tion in Boggy Creek Waterhole, Megala Creek, part of the environmental study.

PLATE 2 PLATE 3 Queensland Mines Ltd. The company continued its intensive exploration program in both the Alli- gator Rivers Uranium Field and the Rum Jungle area during the 1971 field season. Several radiometric anomalies were examined in detail. Development drilling consisting of 109 diamond drill holes totalling 25,724 feet and 34 percussion holes totalling 2,613 feet was completed during the field season on the Nabarlck deposit, situated some 30 miles northeast of the Ranger 1 deposit. After revaluation of the results of this drilling program by both the company and an independent authority, the company announced that the Nabarlek ore reserves had been downgraded to 10,500 short tons uranium oxide indicated reserves, at an average grade of 47 Ib uranium oxide/ton. Metal- lurgical investigations have shown that the Nabarlek ore is readily amenable to Above: Project Manager for Noranda Australia Ltd., conventional treatment methods, and the company expects to begin production of Mr. O. H. Marshall, uses the radio-telephone to uranium concentrates in 1975 at a rate of 1,200 short tons uranium oxide a year. communicate with his office in Darwin, 150 miles from the company's exploration camp. Discussions were held with a number of possible buyers and, although a firm sales contract had not been concluded at the end of the period, the company had reached agreement in principle for the supply of 2,230 short tons uranium oxide Right: A geologist from Noranda Australia Ltd. takes samples from a costean on the company's for delivery between 1977 and 1985 to a Japanese utility corporation, and is uranium prospect, about 20 miles southwest from seeking further sales contracts. Mudginbarry Station. A limited drilling program consisting of 29 diamond drill holes totalling 6,603 feet and 14 percussion holes totalling 2,206 feet, to test for the continu- ation of surface mineralisation at depth, was undertaken on the Caramel, Beatrice, Gorrunghar and Mordigimuk prospects. A complex zone of primary uranium mineralisation was encountered at the Caramel prospect, but drilling failed to locate significant mineralisation at depth at the other three prospects. The mineral' isation at Caramel appeared to dip under the massive sandstone plateau of the Kombolgie Formation which is up to 200 feet thick in this vicinity, and will con- siderably hamper further evaluation. A detailed examination of the geological setting is being undertaken as a prelude to further drilling of this prospect, the exploitation of which may have to be carried out by underground mining. The nature and significance of the uranium occurrences at Beatrice, Gorrunghar and Mordigimuk have yet to be determined. Exploration in the company's southern exploration area is severely restricted by a thick sandstone cover over most of the region. Airborne reconnaissance and follow-up ground radiometric surveys carried out in the area failed to locate any significant anomalies. The company also is undertaking a joint exploration program with Austra- lian Aquitane Petroleum Pty. Ltd. in the Rum Jungle area. Three occurrences of uranium mineralisation were located as a result of ground radiometric surveys Above: Looking south towards Mount Brock man and extensive auger drilling and soil sampling programs Three diamond drill holes from the main Ranger Uranium Mines Pty. Ltd. totalling 614 feet were completed to test these occurrences. The results indicate uranium orebodv. that the surface mineralisation does not persist at depth.

Right: Soil permeability tests in an area close to the proposed treatment plant site at Ranger. The Noranda Australia Ltd. company plans to produce up to 3,000 short tons of uranium oxide a year. This company has carried out an intensive uranium exploration program in the Jim Jim area during the past two years and, during the period under review, continued its major drilling program to evaluate what appears to be another uranium deposit in the Alligator Rivers Uranium Field.

65 PLATE 4 A program of diamond and percussion drilling to further define and evaluate of anomalous radioactivity have been intersected in eight of the holes drilled to this orebody has continued and, to date, 47 diamond drill holes totalling 17,625 date. feet and 66 percussion drill holes totalling 13,809 feet have been completed. The Petromin-Exoil-Transoil group was granted a further 800 square mile The company plans to conduct a further drilling program during the next area in the vicinity of Lake Frome during the period under review. Exploration 12 months to delineate the orebody. It estimates that production will not begin is expected to begin shortly on this lease. before 1976. Sedimentary Uranium N.L. Further mineralisation has been discovered some five miles along strike to The company continued its active uranium exploration and drilling program the northeast of Jim Jim. Nine diamond drill holes totalling 2,904 feet and 14 over a number of leases in the Lake Frome Embayment north of Radium Hill percussion holes totalling 1,736 feet have been drilled to test this prospect. In during the period under review. addition, one diamond drill hole totalling 247 feet and 21 percussion drill holes totalling 2,116 feet have been drilled to test other prospects within the Jim Jim Since the initial discovery hole in the Yarramba area, towards the end of area. 1971, the company has completed an additional 36 percussion drill holes bringing the total of drill holes completed in the discovery area to 66. This includes four The company is also participating in joint uranium exploration ventures in core holes. other areas in the Northern Territory. Intermittent mineralisation of varying grade has been intersected in Tertiary Pancontinental Mining Ltd. sands on the eastern bank of a buried stream channel. As a result of the drilling This company, which is the operator in a joint venture with Getty Oil program, the mineralisation has been shown to exist over a minimum strike length Company, continued its uranium exploration program in the East Alligator River of 2,500 feet and width ranging from 150-200 feet. The uranium potential of area north of the Ranger 1 deposit. the western bank of the stream channel has not been tested to date. A number of radiometric anomalies have been located as a result of this Preliminary metallurgical tests show that the mineralisation is amenable to exploration program, and the diamond drilling program to test and evaluate the conventional acid leaching. Exploration is continuing to enable the potential of 7E anomaly continued throughout the wet season. This was made possible through this area to be assessed. the mobility of three all-terrain vehicles, capable of moving through three feet Exploration drilling was carried out on the company's other leases in the of water and mud. The vehicles were used to transport diamond drilling equipment area, but their potential for sedimentary uranium deposits does not look promising and personnel. because of the shallow basement. During the period, 19 diamond drill holes were completed totalling 6,500 feet. An extensive drilling program will be undertaken during the current field Western Australia season. This will involve drilling to further delineate the mineralisation of 7E, The year saw a marked increase in the tempo of uranium exploration in drilling to test the remaining anomalies at depth, and further reconnaissance by Western Australia and almost all favourable areas for uranium were under shallow percussion drilling. Six drilling rigs will be used in the work. intensive exploration. Although uranium occurrences were reported from a number of areas of the State during the period, the discovery at Yeelirrie represents the South Australia first major uranium discovery in Western Australia. High-grade uranium mineral- Uranium exploration in South Australia was maintained at the previous isation in conjunction with copper mineralisation was reported from the Mundong year's level. Almost all areas favourable for the formation of sedimentary uranium Wells area near Carnarvon, but very little information is available on this deposits were under intensive exploration during the year, with special attention discovery. being given by companies to the Lake Frome basin. Western Mining Corporation Ltd. Petromin N.L The company has been exploring for uranium orebodies over a number of years. In January 1972, it announced that significant uranium mineralisation had This company, in conjunction with Exoil N.L.-Transoil N.L., continued a been found over an extensive area near Yeelirrie, some 410 miles northeast of major drilling program to evaluate what appear to be significant sedimentary Perth. Initial exploration indicates that the uranium occurs mainly as the mineral uranium deposits in the Lake Frome area. carnotite, which has precipitated in old drainage or river channels. Average grades Three orebodies have been discovered to date in this area by follow-up of about 3 Ib uranium oxide/long ton, with areas of higher-grade material, have drilling, and the company announced late in 1971 that inferred reserves of 12,500 been indicated by drilling. The deposits appear to be extensive, mainly flat lying, short tons uranium oxide have been outlined by drilling on the Beverley and and suitable for opencut mining. associated prospects. Laboratory work has shown that the uranium is readily and economically The Minad-Teton Group has drilled 59 exploratory holes totalling 35,313 extractable by conventional alkaline leaching. pilot-plant testing has been under- feet in the area to the north of the Beverley series of prospects. Limited sections taken on bulk samples of ore.

66 67 amount received was considerably higher than the tender offers. The Commission records its thanks to the Department of Supply for the invaluable assistance given in arranging this auction. Removal of items of plant and equipment by the purchasers began soon after the auction. A limited number of staff of Territory Enterprises Pty. Ltd. were retained as caretakers during this period. The Commission arranged for unwanted plant items to be removed by scrap metal dealers and/or disposed of into White's opencut. Remedial work on earthworks damaged during the disposal operations was undertaken by the Commission to protect the local environment, before the area was passed over formally in November 1971 to the Northern Territory Administration. Some of the buildings at Rum Jungle were purchased by the Department of the Interior for use by the Northern Territory Administration. The Administra- tion arranged to operate the power station at Rum Jungle to provide power to Batchelor until the transmission line from Darwin is extended to that community. The township of Batchelor was passed over by the Commission as a going concern to the Department of the Interior, and it is now maintained as an open town by the Administration. It is pleasing to see that Batchelor has not become another ghost mining town.

ANALYSIS OF URANIUM ORES Results from 11 Australian laboratories that participated in a recent survey of methods for the analysis of uranium ores were analysed statistically by the Commission. No significant difference was observed between the uranium values determined by spectrophotometric, fluorimetric and X-ray fluorescence methods. A set of 50-gram samples of four standard uranium ores, with a certificate of Bucket drill used to obtain samples at the Western Mining Corporation analysis, is now available at a nominal cost from the A A EC Research Ltd's Yeelirrie uranium prospect, about 400 miles northeast of Perth, Western Australia. Establishment.

HEALTH AND SAFETY IN MINING AND MILLING OF The Yeelirrie deposits represent the first major uranium discovery in Western Australia. Insufficient work has been done to allow assessment of total ore RADIOACTIVE ORES reserves and grades. However, the company expects this information should Large-scale mining of radioactive ores is a relatively recent world develop- begin to be available about the end of 1972. ment. In addition to the occupational hazards of conventional mining, the mining Other States of radioactive ores poses problems of radiation exposures. Mining operations may release radon and its daughters into the mine atmosphere and, if inhaled, these Although some uranium prospecting was carried out in New South Wales can be deposited in the respiratory system. Moreover, uranium ores show a wide and Tasmania during the period, no significant uranium mineralisation was range of radon-emanating properties, and once the natural situation is disturbed, discovered. the state of radioactive equilibrium between uranium and radon (and its daughters) may be changed, thereby causing further variability of the emanation rate of a DISPOSAL OF RUM JUNGLE ASSETS given amount of uranium and of the gamma radiation level associated with the ore. Thus, radon gas and/or its radioactive daughters constitute a potential hazard Following completion of treatment of stockpiled ore at Rum Jungle in April in both the mining and subsequent treatment of radioactive ores. 1971, arrangements were made with the Contracts and Disposals Branch, Depart- ment of Supply, for the sale of the treatment plant and other assets. Tenders were Several techniques have been used, or have been tried, to control the called for purchase of the complete plant and for major sections of the plant. exposure of workers in uranium mines; by far the most important of these is The bids received were low and it was decided to auction the assets. The sale ventilation. The protection of uranium miners from the effects of radon (and its took place on 7 July 1971 at Rum Jungle and was most successful, since the daughters) is a strictly local hazard confined to the mine, and the normal safe

68 69 practices for dust control must be rigidly observed. In addition, adequate routine program of field investigation was formulated with NTA to begin at the end of monitoring is essential; local monitoring is also required to identify areas of high the 1971-72 wet season. The specific aims of this program are: radon levels. Local air filtration can be used to reduce the level of radon daughters in the mine atmosphere, and other forms of protection may be needed in some • To determine the ecological significance of the range of habitats likely to be cases. Further, because of the nature and products of radioactive decay, control influenced by the mining operations. In this context mining operations include measures are also necessary in milling and waste disposal of radioactive ores, leaching of uranium ore stockpiles and overburden dumps, the disposal of and can be applied effectively by appropriate mine management. water from mine drainage, seepage from tailings dumps, the escape of tailings, the construction of dams, and the disposal of trade and sewage waste. The Commonwealth Government has set up a committee to assess and • To determine the tolerance of important habitats to possible heavy metal, report on the possible hazards involved in these matters. A working panel, on chemical or radiological pollution. which the Commission is represented, has been formed to formulate an Australian Code of Practice. The terms of the code have been agreed, and a manual for • To investigate the significance of potential chemical or radioactive pollutants, use in conjunction with the code is expected to be completed in the latter part with emphasis on items of food and possible exposure routes to man, with of this year. Its purpose is to ensure the continued safety of workers engaged in particular reference to food collection by aborigines, the development of the uranium and thorium industries, and will serve as a guide to Australian mining towns, and to other present or potential land uses. authorities and companies in this field. In view of the recent discoveries of • To assemble documentary evidence of the state of the local environment uranium in Australia, and their possible exploitation in the near future, the before commencement of mining operations. formulation of the code is particularly timely. Because the liquid effluents have the greatest environmental impact, the Pollution and health and safety problems may arise in a number of ways program is heavily biased to considerations of the wet lands downstream from during mining and treatment of uranium and other radioactive ores, and the areas of operation, including the streams, the billabong-sedge meadow com- although some of these problems are similar to those associated with other minerals, plexes and the sub-coastal flood plains. A field station has been established at there are aspects unique to radioactive materials. For the detection, control and Jabiru, and tolerance levels for aquatic and plant species are being determined analysis of these potential problems, specialist knowledge of how to interpret and by direct experiment for the range of potential pollutants. apply the approved standards and limits is required., This knowledge also must be supported by appropriate analytical skills and equipment. The Commission is Full utilisation of the field station results requires laboratory supporting able to assist the uranium mining industry in these matters, because of its back- work to examine synergistic effects, i.e. effects in combination and the relative ground of continuing experience in all aspects of health, safety and pollution toxicities of the range of chemical agents that the mining companies may use in control arising from its own mining and treatment operations in the Northern mineral extraction processes. This work is now in progress. A joint NTA-AAEC Territory at Rum Jungle, from its association with similar uranium operations in program of chemical analysis is determining existing water quality, and is searching the South Alligator River valley and Mary Kathleen areas, and its contact with for evidence of the concentration of elements through food chains. As an instance practices in the uranium mining industry throughout the world. of this, freshwater mussels have been found to concentrate radium by a factor of 10,000 relative to the level in the surrounding waters. Similarly, salmon gum leaves have been found to be a good indicator of the presence of uranium, and pandanus nuts of copper. ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES IN THE NORTHERN TERRITORY LONG-CHAIN AMINES POLLUTION STUDIES The Northern Territory Administration (NTA), which is responsible for the regulation of mining in the Territory, has sought the advice of the Commission The long-chain amines used in most uranium mills arc highly toxic towards in relation to the criteria and standards for the disposal of uranium mine wastes. fish and other aquatic life. The discharge of aqueous raffinates from uranium With the expected development of uranium mining in the Alligator Rivers area, processing plants using amine solvents may have to be preceded by adequate these standards will become increasingly important if degradation of the environ- treatment to remove dissolved and entrained amines to a level below ten parts ment and pollution of the river system are to be avoided. Establishment of the per billion. No analytical methods have been published for the determination of criteria and standards will require extensive collection of field data on the long-chain amines to such a low concentration. The most widely-used published hydrology and ecology of the area, determination of the toxicity of potential method was confirmed as being reliable and reproducible, but it has a limit of pollutants to various aquatic species, and the investigation of possible exposure detection of only 200 parts per billion. Two new spectrophotometric methods routes to man of radioactive or chemical pollutants. and a polarographic method are being investigated by the Commission in an attempt to achieve a sensitivity of ten parts per billion. In addition, development A preliminary brief survey of the area has been made by Commission staff work has begun on methods of removing dissolved and entrained amines from to define the scope and extent of the necessary work. Subsequently, a raffinates to these very low levels.

70 71 L<'//.• /I .v/,1,'// f;// //u' (iwetix road to Nonuulu Australia Lid's uranium prospect, south of Ml. llrockinan, in the Northern Territoiy, typifies the company's approach to the protection of aboriginal sacred places and rock paintings, and flora and fauna within its prospecting area.

Above: A Queensland Mines Ltd. vehicle fords one of the many creeks cutting the access road to the Alligator Rivers Uranium Field during the wet season. During this period the movement of equipment becomes almost impossible.

Left: A member oj Queensland Mines' Nabarlek stafj maintains a fence enclosing an Aboriginal sacred area. Although it is close to the companv's uranium deposit, the area will not be a/Jected by exploration or future mining activities. Local Aboriginals defined the area and then, under a contract to Queensland Mines, constructed the fence in 1971, togfther with a fence enclosing the air-strip.

Above: I'art of the exploration camp at Noranda's uranium prospect, 30 miles south of Mnd^inharry Station. The camp was constructed during 1971.

Left: A line of diamond drill holes on the Noninda uranium prospect. Diamond drilling is still proceeding to further delineate the orehodv. Above: The exploration camp for the Nabarlek uranium deposit, about 180 air miles east of Darwin. During the long wet season, the camp depends on aircraft for transport, supplies and equipment. 72 Above: Field geologists from Ranger Uranium Mines Pty. Ltd. examine a core sample obtained from diamond drilling operations on the eastern limit of the No. I anomaly.

Right: Mr. L. Collar, Camp Admini- A hove: The Pancontinental Mining Ltd./ strator, and Mr. P. Kitto, Senior Getty Oil temporary exploration camp at Geologist, in I lie main site office at Mndginbarry Station, Northern Territory. Jahiru, the exploration camp for Ranger During mid-1972, the camp was relocated Uranium Mines Ply. Ltd. and enlarged at the site of the company's uranium prospect near Ja la, 12 miles to the north.

Left: A geologist from Puncontincntal Mining takes a mineral sample from a shallow costean on the company's uranium prospect, 12 in ilex north of Muclginbarry Station. In this rugged country, crawler- t rack-type auger drills were employed.

Wet season damage to the main access road between the Jahiru camp and the Darwin road The camp is 130 miles from Darwin. A new all-weather road is be.ng planned to senue the region.

75

74 SYMPOSIUM ON URANIUM MINING period 1970-80 of 437,000 short tons uranium oxide, arid an estimated annual AND THE ENVIRONMENT demand of 200,000 short tons uranium oxide by 1990. This latter figure is almost ten times the Western World's present production. The results of exploration for uranium in Australia, combined with world When considering short-term production of uranium in relation to con- concern for the protection of the environment, make consideration of radiation sumption, existing stockpiles should be taken into account. Government stock- and environmental aspects of uranium mining urgent and important. piles in the USA, Canada, Britain, France, South Africa and Australia at present The Commission therefore arranged a two-day symposium in December amount to about 100,000 short tons of oxide. Although additions can be 1971 at Lucas Heights. The purpose of the meeting was to exchange views expected to the overall stockpile during the next five or six years, several between the staffs of companies planning the development of uranium deposits, countries already have announced plans for disposal of their stockpiles. scientific staff of the Commission, and officers from State and Commonwealth bodies. An eight-year forward reserve is considered adequate to enable the uranium mining industry to meet anticipated requirements, so that net annual additions World trends in the uranium industry were reviewed. Technical discussion to world reserves must approach 150,000 short tons uranium oxide within ten sessions were led by Commission staff who dealt with the philosophy of environ- years, to ensure that sufficient forward reserves are maintained. The current mental protection and control, control of sources of pollution, radiological safety, decline in exploration is in direct contrast with these longer-term requirements, biological effects and radiation safety practices. and it is clear that the level of exploration must increase significantly to meet In sponsoring this symposium the Commission was anxious to assist industry projected uranium requirements. in its advance planning. In his opening address, Sir Philip Baxter, then Chairman The price of uranium has fallen over the past few years due to a variety of the Commission, drew attention to the continuing growth of the nuclear power of factors, the major one being that production has exceeded estimated demand industry, a corresponding growth in demand for uranium, and the need to pay because of a shortfall in the growth of nuclear power. proper regard to preservation of the environment. This symposium was very successful, and it will be followed in the new USA financial year by a symposium on the processing of uranium. During 1971, uranium exploration in the USA continued at a reduced level. The United States Atomic Energy Commission (USAEC) estimated that surface OVERSEAS DEVELOPMENTS drilling would fall from 23.5 million feet in 1970 to about 15 million feet in 1971, but despite this cutback in drilling activity, there was a significant increase World uranium exploration during 1971 declined almost everywhere except in uranium reserves during 1971. Domestic uranium reserves in the category in Australia, as continued over-production and intense competition combined to "less than $10 per pound" were estimated at the end of 1971 at 300,000 short force uranium prices to a record low. Although increases in uranium reserves tons uranium oxide, and reserves recoverable at a price of $8 per pound were were recorded in a number of countries during the period under review, unless estimated at 246,000 short tons uranium oxide. there is an early reversal in this trend to reduce exploration activity, future US uranium-producing companies have now contracted to supply a total additions to reserves will not be forthcoming in time to meet the predicted of 108,600 tons of uranium oxide to domestic buyers and 6,300 tons of oxide to requirements during the early 1980s. Depending upon the level of demand, foreign buyers. Deliveries are spread over a number of years through to 1988, supply and demand outside the USA could be in balance by 1980-81. However, but the major part of these orders will be filled by 1976. Orders for deliveries if the USA market is opened to foreign producers, this situation could occur during 1971 were about 14,000 tons, whereas the current domestic processing about 1978. A shortage of uranium could then develop towards the end of the capacity is about 15,000-16,000 tons of oxide annually and is expected to decade unless the current downward exploration trend is reversed. reach approximately 19,000 tons annually by the end of 1972. Estimates of installed nuclear generating capacity are used as a guide to determine future uranium requirements. Based on predictions made in February Because of current soft market conditions, the USAEC announced its inten- 1972 of 165,000 MW for the USA and 308,000 MW for the Western World by tion to postpone removal of its embargo on the enrichment of foreign uranium for domestic use, until the latter part of the decade, to protect the United States 1980, a total of 79,000 short tons of uranium oxide (U:jO8) a year will be required by J980 to attain this level of nuclear power generation. Of this quantity, uranium mining and milling industry. 42,000 short tons of uranium oxide a year will be required by the USA alone. It also announced that it would begin disposal in 1972 of the 50,000 ton These estimated annual requirements are based on the assumption that plutonium uranium oxide surplus civilian stockpile by increasing the tails assay from US recycle will be employed beginning about the mid-1970s. However, if plutonium enrichment plants from 0.2% to 0.3%. This will increase the productive capacity is not recycled, the projected uranium requirements would be about ten percent of the present enrichment plants and defer for abo«t a year the construction of an higher by 1980. additional plant. Total present Western World reasonably assured reserves recoverable at less Eighteen uranium milling plants were in operation during 1971 and two than US$10 per pound have been estimated at 1,059,000 short tons uranium new mills with a total nominal capacity of 3,750 tons of ore a day are scheduled oxide, and should be compared with estimated cumulative requirements for the for completion during 1972.

76 77 CANADA production in the Republic is a by-product of gold production, the recent world Exploration in Canada also continued at a reduced level, and almost no increases in the price of gold will ensure that the South African uranium industry new prospecting was reported during 1971. Although this decline can be largely will continue economic production despite the dampening effects exerted on other attributed to the current soft market outlook, the final outcome of the Federal producing countries by the current world uranium prices. Government's requirements concerning foreign ownership of uranium properties The Rossing project in South-West Africa is proceeding on schedule. and resources was also a contributing factor, and exploration is not expected to Production is expected to start in 1975. increase until these questions have been resolved. Canadian production of uranium oxide in 1971 rose slightly to 4,976 short FRANCE tons. This production from three mines was more than sufficient to meet contract Production in Metropolitan France during 1971 was approximately 1,800 commitments, and the excess was held in government or company stockpiles. short tons uranium oxide from three treatment plants which have a combined Although the Canadian Government's uranium procurement program was nominal capacity of 2,300 short tons uranium oxide a year. Reasonably assured terminated on 30 June 1970, a new stockpiling agreement was made between resources at a price of $10 per pound were estimated at 45,000 short tons the Federal Government and Denison Mines Ltd. covering the period 1971 to uranium oxide. Moreover, it has been estimated that there are about 50,000 short 1974. This is designed to maintain a stable economy in the EMiot Lake area tons uranium oxide of reasonably assured resources in the $10 per pound until the company's long-term sales contract deliveries enable it to operate at price category under French control in the Central African Republic, Gabon and full capacity. Under this agreement, the company will deliver 1,000 short tons Niger. Production in France and Gabon, together with French-controlled plants of uranium oxide annually to the stockpile during 1971 to 1973 inclusive, and to be set up in Niger, will amount to approximately 3,300 short tons uranium up to 233 short tons of oxide during 1974. The Federal Government will pay oxide in 1975-76. the company about US$4.65 per pound uranium oxide and the assumed value In addition to exploration activities in Metropolitan France and Africa, the of the uranium oxide is US$6 per pound. During the stockpiling period, the French Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) is undertaking uranium exploration company will have the option of meeting new contracts from either mine produc- in a number of countries including Australia, Indonesia and the USA. tion or the stockpile. However, in the former case, deliveries to the stockpile would be decreased by a corresponding amount. After December 1974, mine OTHER COUNTRIES production will not be increased until both the joint-venture stockpile and the Uranium production continued in several other countries and total estimated company inventory have been depleted. All new sales after this period must be Western World production in 1971 was of the order of 26,000 short tons uranium serviced pro rata from these two sources. The agreement also stipulates that, upon oxide. Modest additions to reserves were made in several countries during the sale of the stockpiled material and recovery of all associated costs, net revenues period under review. will be shared pro rata up to the amount of the respective contributions, and net revenues then remaining will be shared equally. The company began deliveries to this stockpile in mid-1971, and recently announced the sale of about 3,250 short tons of uranium oxide to Spain. The Rabbit Lake project in northern Saskatchewan, operated by Gulf Minerals Canada Ltd., proceeded on schedule. Plant construction began and production is expected to begin in early 1975 at a throughput of 2,000 tons of ore per day.

SOUTH AFRICA Uranium production in South Africa in 1971 remained at about 4,000 short tons of uranium oxide. The South African Atomic Energy Board announced that reasonably assured resources in the category "less than $10 per pound" had been increased from 200,000 short tons uranium oxide to 300,000 short tons (this latter figure includes approximately 100,000 short tons of oxide from South-West Africa). This increase has resulted from new discoveries in both the Republic of South Africa and South-West Africa, as well as from higher treatment plant recoveries and improved extraction processes. Because of the depressed world market price, South Africa's only primary uranium producer announced in April 1972 that it intended to cease uranium production until the market improved. However, because all other uranium

78 79 observations recorded on survivors of the atomic weapons used in Japan, from the former use of radiotherapy in certain non-malignant illnesses, from the former 7 practice of giving people injections of radium, and a few similar sources. All these instances relate to high total doses given mostly at high dose rates. Hence we can make reasonably accurate predictions of the effects of high exposures given at high rates, but for low exposures and low exposure rates we arc forced to extrapolate on an uncertain basis. Misunderstanding of the basis of this extrapolation is responsible for much of the apprehension of radiation effects, and RADIATION AND MAN inflated estimates of their magnitude, which we commonly see reported. Acceptable limits for radiation exposure can only be set by weighing the benefits which may flow from the process which creates the radiation against the unavoidable risks which accompany it. These benefits include the production of electric power without atmospheric contamination from sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, soots and a variety of potential mutagens and carcinogens; medical radio- Since man has no choice but to live in a low-level but variable field of ionis- logy and the rapidly growing field of nuclear medicine; industrial radiography; ing radiation from natural background sources, he might be expected to take a and others of less consequence. In calculating the risks which are to be offset by philosophic view of the possible consequences to himself of additional exposure these benefits it is necessary to be conservative, that is to assess the risk at the to occasional small amounts of man-made radiation. In fact, he often does highest possible level, and this is not necessarily the most probable. In setting not, and may attach an unwarranted significance to the hazards of such acceptable limits we are concerned with low total doses given at low rates, but exposures. The reasons for this are complex and are bound up in the intangible the evidence we have for man relates to high doses. There is much experimental nature of radiation, in the physical indestructibility of radioisotopes, and the evidence that radiation is substantially less effective at low doses and low dose unpleasant nature of the major ill effects of radiation — cancer in the recipient rates. That does not necessarily mean that threshold doses exist below which and genetic damage in his progeny, effects whose incidence in the individual radiation is ineffective; the data could also be explained by assuming, as is cannot be modified or precisely forecast. theoretically quite plausible, that effects are proportional to the square of the dose, The biological effects of radiation do not differ essentially from those of or by the effect at low rates having a proportional relationship to total dose which many chemical agents to which man is exposed, and it is important that we should is less steep than at high rates. These possibilities are statistically indistinguishable get our priorities right if we try to reduce unwanted hazards to man. Our know- at present. The limits for man are set on the assumption that effect is directly ledge of chemical carcinogenesis and mutagenesis is much less precise than for radi- proportional to dose at all doses and dose rates, and that low dose rates are as ation, and to ignore it while concentrating on radiation may be equivalent to effective as high ones. This is the conservative approach and it means that the ignoring the submerged part of the iceberg. Man has evolved over many genera- frequency of effects allowed for is the upper possible limit. The true value may tions while exposed to background radiation and must be presumed to be in some be much less or even, in some cases, zero. sort of equilibrium with it. Therefore, one might suppose the level of background radiation, and the magnitude of the natural variations in man's exposure to it, to Man's Radiation Burden provide a guide to the significance of additional exposure. The exposure of man from background radiation comes from three sources: cosmic radiation which is altitude and latitude dependent, from terrestrial gamma Biological Effects of Radiation radiation which varies with soil or rock type, and from naturally radioactive Large exposures to radiation may produce acute illness or death, but acci- constituents of the body, of which potassium 40 is the most important. The dents producing such consequences are so guarded against and so uncommon average total background to which individuals are subject is 100 to 110 millirem they do not constitute a serious problem. The effects which concern us are the a year, but in many places it can be twice this, and in others much more. There delayed ones which appear long after small or moderate exposures. They are is no evidence that variations in the level of background radiation affect any com- somatic (affecting cells other than germ cells) and genetic. The important somatic munity. In any one geographical location, an individual's background exposure effects are the induction of leukaemia and various forms of cancer, and they may may vary substantially with the type of material used in the construction of his appear from a few to more than 20 years after exposure. The genetic effects, home or workplace. For example, in one location the inmate of a wooden house induced mutations, are not seen in the recipient of radiation exposure but in his may be irradiated at 30 millirem a year less than the average, whereas the inmate offspring or in subsequent generations. For both the somatic and genetic effects, of a certain kind of concrete structure may receive 30 millirem a year above we have built up a fairly extensive knowledge of the dose-response relationship average. Of course, no one spends all his time in one spot indoors, but allowance for small experimental animals. That is, we can make a reasonably accurate for these variations and for changes in altitude or latitude makes it not unreason- prediction of the consequences of a given exposure. With man we are, for able to suppose that an individual's annual background exposure may fluctuate obvious reasons, less well placed. The data which we can apply to man are by 10 or 20% — in round figures, 10 or 20 millirem. This variation causes him necessarily limited; they come almost entirely from a very few sources — the no alarm and can be identified with no effect.

80 81 Man also receives a measurable exposure from medical diagnostic radiology. normal background. In general, it is proving practical to operate nuclear plant This varies considerably from country to country. No recent figures are available at discharge levels which will lead to exposures of the public very much less for Australia, but in the United Kingdom the mean population genetic dose from than the limits recommended by the ICRP. this source is estimated at 14 millirem and in the United States at 95 millirem a A Perspective View year. In relation to background these are substantial figures, and attempts are being made to reduce them, but we need not question that any risk from such All human activity carries some risk, some much more than others. In few exposures is offset by benefits. activities have the limits to risk been defined so carefully as those associated with exposure to radiation. In the nuclear industry, where maximum permissible There are various other minor man-made sources of radiation exposure that doses for radiation workers, as recommended by the ICRP, are ten times those we are exposed to: luminous dials, electronic components of certain kinds and prescribed for the public, there is no suggestion that risks exceed those in com- various industrial devices. None of these is thought to contribute significantly parable activities outside it, rather the reverse. Therefore, there would seem to to our overall exposure. Persons occupationally exposed in medicine, industrial be no demonstrable basis for concern at the much lower levels which apply to radiography and atomic energy probably contribute an additional one or two the public, or at transient exposures which are small even in relation to fluctua- millirem a year to the mean population dose. A point to remember is that a person tions in the level of background exposure. flying in a modern air liner in temperate latitudes may be receiving additional exposure, from the increased cosmic radiation at high altitudes, of around 0.7 millirem per hour. This can add up to a substantial increment for seasoned travellers. A letter from four High School girls to the Commission in March expressed fears over the effects of nuclear power stations on health. As this is typical of such misgivings, the letter and the Commission's reply are given in Appendix II. Control of Exposure The legislatures of most countries, including the States of Australia, have accepted the Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) as a basis for their regulations governing radiation exposure, both for persons who are occupationally exposed and for the public. The maximum permissible doses and dose limits set out in these Recommendations are based on the concept of an acceptable risk, that is: exposure to radiation involves a degree of risk but that radiation dose is limited to a degree which is acceptable to the individual and to society, bearing in mind the benefits derived. The ICRP takes the most conservative assessment of risk, as stated earlier. The dose limits recommended for the public by the ICRP are 500 millirem a year for the whole-body, with appropriate modifications for some special organs. These limits have been endorsed in Australia by the National Health and Medical Research Council. From these limits it is possible to derive limits for the release of radioactivity to the environment which will ensure that individuals or popula- tions do not exceed their allowed quota of radiation exposure. The ICRP also recommends that any unnecessary exposure be avoided and enjoins responsible authorities to keep all doses as low as is readily achievable. In practice, nuclear establishments which release radioactive material have kept their releases well below the levels allowed. At the Commission's Research Establishment at Lucas Heights, release of radioactivity to the atmosphere or to the Woronora River is governed by a discharge authorisation in agreement with the several State authorities concerned. Since the Establishment became opera- tional these releases have been controlled and monitored by a radiological survey of the environment, and it has been possible to put upper limits to the radiation dose which may have been received by people in the neighbourhood. Most people could not receive any; we are considering a hypothetical person who consumes a rather inordinate amount of local marine produce, or who swims near the discharge point every day. The possible annual doses to such people, attributable to the discharges, are less than 0.01 millirem, or one ten-thousandth part of the

82 83 (b) Large uranium ore discoveries, leading to consideration of a significant indigenous uranium industry, including the production of a series of 8 up-graded uranium products, from ore to enriched uranium. (c) Greater public concern about preservation of the environment and the biological effects of radiation. (d) A trend in industry, power utilities and government departments to seek technical advice on matters which come within the range of skills developed by Commission staff. Because of this change in THE RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT emphasis, Commission staff have developed a greater awareness of the need to apply their abilities and knowledge to practical problems. These developments have led, in the past year, to a re-definition of objectives and expected benefits from the research program in various identified areas of Commission activity. Although increasing empiiasis is being placed on projects The Commission's Research Establishment at Lucas Heights has been set with applied objectives, it is recognised that the program in each area must also up to provide research and development in support of Commission activities. contain a significant component of underlying background research essential to A major emphasis in the research program has been to ensure the existence in the maintenance of scientific expertise. Australia of a group of people trained in matters relating to nuclear science and The broad areas of activity within which the research objectives and pro- technology, particularly nuclear power, in addition to carrying out a number of gram are now defined are briefly described below. More detail on research projects with more specific objectives. The program has been successful in achiev- activities is given in the relevant major chapters of this report, and a complete ing the training goals as well as producing more tangible benefits in some areas. list of research topics is given in Appendix D. The distribution of staff effort It has also allowed the Commission and other Australian authorities to gain within the Research Establishment is shown in the figure on page 87. access to information from overseas through collaborative programs with other countries and international organisations. At 30 June 1972, the Research Establishment had a total staff of about URANIUM INDUSTRY 1,130 persons including 300 professional staff. These staff constitute an effective Within the next ten years a significant industry based on uranium can be multi-disciplinary organisation consisting of physicists, chemists, mathematicians, expected to develop in Australia. The Research Establishment can materially metallurgists, biologists, engineers and administrators with the capacity to under- assist in a number of areas, which include: take projects of significant dimensions. • Development of improved techniques for applications such as borehole In addition to its investment in trained staff, a capital investment of about logging, and on-stream analysis in mineral processing. $35 million at the Research Establishment has provided unique facilities and equipment in Australia for carrying out effective research. Some of the major • Advice on radiological safety in mining and processing activities. facilities include the 10 MW research reactor HIFAR, the physics research • Advice on control of pollution from mining and chemical processing reactor Moata, a 3 MeV linear accelerator, two blocks of high activity handling operations. cells, and the Critical Facility. Considerable use is made of these facilities by • Assistance in the introduction of technologies new to Australia, such as Australian universities under the auspices of the Australian Institute of Nuclear fluorine and uranium hexafluoride production, and uranium enrichment. Science and Engineering (AINSE). • Advice on technical aspects of ore processing, and specifications for Additional training to Commission staff and to persons from outside organ- up-graded uranium products based on ultimate use. isations is provided by the Australian School of Nuclear Technology, which is • Research and development on improved processes in areas such as the operated jointly by the Commission and the University of New South Wales. production of uranium hexafluoride and the enrichment of uranium. Commission activity in these areas would be complementary to, not in com- petition with, allied programs in industry. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND PROGRAM

Recent developments have brought about a change in emphasis away from NUCLEAR POWER SYSTEMS the training role towards a more direct application of research to matters of importance to government and industry. These developments include: Within the existing programs, a reasonably balanced group has been built up representing the skills important to the study of thermal nuclear power sys- (a) The Commonwealth Government's decision in 1969 to consider the con- tems. The areas covered include the physics, engineering, chemistry, metallurgy struction of a nuclear power station at Jervis Bay. and safety of the reactor core and its coolant circuits.

84 85 It is proposed to maintain this expertise, with an increasing emphasis on RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT safety and environmental aspects of reactor systems, to provide a technical sup- DISTRIBUTION OF STAFF EFFORT port capacity for nuclear power system investigations in Australia. (BASED ON CEILING STAFF OF 1.144) There has been a rapid development of fast breeder reactors to the proto- type stage in many countries, and it will be necessary for Australia to acquire REACTORS expertise in this field. To gain background knowledge and experience, it is RESEARCH URANIUM INDUSTRY RADIATION RESEARCH proposed that maximum use be made of collaborative arrangements involving OPERATIONS PROJECTS ENVIRONMENTAL AND RADIATION SAFETY (3/6) 2 (3GB) FUEL exchanges of staff and joint programs, using where possible existing equipment ISOTOPE APPLICATIONS such as the Critical Facility. Australian work will be oriented more to the safety MISCELLANEOUS ISOTOPE PRODUCTION aspects of such systems. RADIATION PROTECTION AND SAFETY INSTRUMENTATION CHEMICAL SERVICES METALLURGICAL SERVICES NUCLEAR FUEL COMPUTING EXECUTIVE AND TECHNICAL SECRETARIAT The effort made in the fuel section of the program was reduced during PERSONNEL RESEARCH MANAGEMENT SERVICES 1970-71 to permit increased emphasis on the uranium industry, enrichment, and SUPPLY SUPPORT GENERAL SERVICES environmental and radiological safety programs. The present program is designed ADMINISTRATION 16 15 14 13 (192) AND SERVICES ENGINEERING SERVICES to maintain competence within the Commission in groups of viable size so that: (208) SITE OPERATIONS AND WORKS REACTOR OPERATIONS • Advice may be offered to the mining industry on the standards required for use of raw materials in the nuclear fuel industry. Figure I. Distribution of staff, Lucas Heights. • Assistance on matters related to quality control and new technology may be provided to any indigenous fuel industry. • Advisory and consultant services can be provided on fuel performance, either for assessment, or in support of operations when reactor systems are introduced into Australia. RADIOISOTOPE APPLICATIONS A successful pattern of activity has been established in this field. The main aims are: RADIOLOGICAL SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL • To undertake research and development into fields of application of radio- The Research Establishment is undertaking laboratory research and field studies isotope and nuclear techniques considered to havt- potential economic and related to the ways in which radiation affects man and his environment. It is national significance. therefore in a position to advise and assist on radiological and environmental • To encourage Australian innovation of new and established radioisotope matters of concern in the nuclear energy industry. Specific questions for which and nuclear techniques where potential benefit can be recognised. answers are sought are as follows: The current program is described in Chapter 9. Action is being taken to • How does radiation reach a person at risk, and how is it best measured? exploit the research results, and patent protection has been obtained where • How do radioactive materials spread through the natural environment, appropriate. and what effects do they produce?

• How can radiation exposure or environmental contamination be reduced? ISOTOPE PRODUCTION • How does radiation produce its effects, and how can these be modified Since 1960, the Commission has been responsible for supplying certain or applied? reactor-produced radioisotopes in Australia, especially those short-lived radio- isotopes in high demand which could be supplied only by local manufacture. • What is the precise form of the radiation dose-response relationship for Production, with sound research support, is now well established in two main the various biological effects of radiation in all circumstances of exposure? areas — radiation sources for industry and medical therapy, and radiopharma- There is a growing demand for advisory and consulting services in relation ceuticals for nuclear medicine. Details are given in Chapter 9. to such matters as the development of environmental control criteria for uranium During the past three years, the growth of nuclear medicine in Australian mining and nuclear plants, radiological safety for uranium miners, regulation and hospitals has resulted in a fourfold growth in demand for radiopharmaceuticals, radiation observation of nuclear shipping entering Australian ports, and provision which are now the major production activity. Output will need to be trebled to of radiation standards. meet the projected 1975 demand.

87 KADIAIION STUDIES ORGANISATION Although under this heading there is some overlap with other research areas Under the Director, supported by a Deputy Director and a Technical Secre- (sec Chapter 9), the scope of studies includes: tariat, the Establishment is organised into research divisions, an administration • Radiation standards. division and an operations division. These units have the considerable advantage of location on one site. The main research units with a brief outline of their • Radiation detection and measurement. functions are listed below. • Basic interactions of radiation with matter. • Radiation sterilisation. • Radiation-induced synthesis and polymerisation. RESEARCH DIVISIONS The Commission provides a national centre for such studies, essential to any Physics Division nuclear energy organisation. The services of its laboratories and staff are used by many organisations. Research into the physics of nuclear reactors involving both theoretical and experimental studies. Some selected topics are: Neutron capture, resonance absorption, fission, water moderated reactors, fast reactors, radiation shielding, OTHER STUDIES reactor safety, plasma discharges, nuclear code development, reactivity accidents, transport theory, reactor dynamics, reaction theory, particle accelerators and Under this heading are a number of small programs, some of which result on-line computers. from a continuing contact with universities through the Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering (AlNSE). They include: Engineering Research Division Neutron Sources and Fusion Power Nuclear engineering problems with emphasis on reactor core performance, An existing coaxial plasma focus source produces pulses of neutrons by heat transfer and fluid flow, noise analysis and vibrations, and stress analysis in discharging energy from a large capacitor bank. An attempt is to be made to power and research reactors. produce a scaled-down version for use as a field neutron source of relatively large output. The processes involved are closely allied to those of fusion power Materials Division studies, and the project provides a useful basis for maintaining a watching brief Materials research related to nuclear power systems and the uranium indus- on fusion power prospects, in conjunction with relevant university departments try with present emphasis on zirconium-clad uranium dioxide fuels and structural under the auspices of AINSE. components. A service is provided also on nuclear material fabrication and specialist welding, radiography, post-irradiation examination and metallography. Computing Research A small group of research staff provides essential back-up to the main com- Chemical Technology Division puting service by investigating the new generations of computers, advising on Chemical processing of raw materials to produce nuclear grade products, their use, and suggesting new ways to tackle intricate problems. These include chemical aspects of the design and operation of nuclear reactors, service work in interactive visual display systems, linked computer systems, and new computer analytical chemistry and glassworking, and associated research on analytical languages and software. methods. Neutron Diffraction Instrumentation and Control Division A guiding principle in this work has been to have a small, active group fully Research and scientific support in the general field of electronics, including aware of the potential of neutron scattering techniques, not only doing significant physical and process instrumentation, computer control applications, nuclear research of its own but also developing instruments and techniques to exploit the radiation measurement, radioisotope standardisation and reactor dynamics and reactor neutron beams. This group collaborates closely with research workers control. Also, an electronic instrument maintenance and calibration service is from universities under the auspices of AINSE. provideo.

Isotope Division RESEARCH SUPPORT Research into radioisotope and radiation effects and their application. Pro- Most research divisions provide support services which are peculiar to their duction of radioisotopes, including radiopharmaceuticals. discipline. These services include, for example, accelerator operation, analytical chemistry, computing, electronics, neutron activation analysis, nuclear material Health and Safety Division fabrication, and post-irradiation handling. External use of these services is increasing in such areas as referee analysis of ore samples, special material fabri- Provision of radiological safety services together with research on radiation cation, and the construction of unusual radiation detectors. biology and health physics, including environmental studies.

88 89 Applied Mathematics and Computing Section Hire, testing and inspection, acceptance, and final commissioning. The drafting office recently improved its service by introducing a microfilm system for storing Provision of computing facilities and mathematical techniques supported by and retrieving its 36,000 design drawings. research in these fields. Training courses in the use of mathematical and pro- gramming methods are also provided. Work demanding a significant design or contractual effort is handled on a Details of the Administration and Operations Divisions are given below in project basis, and becomes the responsibility of a project engineer. Some of the addition to some specialist services. major projects are listed below: A high pressure water loop will be installed in HIFAR to allow experience to be gained in the assessment of power reactor fuel pin performance. The loop OPERATIONS DIVISION is designed to operate with pressurised water or boiling water at operating pressures a Operations Division carries out non-research engineering. It has about one of 2,000 lb/in and temperatures of 300°C. Most of the major components for third of the total staff and employs 40 professional staff of whom 37 are engineers. the loop have been manufactured and installed. The in-pile section is being The Division is organised into four Sections: Reactor Operations, Engineering commissioned before final installation. Services, Works, and Site Operations. A pulsed gamma source has been designed and manufactured for Isotope Division for studies of radiation-initiated synthesis and sterilisation. The apparatus Reactor Operations Section provides pulses of gamma radiation from a 1,000 Ci cobalt 60 source at pre-set The main function of the Reactor Operations Section is to operate the frequencies to initiate reactions inside a pressure vessel. research reactor HIFAR (High Flux Australian Reactor) which is now in its thirteenth year of routine operation. It provides an intense source of neutrons, Before 1970 the irradiated targets from self-service facilities in HIFAR used to produce radioisotopes and for nuclear research in metallurgy, solid state were unloaded into lead pots, which were then sealed and transported to the iso- physics and chemistry. HIFAR is moderated and cooled by heavy water, and is tope handling cells for processing. This procedure was cumbersome and unecon- designed to produce a maximum thermal flux of 10U neutrons per square centi- omical, restrictive for the use of short-lived isotopes and for fast access neutron metre per second at a heat output from the core of 10 megawatts (thermal). activation analysis, and it required close administrative control. To overcome these problems a pneumatic rabbit system, using both stainless steel and nylon The total staff of Reactor Operations Section is 69, including 13 engineers. tubes, has been designed and partly installed. This system will allow all self- The reactor is operated continuously except for a four-day monthly shutdown for service horizontal irradiation facilities to be connected to their associated pro- refuelling and maintenance. cessing buildings. HIFAR operated throughout the year on a 28 day cycle at an average power of 10 megawatts (thermal). A 98% full power utilisation, excluding time taken A collaborative creep program between the Commission and the United for scheduled fuel changing and maintenance, was achieved. Two unscheduled Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority will test the irradiation creep ductility of shutdowns occurred, one to allow maintenance of a faulty heavy water valve zirconium-niobium alloys. The agreement is for the UKAEA to provide two high- diaphragm and the other following a coarse control arm magnet failure after a strain multi-specimen creep rigs, and the Commission to provide control and scheduled short-term mid-cycle shutdown to unload technetium. instrumentation cubicles, out-of-reactor measuring equipment and irradiation Seven new rigs were brought into service (six vertical type and one horizontal facilities. The rigs are expected to be delivered from Britain in late 1972, and type) and two rigs were withdrawn from service, one having failed in service and the measuring system will be available at that time. the other having been damaged during handling operations. Periodical checks of all fuel elements for abnormal vibration continued, and Works Section a study was initiated to investigate alternative fuel element designs to overcome a vibration problem. Routine leak rate tests on the reactor sealed building showed The Works Section is responsible for the planning and supervision of design that a leak rate of less than 1 % of the building volume in 24 hours could be and construction of new buildings and associated facilities; the modification of maintained. existing buildings and services; and the maintenance of buildings, associated faci- lities, roads and car parks, gardens and grounds. The total committed value of A comprehensive safety study of the reactor was completed, as well as an the above work in the current year was $1,050,800. The Works Section has a investigation of plant components which might need replacement to extend the staff of 14, including seven engineers. lifetime of the reactor. There were four major items in the design and construction program: Engineering Services Section completion of the Critical Facility; extension of the isotope laboratories; construc- tion of a fluorine cell development laboratory; construction of a 200,000 gallon This Section has a staff of 182 including 17 engineers, and supplies to other reservoir for the site water supply. divisions special research equipment which cannot normally be purchased. This responsibility encompasses preliminary investigation, design and drafting, cost The extensions to the isotope laboratories will provide for additional radio- estimation, tender assessment, supervision and progressing of contracts, manufac- chemical processing, and also laboratories for research into the development of

90 91 Several transfers of irradiated fuel from HIFAR reactor to fuel storage were made under the safeguards surveillance of the International Atomic Energy Agency. Several large pieces of highly irradiated equipment from HIFAR were transferred to the high-level disposal pits which are deep concrete-lined waterproof pits excavated in rock and provided with heavy shielding covers. A modular activated charcoal filter unit was developed for use in active laboratories to remove radioiodine from exhaust gases. The plant which provides the Research Establishment's basic services — water, electricity, compressed air supply and reticulation — operated satisfactorily and no major interruptions occurred. Other services — silent hour supervision, support to the safety system, supervision for research divisions of unattended operating experimental equipment — also operated satisfactorily.

UPRATING OF MOATA REACTOR Moata reactor was operated during the year by Physics Division. Construc- tion and commissioning of the Critical Facility allowed a reassessment 01 the role of this 10 kW reactor in the Research Establishment's program. It was concluded that Moata's main function would lie in the area of neutron beam facili- ties for research, and in the provision of easily accessible facilities for neutron activation analysis. Augmented heat removal capacity was installed in anticipation of an increase in operating power to 100 kW. This will increase the peak flux to 1.5 x 1012 n cm"2 sec"1. The presently available instrumentation and shielding are adequate. In parallel with this work, the safety of Moata has been reassessed from first principles. This proved worthwhile in that it provided an excellent quanti- tative understanding of the reactor's physics and thermal performance. Considera- Two heavily shielded, remote handling cells under construction at Lucas tion of possible (but improbable) accidents led to a re-examination of much of Heights as part of extensions to the isotope production laboratories. The cell on the left, to be lined with stainless steel, will be used for radiochemical the American power excursion tests on the SPERT reactors. This SPERT processing of high activity materials. The other cell will be used for the re-examination has been fruitful, and provided additional information on the handling and encapsulation of high activity, industrial radiography sources. physical behaviour of the reactor. racliopharmaceuticals. The fluorine cell development laboratory will house equip- ADMINISTRATION ment being designed and built at Lucas Heights for development of fluorine The administrative needs of the operations and research divisions are met production processes. by an Administration Division which comprises the following Sections: Personnel Section Staff, recruitment, industrial relations, compensation, Site Operations Section etc. The Site Operations Section is responsible for radioactive and toxic waste Supply Section Purchasing and contracts, vocabulary of stores, inven- management, decontamination services, operation and maintenance of site mech- tory control, stores, etc. anical and electrical services, carpentry and painting services, and installation of Management Services Accounts, payment of salaries, costing, data processing, new plant and equipment. It has a staff of 1 10, including 3 professional officers. Section research contracts. General Administration Records, typing, printing, transport, reception and All systems and services functioned satisfactorily throughout the year. In all Section information, cleaning, local and overseas travel, gar- cases the amounts of radioactivity discharged were less than that permitted under dens and grounds. the authorisations granted by the New South Wales authorities. No solid radio- active waste left the Research Establishment. High-level storage tanks were Site Medical Officer Medical services. commissioned in the medium and high-level waste treatment and storage facility The Division operated throughout the year within a fixed ceiling of 193 for liquid wastes. staff, of whom approximately two-thirds represented administrative, clerical and

93 typing effort, and one-third provided miscellaneous services including transport, printing, stores holding, cleaning, gardening, etc. Administrative and clerical ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY SERVICES support is provided for the various divisions by a decentralised system; staff arc Analytical chemistry is of considerable importance in the development of attached to each division under the supervision of a divisional administrative a nuclear industry in Australia and in supporting the work of the Research officer, who is functionally responsible to the division chief and administratively Establishment. New and improved methods are required to increase efficiency responsible to the senior administrative officer. in routine analysis and to solve problems which arise continually. Examples of the wide range of elements and techniques involved over the past year are: The current year has seen an extension of computer control of administra- tive functions such as the payroll, staff records, stores inventories and procure- • Thorium in ores and rocks, in the presence of large amounts of titanium, ment of supplies. using spectrophotometry. The unique nature of many nuclear experiments and reactor facilities and « Scandium in biological ashes by solvent extraction and flame spectrometry. the wide range of research work in progress, present unusual problems in the o Boron down to 1 ppm in aluminium alloys by spectrophotometry. procurement of supplies. For example, the uranium for fuel for the reactors o Ruthenium at the sub-ppm level in sea-water and marine samples by a comes from USA and the fuel is fabricated in Britain. The moderator of HIFAR catalytic-spectrophotometric method. is heavy water imported from USA. Graphite for the Critical Facility had to be o Phosphate in sea-water by a solvent extraction-spectrophotometric method imported as blocks to a particular specification, and a contract was arranged for with the very low standard deviation of ± 0.15 micrograms of phosphorus its machining by Australian industry. per litre. Many of the requirements of the research workers brought contractual and « Iodine 129 and phosphorus 32 in sea-water by solvent extraction and other difficulties which were overcome successfully. counting. The Transport Section met the precise timetable requirements of Isotope « Gas chromatography of impurities in the HIFAR gas blanket in place of Division for delivery of radioisotopes to local medical centres, and to interstate mass spectrometry. centres by air transport. • Long-chain amines in aqueous solutions down to sub-ppm levels for studies of environmental protection. SAFETY SERVICES Neutron activation and radiochemical analysis have continued to be applied A high standard of safety is achieved at Lucas Heights under a thorough to a variety of problems, and work relevant to forensic science is carried out by safety surveillance system. Control of radiological and industrial safety was an Inspector of the Commonwealth Police attached to the Research Establish- satisfactory, and no serious accidents occurred. ment. Construction of the fast access neutron activation laboratory (FANAL) continued and commissioning started in June 1972. The services instrumental in achieving this standard are: • Advice and services from health physicists and surveyors in all areas LIBRARY SERVICES where ionising radiation and radioactive materials are used. • A personnel dosimetry service which assesses exposure of staff to The Research Establishment library has the largest collection of nuclear radiation. External exposure is monitored by film badges and special literature in Australia. Its information service to all groups of the Commission thermoluminescent dosimeters. Internal exposure is measured by analysis continued to expand during the year. Participation in an International Nuclear of urine samples and by gamma spectrometry in a whole-body monitor. Information Service (INIS) sponsored by the International Atomic Energy • Investigation of any radiation exposure which is above average levels. Agency is on a sound footing, and the library is the centre for supplying an input to the service of all new nuclear research information produced in Aus- • Prior safety assessment of all experiments and other projects that involve potentially hazardous materials or operations. tralia. In return, Australia receives the information supplied to the service by all participating countries. This is part of an effective information retrieval • Regular monitoring of effluent discharge stacks to ensure that discharges system serving the research staff. are within limits agreed to by the New South Wales Radiological Advisory Council. • Prior approval of work with fissile materials. • A safety training program, and a formal system of accident reporting followed by investigation of causes and preventive measures. A site emergency organisation is in operation, with its focal point at a site emergency office which is manned continuously and receives alarm signals from monitoring equipment in buildings and facilities. Senior Research Establishment staff serve as safety co-ordinators, being on call for control of any emergency.

94 95 Flow measurement in natural gas pipelines is becoming increasingly import- ant. In June 1972, the method was demonstrated successfully to a number of 9 interested parties on a high-pressure line of the Natural Gas Pipelines Authority of South Australia.

Radioisotope Analytical Techniques in the Mineral Industry The 1970-71 Annual Report gave a detailed description of the Commission's research and development in this field, and its co-operation with the mineral RADIOISOTOPES AND RADIATION industry, the Australian Mineral Industries Research Association (AMIRA) and the Australian Mineral Development Laboratories (AMDEL). Briefly, the work had confirmed in the laboratory and in a total of eight full-scale plant trials, that radioisotope methods developed by the Commission could be used for instant A large multidisciplinary laboratory such as the Commission's Research on-stream analysis in mineral concentration plants, for elements such as copper, Establishment, with its wide range of experience, skill and equipment is well tin, lead, nickel, zinc and other heavy metals of commercial interest. Sufficient placed to carry out research and development related to radioisotopes and accuracy for plant control could be obtained in feed, concentrate and tailings radiation. Possession of a reactor such as HIFAR, and experience in the handling streams. and measurement of nuclear materials, permits extensive production of radio- isotopes and facilitates research into their applications and uses in industry, Under an agreement with the Commission, Philips Industries Ltd. is manu- medicine and science. Similarly, the Research Establishment is well equipped to facturing and marketing equipment suitable for exploitation of these techniques study the material and biological effects of radiation, which are important both in by the mining industry. Consultation to the industry is available from AMDEL, the establishment of safety in nuclear power operations and in discovering employing staff trained by the Commission. This year AMDEL has carried out valuable technological uses for the large radiation sources made possible by a number of feasibility studies which will lead to permanent plant installations. nuclear operations. Research is undertaken also in improving methods of With financial support from the Commission and from the mineral industry measuring and detecting radiation which is important to many aspects of the through AMIRA, AMDEL is developing plant control techniques operating on utilisation of nuclear science and technology. Some of this research is described the analyses obtained from the radioisotope instruments. below. Plant on-stream analysers based on the use of immersion probes have now Through this work the Research Establishment has developed into a national been installed in two streams of the lead flotation circuit at New Broken Hill centre for study and research in radiation and radioisotopes and the value of Consolidated Ltd. by company staff. Immersion probes have been installed also this work is well established in Australian medicine, industry and science. The in the flotation feed stream al Kanmantoo Mines Ltd., South Australia, with applications of radioisotopes and radiation are expanding in Australia, particularly AMDEL as consultants. Further analysers are being installed progressively at in the field of nuclear medicine. both these mineral processing plants to provide sufficient analytical information for plant control. RADIOISOTOPE APPLICATIONS RESEARCH Commission research during the past year has increased the sensitivity of determination of metals at low concentrations in tailings and residue streams. Gas Flow Measurement This has allowed assessment of the effect of variable amounts of air entrained in the process streams on the accuracy of on-stream analysis. The use of solid-state A gas flow measurement method using radioactive krypton 85 gas has been detectors was also investigated for analysis of mineral samples. developed by the Commission. The method has good potential for extensive use in natural gas and coal gas supply lines, in the chemical and petrochemical One of the radioisotope X-ray analytical techniques developed by the Com- industries, and in other enterprises where gas flow or ventilation measurement mission several years ago, but not previously reported for commercial reasons, is important. As described in earlier reports, the technique has been proven by has now been published and a patent application lodged. This technique enables tests in these fields. low levels of copper in iron-rich ores to be determined with good accuracy. The method is unique in that it is absolute, it is highly precise, and is Interference caused by the presence of large amounts of iron previously had independent of factors such as pressure, temperature and pipe diameter. These prevented accurate measurements of copper. advantages also suggest its possible usefulness as a National Standard, and this is being explored. Nuclear Techniques of Analysis A provisional patent specification has been filed. The Commission wishes to encourage the use of the method in Australian industry and considers this The analytical techniques described in the previous section depend on can best be achieved by private consultants providing a service to industry measuring characteristic interactions of soft or low-energy radioisotope radiation under licence to the Commission. Negotiations are proceeding with the companies with atoms of the element of interest. More recent Commission research has interested. shown that there are good prospects of developing useful analytical techniques

96 97 valuable information can be obtained on the origin, movement and age of underground waters. Commission work has shown that the determination of trace elements by neutron activation also gives useful information on the history of natural waters. However, natural systems of ground waters and the methods of studying them arc complex, and much still has to be learnt on the application and interpretation of isotope methods. The operational difficulties involved are exemplified by the fact that in young natural waters only one atom in about 10lft hydrogen atoms is the radioactive tritium species. In water older than 60-70 years, the tritium content has diminished by radioactive decay to less than one part in 1018. Complex equipment for concentrating and measuring tritium in natural waters has been developed, with sufficient sensitivity to measure these low concentra- tions. Carbon 14 can be determined also at concentrations dissolved in natural waters. These measurements are slow and Commission equipment has consider- able advantages in throughput and accuracy compared with others reported in overseas literature. The laboratory's atmosphere has to be specially treated by a novel process to prevent contamination from the trace of tritium that is released from the reactor HIFAR. Such releases arc characteristic of all heavy water reactors and, while completely insignificant as a health hazard, represent a major source of error in sensitive hydrology studies. Mass spectrometry equipment is High-pressure natural gas tr tiering station at Torrens Island, South Australia, now also in operation for accurate measurement of hydrogen isotope ratios. where a gas flow calibration method using radioactive krypton 85 was demon- strated recently. The technique, which is extremely accurate and absolute, was The main objective of the Commission in carrying out this work is to assist developed at Lucas Heights. The small line supplying the krypton 85 and its through the services of its nuclear and radiochemical experts, in establishing these injection mechanism into the main can be seen beside the flange on the left. techniques in the hydrological field. It is expected that hydrological laboratories eventually will take over the techniques as established methods. As the next stage, for some metals, including copper and nickel, by measuring the interactions of it is necessary to develop, test and evaluate the techniques in field use. For this the nucleus of the atom with hard, high-energy gamma radiation. The method purpose, co-operative projects have been established with authorities concerned depends on the scattering of gamma radiation when it is in exact resonance with with field hydrology, and some extensive experiments have begun. the nucleus of the element of interest. A major problem exists in finding radio- isotope sources to meet this specification. These co-operative investigations include: However, advances have been made in analysis of nickel and copper by Australian Water Resources Council this method, leading to the prospect of developing probes for /';/ situ analysis The Commission has recently joined the Burdekin Delta Artificial Ground in percussion drill holes for mineral exploration. Such an analytical instrument Water Recharge Study undertaken by a number of hydrology authorities. An would be of considerable interest to the mineral industry as it would reduce officer of the Isotope Division is a member of the panel planning this study. substantially the need for expensive diamond core drilling. The work of the Commission is still at the laboratory stage, but the technique could have promise Electricity Commission of Ncic South Wales in large diameter drill holes. Radiotracer experiments are being undertaken to determine the pattern of (low, into a disused mine, of fine particles of waste solids suspended in water. However, the gamma-ray resonance technique is a much better prospect for analysis of ores on conveyor belts and similar applications. The technique is Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission of Nt'ir South Wales preferable to the alternative neutron activation and capture techniques for the Investigations using measurements of naturally-occurring tritium and carbon determination of copper and nickel. The resonance method is faster, it suffers no 14 are starting to yield an understanding of the complex aquifer system about interference from other elements, and uses simpler equipment of lower cost. Narrabri, New South Wales. The technique has been patented and is now ready for plant testing. State Electricity Commission of Victoria Isotopes in Hydrology Age determination of water samples, using tritium measurements, has shown The value of isotope techniques in hydrological investigations is becoming that the volume of underground water in an aquifer under study is much greater well established. Many laboratories now use them and are engaged in research than originally supposed, and that a more detailed study of the aquifer is on the methods of application. By measurement of natural variations in the required. concentrations of radioactive hydrogen 3 (tritium) and carbon 14 in natural Approximately 450 samples of underground, river and rain waters were waters, and of the relative abundance of the stable hydrogen isotopes (hydrogen measured for tritium concentration during the past year as part of the Commission 1 and hydrogen 2) and oxygen isotopes (oxygen 16 and oxygen 18), much investigations.

98 99 20 - 1 Tracing of Termite Activity KodX-RAYS FROM ADJACENT ELEMENTS A considerable problem in the study of termite infestation and movement arises from the fact that termites spread through underground galleries. In o EXCITATION response to interest expressed by the Forestry and Timber Bureau of the SIB SOURCE BACKSCATTCR _j Department of National Development, the Commission has developed a new UJ Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn Ge Se ! ,; method of tracing termite activity. In field trials in the Northern Territory the Sc M Mn Co Cu Ga As Br j Bureau has tested the method successfully with the very destructive Mastotennes < i 5 i danviniemis (Froggat). cc 10 i i i i i ' Bait dowels loaded with a small amount of the radioisotope scandium 46. H i Q_ as the insoluble oxide in wood pulp, are placed in a termite-active tree. The co I i radioactive oxide follows the usual food transfer routes and is mostly excreted 1— • .' i •ZL | 1 within two days of ingestion. Termites use the excreta in making the walls of *^J 1 ' O r 1 5 ' i - 0 f ! galleries and nests, which thus become slightly radioactive and can be detected i 1 •, 1 i t 1 above ground by means of a geiger counter. By further baiting trees which i w 1,1; I \. f""' i, have become radioactive in this way, the entire extent and penetration of the , i V ![j \t\ / V / J V \ 1 termite colony can be found. U^,,, ' !ii/ !l '1- In a field test, eight other trees, and a log up to 80 feet from the bait tree, 0 1 i r 100 200 300 400 5on were found to be radioactive within eighteen hours of the first tree being bailed, CHANNEL NUMBER and within four days 31 nests were detected. Four such radioactive sites were excavated and all were found to be nests. Figure I. Plot showing the separation and indentification of the characteristic The rapidity of uptake of the bait and the fact that very small amounts of X-rays of neighbouring elements using a semiconductor X-ray spectrometer radioactivity are used indicates the possibility of tracing colonies even in developed by the Instrumentation and Control Division at Lucas Heights. built-up areas. This work is a major advance in studying a difficult problem, and the work is continuing in association with the Bureau. The spectrometers consist of a silicon diode detector — typically 5 mm diameter and 5 mm thick — which is the radiation-sensitive element, housed, RADIATION RESEARCH together with the critical components of the preamplifier, in a cryostat. The cryostat is a small, sealed vacuum container operated at liquid nitrogen tem- DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION perature. Low-temperature operation minimises the thermally generated elec- tronic fluctuations in the input stages, and therefore their tendency to smear out Semiconductor X-ray Spectrometers the individual X-ray peaks. Analysis for chemical elements by means of their characteristic X-rays has The method of fabricating the silicon detector is an important factor been an analytical tool for many years. Traditionally, the analysis of the charac- contributing to the performance. In contrast to the technique favoured overseas — teristic X-ray spectrum has entailed the use of crystal diffraction techniques in v/hich the effect of small amounts of electrically active impurities in the giving extremely high resolution, but requiring tedious and lengthy scanning silicon is neutralised by a lithium-ion drift process — the Commission method through a range of sequential angular settings of the instrument. A recent and begins with ultra-pure silicon, followed by a gold film evaporation to form a significant development is the high standard of resolution reached by semi- metal-semiconductor rectifying contact. The advantages are a high yield of conductor silicon diodes when used as X-ray detectors. Although the method good detectors and freedom from the critical adjustment for optimum operating does not yet match the diffraction method, it permits clear separation of the temperature characteristic of the lithium-drifted diodes. characteristic X-rays from adjacent elements in the periodic table. Its practical significance is that all energies (or wavelengths) in a given range of interest may Activity Standards for Radioisotopes be observed simultaneously, resulting in a dramatic saving in the time taken The Commission is now an agent of the National Standards Commission to analyse a sample. and is responsible for maintaining the Commonwealth Standard of Radioactivity. The widespread application of X-ray spectrometry is reflected in (he demand This work will be done by the Radioisotope Standards Group, which has for high-performance spectrometers at the Research Establishment. Special participated successfully over the past few years in a number of interlaboratory systems have been built by Instrumentation and Control Division for studies of comparisons of radioactivity measurements with overseas national standards industrial analysis by radioisotope X-ray methods, for fission physics measure- laboratories. ments, and for routine analytical work. Applications to environmental analysis A basic technical problem limiting the accuracy of radioisotopc measure- also are being considered. Figure 1 demonstrates the ability of one of these ments is the preparation of suitable sources for counting the rate of emission of spectrometers, designed for radioisotope application work, to separate the charac- the nuclear decay products. A weighed droplet of the parent radioactive solution teristic X-rays of neighbouring elements, including several of commercial interest. is allowed to evaporate, with various treatments, on a thin support. The variable

100 101 size of the crystallites formed in the residue results in an uncontrolled fraction Australian industry has invested several million dollars in recent years to of the lower energy decay products being absorbed before inching the sensitive build radiation processing plants. These use the chemical and biological effects region of the nuclear detector. To improve measurement procedures, the Com- of ionising radiation for such applications as the synthesis of polymers, the mission has developed a novel method for producing reproducible counting manufacture of polymer composite materials and the production of sterile medical sources. A thin layer of ion exchange resins is sprayed onto the source support. supplies. These, and other processes described later, have resulted from research The radioactive ions from a droplet of the solution are then quantitatively which has exploited several novel characteristics of radiation. Radiation can be absorbed into this layer and dispersed uniformly through a controlled area. The used to initiate chemical reactions or cause biological changes in solid, liquid resulting counting source has a low and reproducible self-absorption characteristic, and gaseous systems independently of the pressure, temperature, or other minimising the systematic errors of measurement. conditions of the system. The rate of the process also can be controlled by varying the intensity of the radiation source. Radiation Dosimetry by Chemical Methods A wide range of materials is now being manufactured by radiation methods A simple, routine and accurate method of measuring radiation dose at the in the USA. The industry has a gross turnover of $250 million and is expanding very high levels used in medical sterilisation and other industiial uses of at 15% a year. About 45 million curies of cobalt 60 are used as radiation radiation, is most important for the successful commercial operation of these sources, and many high voltage accelerators are also employed. Extensive processes. However, to date, sufficiently accurate routine methods have been developments in radiation processing are occurring also in France, Japan and lacking. the USSR. Research by the Commission has shown that the internationally accepted The major application in terms of turnover in all four countries is in the but difficult laboratory method using the chemical effect of radiation on eerie modification of plastic cable insulation to give greater thermal and oxidation sulphate, can be modified and adapted for routine plant operation. The technique resistance. Closely allied to this is the production of thermo-shrinking plastic involves the exposure of a small phial of a solution of eerie and cerous sulphate sheet and tubing for packaging, cable sleeving, etc. mixture to the radiation to be measured. In industrial use the test phial usually Wood-plastic composites are also being marketed in Australia and the accompanies the material to be irradiated. The solution is then transferred to an USA. The pores and voids in wood are filled with radiation polymerised plastic instrument with a small analogue computer, which automatically converts the to give a product with the appearance of quality timber and suitable for high change in the electrical potential of the solution, brought about by the irradiation, wear-resistance flooring and speciality applications. Composites with other porous to a direct digital readout of radiation dose in megarads. materials such as concrete are being studied also. This inexpensive instrument covers a range of 0.03 to 5.0 megarads with Other applications include the improvement of textiles by radiation grafting a precision of ± 2% over most of this range. Extensive tests in large-scale ct' monomers to the fibre. Improvements are claimed in crease resistance, soil irradiations at the Research Establishment, and in an industrial irradiator, have release, dyeability, and resistance to abrasion, water and rot. The commercial confirmed the reliability of the method. A provisional patent specification has use of radiation for rapid curing of polymeric surface coatings on metal, timber, been lodged and commercial manufacture is being investigated. plastic, concrete, etc., is also well established. Standards for Radiation Dosimetry Many other polymeric products are now manufactured with the assistance of radiation. The products include a number of speciality polymers uniquely The provision of satisfactory standards for radiation dosimetry is essential made by irradiation. In the GATRI irradiator at the Research Establishment, both for radiation protection and for the provision of irradiation services and ICI Australia Ltd. is making pilot-plant quantities of the special ion exchange facilities. The Commission is acting as the agent of the Commonwealth Scientific resin used in the "Sirotherm" desalination process. The irradiation method is and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) in providing national standards for the only known way to achieve the required purity and particle size and shape. radiation dosimetry. Recent w.>rk has concentrated on the construction of a microcalorimeter for the absolute realisation of the rad for photons of energies Certain industrial chemicals are also made by the irradiation route, including above 1 MeV. Results from the prototype system are good and show an overall some biodegradable detergents, emulsifiers and chemical intermediates, but the precision of ± 1 % for a dose rate of 100 rads per minute. best known process is the manufacture of ethylbromide by the Dow Chemical Company in USA. This has been in operation for many years. Sterilisation and insect disinfestation of food by intense gamma-irradiation CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF RADIATION was for many years considered a promising prospect for room-temperature World Developments in Radiation Technology preservation of foodstuffs, but commercial development has been slow mainly due The commercial use of massive sources of radiation in chemical processing, to difficulties in clearing irradiated food for human consumptkn. However, and particularly medical sterilisation, is now well established in a number of there have been some minor developments to date. It is believed that irradiated countries. The sterilisation of disposable medical equipment is so commonplace mushrooms have been sold in the Netherlands, and other vegetables, and that expansion in this field no longer excites any particular interest. In Australia, shrimps, are approved for sale. Israel has marketed irradiated onions and two plants are in operation near Melbourne and a third is now being built in potatoes, and the USSR is irradiating potatoes. It is not known how well Sydney. established these are commercially.

102 103 Commission Research Radiation Chemistry Studies Hydrostatic Pressure Effects on Radiation Processing Application of irradiation techniques to industrial chemical manufacture As described in previous Annual Reports, research at Lucas Heights led is based on detailed knowledge of the effect of radiation on chemicals and to the discovery that bacterial spores — normally very resistant to radiation — chemical reactions. The chemical effects of radiation, particularly in aqueous lose that resistance when compressed in aqueous systems at pressures up to systems, are important in understanding the effects of radiation on the human 1,500 atmospheres. Further study of the influence of environmental conditions body and other living organisms. The Commission has maintained a small but on this effect has shown that there is an optimum temperature and pressure for active research effort in this field for a number of years. The new chemical the change to occur. The presence of oxygen, which generally sensitises spores dosimeter described elsewhere in this Report arose from this type of research. to the lethal action of radiation, does not influence the change caused by In water systems, most chemical changes arise from the interaction of the pressure. dissolved material with the transitory and very reactive chemical radicals and These results are relevant to the preservation of food and the production of species produced by the action of radiation on the preponderant water molecule. sterile medical products by means of heat or radiation. To assess the commercial Much of the research, therefore, has been directed to understanding the very potential for processes in which pressure is used to convert bacterial spores into complex behaviour of water under irradiation. This information leads further the heat-sensitive or radiation-sensitive form before thermal or irradiation treat- to understanding what happens to chemicals in the water, whether they be ment, a study is being made in co-operation with the CSIRO Division of Food part of a laboratory or production reaction, or the constituents of a living cell. Research, using milk as a test system. The objective of the work is to establish More recent research has been carried out on irradiation effects on concentrated the temperature, pressure and radiation close required to obtain a product solutions, where the water is no longer preponderant. bacteriologically equivalent to that produced by the commercial ultra-high The Commission has studied the possibility of using radiation for promoting temperature process for preserving milk. By using pressure, the quantity of heat simpler syntheses of complex organic compounds, particularly those of biological or radiation required to produce a sterile product can be reduced. or pharmaceutical significance. Though the work showed that certain important preparative steps could be made easier, nothing of real technical or economic significance arose and the work was terminated. Other radiation chemistry studies include the discovery of a high-yield process for synthesis of amino acids from amines and formic acid. This technique has some promise as a method of producing carbon 14 labelled amino acids for biological research, starting with labelled formic acid. In co-operation with the CSIRO Wool Research Laboratories, some pre- liminary studies have begun on irradiation graft polymerisation techniques for modifying the shrinkage, wrinkle, crease and soil resistance of woollen materials. To date, it has been shown that graft polymerisation can be achieved at doses which will not damage the fibre, but as yet there are no indications of its effect on the properties of the textile.

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION In assessing the health hazard that could arise from the discharge of radio- activity from nuclear plant under operational or accident conditions, it is assumed that the form of the dose-response relationship for radiation-induced biological damage is such that there is no threshold below which effects are not seen, and that the effect of a given dose is independent of the rate at which it is given. For certain endpoints (for example, changes in the fertility of women), pseudo- threshold effects are known to exist, but these have a physiological basis and are not inherent in the mode of action of radiation. It is unfortunate that radiation induction of leukaemia or cancer is not in this category. The consequences of the assumption that there is no threshold are substantial. On one hand, the nuclear industry is forced to provide expensive equipment for waste treatment and containment and, on the other, the public is inevitably Bacillus eereus spores fully refractile, i.e. clear, arc dormant. The dark ! disturbed by the concept that any amount of radiation, no matter how small, spores have been wr initialed by a pressure oj 15,000 lh/in for three minutes. Magnification 3,200. may have some harmful effect. It is clearly desirable to determine whether the

104 105 assumption of no threshold is justified, and to obtain more detail of the dose- response relationship at low doses and dose rates, but there is no straightforward way to go about this. The magnitude of radiation effects at low doses is so small that direct experimentation or observation seldom can give significant results. The approach adopted in the Commission's biological research is that an adequate understanding of the nature of radiation injury, and the ability precisely to relate dose and effect, can come only from detailed study of the whole sequence of events from the physical absorption of energy in an irradiated cell to the production of recognisable biological injury. Within this framework, emphasis is placed on the investigation of physical irradiation parameters in experimental conditions that lead to an early and appreciable degree of biological damage. Examples are: the ability of low-energy neutrons (below 0.2 MeV) to inactivate cultured mammalian cells or produce chromosomal injuries, the synergistic effects of combined X-ray and ultraviolet exposure on cell survival, and the relationship between X-ray exposure and the production of chromosome injury. As there are still uncertainties about the relative effectiveness of low-energy neutrons, their behaviour in biological systems is of special interest. The spectrum of secondary particles generated by the slowing down of low-energy neutrons in biological material is relatively simple; most of the energy is imparted by recoil hydrogen atoms, neutral or positively charged (protons). If biological damage results simply from the rate of energy deposition, then the effects of neutrons should be predictable from a knowledge of the linear energy transfer spectra characteristic of the two states of charge. Present theoretical and experimental knowledge is insufficient to allow application of this simple test, and the Commission is carrying out experimental work whieh, it is hoped, will improve this situation. It is believed that inactivation of a mammalian cell by radiation requires that two sites within the nucleus be affected; it is possible to adduce evidence for this belief without identifying the actual sites. The spatial distribution of such sites is important and, at least in theory, a detailed knowledge of the way in which the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of neutrons varies with their energy, would shed some light on it. The Commission has investigated the RBE of neutrons as a function of energy, using cell survival and induced chromosomal aberrations as the measured endpoint. Because of practical difficulties arising from finite target thickness and the effect of scattered neutrons, the results have not been sufficiently definite, and the method is being refined by a program of neutron spectroscopy. The nature of the sites of injury is still to be determined. Other work has been undertaken to refine the techniques required for use of the frequency of chromosome aberrations in cultured blood cells as an index of radiation exposure.

RADIOISOTOPE PRODUCTION AND SERVICES The demand for radioisotopes continues to rise steadily in accordance with the pattern established in recent years, with medical diagnostic products (radio- pharmaceuticals) well ahead of all other categories. The emphasis in radio- pharmaceuticals continues to be on those based on technetium 99m, and during the year developments in further new products have been made in co-operation

106 with nuclear medicine specialists and the Commonwealth X-ray and Radium Laboratory of the Department of Health. Because of local demand pressures, radioisotope exports have not been promoted actively in recent years. Nevertheless, a significant increase in overseas commercial interest in Commission products occurred during the period under review. The completion of the new radioisotope processing building, expected in November 1972, will give much-needed relief in terms of space required to meet the increasing demands.

RADIOISOTOPE SURVEY The Commission completed a comprehensive survey on the use of radio- isotopes in Australia, covering applications in medicine, industry, scientific non-medical research, and miscellaneous uses. Figures of actual use in 1970-71 and estimates for 1971-72 and 1972-73 were obtained. The survey, the first since 1962, will enable future requirements to be predicted more accurately, and. production and procurement to be planned more effectively. Questionnaires were rent to radioisotope users throughout Australia, and the total response of 79% is very satisfactory for this type of survey. In the medical field, the most dramatic developments are in diagnosis, particularly for organ imaging, or scanning. During 1970-71, radioisotope diag- nosis was used for 148,576 patients, as compared with 13,180 patients who received radioisotope therapy and teletherapy. The number of doses supplied for diagnosis in 1970-71 was 175,629, and the total is expected to increase to 265,000 in 1972-73. [These predictions are likely to represent a lower limit, as they apply only to clinics already established and techniques already in use. New clinics are planned, and the potential of nuclear medicine is by no means fully exploited.] Radioisotope kits for diagnosis are being used extensively and this use is increasing greatly. Gallium 67, selenium 75, indium 113m and iodine 132 are expected to meet increasing demand for diagnosis. The quantities of isotopes used in medical research are much smaller, but are expected also to show a rapid rate of increase. The industrial category was subdivided for the purpose of the enquiry into radiography, gauging, massive irradiation, tracing, and miscellaneous. The most frequently-used radioisotope for radiography is iridium 92, and a modest but steady increase in demand is expected — from 165 sources in 1970-71 to 228 in 1972-73. Radioisotopes are widely used in Australian industry for gauging, particu- larly density, level and thickness gauging. The expected increases in the numbers of gauges in use between 1970-71 and 1972-73 are: level, 444 to 621; thickness, 125 to 142; density, 478 to 607. Radiation is being used to sterilise a wide range of materials, to initiate polymerisation reactions, and for various research purposes. By far the biggest

107 TABLE I user of cobalt 60 in 1970-71 was a sterilisation company operating in Victoria, PRODUCTION OF RADIOISOTOPES FROM ISOTOPE DIVISION, 1971-72 but in July 1971, another company also opened a plant in Victoria to sterilise medical supplies. (FOR THE PERIOD 1 APRIL 1971 TO 31 MARCH 1972) Scientific, non-medical research, and miscellaneous uses covered a great USE AND TYPE SHIPMENTS ACTIVITY VALUE $ variety of applications. Only a few pronounced increases were forecast in the period covered by the survey. They include such items as phosphorus 32 in WITHIN AUSTRALIA agriculture, and tritium in physics research and in biological and biochemical Industrial research. Radiography sources 244 4,898 Ci 42,200 Other sealed sources 97 13,452 mCi 3,900 The Commission is grateful to more than 1,000 recipients of questionnaires Miscellaneous (solutions, etc.) 43 15,583 mCi 2,400 who responded with information. Total for industrial use 384 48,500 Non-Medical Research SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION STATISTICS Cobalt 60 y irradiation sources 2 4,150 Ci 3,600 Neutron irradiations 115 3,400 Table 1 shows production statistics for the period 1 April 1971 to 31 Solutions, etc. 631 10,993 mCi 11,500 March 1972. The graphs and tables give comparisons with operations of Total for research use 748 18,500 previous years. The total value of shipments, $404,900, shows an 11 % increase Medical over last year's figures. Total shipments at 12,280 are up 17%. In recent months, Radiotsotope implants 88 considerable economies to the purchaser (which for almost all medical radio- 6,408 mCi 2,600 Miscellaneous solutions isotopes is the Commonwealth Department of Health) have been achieved by 944 5,258 mCi 8,600 Fluorine 1 8 combining individual orders into multiple transport packages. This makes more 616 3,553 mCi 50,400 efficient use of the minimum air-freight charges. However, it also reduces the Iodine 131 378 46,615 mCi 20,300 Technetium 99m solution for significance of the total shipments as a production statistic in comparison with diagnosis previous years, as this figure is somewhat reduced by the multiple packaging 8,814 379,537 mCi 204,100 Molybdenum 99 solutions and system. The number of individual items produced as vials of radiopharmaceutical ready for medical use now exceeds 1,350 per month (16,000 a year). generators 207 108,520 mCi 20,800 Cobalt 60 teletherapy sources 1 1,652 Ci 7,100 It will be noted that technetium 99m products, and generators of this Total for medical use 111,048 313,900 radioisotope (molybdenum 99), dominate the medical scene. The tendency in recent years has been to develop specific radiopharmaceuticals based on technetium EXPORT 99m, because its radiation energy and half-life are ideal for scanning and Radiography sources 21 606 mCi 4,400 gamma camera operation, and the patient radiation dose is low. Two new Miscellaneous for research 11 8,075 mCi 2,200 technetium 99m products, for renal and skeletal visualisation, were introduced Solutions and implants for during the year. medical use 71 1,456 mCi 2,850 Most of the increase in demand for radiopharmaceuticals occurred in the Cobalt 60 teletherapy sources 1 3,740 Ci 14,550 second half of the year. During this period, there was a significant increase of Total for export 104 24,000 facilities in some hospitals, particularly in gamma cameras. These cameras have greater patient capacity. Such increased capacity is immediately utilised, as Total AAEC production 12,280 404,900 capacity is the limiting factor in the expansion of nuclear medicine. The present trend is towards further installation of high throughput equipment in clinics, TABLE 2 together with an increase in the number of clinics. It is therefore certain that the demand for radiopharmaceuticals will increase in the next few years. TOTAL SALES VALUE OF AAEC PRODUCED XADIOISOTOPES Cobalt 60 for On the industrial side, demand in Australia for radiography sources is Cobalt- 60 for Industrial and Total of All Other Grand Total Year Radiotherapy Scientific Products steady with a trend towards larger sources, particularly in cobalt 60. Three Irradiation units exceeding 10 curies were supplied. However, the export demand for these $ $ $ $ sources has doubled, with 13 sources going to New Zealand, five to Singapore, Total to 31 March 1971 415,300 104,900 837,800 1,358,000 one to Indonesia and two to Papua-New Guinea. The New Zealand quota Total for 1971-1972 21,650 3,600 379,650 404,900 included five very large iridium 192 sources of up to 110 curies for special radiography of chemical plant under construction. Total to 31 March 1972 436,950 108,500 1,217,450 1,762,900

108 109 ANNUAL SALES FIGURE OF WHOISOTOPES Some interesting 'features among export items include the supply of 24 small teaching sources to the West Indies, and the purchase by a university MANUFACTURED BY AAEC in USA of two special sources for measuring moisture in leaves. This source was developed several years ago by the Commission to meet the requirements of NOTE VALUES EXCLUDE LARGE COBALT 60 IRRADIATION AND TELETHERAPY SOURCES CSIRO in this field. 100,000 80.000 Neutron irradiation of materials for research continued as part of the production service. The most frequent use of this service was for activation to determine the composition and age of moon rock material by the University of Melbourne, as part of its participation in the Apollo space program. Other projects in which the service was used included geological and forensic research. The two cobalt 60 teletherapy sources referred to in the first table were a 30 Rmm unit for Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, and a 60 Rmm unit for Christchurch Hospital, New Zealand. As is usual with such sources, both were sold through an agent in Sydney. Most imports of radioisotopes are now handled by agents in Australia, and Customs entry approval relating to such imports was given for 1,896 items. This compares with 1,608 items in 1970-71.

PRODUCT RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT New Radiopharmaceutical for Bone Scanning (Skeltec) TOTAL SALES VALUE INDUSTRIAL Most radiopharmaceuticals consist of compounds containing a small amount SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH of radioisotope, frequently technetium 99m, which because of their particular biological activity localise in specific organs of the body after injection or oral administration. The organ can then be visualised by its radiation emission outside r ANNUAL SHIPMENTS OF AAEC the body with a scanner or gamma-ray camera. PRODUCED RADIOISOTOPES For visualisation of bone conditions, the best presently available radio- pharmaceutical in Australia is isotonic sodium fluoride solution labelled with fluorine 18. Fluorine 18 localises well in the bone but it has two major dis- advantages — its half-life of two hours makes manufacture and distribution extremely difficult, and its radiation energy is not ideal for good scanning or gamma camera pictures. Following an overseas report, the possibility of using a sodium Iripoly- phosphate-tin-technetium 99m complex was investigated. Extensive research during the year has resulted in a stable, non-toxic, heat sterilisable product which gives betier quality visualisation of bone structure and activity, also it has a radioactive lifetime sufficient for easy distribution to all centres in Australia. The product has been given the trade name of "Skeltec". The accompanying photograph is a composite of several gamma camera pictures covering the major part of the skeleton of a patient given an injection of a clinical dose of Skeltec. The detail of bone structure is remarkably clear for this type of visualisation. Pilot studies with a limited number of patients at Prince of Wales Hospital, 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 Sydney, have demonstrated the value of Skeltec in diagnosis of malignant bone conditions. These tests are carried out witli the co-operation and approval of the Commonwealth X-ray and Radium Laboratory of the Department of Health.

110 Ill STERILE SALINE 500ml

A composite photograph of several gamma DRIP TUBE AND PINCH CLIP camera views covering the major part of the TRANSPORT AND skeleton of a patient given an injection of OPERATING SHIELD the technetium-poly phosphate compound, "Skeltec", a bone scanning radionuclide. MAXIMUM LEAD Clinical tests have shown that the product THICKNESS 37mm offers many advantages over the existing bone scanning agent, fluorine 18. In addi- tion, the new product has a radioactive life- lime sufficient for easy distribution to major nuclear medicine departments in Australia. The new product was developed in the Isotope Division's laboratories at Lucas Heights.

GENERATOR BOTTLE (GLASS) ALUMINA COLUMN 15x15mm APPROX. 3.5g SUPPORTED ON DELIVERY TUBE SINTERED GLASS FRIT AND NEEDLE

Plans are now in hand for a much wider clinical evaluation — including arth- MEMBRANE FILTER ritic conditions and orthopaedic cases — at a number of Australian hospitals which 0.45 MICRON POROSITY have shown great interest in this development. This radiopharmaceutical is expected to be in routine use within several months. SIDE DELIVERY (CAPPED WHEN NOT IN USE) VENT NEEDLE Technetium 99m Generators SEALED 10ml COLLECTION BOTTLE Technetium 99m (half-life six hours) is best supplied, where possible, in the form of ready-to-use radiopharmaceuticals. This is the method used in most COLLECTION BOTTLE SHIELD medical centres in Australia when transport times are compatible with the effective life of the radioisotope. However, technetium 99m can also be supplied in the form of a longer-lived generator, from which the user can prepare his own technetium products. The principle of the generator is simple, but its successful use depends on the provision of a reliable, disposable instrument from which the purchaser can safely extract technetium 99rn solution with the minimum of effort. Such a generator, developed at the Research Establishment, is illustrated Figure 2. Schematic arrangement of the AAEC molybdenum 99-technetium with its extraction system in Figure 2. Some Australian users prefer this. For 99m generator supplied to Australian hospitals. export, the generator is the only practical means of supply. It carries molybdenum 99 (half-life 67 hours) which is separated at the Research Establishment in a highly-purified form from uranium fission products. Technetium 99m can be

112 113 extracted easily by flushing with isotonic saline from its parent molybdenum 99, GAMMA-RAY AND ELECTRON BEAM as required by the user, over a period of about seven days. IRRADIATION SERVICES Routine deliveries of generators containing 1,000 millicuries of molybdenum 99 are now being made, and one has been loaded experimentally with 10,000 There is continuing demand for the Commission's gamma irradiation millicuries. This contrasts with the maximum of 400 millicuries available from facilities and the requests and range of material for irradiation are ever increasing. overseas suppliers. The yield of technetium 99m is 85-95%, in contrast with the Three new cobalt facilities were brought into service, including a high dose rate usual 65-75%. installation designed specifically for sterilising heat-sensitive, short-lived radio- pharmaceuticals in the short time of 40 minutes. Sources for Interstitial Therapy The demand for the use of these facilities by outside research workers in Flexible string after-loading sources developed in co-operation with Prince the irradiation field has been maintained. of Wales Hospital, Sydney, are now available with either gold 198 or iridiurn 192 The Van de Graaff electron accelerator has continued to be used for as the active component. steady beam and pulse radiolysis investigations by Commission staff and by These after-loading sources are inserted for calculated periods into catheters university research workers. already inserted into the area to be treated. By this technique the radiation dose The joint 1CI Australia Ltd.-AAEC research installation GATR1 has and its distribution can be more accurately controlled, and the close to the been in almost constant use for research and development by both ICl Australia surgeon reduced. and Commission staff, apart from essential shutdowns for maintenance and An important advantage of indium 192 is that the dose rate from these modification. sources is virtually constant over the treatment time of a few days, as this radioisotope has a half-life of 74 days. Also, the longer life should permit substantial savings by re-use within the effective life of the source.

Investigations on a New Industrial Radiography Source Radioisotope sources have an established advantage for the /';; sitn examination of welds and castings in situations where access for X-ray equipment is difficult or impossible. For example, the radioisotope method has considerable advantages in the radiography of circumferential weld, in small-diameter pipe- lines, particularly in areas of difficult access. To date there have been no suitable radioisotopes available for radiography of thin steel sections up to half inch or light alloys up to two inch section. The radiations from the usual iridium 192 or cobalt 60 are too energetic to give sufficient sensitivity with such materials. Thulium 170 has been used occasionally for light radiography work, but it cannot be made sufficiently radioactive in sources small enough for good resolution radiography. Investigations at the Research Establishment have shown that it is possible to produce ytterbium 169 sources emitting 53 and 63 keV radiation at an output level of about 20 curies in a source of 1 mm diameter and 1 mm long. The source material is a sintered pellet of ytterbium oxide, enriched to 15-20% in ytterbium 168 which occurs naturally at 0.135% abundance. These sources are equivalent in output to 200 curies of thulium 170, which is commercially available up to 35 curies in a 3 mm x 3 mm source. The practical effectiveness of these sources is now being tested with very promising results in thin sections of steel. The relatively short half-life of 31 days is a disadvantage, but it appears to be so much superior to alternatives for gamma radiography in special pipeline work, intricate aircraft component inspection and light metal casting control, that its use appears justified in well- defined projects requiring a large number of radiographs within a period of a few weeks.

114 115 A total of 528 papers was presented at the Conference, including the follow- 10 ing six by Australian authors: "Some Recent Developments in Radioisotope Technology in Australia", by J. N. Gregory, B. D. Sowcrby, W. T. Spragg, J. S. Watt. "The Production and Distribution of Radiopharmaceuticals in Australia", by R. E. Boyd, U. Engelbcrt, J. N. Gregory. INTERNATIONAL "Survey of Australia's Energy Demand and Resources to Year 2000", by F. L. McCay, R. D. Deas. "The Environmental Monitoring Program at the AAEC Research Estab- lishment, Lucas Heights", by G. M. Watson. "The Projected Role of Nuclear Energy in Meeting the Future Energy Needs of Australia", by F. H. Carr. FOURTH GENEVA CONFERENCE ON THE PEACEFUL "A Review of the Current Status of Civil Engineering and Mineral USES OF ATOMIC ENERGY Resources Development Applications of Peaceful Nuclear Explosions", by A. R. W. Wilson.

More than 2,500 representatives of 70 nations and nine international The paper listed above on peaceful nuclear explosions was prepared and organisations attended the Fourth United Nations Conference on the Peaceful presented by Dr. Wilson on behalf of the International Atomic Energy Agency. Uses of Atomic Energy, held in Geneva from 6-16 September 1971. The Australian Whereas previous Geneva conferences dealt mainly with the potential of delegation was made up as follows: atomic energy, the Fourth Conference was concerned largely with achievements, notably the experience of installing, testing and operating commercial nuclear power stations. Being directed at economists, planners and statesmen, as well as Delegates: Mr. K. F. Alder (Leader), Australian Atomic Energy Commission scientists, engineers and technologists, the agenda encompassed a broad spectrum (AAEC). of aspects of atomic energy. Considerable discussion concerned the effects of His Excellency Mr. L. Corkery, Australian Ambassador to Austria. nuclear power stations on the environment, and the assurance they offer — particu- Dr. R. G. Ward, AAEC. larly in the form of the breeder reactor — of being able to meet the world's future energy requirements. Mr. F. Brady, Electricity Commission of New South Wales. Dr. A. R. W. Wilson, AAEC. It was apparent that the classes of thermal reactor which can now be regarded as established, in the commercial sense, are in the hands of industry, and that the nuclear industry is already very large and is international. The Advisers: Dr. A. W. Wyley, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research advocates of nuclear power foresee its future growth making a significant con- Organisation. tribution to the reduction of the environmental problems caused by power Dr. R. Smith, AAEC. generation. In fact, the keynote of the Conference was "Power without Pollution". Mr. B. R. Pelly, Mary Kathleen Uranium Ltd. Resources development and fuel supply were considered, including uranium Mr. F. R. Hooper, State Electricity Commission of Victoria. enrichment, the latter with some reference to announcements by both the United States and France that they would be prepared, under suitable conditions, to Mr. R. D. Deas, Department of National Development. provide their gaseous diffusion enrichment technology for use in plants built by Mr. B. E. King, State X-Ray Laboratory, Department of Health, multinational groups. Western Australia. Achievements in the application of radioisotopes, notably in medicine, aroused Mr. G. L. Hanna, Attache (Atomic Energy), Australian Embassy, keen interest, and the reports of Australian work were well received. There was Vienna. noticeable interest in the use of nuclear explosives for civil engineering, certain areas such as the stimulation of gas and oil flow appearing to have most encourag- Members: Professor D. J. Allen-Williams, University of Western Australia. ing prospects. Others involving cratering explosions appeared to be much further Professor R. M. May, University of Sydney. from practical application. Dr. H. A. J. Battaerd, Imperial Chemical Industries of Australia Ltd. In addition to achievements in the practical uses of nuclear energy, there Dr. G. H. Cheeseman, University of Tasmania. was a detailed coverage of research into future uses of nuclear energy, including

116 117 the development of fusion power, with its promise of vast energy resources. The view was expressed that laboratory experiments should be completed within the OVERSEAS LIAISON next 10-20 years, after which a further development period of around 30 years would follow before the technology was in full commercial use. Dr. W. B. Rotsey was appointed as Counsellor, Atomic Energy, to the Australian Embassy in Toyko in September 1971. Mr. T. F. B. MacAdie was appointed Counsellor to the Australian Embassy IAEA SAFEGUARDS in Paris in April 1972. Mr. W. E. T. Cawsey succeeded Mr. R. M. Fry as Atomic Energy Adviser Australia, the USA and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) at Australia House, London, as from 1 June 1972. concluded an agreement in 1966, transferring to the IAEA the administration of the safeguards provisions of the Australia-USA bilateral agreement for co-opera- tion in the civil uses of atomic energy. IAEA inspectors made safeguards inspec- LOAN OF COMMISSION EXPERTS AND tions at Lucas Heights under the terms of this transfer agreement in November 1971, April 1972 and May 1972. As a result of the second of these inspections, OVERSEAS VISITS the Commission and the Agency agreed to extend the previously-introduced system Several Commission officers provided expert assistance at International of applying safeguard seals, with a view to reducing the duration of inspection visits. Atomic Energy Agency courses and panel meetings. Commissioners and other Commission staff also went overseas as follows: Sir Philip Baxter, then Chairman of the Commission, visited Europe and CO-OPERATION BETWEEN JAPAN AND AUSTRALIA North America in July 1971 for discussions on nuclear fuel and uranium An Agreement for co-operation between Japan and Australia in the peaceful enrichment. uses of nuclear energy was signed in Canberra on 21 February. The Australian delegation to the IAEA's 15th General Conference in Vienna was led by Mr. M. C. Timbs, Executive Commissioner, and included Dr. A. R. The Agreement is in the form of a general enabling document not specifically W. Wilson, Acting Chief, International and Technical Policy Division. Mr. Timbs oriented to the details of any one field of nuclear energy. It is seen as the basis also visited Japan, in September 1971, to lead the Australian delegation in the on which detailed arrangements for collaboration in particular fields could be negotiations on the Japanese-Australian Agreement for Co-operation in the worked out, and thus assist in furthering collaboration between the two countries, Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy. Mr. Timbs later returned to Tokyo with Mr. both at governmental and commercial level. To date, Japan has concluded agree- T. F. B. MacAdie (at the time Head of International Relations Section) for ments on the peaceful uses of atomic energy with five countries — Australia, further negotiations on the Agreement, subsequently visiting Vienna for negotia- France, USA, Britain and Canada. tion of the Trilateral Agreement covering administration of safeguards by the One of the major features of the Agreement is the provision for international Agency. Mr. Timbs, accompanied by Mr. D. W. Crancher, Head of the Safety safeguards to apply to materials transferred from either country to the other. Assessment Section, later had discussion in Britain and USA on nuclear ships. This is in keeping with Australia's uranium export policy, which requires that such A short visit to the USA for discussion on uranium enrichment was made exports be used only for peaceful purposes. Safeguards procedures will be admin- by Mr. K. F. Alder, Commissioner for Development, and Mr. D. R. Griffiths, istered by the IAEA. Chief, Nuclear Power Assessment Division, in November 1971. Mr. Alder later Japan has a vital interest in obtaining reliable sources of supply of uranium visited France with Messrs. Wright, Humphreys, Turner and Binns, for negotia- and other raw materials for its fast-growing nuclear industry. Indications are that tions concerned with the joint French-Australian study on the enrichment of Japan will require a total of about 400,000 tons of uranium oxide by the end of uranium. the century; and the Agreement is expected to facilitate negotiations by private Dr. A. R. W. Wilson, Acting Chief, International and Technical Policy enterprise for the supply of uranium, particularly through agreement on safeguards Division, was a member of a panel of experts which reviewed the Agency procedures. Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Materials at a mee1ing in Vienna in October 1971. He was assisted by Mr. R. M. Fry, Atomic Energy Other parts of the Agreement relate to the following fields: the supply and Adviser to the Australian High Commissioner, London. Dr. Wilson later visited exchange of information, nuclear materials and equipment, the promotion and Vienna and Stockholm to attend meetings of experts to consider respectively Safe- development of the peaceful uses of atomic energy, the exchange of experts, guards Procedures for Isotopic Enrichment and problems of Maritime Carriage of and collaboration between public and private organisations in both countries. Nuclear Materials. In the past, there has been close economic co-operation between Australia Dr. J. L. Symonds, Acting Director of the Research Establishment, visited and Japan and, in the near future, Japan is likely to emerge as a major supplier, USA, Europe, India and Japan during April-May 1972, for discussions on fast both of nuclear power station equipment, and of processes and equipment used reactor systems. in other aspects of the nuclear industry. The new Agreement will pave the way Mr. W. Gemmell, Acting Chief, Physics Division, attended an International for arrangements for the supply of this equipment and technology to Australia. Nuclear Data Committee meeting in Bombay in July 1971, and held discussions

118 119 on the joint Indian-Australian physics project; Mr. H. Groenewegen, Researcli Establishment Librarian, attended an International Nuclear Information Service Dr. P. L. Moon, Office of Atomic Energy, South Korea, paid a short visit panel of experts in Vienna, also in July 1971. to the Research Establishment in December and, in January 1972, Mr. U. Hlin Nyo, Thai Atomic Energy Office, visited the Commission. Mr. A. C. Wood, Nuclear Development Division, gave a series of lectures at an IAEA Study Group meeting on Research Reactor Utilisation in Indonesia The Director of the Japan Institute of Radiological Sciences, Mr. K. Misono, in August 197J, and Mr. P. Gillespie, Materials Division, lectured on industrial visited the Commission in February 1972. Mr. I. G. K. Williams, Deputy radiography at a regional training course on Non-Destructive Testing, held in Director-General of ENEA, together with Mr. P. Strohl, Head of ENEA's Legal Singapore during October 1971. and External Relations Division, also had discussions with the Commission in February. In November 1971, the IAEA invited Mr. L. H. Keher of the Nuclear Development Division to lecture at a regional training course on Radioactive A short visit was made by Mr. C. Kemp Stone, Deputy Chairman of the Waste Management held in Tokyo. New Zealand Atomic Energy Committee. Dr. Toh Chin Chye, Singapore Minister Mr. J. C. E. Button, Head of Safety Section, visited North America, for Science and Technology and Vice-Chancellor of the Singapore University, Britain and Malaysia in July 1971, for discussions on latest developments in visited the Commission for a day in April 1972. Dr. G. Patterson of the radiological protection methods. University of Toronto also visited the Research Establishment during April. An IAEA Seminar on Computing as a Language of Physics was held in A seminar on nuclear-chemical mining — the use of nuclear explosives to Italy in August 1971, and was attended by Mr. A. R. Musgrove, Physics fracture ore /;/ situ prior to chemical extraction — was given by Dr. A. E. Lewis Division. Dr. T. J. Ledwidge, Engineering Research Division, presented a paper of the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, USA, during his visit to the Commission at the International Conference on Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology, in May 1972. The seminar was well attended by representatives of the mining held in Berlin in September 1971. industry, together with Commission staff. In November 1971, Mr. T. M. Florence, Chemical Engineering Division, During May 1971, visits were made by Dr. J. A. Swartout, Vice-President, attended a Symposium on Analytical Methods in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle, while and Dr. C. Winters, Assistant to the Vice-President, Nuclear Division of Union on a visit to Europe and USA. Carbide Corporation; Dr. A. J. Huggard and Mr. J. A. Waddams of British Nuclear Fuel Ltd.; and Dr. R. Anderson, Vice-President (Research), Parlec Anderson Corporation of California. DISTINGUISHED VISITORS TO THE COMMISSION Distinguished visitors from within Australia during the past year included M. Gabriel Van Laethem, Ambassador of France, M. Le Bas, Consul-General A number of representatives of foreign governments, international bodies for France, and M. Barrandon, Scientific Attache, French Embassy; Mr. R. and overseas companies visited the Commission during the past year. Montgomery, Scientific Attache, US Embassy; Mr. David Aiers, Minister, Professor A. Baiquini, of the Indonesian Atomic Energy Agency, visited British High Commission; The Hon. W. C. Wentworth, Minister for Social the Commission during July 1971; Professor E. Bagge, of the University of Kiel, Services; and the Hon. Davis Hughes, M.L.A., New South Wales Minister for followed in August 1971. Public Works. In September 1971, the Japanese Diet Committee on Science and Tech- nology, which included Mr. M. Maeda (leader), Mr. Sasaki, Miss Momiyama and Mr. Komiyama, visited the Commission, together with Mr. Fukuoka of the Japan Power Reactor and Nuclear Fuel Development Corporation, Mr. Satake of the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, the Japanese Consul-General, Mr. Takashima, and Assistant Consul-General, Mr. Kobayashi. Professor Dr. Hans Leussink, the Minister for Education and Science, Federal Republic of Germany, held discussions with the Commission in October 1971. Also included in the party were Herr Hans-Hilger Haunschild, Secretary of the Ministry of Education and Science, Herr Ministerialrat Loosch, Herr Ministerialrat Sauer and Herr Ministerialrat Luft, the Counsellor of ihe German Embassy, Herr H. RuofT, and Dr. H. Tuerk, the German Consul-General. Sir John Hill, Chairman of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority, visited the Commission during November 1971. Included in his party were Mr. R. V. Moore, Member of the UKAEA and Managing Director, Reactor Group, and Dr. N. L. Franklin, part-time Member of the UKAEA and Chief Executive of British Nuclear Fuels Ltd.

120 121 11 STAFF NUMBERS The total staff employed by the Commission at 30 June 1972 was 1,256. Head Office staff (including Liaison Officers overseas) accounted for 90. 'staff located at the Research Establishment totalled 1,129. A further 37 officers were located at the Commission's Mascot office, engaged in nuclear power assessment GENERAL and nuclear fuel studies including uranium enrichment. The disposition of staff according to groups was as follows. At 30.6.71 At 30.6.72 COMMISSION MEMBERSHIP Executive and Senior Staff 9 8 Research Grades 121 125 On 15 April 1972, the Chairman, Sir Philip Baxter, K.B.E., C.M.G., Experimental Grades 138 139 retired. Sir Philip had been Chairman of the Commission since 1956, having Other Professional Grades 84 82 previously been Deputy Chairman from 1953 to 1956. Technical Grades 410 Sir Philip first became involved in atomic energy activities in Australia in 419 1950, when he was appointed to the Industrial Atomic Energy Policy Committee Trade Grades 141 146 soon after it was established by the Commonwealth Government. Administrative and Clerical 193 184 In September 1969, Sir Philip was elected Chairman of the International Support Staff (Storemen, Drivers, etc.) 160 153 Atomic Energy Agency Board of Governors for J 969-1970. He was the Australian Governor on the Board of Governors at its inception in 1957 and again from 1,256 1,256 1964 until his retirement in 1972. During the terms of his appointments to the Commission, Sir Philip was involved in the development of the uranium mining operation at Rum Jungle, Northern Territory, and was directly concerned with the establishment and development of the Commission's Research Establishment at Lucas Heights, INFORMATION SERVICES New South Wales. The Information Centre at Lucas Heights proved increasingly popular, both In succession to Sir Philip, the Government appointed Mr. R, W. Boswell, with organised groups and with casual visitors, of whom there are many at the O.B.E., as Chairman of the Commission. Mr. Boswell had previously been a weekend. About 1,200 visitors are now inspecting the Centre each month. Films Commissioner from 1965-1969, until taking up an appointment in London as are shown for organised groups. The Commission's display caravan also attracted Deputy High Commissioner for Australia. large numbers of people. During October-November, it made an extended tour of Mr. Boswell has had a distinguished Commonwealth Public Service career Bundaberg, Grafton, Glen Lines, Armidale, Tamworth, Gunnedah, Dubbo and and has held the posts of Director of the Weapons Research Establishment Orange. During this tour 35,000 visitors passed through the caravan, including (1958-1965) and Secretary of the Department of National Development (1965- many school groups. In February, the caravan was on display at Port Kembla 1969). for a Science Week, and later at the Sydney metropolitan shopping centres of Miranda and Roselands. Approximately 4,000 visited it in each place. Mr. Boswell will also be the Australian Governor on the Board of Gover- nors of the IAEA. Several minor exhibitions were shown in Sydney, including a display lent to the Commercial Banking Company of Sydney Ltd., which the Bank subsequently LEGISLATION circulated to a number of its branches. A large display unit was prepared to illustrate the production and distribution The terms of the governing statute of the Commission, the Atomic Energy of short-lived diagnostic radiophariraceutical preparations. It was shown at the Act, 1953-66, were reviewed by the Commission during the year. As a result, First Asian and Oceanian Congress on Radiology in Melbourne in October. A recommendations will be made to the Commonwealth Government for a number similar unit has since been built to explain the technique developed by the of amendments to the legislation. Commission for analysis by means of gamma-excited X-rays. The unit shows on-stream applications in mineral processing. TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT Location shooting began on a film to show production and applications of The Commission made a number of Determinations giving effect to varia- medical radioisotopes in Australia, particularly technetium 99m. On several tions in conditions of service and providing for increased salary rates, where occasions, outside organisations were assisted in making TV films involving Lucas appropriate to the various designations in its service. Heights. Many films were borrowed from the Commission's Library.

122 123 ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON URANIUM MINING In 1953, the Commission set up the Advisory Committee on Uranium Min'.ng under the Chairmanship of Mr. H. M. Murray, General Manager, Mt. Lyell Mining and Railway Company. The Committee gave invaluable advice arid assistance on exploration, mining and processing in the early days of the uranium industry in Australia. The Committee has not been active for some years because, until recently, there was little interest in prospecting for uranium in Australia and no new mining developments. In the future it is clear that private enterprise will be responsible for continued exploration, mining and processing of the recently discovered uranium reserves in Australia. Accordingly, the Commission, with the concurrence of the Minister for National Development, decided in November 1971 to wind up the Advisory Committee on Uranium Mining. The Commission wishes to record with thanks the contributions made by this Committee to the establishment in the latter half of the 1950s of a highly successful Australian uranium mining industry.

COMPUTER SUMMER SCHOOL The Commisssion held a three-day Summer School in January 1972 on The Commission's display caravan at Reactor Physics, Mathematics, and Computers. The School was organised as an the Roselands Shopping Centre, exploratory exercise in giving sixth form secondary school students insight into Sydney, during its extended Sour of the ways in which mathematics and computers are used in scientific research. New South Wales and Queensland. Invitations were limited to Sydney metropolitan schools and a selection was made from the 300 replies received. Sixty-four students attended. Before the school was held, 37 teachers were briefed on the course program at a half-day meeting at the Research Establishment. The best form for possible future schools is being considered, but no definite plans exist to continue or extend the course.

An officer of the Isotope Division was attached to the Information Section EXTRAMURAL RESEARCH during the period to carry out the Survey of Radioisotope Applications in Aus- The Commission arranges contracts with universities and other bodies to tralia referred to in Chapter 9. The Commission is grateful for the particularly carry out research on topics of a fundamental nature directly related to the good response: 79% of the 1,367 recipients of questionnaires returned the Commission's program. Thus the Commission is able to benefit from expert desired information. knowledge in the universities and to co-operate with them. Publications during the year included the Annual Report, the quarterly Six new contracts were awarded and support was continued for five earlier journal, Atomic Energy iu Australia, a new version of the radioisotopes leaflet, contracts. The total sum granted was $41,956. Details are given in Appendix E. and numerous reprints. A record quantity of publications was distributed. The printing requirements of the Australian School of Nuclear Technology were met and the Section also arranged the production of a number of internal reports. OVERSEAS ATTACHMENTS Three officers were attached to the United States Atomic Energy Commis- Articles were prepared for daily newspapers and periodicals, and Press visits sion's Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee, over the past year. All three arranged to the Research Establishment. Black-and-white photographs were dis- officers began their attachments in earlier years and no new postings to the tributed in Australia and overseas. To provide the Commission with an up-to-date United States were made during 1971-72. and comprehensive range of photographs of uranium prospecting and mining in the Northern Territory an officer of the Section, accompanied by a photographer Mr. B. J. Allen, who had been attached to Oak Ridge's Physics Division in of the Commonwealth News and Information Bureau, visited the Northern Terri- the Fast Neutron Capture Cross Section Group, returned to Australia in March tory in May. The Commission acknowledges the generous help of Queensland 1972, and Dr. A. Jostsons continued his work within the Radiation Metallography Mines Ltd., Pancontinental Mining Ltd., Ranger Uranium Mines Pty. Ltd., and Group. Dr. Jostsons will return to Australia in July 1972. Mr. B. J. McGregor Noranda Australia Ltd. These companies provided every facility for the visit. is working at present in the Reactor Shielding Group at Oak Ridge.

124 125 In October 1971, Mr, G. Durance of the Physics Division began a two- More than 400 university members visited Lucas Heights under AINSE year attachment to the Physics Section of the laboratories of the Gesellschaft auspices during the year ended 31 December 1971, involving a total of more than fur Kernforschung (GfK) at Karlsruhe, Federal Republic of Germany. In April 4,000 man days (excluding members of AINSE staff). The work of these visitors 1972, four Commission officers, Messrs. W. J. Wright, I. M. Binns, K. S. Turner involved active co-operation with scientists and engineers at Lucas Heights. and J. J. Humphreys, began short-term attachments with the French Commissariat Many of the projects were undertaken as joint operations. Visitors from academic a 1'Energie Atomique in connection with the joint French-Australian study of organisations in every state were attached through the Institute and most were uranium enrichment. accommodated at Lucas Heights, in Stevens Hall. Many of the university projects involved Institute and Commission staff members, including several which required AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF NUCLEAR SCIENCE long runs and continuous 24-hour operations on the reactors and accelerators.

AND ENGINEERING Conferences The Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering (AINSE) main- The three AINSE conferences held in 1971-72 were attended by research tained an active program of assistance during the year to academic organisations workers from the Commission, the universities and other academic organisations, with interests in the nuclear field, and enabled staff members and research students industrial research laboratories, CSIRO and other government research bodies. from these organisations to use the special equipment at Lucas Heights. At the 5th AINSE Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Conference at Lucas Heights (August 1971), 113 participants discussed 46 papers on aspects of this work The member organisations include the Commission and the 15 Australian related to nuclear technology. The 3rd AINSE Radiation Biology Conference at universities, each of which was represented on the AINSE Council, the governing Lucas Heights (October 1971) was attended by 61 participants, 25 of whom body. The Council continued its established practice in meeting at Lucas Heights presented papers, many of which were related to radiation genetics. In February on two occasions, and at two of the member universities. During the visit to the 1972, the 4th AINSE Nuclear Physics Conference was held at the University of University of Queensland, Sir Philip Baxter gave a public lecture under the joint Sydney (150 participants, 64 papers) reporting work in progress or results obtained auspices of the University and the Institute on "Energy and the Problems of but not published at that time. AINSE conferences in each of these disciplines are Pollution". At Macquarie University, the Council members took part in a held every two years, and organisation proceeded during the year for AINSE discussion with members of the University on "Nuclear Energy and the Environ- conferences in Radiation Chemistry (No. 6, August 1972), Neutron Diffraction ment". (No. 2, October 1972) and Plasma Physics (No. 9, February 1973). The office holders, Professor M. H. Brennan (President), Sir Ernest Titterton and Professor E. O. Hall (Vice Presidents), and Professor D. E. Caro Studentships and Fellowships (Past President), together with the Executive Commissioner of the AAEC and the Director of the Research Establishment (or their delegates) constituted the Support for post-graduate students carrying out research as candidates for AINSE Executive Committee. Action was taken on behalf of Council through Ph.D. at universities in Australia was continued through the award of AINSE the Executive Officer (E. A. Palmer) who was assisted by a scientific and Studentships. Eight of these awards (basic stipend, $2,800 a year) were current technical staff of six, and three administrative staff members. in 1971-72. Each of the research students concerned was required to spend at least one-quarter of his working time at Lucas Heights. The projects concerned Income was derived mainly from annual subscriptions received from member were all within the Institute's area of interest. For post-doctoral work, AINSE organisations, and a Commonwealth contribution for research and training paid Research Fellowships were offered in two series (closing 31 August 1971 and through the Commission. AINSE accounts for the year ended 31 December 1971 28 February 1972). Three Fellows were selected from a large number of candi- showed a total income of $316,360 and a total expenditure (including acquisition dates. These awards were held either at one of the universities, or directly at of assets) of $349,730, the resulting deficit of $33,370 being met from current Lucas Heights, and the Fellows co-operated with research groups at both locations. reserves, which were thereby reduced to $14,336 as at 31 December 1971. The Seven Fellowships were held during 1971-72 and some emphasis was placed upon fixed assets at that date — mainly scientific equipment at Lucas Heights — had offering new awards for post-doctoral candidates at a relatively early stage of an cost a total of $341,560 since the Institute was established in 1958. independent research career. As at June 1972, the stipend for Fellows ranged The major activities in 1971-72 included the organisation of meetings and from $6,304 to $8,984 a year. conferences, the award and support of AINSE Studentships and Fellowships, the award of AINSE grants for research and training, and the organisation of AINSE Grants work at Lucas Heights connected with the projects thus supported. The main areas A total of 101 university research and training projects (see details in covered by these operations were radiation chemistry, nuclear materials, radiation Appendix F) received support from AINSE Grants in the 1972 series. These biology, nuclear physics, plasma physics, neutron diffraction, and nuclear aspects awards covered all the major areas of the Institute's interest, and the funds of engineering. The operations also involved the circulation of reports and the allocated exceeded $100,000 (which was additional to the costs of studentships, results of experimental and theoretical investigations carried out by university fellowships and other research and training operations). The grants provided research groups. equipment and materials required for the projects, and funds from which the

126 127 Institute contributed to costs involved in the use of Lucas Heights facilities, in- cluding irradiation costs, charges for computing and other AAEC charges, as well as accommodation and travel costs for visits to Lucas Heights. The projects were proposed by the universities in September 1971 and the funds requested amounted to more than three times the sum available. Priority was given to work requiring the use of Lucas Heights facilities, the major university users being radiation chemists and biologists, solid state physicists, crystallographers, metallurgists and materials scientists, and members of engineering departments. Close liaison was maintained, through the Institute, between members of the university groups concerned and AAEC scientists and engineers working in related areas. Several AINSE grants were also given in support of university research in plasma physics, as this is the basic discipline related to the controlled release of energy from nuclear fusion reactions. Located on an external face of the HIFAR research reactor, at Lucas AINSE Equipment Heights, is a single crystal cliffracto- me ter used by the AINSE Neutron Diffraction Group and the universi- The Institute added further in 1971-72 to the range of AINSE equipment ties to measure interaction distances, provided at Lucas Heights for use by visiting members of research groups and by bond angles-, and atomic vibrations AAEC scientists. The major item was a model 702 Febetron (cost approximately in molecules. $20,000), which is a pulsed radiation source mainly for use by radiation chemists in studying very short-lived reactions in radiolysis. More high resolution germanium (lithium) detectors were procured, for use in university experiments in nuclear physics employing beams from the AAEC reactors HIFAR and Moata, and the Commission's 3 MeV accelerator. Use of these units and a wide range of other AINSE nuclear instrumentation by university groups was facilitated by the appoint- ment of a second technician to the AINSE nuclear physics group, the members of which also took an active part in the conduct of university research programs and Other Activities the development of new equipment. AINSE equipment for investigating radiation The continuing operations maintained by the Institute included general damage effects at very low temperatures (-269°C) was commissioned and used activities as a liaison channel between the universities and the Commission, the on the AAEC 1.3 MeV electron accelerator by university physicists with assistance provision of support for staff of member organisations to attend courses presented from Commission and AINSE staff. by the Australian School of Nuclear Technology, and arranging loans of specialised equipment between the member organisations. Circulation of research papers, Neutron Diffraction arrangement of informal discussions and colloquia, and provision of visiting Development of advanced facilities for neutron diffraction work (using neutron lecturers on specialised subjects also continued throughout the period. beams from HIFAR) was continued by the four members of the Institute's staff Future Operations constituting the AINSE Neutron Diffraction group (led by Dr. F. H. Moore), The major effort was directed to the construction of a swinging counter type The Institute's physical and financial resources were fully extended during polarised neutron diffractometer, and to completing a long wavelength (chopper) 1971-72 in providing part of the support needed for research and training related unit to investigate neutron polarisation effects occurring in certain intermetallic to the nuclear field and requiring use of Lucas Heights facilities. The requests compounds. Work also progressed on converting the second AINSE single crystal from academic organisations in Australia for AINSE assistance continue to unit to automatic control with a PDP8 computer, and on further refinement of the increase, and the Institute Council decided during May 1972 that an addition of powder diffractometer and the new dual purpose (powder and single crystal) the order of 25% to the present level of annual income (steady since the end of manual unit. A senior member of the AINSE group, Mr. D. A. Wheeler, visited 1969) will be needed from the beginning of 1973 to enable the Institute to several of the world's leading neutron diffraction laboratories during a six-week maintain operations at the present level. journey, and obtained information which will greatly assist the research programs of several groups of crystallographers and solid state physicists from Australian AUSTRALIAN SCHOOL OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY universities. Facilities for diffraction work at very low temperatures and high magnetic fields were developed further, and joint projects involving members of In the period 1971-72, Radioisotope Courses for Graduates were held from 21 June to 15 July 1971, 8 November to 3 December 1971, and from 26 June to university, Commission and AINSE groups used these, as well as major AAEC 21 July 1972. The total number of participants was 42. Radioisotope courses for facilities such as the large triple-axis spectrometer which became operational in Non-Graduates were held from 16 August to 3 September 1971, and from 17 1971. January to 7 February 1972, with a total of 26 participants. The 68 participants 128 129 at the courses included 19 Colombo Plan Fellows and 2 IAEA Fellows. Four places were sponsored by AINSE. In addition to those from Australia, participants ADMINISTRATIVE EXPENSES 6.3c came from Indonesia, Malaysia, Ceylon, Singapore, Iran, South Vietnam, Taiwan, New Zealand, India. JERVIS BAY PROJECT 1.4c The school is operated jointly by the Commission and the University of New South Wales. It is located at Lucas Heights, thus enjoying the advantage of the Research Establishment facilities. Lectures are given mainly by Commission CAPITAL EXPENDITURE 12.3c]—J staff, some are given by members of the University of New South Wales, and a few lectures on specialised topics are givwi by visiting lecturers from other universities and industrial establishments. About half the time on the courses is INFORMATION SERVICES 0.3c devoted to practical work.

RESEARCH 79.7c FINANCE As required by Section 31 of the Atomic Energy Act, 1953-66, financial accounts for the year ended 30 June 1972 are annexed as Appendix A and the Distribution of each dollar of expenditure. report of the Auditor-General is included as Appendix B.

Comparison with Estimates Details of Expenditure Gross operational expenditure was $12,375,823, compared with the estimate Administrative expenditure amounted to $900,024 (6.3% of total expendi- of $12,267,500. Amounts received to offset the gross operational expenditure ture), an increase of 12.5% over the previous year. were $949,364, compared with the estimate of $667,038, resulting in the net Research expenditure increased by 13.1 % to $11,429,881. Salaries accounted expenditure to be met from Parliamentary appropriations and amounts on hand for $7,983,095 ($6,591,864 in 1970-71), General Expenses, comprising travelling at 1 July 1971 being $11,426,459, compared with the estimate of $11,600,462. expenses, postages, telephones, transport, library services, advertising and other Expenditure on Capital Works and Services was $1,763,898, against the charges, amounted to $444,112 ($436,525). Power, Water and Heating charges estimate of $1,764,217. Expenditure on the Jervis Bay Nuclear Power Project, were $302,045 ($255,629). Reactor Supplies and Special Nuclear Materials, which to meet commitments which were outstanding at the time the project was deferred, included $124,590 for the purchase of fuel elements for HIFAR reactor, was amounted to $191,835 against the estimate of $212,996. reduced to $302,261 ($488,685) by a decision to reduce the inventory of new fuel elements. Stores cost $1,062,236 ($1,048,386); the small increase was insuffi- cient to meet increased prices so that a reduced inventory was on hand at the end Comparison with Previous Year of the year. Of the $1,336,132 ($1,318,210) spent on Outside Services, a total of Operational expenditures were above the 1970-71 levels by reason of $301,610 was paid to Australian universities, the Australian Institute of Nuclear increased salary costs arising from a large number of determinations during the Science and Engineering and other organisations for specialised research related year and consequent increases in the costs of materials and services. They were to the Commission's own program. Maintenance of buildings and equipment cost also affected because no costs were allocated to the Jervis Bay Nuclear Power $339,497, special manufacturing, consultancy and miscellaneous services Project. The increases, however, were more than offset by the saving ($1,440,000) $266,516, and computer charges were $428,509. which resulted from cessation of the Rum Jungle uranium plant operations in Building construction comprised extensions to isotope production facilities April 1971. Amounts received were $168,405 in excess of the revenue earned in $215,681, completion of the Critical Facility building $115,741, additions to the the previous year, notwithstanding that no revenue accrued from studies made Administration Building $59,114, other laboratories $54,909, Site Services for the Jervis Bay Nuclear Power Project ($461,141 in 1970-71). This arose from $97,975 and Minor Works and Modifications $102,963. sales of radioisotopes, which increased by 100% to $574,003, revenue from dis- Plant and Equipment purchases of new and replacement items amounted to posal of the assets at Rum Jungle, $333,438, and other minor items. Current $1,098,449 ($1,074,866), and included a further amount of $424,515 for the sales levels indicate that a further increase will result in 1972-73. The power Critical Facility. station at Batchelor was transferred to the Northern Territory Administration pending construction of a bulk supply line from Darwin, due for completion in The outstanding commitments finally settled in relation to the Jervis Bay August 1972. The station will be sold in the coming financial year. Nuclear Power Project comprised completion of the access road and excavation of the power station site $171,899, easements for a power line and roadworks Expenditure on Capital Works and Services was $16,248 less than in the $14,033, and site maintenance and rehabilitation $5,902. The total expenditure previous year. Because of the deferment of the Jervis Bay Nuclear Power Project, by the Commission on this project amounts to $3,191,714. No further expenditure expenditure on that project was reduced by $2,096,076. is anticipated.

130 131 Appendix A—Financial Accounts Comparative Figures 1971-72 1970-71 $ $ $ AUSTRALIAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION Capital Expenditure: Administrative Buildings and Equipment STATEMENT OF NET EXPENDITURE FOR THE YEAR ENDED 30 JUNE 1972 19,066 19,498 Research Sites and Establishments 646,383 660,566 Research Plant and Equipment ,098,449 1,074,866 Comporof/ve Figures 1,763,898 1,754,930 1971-72 1970-71 Net Operating and Capital Expenditure 13,190,357 11,922,690 $ $ $ Administrative Expenditure: Advances to Rum Jungle Project 100,000 1,468,000 Salaries and payments in the nature of salary 657,258 564,233 General Expenses 242,766 250,516 Advances to Jervis Bay Nuclear Power Project 1.91,835 2,287,91 900,024 814,749 Less Amount charged to Jervis Bay Nuclear Power Project 15,000

900,024 799,749 STATEMENT OF CAPITAL ASSETS AS AT 30 JUNE 1972

1972 1971 Research: Administrative Buildings and Equipment 480,921 465,854 Salaries and payments in the nature of salary 7,983,095 6,591,864 Research Sites and Establishments 20,941,344 20,297,894 Stores and Materials 1,236,670 1,255,957 Reactor HIFAR 2,985,135 2,982,203 Power, Water and Supplies 429,872 536,742 Grants in aid of Research 301,610 445,000 Scientific Plant and Equipment 10,524,803 9,483,356 Incidental Expenses 1,478,634 1,309,536 34,932,203 33,229,307 11,429,881 10,139,099 Less Amount charged to Jervis Bay Nuclear Power Project — 30,000

11,429,881 10,109,099 M. C. TIMBS, Less Proceeds of sales 949,364 780,959 Executive Member, 10,480.517 9,328,140 Australian Atomic Energy Commission.

Information Services: A. J. MOULDING, Exhibitions, Publications and Publicity 45,918 45,918 39,871 Director of Finance, Australian Atomic Energy Commission. Net Operating Expenditure 11,426,459 10,167,760

132 133 Appendix B — Auditor-General's Report, Commonwealth of Australia Appendix C — Senior Staff of Commission at 30 June 1972

HEAD OFFICE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Secretary: W. B. Lynch, B.A. Chief, Technical Policy and International Relations Division: Auditor-General's Office, A. R. W. Wilson, M.Sc., Ph.D. Canberra, A.C.T. 16 August 1972 Head, Technical Policy Section: F. L. Bett, B.Met.E.(Hons.), M.Eng.Sc.(Hons.), M.A.I.W., M.Aus.I.M.M. The Honourable the Minister for Head, Safety Assessment Section: D. W. Crancher, M.Sc., M.I.Mech.E. National Development, Acting Head, International Relations: A. R. Palmer, M.Sc., A.R.A.C.I. Parliament House, CANBERRA, A.C.T. Chief, Nuclear Technology Division: R. K. Warner, Ph.D., A.R.A.C.I., A.M.I.Chem.E. Head, Nuclear Materials Section: Dear Sir, S. A. E. South, B.Sc., Grad.Dip.(Min.Proc.), A.M.Aus.I.M.M., M.A.I.M.K. Director, Information Services: R. L. Crivelli, B.A., B;Com. AUSTRALIAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION Director of Finance: A. J. Moulding, A.A.S.A., A.C.I.S.

In compliance with section 31(2.) of the Atomic Energy Act 1953-1966, the Development Group Commission has submitted the following financial statements for my report— Head, Development Group: K. F. Alder, M.Sc., F.I.M., M.I.R.E.E.(Aust.), A.M.Aus.I.M.M. Statement of Net Expenditure for the year ended 30 June 1972; and Deputy Head: A. D. Thomas, M.Sc., M.Inst.P., A.A.I.P. Statement of Capital Assets as at 30 June 1972. Chief, Nuclear Power Assessment Division: D. R. Griffiths, B.E. Head, Reactor Assessment Section: F. H. Carr, M.E., M.I.E.Aust. The statements are in the form approved by the Treasurer under section Chief, Nuclear Development Division: 31(1.) of the Act. Copies are attached for your information. G. L. Miles, B.A., M.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.I.C., F.R.A.C.I., A.Inst.P., A.A.I.P. I now report that, in my opinion— Deputy Chief: W. J. Wright, M.Sc., F.I.M. Head, Site Studies Section: L. H. Keher, B.Sc. (a) the accompanying financial statements are based on proper accounts and records; Overseas Representatives (b) the statements are in agreement with the accounts and records and Atomic Energy Attache, Washington: P. V. Crooks, B.Sc., A.F.A.I.M. show fairly the financial operations of the Commission for the year Atomic Energy Adviser, London: ended 30 June 1972; and W. E. T. Cawsey, B.E., D.C.Ae, A.M.I.E.Aust., A.F.A.I.M. (c) the receipt, expenditure and investment of moneys and the Counsellor (Atomic Energy), Tokyo: W. B. Rotsey, B.Met., Ph.D. acquisition and disposal of assets by the Commission during the Attache (Atomic Energy), Vienna: G. L. Hanna, M.Sc. year have been in accordance with the Act. Counsellor (Atomic Energy), Paris: T. F. B. MacAdie, C.B.E., D.S.O.

Yours faithfully, RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT (V. J. W. SKERMER) Acting Director: J. L. Symonds, B.Sc.(Hons.)5 Ph.D., F.Inst.P., F.A.l.P. AUDITOR-GENERAL FOR THE COMMONWEALTH Acting Deputy Director: R. Smith, B.Met.E.(Hons.), M.Eng.Sc., Ph.D.

134 135 Isotope Division Head, Physical Metallurgy and Corrosion Section: Chief of Division: J. N. Gregory, D.Sc., F.R.A.C.I. P. M. Kelly, M.A.(Cantab.), Ph.D., M.Inst.P., F.A.I.P. Deputy Chief of Division and Head, Irradiation Research Section: Head, Reactor Materials Section: K. U. Snowden, B.Sc., Ph.D., M.Inst.P., A.A.I.P. J. G. Clouston, M.Sc., Ph.D., A.S.T.C., D.I.C., F.A.I.P. Head, Solid State Physics Section: T. M. Sabine, D.Sc., F.A.I.P. Head, Radioisotope Applications Research Section: J. S. Watt, M.Sc., A.A.I.P. Head, Radioisotope Services Branch, and Head, Activation and Radialion Physics Division Source Section: U. Engelbert, Dr. Ing., F.I.M.(Lond.), V.D.Eh. Acting Chief of Division: W. Gemmell, B.Sc.(Hons.), M.Inst.P., A.A.I.P. Head, Pharmaceutical and Chemical Products Section: R. E. Boyd, B.Sc., A.M.C.T. Acting Head, Experimental Physics Section: D. B. McCulloch, B.Sc.(Hons.) Technical Sales Manager: W. A. Wiblin, B.Sc. Head, Neutron Physics Section: J. R. Bird, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.A.I.P. Head, Theoretical Physics Section: B. E. Clancy, M.Sc., Ph.D. Chemical Technology Division Health and Safety Division Chief of Division: C. J. Hardy, B.Sc.(Hons.), Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.I.C. Chief oj Division and Head, Radiation Biology Section: Head, Reactor Chemistry and Chemical Physics Branch: R. N. Whittem, B.Sc.(Hons.), A.R.A.C.I. G. M. Watson, M.B., B.S., D.Phil., M.R.C.P., M.R.A.C.P., F.R.C.P.A. Head, Reactor Chemistry Section: J. V. Evans, B.Sc.(Hons.), Ph.D., A.R.I.C. Head, Safety Section: J. C. E. Button, B.Sc.(Hons.), F.Inst.P., F.A.I.P. Head, Chemical Physics Section: J. W. Kelly, M.Sc., Ph.D., A.A.I.P. Head, Health Physics Research Section: D. R. Davy, B.Sc.(Hons.)

Head, Inorganic Chemistry Section: T. M. Florence, M.Sc., A.S.T.C., A.R.A.C.I. Operations Division Head, Chemical Engineering Section: Associate Director (Operations): R. C. P. Cairns, B.Sc.(Hons.), Ph.D., P. G. Alfredson, B.Sc. App. (Hons.), B.E.(Hons.), M.Sc., C.Eng., M.I.Chem.E. D.Sc., A.S.T.C., C.Eng., M.I.Chem.E., F.I.E.Aust. Acting Head, Reactor (HIFAR) Operations Section: Engineering Research Division G. A. Creef, A.S.T.C.(Mech.Eng.) Head, Engineering Services Section: A. C. Higgins, C.Eng., F.I.Mech.E. Chief of Division: G. W. K. Ford, M.B.E., M.A.(Cantab.), M.I.Mech.E. Head, Works Section: S. M. Burke, B.Sc.(Eng.) (Hons.), C.Eng., M.T.C.E. Head, Reactor Performance Section: Head, Site Operations Section: E. D. Hespe, A.S.T.C. A. Bicevskis, M.Eng.Sc., Dipl. Ing., M.A.N.S., M.B.N.E.S. Head, Heat Transfer Section: Mechanical Development Section K. R. Lawther, B.Sc., B.E., Ph.D., C.Eng., M.I.Chem.E. Head of Section: D. R. Ebeling, B.Mech.E., M.I.Mech.E., M.I.E.Aust. Head, Engineering Physics Section: T. J. Ledwidge, B.Sc., Ph.D., C.Eng., M.Inst.P. Applied Mathematics and Computing Section Head of Section: D. J. Richardson, B.A.(Hons.), B.Sc., Ph.D., F.A.C.S.

Instrumentation and Control Division Administration Division Chief of Division: J. K. Parry, M.Sc., Ph.D. Associate Director (Management): H. W. J. Bowen, B.Ec. Head, Applied Physics Section: A. J. Tavendale, M.Sc., Ph.D. Senior Administrative Officer: C. H. Bebb, A.A.S.A. Head, Control and Systems Studies Section: C. P. Gilbert, M.Sc., M.l.E.E. Site Medical Officer: A. D. Tucker, M.B., B.S.

Technical Secretariat Materials Division Scientific Secretary: K. H. Tate, B.Sc., M.Aus.I.M.M. Chief of Division: D. G. Walker, M.Sc., Ph.D., A.R.A.C.I., A.M.Aus.I.M.M. Librarian: H. W. Groenewegen, B.A., Dip.Lib., A.L.A.A. Head, Fuels. Branch, and Head, Ceramics Section: K. D. Reeve, M.Sc., Ph.D., A.I.Ceram. Australian School of Nuclear Technology Head, Metallurgy and Assessment Section: R. J. Hilditch, B.Tech., A.S.A.S.M. Principal: D. A. Newmarch, B.Sc.(Hons.), B.A.(Hons.), M.R.I.P., H.A.I.N.E.

136 137 Appendix D — AAEC Research Projects Radiological Safety and Environmental Control Field and laboratory studies jointly with Northern Territory Administration. Formulation of operating standards and waste discharge criteria for uranium mining. Development of new methods of analysis of environmental samples. Development of acoustic sounder technique for meteorological studies. Development of national standards for radiation exposure and dose. The main research projects in progress at the Research Establishment at Interaction of radiation and matter—the physical aspects of biological radiation injury. Biological applications of radiation in the inactivation of bacteria and tumor cells. 30 June 1971 are listed below. Modes of inactivation and injury of mammalian cells by radiation. Dielectric films as personal radon-daughter dosimeters for uranium miners. Isotope Applications Uranium Industry Nuclear techniques of analysis, and application to in situ analysis in boreholes, on-stream analysis, etc. Microstructure of Australian uranium ores relevant to uranium extraction. Potential of photoetching and photogravure using fission fragment and alpha etch tracks Methods of reducing the quantities of potential pollutants from uranium extraction from radioisotope toned photographs. processes. Nuclear techniques for application to hydrological studies. Development of an experimental fluorine cell. Radiotracer techniques and their application to industrial problems. Experiments with a laboratory-sized plant for producing UF« by a novel process. Chemistry of the actinide elements. New analytical methods for trace analysis; neutron activation research and development. Radiation Studies Centrifuge studies. Influence of pressure, temperature and substrates on the radiation susceptibility of viable Effect of fabrication variables en properties of composites. cells. Mechanical behaviour of fibre-ieinforced plastic composites. Technical and industrial potential of radiation polymerisation. Gas dynamics studies. Radiation chemistry studies. Study of ion exchange and other chromatographic methods of uranium separation. Development of reliable dosimeters for ionline use in the dose range 0.2-0.5 megarad. Photochemical studies on uranium isotopes. Structural studies using neutron beams vv/'th emphasis on inelastic Scattering and lattice Chemistry of hydrogen isotope effects in solids and in solution. dynamics. Scattering of neutron and X-radiation from defect structures related to radiation damage in solids. Effects of radiation damage in semiconductor devices for nuclear applications. Fuel Semiconductor radiation detectors. Application of semiconductor detectors to specialised nuclear requirements. Fuel performance studies. Factors controlling the behaviour of water-cooled reactor fuel. Improved methods for standardisation of radionuclides. Assessment of novel methods for UOj pellet production. Factors controlling the sintering of UO2 as related to pellet production. Relationship between properties and structure of sintered UO°. Miscellaneous and Supporting Research Basic physical properties of ceramic materials, particularly factors controlling thermal New electronic component developments and circuit techniques. conductivity. New computational methods to improve efficiency of computer use. Methods for in-reactor dosimetry and measurement of burnup in fuel. Applications of developments in the computer field. Methods of using computers and computing techniques in the control of experiments. Integration of networks of computers. Special welding techniques. Nuclear Power Systems Non-destructive testing methods in the nuclear industry. Study of the physics of the reactor HIFAR. Reactor performance studies. Novel applications in applied nuclear analysis, e.g., uranium, water contents. Heat transfer studies. A plasma focus device as a source of intense neutron pulses. Studies of vibrations and flow pulsations. Engineering studies of stress and strain. Radioisotope Production Neutron interaction data for reactors in fields of fission and capture. Measurement of neutron interaction parameters for fast reactors. Development of short-lived, high-purity radioactive products. Neutron population and energy changes with time in fast reactor assemblies. Radioactive labelling methods. Critical Facility studies—study of the reactor Moata. Measurement techniques and study of spectra and energy distribution from radiation Safety studies—loss-of-flow accidents in water-cooled reactors. sources. Theoretical reactor physics—methods for reactor calculation and analysis. Containment of irradiation targets and radiation sources. Core development and data library. Measurement of age of "'"Cf fission neutrons in water. Fracture behaviour of zirconium alloys as related to reactor safety and fuel life. UKAEA-AAEC collaborative creep program—use of zirconium-niobium alloy pressure tubes. Irradiation embrittlement and the fracture characteristics of steels. Deformation mechanisms in reactor materials such as zirconium and steel. Physical metallurgy of reactor materials. Corrosion mechanisms in reactor materials including radiation effects. Operating and safety aspects of water circuits. Dynamic analysis of systems including the study of reactors and power station operating problems. Reactor safety—modelling and analysis of reactor transients.

138 139 Appendix f AINSE Research and Training Projects Appendix E — AAEC Research Contracts

The Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering during 1971-72 In 1971-72, the Commission awarded research contracts for the projects supported the following research and training projects involving staff and listed below. research students of member organisations, JAMES COOK UNIVERSITY OF NORTH QUEENSLAND NEW CONTRACTS 1. Neutron-capture gamma-ray studies. (Physics, Dr. R. B. Taylor, $2,150.) 2. The application of thermal neutron capture -y-rays to the elemental and isotopic analysis of materials. (Physics, Dr. I. F. Bubb, $2,100.) University or Organisation Research Pro/ect 3. Metal exchange studies on metal complexes of macrocyciic ligands. (Chemistry, University of New South Wales Dr. L. F. Lindoy, $680.) 4. The structure of an enzyme by neutron dill'raction. (Chemistry, Associate Pro- School of Analytical Chemistry Investigation of methods for making ultra-thin fessor L. F. Power, $2,824.) layer chromatography plates ($200). 5. Dislocation-point defect interaction in alkali halides. (Physics, Dr. G. A. Bielig, University of Melbourne $1,600.) ui Physics Possible technique of identifying energy levels 6. An investigation of the effect of irradiation on metal-oxide composite prepared of short-lived fission fragments ($4,200). by powder metallurgy. (Engineering, Dr. N. C. Kothari, $1,200.) 7. X-n?y and neutron diffraction studies on high pressure minerals. (Geology and UniversHv of Queensland Mineralogy, Associate Professor P. J. Stephenson and Dr. C. Cuff, $1,000.) Department of Mining and Creep and creep rupture behaviour of zir- 8. Structural studies of metal complexes of vitamin B(i and model systems. (Chemistry, Metallurgical Engineering conium-1% niobium alloy ($14,000). Mr. K. E. Turner, AINSE Studentship.) Australian Mineral Development Environmental aspects of uranium extraction UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND Laboratories ($10,000). Miscellaneous ($98). 1. Transient response of hot-wire anemometers computer simulation. (Engineering, Dr. C. J. Apelt, $1,300.) Dr. I. P. C. Murray, Prince of Medical radiation scintigraphy (IAEA Sym- 2. The modification of turbulence structure for optimum heat transfer in ducts. Wales Hospital, Sydney posium) ($600). (Mechanical Engineering, Dr. K. J. Bullock, $2,600.) 4S 47 National Heart Foundation Cardiac pacemaker research ($1,000). 3. De-excitation gamma-rays from states of V produced by reaction of Ti nuclei with 958-1,300 keV protons. (Physics, Dr. W. B. Lasich, $570.) 4. Radiation initiated polymerisation. (ChemL ry, Dr. J. H. O'Donnell, $2,000.) EXTENDED CONTRACTS AND SUPPLEMENTARY GRANTS 5. Crystal structure data at 4°K. (Chemistry, Dr. G. C. Morris, $600.) 6. Neutron and X-ray scattering studies of crystalline solids near transition tem- peratures. (Physics, Dr. B. W. Lucas, $1,380.) University of New South Wales 7. Structural analysis using neutron diffraction. (Chemistry, Dr. C. H. L. Kennard, School of Analytical Chemistry Determination of rare metals by gas chroma- $1,150.) tography ($3,120). 8. Creep deformation processes in metals containing inert gas bubbles. (Mining and School of Chemical Engineering Process optimisation study on the production Metallurgical Engineering, Dr. I. O. Smith, $1,000.) of pure UO, ($157). 9. Radiation damage in a and ft tin. (Physics, Drs. R. B. Gardiner and S. Myhra, $3,450.) University of Sydney 10. 40Ar/:wAr age determinations. (Geology and Metallurgy, Dr. D. C. Green, $374.) Department of Surgery Control of the graft versus host reaction with special reference to bone marrov graft UNIVERSITY OF NEW ENGLAND ($6,050). 1. Fluorescence studies of scintillators for tunable lasers. (Physics, Professor S. School of Chemical Engineering Improvement of the performance of absorption C. Haydon, $4,598.) columns by control cycling with reference to 2. Neutron diffraction and scattering studies of statistical solids. (Physics, Professor processes for the production of heavy water N. H. Fletcher, $1,220.) ($1,315). 3. Fission track studies of rocks and minerals. (Geology, Dr. J. D. Kleeman, $800.) University of Melbourne UNIVERSITY OF NEWCASTLE School of Chemistry Non-aqueous reactions of heavy metal fluorides 1. Distribution and vibration of hydrogen in metals. (Metallurgy, Dr. J. D. Browne ($1,216). and Mr. W. A. Gates, $250.) 2. Ordering in intermetallic compounds. (Metallurgy, Dr. J. D. Browne, $350.) 3. Interactions between interstitial solute atoms in a iron. (Metallurgy, Professor E. O. Hall and Dr. J. D. Browne, $250.) 4. Structure of niobium-based alloys. (Metallurgy, Professor E. O. Hall, $500.) 5. Impact properties of radiation damaged and strain-aged mild steel. (Metallurgy. Professor E. O. Hall, $1,000.) 6. Solute-vacancy interaction in metals. (Metallurgy, Mr. J. E. McLennan, $200.)

141 140 UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY 20. Factors affecting the sterilisation of peat. (Microbiology, Professor J. M. Vincent, 1. Simulation of processes in the turbulent boundary layer. (Mechanical Engineer- $200.) ing, Dr. J. Atkinson, $685.) 21. A study of boiling heat transfer from flat sloping surfaces. (Thermal Engineer- 2. Basic study of convectivc heat transfer processes. (Mechanical Engineering, ing, Wollongong University College, Associate Professor S. E. Bonamy, $200.) Associate Professor R. E. Luxton, $3,561.) 22. Angular distribution of fission fragments. (Physics, Wollongong University Col- 3. Magnetohydrodynamic converter. (Electrical Engineering, Professors H. K. lege, Mr. J. Caruana, AINSE Studentship.) Messerle, D. W. George and Dr. A. D. Stokes, $1,400.) 23. Statistical evaluation of properties of two phase flows. (Mechanical Engineering, 4. Transport properties of uranium plasma. (Mechanical Engineering, Professor Mr. P. M. Ong, AINSE Studentship.) D. W. George, $625.) MACQUARIE UNIVERSITY 5. Far-infrared wave interactions in plasmas. (Plasma Physics, Dr. L. C. Robinson, Collisional decomposition of molecules formed by recoil from nuclear reactions. $650.) (Chemistry, Dr. J. G. Hawke, $1,979.) 6. PIG discharge for cyclotron harmonic wave studies. (Plasma Physics, Dr. G. F. 2. Radiolysis of polyunsaturated acids and esters. (Biological Sciences, Dr. J, M. Brand, $2,645.) Gebicki, $400.) 7. Measurement of the plasma electron temperature behind shock fronts. (Plasma Physics, Drs. W. I. B. Smith and I. S. Falconer, $3,410.) 3. An investigation of the movement of sugar and ions in the phloem. (Biological 8. Plasma centrifuge for isotope separation. (Plasma Physics, Drs. B. W. James, Sciences, Dr. J. Moorby, $2,210.) W. I. B. Smith and Professor C. N. Watson-Munro, $4,000.) AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY 9. Radiation damage in lymphocytes. (Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Asso- 1. Plasma ion energies. (Engineering Physics, Dr. A. H. Morton, $2,400.) ciate Professor P. L. T. Ilbery and Dr. A. B. Rickinson, $750.) 2. Mossbauer effect studies in high magnetic fields. (Solid State Physics, Mr. I. R. 10. Neutron and X-ray diffraction studies of complexes of metals with amino acids Herbert, $430.) and peptides. (Chemistry, Mrs. M. L. Scudder, AINSE Studentship.) 3. 40Ar/:1!)Ar dating of rocks. (Geophysics and Geochemistry, Dr. I. McDougali, $500.) UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES 4. Studies of nuclear reactions in aluminium and beryllium. (Nuclear Physics, 1. Measurement of unsteady voidage in two-phase flow. (Fluid Mechanics and Dr. L. E. Carlson, AINSE Research Fellowship.) Thermodynamics, Dr. M. R. Davis, $1,650.) UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE 2. Quantitative measurements of unsteady density gradients using a modified Schlieren system. (Fluid Mechanics, Dr. M. R. Davis, $1,380.) 1. Turbulent boundary layers and heat transfer. (Mechanical Engineering, Mr. P. 3. Thermo-mechanical analysis of nuclear fuel elements. (Nuclear Engineering, N. Joubert and Dr. A. E. Perry, $1,225.) Associate Professor Z. J. Holy, $1,920.) 2. Neutron capture gamma-ray studies. (Physics, Professors B. M. Spicer and H. H. 4. The development of statistical diagnostic methods for nuclear power reactor Bolotin, $1,900.) system monitoring identification, optimisation and control. (Nuclear Engineering, 3. (p, y) studies. (Physics, Dr. D. G. Sargood, $1,470.) Mr. L. G. Kemeny, $3,070.) 4. Study of (d,n) nuclear reactions at low energies. (Physics, Dr. C. D. McKenzie, 5. The effects of neutron and gamma irradiation on the mechanical properties $800.) of alkali halides. (Physics, Dr. H. F. Pollard, $1,000.) 5. Radiation chemistry of Freons. (Chemistry, Dr. R. Cooper, $1,650.) 6. The bremsstrahlung spectra of fast electrons through single crystals. (Physics, 6. Pulse and steady state radiolysis of aromatic systems. (Chemistry, Dr. R. Cooper, Associate Professor J. C. Kelly, $4,775.) $1,100.) 7. Proton and ion channelling through crystal lattices. (Physics, Associate Profes- 7. Activity coefficients of the hydrated electron in electrolyte solutions. (Chemistry, sor J. C. Kelly, $3,350.) Drs. R. Cooper and P. T. McTigue, $875.) 8. (a) Prompt neutron emission from spontaneous fission modes of -r'~Cf; (b) Distri- 8. Radiation modification of adsorption properties of inorganic surfaces. (Chemistry, bution of K-X-rays as a function of mass and atomic number in the spontaneous Drs. T. W. Healy and R. Cooper, $900.) fission of -r'-Cf. (Physics, Wollongonq University College, Dr. J. N. Mathur. 9. Pulse radiolysis studies of gaseous ions and excited molecules. (Dr. R. Cooper, $300.) Chemistry, $1,150.) Genes controlling radiation response in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. (Genetics, 9. Angular distribution of fission fragments. (Physics, Wollongong University Col- 10. lege, Dr. J. N. Mathur, $1,100.) Dr. B. T. O. Lee, $1,450.) 10. Radiation induced reactions of tritium with hydrocarbons. (Nuclear and Radia- 11. An X-ray and neutron diffraction study of an aromatic triazene; 1, 3-diphenyl- tion Chemistry, Dr. M. A. Long, $900.) triazene. (Inorganic Chemistry, Dr. B. F. Hosking, $504.) 11. (a) Radiation catalysis and (b) Studies in mass spectrometry. (Physical Chemistry, 12. The application of activation and fission track analysis to fundamental problems Associate Professor J. L. Garnett, $2,000.) in geochemistry and cosmochemistry. (Geology, Professor J. F. Levering, $1,200.) 12. Energy distribution of free radicals produced by nuclear radiation. (Physical 13. Doppler shift attenuation and angular distributions. (Physics, Professor H. H. Chemistry, Dr. R. Solly, $800.) Bolotin, $2,500.) 13. The neutron study of betamcthylribopyranoside. (Physics, Dr. V. J. James 14. Measurement of neutron capture and scattering cross sections at low and inter- $400.) mediate energies. (Physics, Mr. D. B. Stroud, AINSE Studentship.) 15. Studies of (p, y) and (p, a) reactions of astro-physical interest, in particular 14. Magnetic phase-transitions in mixed oxide systems. (Physics, Dr. G. L Paul :{ :{ $1,200.) - Na (p, y) and - Na (p, a). (Physics, Mr. S. G. Boydell, AINSE Studentship.) 15. Order-disorder transitions in alkali cyanides. (Physics, Dr. G. L. Paul, $600.) 16. A theoretical and experimental study of the inverse (y, n) and (n, y) reactions 16. Combined scattering of phonons by point defects and crystal boundaries. (Physics, near threshold. (Physics, Dr. R. F. Barrett, AINSE Fellowship.) Professor H. J. Goldsmid, $300.) MONASH UNIVERSITY 17. Effect of impurity segregation on mass transport in grain boundaries. (Physics, The effects of radiation on the electrical conductivity of some simple polymer Dr. L. B. Harris, $100.) systems. (Physics, Dr. R. J. Fleming, $1,645.) 18. Electrostatic collection of fission products. (Nuclear Engineering, Dr. R. Rosen, 2. Radiation sensitivity and radiation repair mechanisms in Pseudomonax aeruf>in- $496.) osa and its bacteriophages. (Genetics, Professor B. W. Holloway, $1,500.) 19. Pulse radiolysis of alcohol-hydrocarbon mixtures. (Nuclear and Radiation Chem- 3. Immunoradioactive preparations for the selective destruction of biological tis- istry. Dr. N. T. Barker, $250.) sues. (Pathology, Professor R. C. Nairn, $1,000.)

142 143 4. Short-range order in transition metal materials. (Physics, Associate Professor J. Appendix G — Technical Papers by Commission Staff H. Smith, $1,500.) 5. Giant moments in iron doped Ni.{AI and Ni.;Ga. (Physics, Dr. T. J. Hicks, $3,810.) 6. Distribution of magnetic moment in transition metals and alloys. (Physics, Dr. PUBLISHED PAPERS T. J. Hicks, $3,600.) AIREY, P. L. (1972). Effect of irradiation on electrode processes. Part I. The hydrogen 7. Magnetic structure of Cr.,BeO, and Mii^GeO.,. (Physics, Mr. G. J. Troup, $400.) electrode in dilute solutions. Faraday Soc. Trans. (In press.) 8. Hyperfine interaction studies by nuclear orientation and angular correlation. (Physics, Dr. J. A. Barclay, $950.) ALDER, K. F., MILES, G. L. (1972). Enrichment of uranium. Paper presented at Symposium on the Role of Nuclear Energy in Australia's Development, Canberra, 9. Magnetic interactions of rare earth compounds. (Physics, Dr. J. D. Cashion, 1-2 June. $1,050.) 10. Orientation of radioactive nuclei in solids at low temperatures. (Physics, Dr. J. ALFREDSON, P. G., *DOIG, I. D. (1971). A study of pulsed fluidisation of fine A. Barclay, AINSE Research Fellowship.) powders. Chemeca '70:117-139. (*Uni. of New South Wales.) Neutron diffraction studies of Mn-Au alloys. (Physics, Dr. J. S. Plant, AINSE BANNISTER, M. J., BUYKX, W. J. (1972). Oxidation of UO, fuel pellets during Research Fellowship.) hydrogen sintering. J. Aust. Ceram. Soc. (In press.) LA TROBE UNIVERSITY -BARNES, C. S., *GOLDRACK, R. J., *HALBERT, E. J., WILSON, J G., The influence of repair mechanisms on radiation resistance and induction of *LYALL, R. J., **MIDDLETON. S. (1972). Mass spectra of ketones and diketones containing pyridal groups. Tetrahedron Letters, (8):705 (*CSR Research mutations in Salmonella typhimurinni. (Genetics, Dr. D. G. MacPhee, $1,550.) :;!:;: The genetic analysis of radiation resistance and sensitivity in wild populations of Labs.) ( Dept. of Chem., Monash Uni.) Australian Drosophila. (Genetics, Dr. I. T. MacBean, $1,200.) BATLEY, G. E. (1971). A catalytic method for the determination of cobalt impurities 3. A structural study of glycylalanine. (Chemistry, Dr. M. F. Mackay, $500.) in reactor cooling-water circuits. Talanta, 18:1225-1232. 4. Electronic band structure of transition metal oxides. (Physics, Dr. J. G. Jenkin, BAXTER, J. P. (1971). Environmental pollution and its control. Atomic Eneruv in $1,260.) Aust., 14(2): 2-7. 5. The genetic analysis of radiation sensitive strains in Drosophila. (Genetics, Dr, J. BEATTIE, D. R. H. (1972). Two-phase flow structure and mixing length theory. M. Westerman, AINSE Research Fellowship.) Nucl. Eng. and Design. (In press.) UNIVERSITY OF TASMANIA BIRD, J. R. (1971). Particle accelerators. Aust. Physicist, 8(9): 133-138. Fast neutron transport in thorium. (Physics, Drs. K. B. and A. G. Fenton, BIRD, J. R., CAMPBELL, B. L., PRICE, P. B., SCOTT, M. D. (1972). Applications $1,800.) of nuclear techniques to materials analysis. Atomic Energy in Aust. (In press.) 2. Studies of effects of X-irradiation and radiomimetic substances in animal cells in vitro. (Zoology, Dr. Y. A. E. Bick, $1,150.) BOLDEMAN, J. W., MUSGROVE, A. R. de L., WALSH, R. L. (1971). Prompt 3. Semi-conductor neutron detectors. (Physics, Mr. R. N, Williams, AINSE Student- neutrons from """U fission fragments. Aust. J. Phys., 24:821-833. ship.) BONHOTE, P. A., MAY, F. G., POLSON, H. J., WEIR, R. (3972). Removal of 4. Radiosensitivity of marsupial chromosomes. (Zoology, Dr. Y. A. E. Bick, AINSE radioactive iodine from ventilation exhaust streams at the AAEC Research Estab- Research Fellowship.) lishment. Paper presented at 1972 Int. Clean Air Conf., Melbourne Uni., 15-18 May. UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE 1. Development of laminar natural-conventive flow in a vertical duct. (Mechanical BOYD, R. E. (1972). The development of short-lived radiopharmaceuticals suitable Engineering, Mr. J. R. Dyer, $800.) for use with the scintillation camera. Paper presented at Scintillation Camera Conf., *> Fast reactions of inorganic radicals in solution: flash photolysis and pulse Perth, U -12 May. radiolysis. (Physical and Inorganic Chemistry, Dr. G. S. Laurence, $1,100.) BOYD, R. E., ENGELBERT, U., GREGORY, J. N. (1971), The production and The use of radioactive nitrogen (18N) in studies with bacterial enzymes. (Agri- distribution of radiopharmaceuticals in Australia. Paper presented at 4th Int. Conf. cultural Biochemistry, Mr. H. R. Lovelock, $1,500.) on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva. 6-16 September. FLINDERS UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA BRADHURST, D. H., HEUER, P. M. (1971). Reply to comments by B. Cox on Solid state diffusion in ceramics. (Physical Sciences, Mr. H. J. de Bruin, $1,500.) "The influence of oxide stress on the breakaway oxidation of Zircaloy-2". J. Nucl. High density plasma source. (Physical Sciences, Professor M. H. Brennan, Mat., 41:101-105. $4,366.) BROOMHALL, G. J. (1972). Capture of 10-100 keV neutrons in isotopes of titanium. 3. Arc driven shock waves. (Physical Sciences, Dr. M. G. R. Phillips, $3,205.) Aust. J. Phys., 25:9-19. 4. Digital recording of Stark broadened lines in plasmas. (Physical Sciences. Dr. A. BROWN, B. J., BARKER N. T., SANGSTER, D. F. (1971). The behaviour of the L. McCarthy, $2,385.) solvated electron in ethanol-n-hexane mixtures. /. Phys. Chem., 75(23) :3639-3640. 5. Soil moisture measurement by neutron scattering—Determination of absorption BROWN, B. J., -BELL, J., -BARKER, N. T., SANGSTER, D. F. (1972). A signal cross-sections of soil. (Physical Sciences, Professor J. W. Holmes, $800.) compiling differential pre-amplifier for pulse radiolysis experiments. J. Phys. D. 6. The effects of photon radiation on electrode reactions. (Physical Sciences, Dr. D. (In press.) (:;:Uni. of New South Wales.) B. Matthews, $2,280.) CARRARD, G., LEDWIDGE, T. J. (1971). Measurement of slip distribution and 7. Diffusion in hyperstoichiometric UOL,. (Chemistry, Mr. G. E. Murch, AINSE average void fraction in an axial air-water mixture. Paper presented at Int. Symp. Studentship.) on Two-Phase Systems, Haifa, Israel, 29 Aug.-2 Sept. UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA CARR, F. H. (1971). The projected role of nuclear energy in meeting the future energy Absolute measurement of neutron production. (Physics, Dr. H. H. Thies, $600.) needs of Australia. Paper presented at 4th Int. Conf. on the Peaceful Uses of Accurate crystal structure analysis. (Physics, Dr. E. N. Maslen, $1,200.) Atomic Energy, Geneva, 6-16 September. AINSE CARR, F. H. (1972). Current state of the art in nuclear power. Paper presented at Lattice dynamics of ice and other hydrogen-bonded solids. (Neutron Diffraction, Symposium on the Role of Nuclear Energy in Australia's Development, Canberra, Mr. D. R. McKenzie, AINSE Research Fellowship.) 1-2 June.

144 145 HARRIS, R. W., LEDWIDGE, T. J. (1971). The relationship betv i the coherence CHURCH, V. E. (1972). A versatile anti-coincidence gate. Nucl. Inxt. Methods. (In length of a two-phase mixture and the response of a cylindrici,. cantilever. Paper press.) presented at the 4th A'asian Conf. on Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, Monash CLANCY, B. E. (1971). Multigroup neutron transport theory in the plane geometry. Uni., 29 Nov.-3 Dec. Bull. Aust. Math. Soc., 5:287-288. HARRIS, R. W., LEDWIDGE, T. J. (1972). Some measurements of neutronic COOK, J. L. (1972). A note on the Adler-Adler resonance formalism. Aust. J. Phys. fluctuations in the HIFAR reactor. Nuclear Eng. and Design. (In press.) (In press.) COOK, J. L. (1972). Reaction matrix approach to the inverse problem. Aust. J. Phys., HARRIS, R. W., HOLLAND, P. G. (1971). Response of a cylindrical cantilever to 25:167-176. axial air water flow. Paper presented at Int. Conf. on Structural Mechanics in COOK, J. L. (1972). Solutions of the relativistic two-body problem. I. Classical Reactor Technology, Berlin, 20-24 September. mechanics. Aust. J. Phys. (In press.) HARTLEY, P. E. (1972). Design and performance of tritium measurement systems COOK, J. L. (1972). General relativity in the equal proper time formalism. Aust. J. using electrolytic enrichment. NucL Inst. and Methods. (In press.) Phys. (In press.) HESPE, E. D. (1972). The use of the critical nuclide—critical pathway—critical COOK, J. L. (1972). Solutions of the relativistic two-body problem. II. Quantum population group concept in the establishment of water quality criteria. Paper mechanics. Aust. J. Phys., 25:141-165. presented at 5th Ann. Convention of Aust. Water and Waste Water Assoc.. COOK, J. L., BERTRAM, W. K. (1972). Compound nucleus formulation of reaction Adelaide, 31 May-3 June. matrix theory. Aust. J. Phys. (In press.) HESPE, E. D., HARDY, C. (1972). Management of radioactive wastes from irradiated COOK, J. L., BERTRAM, W. K. (1972). On the non-invariance of distributions of nuclear fuels. Paper presented at Symposium on the Role of Nuclear Energy in reaction matrix parameters under changes in boundary conditions. Aust. J. Phys. Australia's Development, Canberra, 1-2 June. (Also AAEC/TM628.) (In press.) HOWARD, C. J., HURST, H. J. (1971). Magnetic resonance studies of atomic CRANCHER, D. W. (1971). Safety and environmental aspects of nuclear power. motions. Aust. Physicist, 8(9): 127-132. Paper presented to Institute of Engineers, South Australian Division, July. JANOV, J., ALFREDSON, P. G., VILKAITIS, V. K. (1972). The influence of CRANCHER, D. W. (1971). Safety requirements for nuclear power plants. Paper precipitation conditions on the properties of ammonium diuranate and uranium presented to Australian Welding Research Association Symposium, Hobart, 11 dioxide powders. /. Nucl. Mat. (In press.) November, and Atomic Energy in Aust. 15(1) :9-18. JOHNSON, E. P., LOWENTHAL, G. C. (1972). Losses during storage from radio- CRANCHER, D. W. (1972). Safety and environmental aspects of nuclear power. active solutions with standardised disintegration rates. Int. J. Appl. Rad. and Paper presented to Institute of Engineers, Broken Hill Group, June. Isotopes. (In press.) CYBULA, G. J., LEDWIDGE, T. J. (1972). The detection and location of a noise KELLY, P. M. (1972). The effect of particle shape on dispersion hardening. Scripta source in a random dispersive medium. Paper presented at Electronic Inst. Conf.. Metallurgica. (In press.) Hobart, 17-19 March. KELLY, P. M., WATSON, K. G. (1972). A simple method for determining the pole CYBULA, G. J., HARRIS, R. W. (1972). A theoretical study of the effects of figure of zirconium alloy tubing. J. Nucl. Mat. (In press.) dispersion on cross-correlograms. Paper presented at Electronic Inst. Conf., Hobart, KENNY, M. J. (1971). keV resonance neutron capture in iron. Ami. J. Phys., 17-19 March. 24:805-819. EBERHARDT, J. E., RYAN, R. D., TAVENDALE, A. J. (1972). Recent develop- LAWSON, E. M. (1971). Further experience with Ge (y) detectors. Nucl. Inst. ments in semiconductor nuclear radiation detectors. Aust. Bull. Med. Phys. and Methods, 95:361-363. Biophysics, 52:6-19. LEVINS, D. M., ALFREDSON, P. G. (1972). Heavy water production. Atomic- EBERHARDT, J. E. (1972). Very low noise amplifiers for semi-conductor X-ray Energy in Aust. (In press.) detectors. Paper presented at Electronic Inst. Conf., Hobart, 17-19 March. LOWSON, R. T. (1972). Correlations for the thermodynamic properties of hydrolysecl EKSTROM, A., McLAREN, A. (1972). The kinetics and mechanism of the oxidation ions, Aust. J. Chem. (In press.) of Np (V) by Ce (IV). /. Inorg. Nucl. Chem. (In press.) EKSTROM, A., McLAREN, A. (1972). The kinetics and mechanism of the formation McKENZIE, D. R., PRYOR, A. W. (1971). Lattice dynamics of urea. J. Phys. of the "brown" complex of plutonium (IV) and hydrogen peroxide. /. Inorg. C. Solid State Physics, 4:2304-2312. Nucl. Chem., 34:1009-1016. MATTHEWS, R. (1971). Potentiometric estimation of megarad dose with the ceric- EKSTROM, A., FARRAR, Yvonne J. (1972). The kinetics of the formation of the cerous system. Int. J. Appl. Rad. and Isotopes. (In press.) U (V)-Cr (III) complex. /. Inorg. Nucl. Chem. (In press.) MITCHELL, R. F., -WARD, P. R. (1971). An electron microscope environmental specimen chamber. Proc. of 25th Anniversary Meeting of EM AC, Inst. Physics, FLORENCE, T. M. (1972). Determination of trace metals in marine samples by :;: anodic stripping voltammetry. /. Electroanalytical Chem., 35:237-245. London. ( Cavendish Laboratory, Uni. of Cambridge, England.) GATT, F. C. (1971). A tritium pacemaker battery design. Paper presented at 9th MUSGROVE, A. R. de L. (1972). Detailed calculations of correlations occurring in Int. Conf. on Medical and Biological Eng., Melbourne, 27 August. light-particle accompanied spontaneous fission. Aust. J. Phys. (In press.) GATT, F. C. (1972). A low radiation nuclear pacemaker battery. Aust. Physicist, PAKALNS, P. (1972). The direct spectrophotometric determination of boron in 9(3^ 37-40. aluminium alloys. Metallurgia and Metal Forming. (In press.) GATT, F. C. (1972). A tritium nuclear cardiac pacemaker battery. Paper presented PAKALNS, P. (1971). Spectrophotometric determination of zirconium in steels with at 2nd Int. Symp. on Power from Radioisotopes, Madrid, May. arsenazo III. Anal. Chim. Ada., 57:51-57. GREGORY, J. N., SOWERBY, B. D., SPRAGG, W. T., WATT, J. S. (1971). Some PAKALNS, P. (1972). The direct spectrophotometric determination of boron in recent developments in radioisotope technology in Australia. Paper presented at rocks with arsenazo III. Anal. Chim. Acta., 58:463-467. 4th Int. Conf. on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, 6-16 September. PRICE, G. H. (1972). A simple derivative thermograph. /. Phyx., E. Scientific GREGORY, J. N. (1972). Research in radioisotope technology. Atomic Energy in Instruments. (In press.) Aust., 15(l):20-27. QUAASS, S. T. (1971). Simple analysis of stress-strain-temperature-time behaviour and GUY, T. B. (1971). Vortex and unsteady flow measurements with a hot wire its characterisation in metals and alloys. 1st Int. Conf. on Structural Mechanics anemometer. Paper presented at 4th A'asian Conf. on Hydraulics and Fluid in Reactor Technology, Berlin, 20-24 Sept., Vol. 5, Papers L 3/4. Mechanics, Monash Uni., 29 Nov.-3 Dec. QUAASS, S. T. (1971). Inspection in nuclear power plants. Papers presented at Aust. GUY, T. B., LEDWIDGE, T. J. (1971). The dynamics of non-spherical vapour bubbles. Welding Res. Assn. Symp., Hobart, 1 1 Nov. Paper presented at 4th A'asian Conf. on Hydraulic and Fluid Mechanics, Monash RAINBOW, M. T., RITCHIE, A. I. M. (1971). Measurement of the slowing down time Uni., 29 Nov.-3 Dec. to 0.3eV in beryllium oxide. J. Nitcl. Energy, 25:461-478. 146 147 REEVE, K. D. (1972). The effect of neutron irradiation on alumina-coated BeO. J. Nucl. Mat. (In press.) WILSON, J. G., SWEETING, J. W. (1972). y-radiolysis of some I, 4-quinones in -REID, A. F., SABINE, T. M., *«WHEELER, D. A. (1971). A neutron diffraction benzene. Aust. J. Chem. (In press.) study of magnetic phases in the system VaOn-CraOii. ./. Solid State Chem. (In press.) WILSON, P. W. (1972). Reactions and comparative reactivity of uranium hcxalluoridc. (*CSIRO.) (:M:AINSE.) Rev. Pure and Applied Chem. (In press.) RITCHIE, A. I. M., WHITTLESTONE, S. (1971). Measurement of the thermal WILSON, P. W. (1972). A valve for use with corrosive halides. Synthesis in Inorganic and Metalorganic Chem. (In press.) neutron wave dispersion relations in BeO. /. Nucl. Energy, 26:27-41. ::: ROMBERG, T., LEDWIDGE, T. J. (1971). Noise analysis of coolant dynamics in WILSON, P. W., WAUGH, A. B. (1972). A simple inexpensive flow-meter for use two-phase heat transfer systems. Paper presented at 4th A'asian Conf. on with fluorine and other corrosive gases. Anal. Chem. (In press.) ( "Chem. Dept.. Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, Monash Uni., 29 Nov.-3 Dec. Uni. of Melbourne.) RYAN, R. D., EBERHARDT, J. E. (1972). Hole diffusion length in high purity WOOLFREY, J. L. (1972). The effect of green density on the initial stage sintering n-GaAs. Solid-State Electronics. (In press.) kinetics of uranium dioxide. /. Amer. Ceram. Soc. (In press.) WOOLFREY, J. L., BANNISTER, M. J. (1972). Non-isothermal techniques for SANGSTER, D. F. (1972). Radiation and polymers. Proc. Royal Aust. Cheni. Inst. studying initial stage sintering. /. Amer. Ceram. Soc. (In press.) (In press.) WRIGHT, W. J. K. (1972). The enrichment of uranium. Atomic Energy in Aust., *SELF, P. G. (1972). X-ray detection of Cr.O, and V*O< in Cr.O,/V,O;I mixtures. /. Aust. Ceram. Soc. (In press.) (*Vacation student.) WYATT, J. H. (1971). An improved method for handling electron microscopic SHIRVINGTON, P. J. (1972). The mechanism of radiation enhancement of zirconium specimen grids. Stain Technology. (In press.) alloy oxidation—implications of new data. J. Nucl. Mat., 42:108-112. WYATT, J. H. (1972). An ultramicrotome knife trough for glass knives. /. Electron- SHIRVINGTON, P. J., BRADHURST, D., HEUER, P. (1972). Accelerated oxidation microscopy. (In press.) of zirconium alloys—significance of surface preparation. J. NucL Mat. (In press.) WYATT, J. H. (1972). Bovine plasma albumen as a supporting matrix in the method SHYING, M. E., FLORENCE, T. M., CARSWELL, D. J. (1972). Oxide dissolution of Ryter and Kellenberger. /. of Microscopy. (In press.) mechanisms. II. A mechanism for the thoria-nitric-hydrofluoric acid system. J. Inorg. Nucl. Chem. (In press.) SOWERBY, B. D. (1971). Cerenkov detectors for low-energy gamma-rays. Nucl. Inst. PUBLISHED REPORTS and Methods, 97:145-149. STUART, W. I., WHATELEY, T. L., ADAMS, R. B. . 1972). Adsorption of fluoride AAEC/E Series on thoria and its effect on hot-pressed density. /. Aust. Ceram Soc. (In press.) TAYLOR, J. C., HURST, H. J. (1971). The hydrogen atom locations in the ex and 3 BOYD, R. E., HETHERINGTON, E. L. R., WOOD, N. R. (1971). Technetium 99m forms of uranyl hydroxide. Acta Cryst, B27, Part 10:2018-2022. generators prepared from fission produced molybdenum 99—quality control and TAYLOR, J. C., KELLY, J. W., DOWNER, B. (1972). A study of the 0 -> a phase performance aspects. AAEC/E224. transition in UOa (OH):.- by dilatometric microcalorimetric and X-ray diffraction GATT, F. C. (1972). Flow of spheres and near-spheres in cylindrical vessels. Part III techniques. /. Solid State Chem. (In press.) transit spectra for recirculated random packings. AAEC/E225. (In press.) TAYLOR, J. C., SABINE, T. M. (1972). Isotope and bonding effects in ammonium HANNA, G. L. (1972). Fission gas retention in spherical beryllium oxide based fuel oxalate monohydrate, determined by the combined use of neutron and X-ray elements for the conceptual Aborigine reactor. AAEC/E230. diffraction analyses. Acta. Cryst. (In press.) ISAACS, I. (1972). Piecewise-linear approximation to continuous functions. AAEC/ THACKRAY, M., ROMAN, D. (1972). Intensification of faded photographs and E229. (In press.) underexposed negatives using radioisotopes. Atomic Energy in Aust., 15(2):24-30. LOWSON, R. T. (1972). Potential-pH diagrams at temperatures above 298.!6°K. THACKRAY, M. (1972). Intensification of medical radiographs. Radiographer, 19:6. Part 2. Potential-pH diagrams of water for the temperature range 298.16-573.16°K. THACKRAY, M., ROMAN, D., HETHERINGTON, E. L. R., BRIAN, H. H. (1971). AAEC/E219-Part2. Intensification of photographs by means of autoradiography. Int. J. Appl. Rad. and LEVINS, D. M., ALFREDSON, P. G., HURST, R. C., MACBRIDE, P. R. (1972). Isotopes: (In press.) Spray drying of ammonium diuranate slurries. AAEC/E226. VAN PEER, W. J., BANNISTER, M. J. (1972). Preparation of dense MnO-MgO McCULLOCH, D. B., WHITFIELD, H. (1972). Uranium silicide fuel elements in solid solutions. /. Aust. Ceram. Soc. (In press.) heavy water moderated natural uranium reactors. AAEC/E233. (In press.) ROSE, A., :::JAIN, H. M., *MENEZES, P. F. (1972). Fast fission ratio measurements WARNER, R. K. (1972). Nuclear power developments. Aust. Mining, 64(5):16-18. :;: WATSON, G. M. (1971). The environmental monitoring program at the AAEC in multirod clusters. AAEC/E227. (In press.) ( Bhabha Atomic Research Centre. Research Establishment, Lucas Heights. Paper presented at 4th Int. Conf. on Trombay, India.) Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, 6-16 September. TINGATE, G. A. (1972). Some geometrical properties of packings of equal spheres WATSON, G. M. (1972). Environmental hazards of fossil and nuclear power produc- in cylindrical vessels. Part IV. Extension of model to outer region of semi-infinite tion. Paper presented at Symposium on the Role of Nuclear Energy in Australia's vessel with plane wall. AAEC/E223. Development, Canberra, 1-2 June. (Also AAEC/TM627.) WATT, J. S. (1972). Radioisotope detector-radiator assemblies in X-ray fluorescence AAEC/TM Series analysis for copper and zinc in iron-rich minerals. Int. J. Appl. Rad. and Isotopes. ARTHUR, J., BLAKE, R. G., KELLY, P. M. (1971). Colour film techniques for (In press.) hot-cell radiography. AAEC/TM598. WHATHAM, J. F., HAWKER, P. A. E. (1972). A study of the shell thermal distri- BACKSTROM, R. P. (1972). QNPRINT—An alternative printer facility for the bution in a loose kernel type of spherical fuel element for a pebble bed reactor. IBM/360 computer. AAEC/TM615. (In press.) NucL Eng. and Design. (In press.) BLAKE, R. G., KELLY, P. M., WARREN, R. B. (1971). An inclined specimen WILSON, A. R. W. (1972). A review of the current status of civil engineering and cartridge for use in the JEM-7A goniometer stage. AAEC/TM608. mineral resources development applications of peaceful nuclear explosives. Paper BROOMHALL, G. J. (1971). Radiation shielding of an 8 in x 6 in Nal(TI) crystal for written on behalf of the IAEA and presented at 4th Int. Conf. on Peaceful Uses use in keV neutron capture experiments. AAEC/TM603. of Atomic Energy, Geneva, 6-16 September. CLARE, T. E. (1971). Corrosion resistance of some alpha-dispersoid zirconium alloys WILSON, J. G. (1972). y-radiolysis of chloranil in benzene. Aust. J. Chem. (In press.) in water vapour at 400°C and 500°C. AAEC/TM601. WILSON, J. G. (1972). Preparative organic radiation chemistry. Radiation Res. Rev. GILES, M. S. (1972). A study of the movement of phosphorus in the Little River (In press.) Estuary, N.S.W. AAEC/TM616. (In press.)

148 149 HETHERINGTON, E. L. R., WOOD, N. R. (1972). IMPURE—A Fortran program for the analyses of the gamma spectrum of """Tc cluted from fission produced Appendix H — Public Concern Over Radiation ""Mo. AAEC/TM605. MACDERMOTT, T. E., PEARSON, J. E. (1972). Anion enhancement of the extraction of zirconium by aliquat-336 from chloride media. AAEC/TM610. RITCHIE, A. I. M., WHITTLESTONE, S. (1972). Measurement of thermal neutron waves at high frequencies in BeO. AAEC/TM617. RUNDLE, D. L. (1971). Thermal decomposition of UO« hydrates. AAEC/TM600. In March, four fifth-form students at a New South Wales country girls' SZEGO, L. (1972). Light scattering methods and their application to the study of the High School wrote to the Commission to express concern over the possible precipitation of ammonium diuranate using a simple and novel apparatus. effects on public health of nuclear power stations. As the points raised are of AAEC/TM611. widespread interest this letter and the Commission's reply are given below. THOMPSON, N. E., REED, N. (1972). Tests of emergency core cooling systems for HIFAR Mark IV fuel elements. AAEC/TM624. (In press.) WILSON, D. J. (1972). Analogue studies of power transients produced by reactivity changes in the materials testing reactor HIFAR loaded with Mk. Ill 150 gram Letter from Students fuel elements. AAEC/TM609. AAEC/M Series "We would like to question the Australian Atomic Energy Commission's awareness that there have been many instances where atomic power plants have BOLTON, J. H., CLOUSTON, J. G. (1972). The gamma technology research irradiator (GATRI). Description and operating procedures. AAEC/M88. affected the public health and safety contrary to the statement made by the AEC HOPKINSON, J. B. (1971). Reactor HIFAR—The space conditioner system. AAEC/ in their pamphlet, 'What is Nuclear Power?'. It states: There has never been a M87. radiation injury to anybody in a commercial power plant, nor has there been any instance of it having affected public health or safety.' This we feel can only AAEC(SP) Series be meant to deceive the public. HIGSON, D. J. (1971). Report on the proceedings of a symposium on nuclear ships, Hamburg, 10-15 May 1971. AAEC(SP)/R5. "One instance disproving the statement was the accidental release of radio- active materials from the Windscale atomic power station, Cumberland, England. PATENT APPLICATIONS This was in 1957 and it contaminated a large area of surrounding pastures and The following patent applications were lodged during 1971-1972: therefore contaminated milk of the dairy cattle grazing there, Australia — Provisional "In an interview published in 'The Australian' on the 19th August, 1970, F. C. GATT. Nuclear battery. Applications made jointly with the National Heart Sir Philip Baxter observed that strontium 90 would have to be kept in 'permanent Foundation — PA 6037. Dated 25 August 1971. custody' in the Outback for at least one thousand years. Strontium 90 remains J. ROBSON. Process for the production of Tc 99"' from neutron irradiated molybdenum active for over five thousand years. The term 'Outback' might reassure the city trioxide —PA 6121. Dated 31 August 1971. dweller but can hardly be expected to have the same effect on those who live there. V. E. CHURCH, H. J. FRASER, R. W. MATTHEWS. An improved dosimeter for use in the megarad range — PA 6741. Dated 21 October 1971. "We would like to suggest that the Australian AEC learn from America's G. H. LOWENTHAL, H. A. WYLLIE. Method of producing extremely thin plastic mistakes instead of following in her footsteps and attempting to reassure the films —PA 6757. Dated 22 October 1971. J. E. EBERHARDT, R. D. RYAN, A. J. TAVENDALE. Improvements in gallium public with the same bland statements. The effects of exposure to radioactivity arsenide detectors for nuclear radiations — PA 7001. Dated 12 November 1971. are only just being determined so we wonder how you can possibly predict the M. THACKRAY. Photo-etching and photogravure with fission fragment and alpha-ray well-being of the general public when the long term results are just beginning to be etch tracks from toned photographs — PA 8411. Dated 24 March 1972. assessed. Results so far have not been favourable, e.g. the increase in deaths per T. DAVIDSON, E. J. RAMM. Fabrication process for nuclear fuel pellets — PA 8593. Dated 13 April 1972. thousand from various cancers and leukaemia largely attributed to dangerous levels of radioactivity in the atmosphere. Refer to Tamplin and Gofman's Australia and Overseas — Complete 'Population Control through Nuclear Pollution'. J. S. WATT. Improvement in detector radiator assemblies (Prov. PA 2118 of 10 August 1970). Aust. 31921 of 2 August 1971. Canada 119,566 of 30 July 1971. Finland "A nuclear power station at Jervis Bay would not be an advantage in the 2212 of 6 August 1971. France 71.29283 of 10 August 1971. Federal Republic of long run, nor would it be safe. We are after all the generation that will suffer Germany P 2139851.6 of 9 August 1971. Italy 27196A of 5 August 1971. Japan from excessive maltreatment of the environment and we fait to understand such 059662 of 9 August 1971. Netherlands 71.10663 of 2 August 1971. South Africa abusive treatment." 5151 of 2 August 1971. Sweden 9671 of 28 July 1971. U.K. 35576 of 28 July 1971. U.S.A. 169757 of 6 August 1971. C. R. WALTERS. Improvements in gas burners. (Prov. PA 5106 of 4 June 1971.) Complete specification has been lodged in Australia, but date of filing has not yet Commission's Reply been advised. We are interested to have your query and pleased that you should take an interest in matters relating to public safety. However, your letter confuses opinion and hearsay with matters of fact; as you are Higher School Certificate Students,

150 151 you should be learning to think in a more logical way. Suppose we take your will explain to you if necessary. Therefore it is really meaningless to say that some points one by one: particular radioisotope will remain active for some specified number of years, The Windscale release disproves the statement lhat there has never been as you do for strontium 90, 5,000 years being your estimate. You can, of course, a radiation injury to anybody in a commercial power plant, etc. calculate to what level a given quantity of a radioisotope will decay in a specified The statement in the AAEC pamphlet is a plain statement of fact. Consider time and, in practice, this is how we would determine how long active material takes to reach a safe level. Since the half-life of strontium 90 is 28.9 years, you the points: The Windscale accident did not take place in a "commercial power I7 plant", the reactor involved was a research reactor built primarily to produce can see that the original quantity would be reduced by a factor of about 2 ° in plutonium, and it did not produce any power. 5,000 years. An acceptable body-burden of strontium 90 is one microcurie, which you might take to weigh 10~Hg. I suggest you do a little arithmetic to see how Although the release did not originate from a commercial power plant, it much strontium 90 you would have needed originally to be left with one micro- could conceivably have "affected public health or safety". In fact it did not. In curie after 5,000 years, and compare that mass with that of some other large such an accident the radioactive materials of primary interest in the release arc object, for example the sun. the radioactive isotopes of iodine. This is because they are produced in large amounts in the fission process and, being volatile, a fraction of them is apt to get The Australian AEC learn from America's mistakes instead of following in past the filtering system. Some did at Windscale. It is not correct to say it affected her footsteps and attempting to reassure the public with the same bland statements. public health or safety. Released iodine tends to settle on grass; this may be eaten by cows when some of the iodine will find its way into the milk, and From this point on, your letter is simply a collection of quite unfounded eventually be consumed by man. In man, the iodine will concentrate in the thyroid assertions. To what "American mistakes" do you refer? Leaving aside the question gland and put the recipient at risk — principally the later induction of a tumour of the development of nuclear weapons, about which it is possible to have honest in the thyroid gland. When the Windscale accident occurred an expert committee but opposing opinions, let us consider civil nuclear development. There have been was set up, as a matter of urgency, to determine to what extent milk contamination accidents, including a few fatal ones, in nuclear research or processing facilities constituted a hazard and to make recommendations on the disposal of contaminated but, even taking these into account, the safety record in atomic industry is milk. This committee produced what most people considered to be reasonable and excellent. For example, figures published in 1969 show accident experience in the very conservative limits for the permissible level of contamination in milk. Milk United States Atomic Energy Commission to be down by a factor of three on from the affected area which exceeded this limit was discarded. No other route of national figures for other industries, with the private atomic energy industry at exposure was significant. Later in the letter I will say a little on how one decides an intermediate level. And, in spite of the raucous claims made by the people what is a reasonable or permissible level for contamination and radiation exposure. who denigrate the nuclear industry in a manner reminiscent of the Lysenkoists' Strontium 90 would have to be kept in permanent custody hi the Outback attacks on conventional genetics in the USSR, thers is no evidence at all that the for at least 1,000 years; strontium 90 remains active for over 5,000 years. public has suffered in any way from the introduction of nuclear power. Radio- Like the radioisotopes of iodine, those of strontium are formed in large activity has not caused an "increase in deaths per thousand from various cancers amounts in the fission process. Strontium 90 is of particular interest because it and leukaemia". If you can cite factual evidence for such a statement, we should has a long half-life, 28.9 years, and tends to accumulate in bone since it is be happy to consider it. If you read carefully the statements made by Tamplin chemically similar to calcium. For these reasons it has to be treated with particular and Gofman you will find they put things in this form (with variations): "If respect and, in nuclear plants, it is. The unwanted radioactivity produced in a everyone in the US were exposed to 170 millirem (units of radiation dose) in a nuclear power station, or other nuclear plant, is readily separated into two year, there would be 32,000 extra deaths each year from cancer and leukaemia". categories — bulky material of low activity which may safely be discharged to Not even Tamplin and Gofman claim there actually are that many, or even any. the environment, and highly active material, including the fission product strontium This is because there is no possible way all the population could get that dose. 90, which cannot, and consequently must be stored for a very long time. This Tamplin and Gofman took the figure of 170 rnillirem, which was the allowed dose storage presents no real technical problem, and there is very little chance of the for a person living at the boundary of a nuclear facility and, basing their calcula- stored material being involved in any sort of uncontrolled accident. Where it is tions on some unwarranted assumptions about the relation between dose and effect, stored is partly it matter of convenience, but it has to be stored in such a way determine the number of cancer cases if the whole population of the US received that any conceivable mishap would not produce unacceptable exposure of the that dose. The only way they could get it would be if the whole area of the US public. Unacceptable, that is, in terms of doses to individuals and of "population were covered by nuclear reactors and the population sat on the boundary fences. dose"; the criteria for the latter include the limitation of genetic radiation dose If the dose allowed at the boundary is 170 millirem, anyone further away will to an acceptable level. It will usually be easier to meet these requirements for get less. The style of presentation used by Tamplin and Gofman ensures headlines nuclear stores, or other facilities, where population density is low. This does not rather than conveying factual information. And, in actual practice, doses at mean any increased allowable risk to individuals, nor will the location of the boundaries have never been estimated as possibly reaching more than a percent site make any difference to the allowable population exposure. Legislation on the or two of the allowable. limits of radiation exposure does not differentiate between city and country, and There is another major flaw in the Gofman-Tamplin logic. They obtain no one who lives in the "Outback" need fear he is being discriminated against. their estimates of cancer frequency following small radiation doses by quite Radioactive isotopes decay in an exponential manner, a term your teacher improper reasoning. They take existing, fairly reliable data for the incidence of a

152 153 few specific forms of cancer after high radiation doses, and derive from them a Before you answer the last question you should think about the frequency of "doubling dose" — that is, the dose of radiation that will double the natural accidents in coal mines and the numbers of coal miners who suffer or die from frequency of cancer. This is wrong because there are large variations of natural pneumoconiosis; the frequency of accidents in oil rigs, oil storage facilities, tankers incidence rates with such factors as geographical location, race, social conditions and so on; on the effects of the soot, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides and and habits, and, in particular, age. Use of the doubling dose concept requires other things which are shed over our cities as a result of the combustion of fossil improbable assumptions; for example, since the geographical variation in the fuels; and quite a few other things too. frequency of stomach cancer is over tenfold, the Gofman-Tamplin logic requires us to believe that a given dose of radiation is ten times as effective in inducing And, before you condemn the few possible millirem from nuclear power, stomach cancer in one country than it is in another. There are better ways of consider that natural background radiation averages about 110 millirem which making such estimates and 1 will finish by saying something of them and what is no one can escape, and that, in the US, the exposure from medical radiology adds meant by reasonable or permissible limits of radiation exposure. up to about the same average as background. One final point: negative evidence may not be very compelling, but it is of International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) interest to consider some figures from a fairly large population of occupationally exposed persons, who may legitimately receive up to 5,000 millirem a year. The function of this body is to make recommendations on allowable radiation This is the male staff of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority for the doses and to provide informed comment on the problems which arise in the years 1962-1969. interpretation of these recommendations and in protecting both the public and people who work with radiation from undue exposure. It is truly international Causes of Death Actual Expected and unbiased; it is probably sufficient evidence of its competence and good faith (actuarial for whole to say that all governments, irrespective of political colour, have set up regulations population) on radiation and radioactive substances which effectively match ICRP All causes 1,467 1,986 recommendations. All cancers 379 513 Now there is no question but that large doses of radiation may induce cancer Lung cancers 150 224 and leukaemia, and the ICRP accepts this and goes further. It makes the cautious assumption that any exposure to radiation, however small the dose, carries some Leukaemia 6 13 risk for the development of leukaemia, other forms of cancer, and of the You will see that, on the face of things, these radiation workers who receive induction of genetic effects. That is, there is no wholly safe dose of radiation, and above average exposure are no worse off for it. the ICRP believes that the policy of assuming some risk at low doses is the If you would like to discuss the matter further, we should be very happy for most reasonable basis of radiation protection. In the face of uncertainty over you and the rest of your fifth form to visit the Commission's Research effects at low doses and low dose rates, where data are virtually impossible to Establishment at Lucas Heights. get, the ICRP assumes that effect is proportional to dose, right down to the lowest levels irrespective of dose rate, even though this approach may lead to a gross overestimate of the incidence of effects from chronic low-level exposure. On the basis of such conservative estimates of risks, the ICRP has made sets of recommendations of allowable exposure, both for radiation workers and the public at large, and for the limitation of genetic dose to a whole population. Their philosophy recognises that unless man wants to dispense with activities which involve exposure to radiation, he must recognise there is a degree of risk, and limit radiation dose to a level at which the assumed risk is acceptable to the individual and to society, in view of the benefits derived from such activities. The figure of 170 millirem, mentioned earlier, came ultimately from ICRP recommendations. Let us now make a more reasonable assumption of average US exposure from nuclear power stations of, say ten millirem (which is almost certainly still far too high), and apply the rational approach of the ICRP in calculating the excess cancer so induced. The answer comes out at a maximum of 200, and may be as low as zero if our assumptions have been over-conservative. This compares with a total US cancer deathrate of some 600,000 a year. Effects of such small magnitude are statistically undetectable. So you must answer for yourselves two questions. Is a risk real if you cannot detect its effects? And is a maximum of 200 cancer cases, if you accept them as real, worth the benefits of nuclear power?

154 155 Above: Setting up a graphite moderated experimental reactor on the recently installed Split-table Critical Facility at the AAEC Research Establishment, Lucas Heights. The massive cast-iron supports provide precise mechanical constraint for split-table assemblies.

Left: As part of the environmental study of the Alligator Rivers Uranium Field, various species of fresh water fish are caught and' air-freighted to Lucas Heights. The Commission hopes to breed the fish under laboratory condi- tions so that investigations can be undertaken on the possible toxic effects of uranium mining pollutants on fish eggs and juveniles. This work will support the field studies in the Northern Territory

FRONT COVER Southern section of the Ranger Uranium Mines Pty. Ltd. uranium exploration area, looking towards Mt. Brockman, about 130 miles east of Darwin. Explor- atory drilling by the company to date has established that the Ranger deposit contains approximately 80,000 tonnes of uranium oxide — the largest orebody in the Alligator Rivers Uranium Field.