Confronting the experts

Brian Martin, editor

Published in 1996 by State University of New York Press, Albany

This is the August 1995 typescript with minor changes in the text, a different format and page numbering (112 instead of 210 pages) and omission of the index.

Contents

1. Introduction: experts and establishments 1 Brian Martin

2. Sewerage treatment and the engineering establishment 8 Sharon Beder

3. Fluoridation: breaking the silence barrier 26 Mark Diesendorf

4. Terrorism: the struggle against closure 45 Edward S. Herman

5. “What price intellectual honesty?” asks a neurobiologist 58 Harold Hillman

6. The Guido Riccio controversy in art history 78 Michael Mallory and Gordon Moran

7. Confronting the nuclear power structure in India 93 Dhirendra Sharma

8. Conclusion: learning from struggle 105 Brian Martin

Contributors 110

1 Introduction: experts and establishments Brian Martin

Published in Brian Martin (editor), Confronting the Experts (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996), pp. 1-12

Today’s complex society is increasingly The most prominent and regular pronuclear dependent on experts — civil engineers, contributor was Sir Ernest Titterton, Professor surgeons, taxation lawyers, computer of Nuclear Physics at the Australian National programmers, economists, and many others. University, whose involvement with and These experts are usually defined by their advocacy of nuclear technology dated from the credentials and their solidarity with main- 1940s. As a local, high-status authority, Sir stream professional bodies. Those who oppose Ernest could easily get his articles and letters them often do not have the same credibility, published. Other prominent pronuclear although they may have the same levels of contributors were Sir Philip Baxter, former knowledge and experience. head of the Australian Atomic Energy This book contains first-hand accounts Commission, and Mr John Grover, a mining from individuals each of whom has made a engineer. challenge to a body of experts. The authors tell I composed my letters and articles with about their motivations, their methods, their care, checking all details with knowledgeable successes and failures, and the attacks friends.1 Debate through the letters column mounted against them. There are some eye- was not something for the faint-hearted. I opening stories here, especially in what they remember the queasy feeling in my stomach reveal about the behavior of establishment the first few times I was directly criticized by experts and the obstacles to open debate. later correspondents. How unfair, yet how Together, these accounts provide exceptional clever, their arguments sometimes were! There insight into how to go about challenging the was so much to say in response. Yet, how experts. could I say it all in my next letter, in just a few To introduce this topic, I begin by briefly hundred words, and yet not lose new readers describing some of my own experiences, by squabbling over minor details? before turning to some general considerations. Most of the debate was about the role of the My first major confrontation with experts civil nuclear power industry in the prolifera- began in 1976 when I moved to Canberra, the tion of nuclear weapons, the safety of nuclear national capital of Australia, and became technology, the economics of uranium mining involved in the campaign against nuclear and the viability of alternatives to nuclear power and uranium mining. The issue was one power. The topic of expertise also came up. of the most prominent of the day: a major Sir Ernest asserted that virtually all experts environmental inquiry into uranium mining supported nuclear power and that opponents was under way and the government’s position were “a small group of anti-uranium operators was yet to be finalised. As a result, there were who miss no opportunity of spreading their numerous media stories. Schools and propaganda.”2 Sir Philip presented a more community groups were eager for speakers. paranoid position, claiming that the antinu- One way I became involved was through the clear movement was infiltrated by commu- letters to the editor of the city’s sole daily nists; he was also highly derogatory of newspaper, the Canberra Times, which individual opponents. John Grover repeatedly published numerous contributions both for and made the point that the vast majority of against nuclear power and uranium mining. 2 Confronting the experts

scientists and engineers supported nuclear positions and their long influence in govern- power, while only a discontented minority ment policy-making gave them a big head start opposed it. in any debate. In the mid 1970s, the idea that The nuclear establishment’s argument, that Australia’s rich uranium deposits should not experts know best and that most nuclear be mined — when there was plenty of money experts supported nuclear power, was a to be made doing it — was considered radical, challenging one, for it was certainly true that if not entirely foolish. Most of us in the most nuclear experts did support nuclear antinuclear movement were young and power. In replying to these arguments, I had without high formal status. However good our one advantage: I was a scientist myself. My arguments were, we started at a disadvantage recent PhD was in theoretical physics, though in relation to the pronuclear experts. not in nuclear physics. But I knew enough Things were even more difficult in small science to realize that the nuclear debate was country towns. Confronted by a visiting not primarily about nuclear expertise. The key pronuclear expert, the local antinuclear issues — environmental hazards, nuclear activists were hard pressed to mount an proliferation, civil liberties in a nuclear effective response. With an awareness of such society, economics of uranium mining, situations, I decided to apply my developing centralization of political and economic power social science skills to writing a critique of the in a nuclearized world, the impact of uranium views of the leading proponents of nuclear mining on Aboriginal communities, and power. An abundance of material led me to alternatives to nuclear power — involved focus initially on Sir Ernest and Sir Philip. I political, economic, social, cultural and ethical tracked down all their articles I could find, dimensions. using newspaper clipping services, the My response to the “experts-know-best” National Library, abstracting services and argument had several strands. First, I pointed citations. Then I analyzed their views on out that the so-called experts often had made nuclear power, nuclear weapons and the mistakes in the past. Why should the public nuclear debate. It was no surprise to find that trust them now? Second, I argued that exper- the views of these nuclear experts were closely tise in nuclear science and engineering was not linked to their professional positions. For central in the nuclear debate. Did knowledge example, Sir Ernest and Sir Philip in the 1960s of neutron scattering cross-sections really give admitted a connection between civil nuclear one a special right to pronounce on energy power and proliferation of nuclear weapons, options? Third, I claimed that the experts had because they hoped to keep open the option of a vested interest in supporting nuclear power, Australian nuclear weapons, whereas in the because it was compatible with their careers 1970s they denied this connection, since and world view. proliferation had become a central argument This confrontation with pronuclear experts against nuclear power. My booklet provided a was illuminating. It was challenging enough convenient compendium of quotations and for me just to debate the issue through articles critical comment.3 and letters in the newspaper. I was very My experience in the nuclear debate gave impressed when some of my friends in the me some understanding of how to go about antinuclear movement engaged in public challenging a body of experts. It also made me debate with Sir Ernest or some other pronu- aware of how important and how difficult this clear speaker. It took real courage to tackle an could be. experienced, self-confident (or, some would The nuclear debate stimulated my interest say, arrogant), high-prestige scientist in open in the social role of experts, in how experts debate. gain and exercise power, and how they can be There is no doubt that Sir Ernest, Sir Philip challenged. This continuing interest led me to and others did have high prestige in the wider investigate various academic studies of community. Their knighthoods, their eminent experts, to read many revealing exposés of Introduction 3

establishment positions, and to prepare a energy policy, including fossil fuels and handbook on methods for challenging ex- renewable energy sources. perts.4 But none of these provides much help Actually, the preferred role of most experts to those who would like some insight into is behind the scenes, quietly doing their job. what it takes to be a critic of dominant experts. Almost all scientists and engineers work for That is why this book seemed worthwhile.5 It government, industry or universities. Doctors aims to provide insight into the hazardous and lawyers are more likely to have private business of questioning the dominant experts. practices. There are two points that are important here. First, most experts are closely Experts are important tied to powerful interest groups. Second, these It hardly needs mentioning that experts play a groups are seldom challenged in fundamental crucial role in modern society. If the term ways, and therefore experts do not need to “expert” is used in the everyday sense of a take their case to the public. (There are person who knows a lot about a subject or can exceptions to this pattern, however, such as do a task extremely well, then there are some issues of foreign policy where the experts of all varieties, from bricklayers to experts need to continually present their views brain surgeons and from cooks to computer and seek to monopolize the discussion.) analysts. Experts in this sense are skilled Nuclear scientists and engineers worked people. behind the scenes for several decades — the But there is another sense of “expert” 1940s until the early 1970s — without having which involves an additional dimension. This to justify their support for nuclear technology. occurs when a group of skilled people is able This was because many governments to convince others that they are the exclusive supported nuclear research, nuclear electric authorities in an area. Bricklayers and cooks power and, in quite a number of cases, nuclear have seldom been able to do this: they are weapons. When, in the 1970s, a citizens’ rarely quoted in the media concerning policies movement against nuclear power developed, on housing design or diet. The groups that quite a number of these scientists and engi- have succeeded in making their claims to neers joined the public debate. They presented expertise an avenue for considerable power, themselves as the experts. status and authority include doctors, lawyers, This is the usual pattern. Most doctors or scientists, engineers and economists. These civil engineers just get on with the job, most of occupational groups — commonly called them working where the pay and conditions professions — have been able to expand their are most attractive, committed in their own influence and status beyond what might be way to doing a good job. Only occasionally is expected on the basis of the skills possessed there some challenge to professional status or by their individual members. These groups conditions: a plan for national health insur- thus can be said to have succeeded in the ance, or the environmental and health damage “political mobilization of expertise,” where from a large dam. In such circumstances, a “political” is used here in the broad sense of few vocal doctors or engineers are likely to involving the exercise of power.6 take the lead in defending what they see to be “Political expertise” is a familiar feature of the interests of the profession as a whole. western societies. We are all used to hearing So here is the general picture: the dominant authorities pronounce on various issues. group of experts in any field is usually closely Economists make statements on the economy; linked to other power structures, typically doctors make statements about diet. I encoun- government, industry or professional bodies. tered it in the nuclear debate when Sir Ernest The links are cemented through jobs, consul- and Sir Philip, on the basis of their position as tancies, access to power and status, training eminent nuclear scientists, made what they and other methods. considered to be authoritative statements on Few people would object to such links if the experts were always right. But they aren’t. 4 Confronting the experts

There are many examples where — at least join the fray to ensure that the critics do not according to later judgements — the dominant become too influential. experts have backed wrong ideas, dubious or The critics, because they can puncture the corrupt practices, and illegitimate vested appearance of unanimity, often come under interests. For example, geologists for decades attack. They may be slandered, have their rejected the theory of continental drift. The publications blocked, or lose their jobs. This idea that continents could move was may sound extreme, but it is all too common. I considered eccentric, and those who treated it started studying the topic of “suppression of seriously were treated with suspicion. Yet now intellectual dissent” in the late 1970s. It didn’t continental drift is the accepted theory. take long to find that suppression of dissent is In the early 1930s, in the midst of the a pervasive phenomenon. Indeed, it seems to economic depression, the standard economic be a key means by which dissent among view in industrialized countries was that experts is discouraged.8 (The other important government expenditure should be reduced. means are rewards for conformity — jobs, Later economists, following the views of promotions, awards — and professional Keynes, saw government intervention as acculturation into a standard picture of the particularly necessary in such times. Military world.) experts provide another example. During the The contributors to this book are prominent 1960s, US military experts regularly critics of establishment experts. They have proclaimed that US military involvement in taken the courageous and dangerous step of Vietnam could soon be decreased because openly and persistently questioning the their communist opponents were nearly dominant position. As a result, they have defeated. Just as regularly, their forecasts encountered an array of hostile attacks on their turned out to be completely wrong. credibility and sometimes their careers. There are certainly plenty of examples Why are the experiences of these critics showing that individual experts can be wrong.7 worth telling? For one thing, they are simply That’s only to be expected. After all, anyone amazing stories. But, more importantly, can be wrong, even an expert. The important society needs more such critics. Without situation is when a whole body of experts is critics, expert establishments have too much linked to a powerful institution — govern- power and, as Lord Acton’s saying puts it so ment, industry, profession, church, etc. — and well, “power tends to corrupt.”9 In order to the expertise is systematically used to serve promote a more open and participatory soci- the institution at the expense of the public ety, it is crucial that dissident views be heard. interest. When influential experts are wrong in The philosophy behind this book is that this situation, then it is serious indeed. society will be better off if more people are This can happen on a regular basis, so long able and willing to openly question standard as there is no challenge to the expert claims. views. This holds true even if critics, by later An unopposed body of experts has great judgement, turn out to be wrong. What is influence in justifying policies and practices. important is the process of open debate. When Enter the critic. When even a single expert debate is inhibited or squashed, the potential disagrees and is able to reach a substantial for abuse of power is magnified enormously. audience, whether professionals or a wider It is useful to remember that what we today public, there is no longer unanimity. Instead of think of as progress resulted from the over- an expert monologue, there is now a debate throw of widely and passionately held beliefs between differing experts. Critics thus have a linked to powerful vested interests. The disproportionate impact on the public percep- promotion of public hygiene, the abolition of tion of an issue. Experts can no longer remain slavery, and the challenge to women’s in the background with their positions safe oppression, among others, each took place in from scrutiny. A few of them, at least, must the face of powerful forces backed up by esteemed experts. Introduction 5

When I invited individuals to write chapters Mark Diesendorf tells about his challenge for this book, I asked them to give a personal to the dental and medical experts who support account of how they went about confronting fluoridation. Issues affecting people’s health establishment experts. Surprisingly, there were often provoke intense interest and debates, as few role models I could give them. There are, testified by the prominence of diverse issues to be sure, a number of accounts attacking concerning cigarette smoking, cholesterol, particular bodies of experts, such as Rachel AIDS, vitamins and cancer. Experts are Carson’s classic Silent Spring and Ralph involved in these and many other areas, and Nader’s classic Unsafe at Any Speed.10 Yet many of these experts are influenced by these works give little information about how powerful interest groups, including pharma- the critic collected evidence, put it together ceutical companies, industrial polluters, and and built a persuasive case.11 There is also a the medical and dental professions. Promoters body of academic literature dealing with of fluoridation are an especially powerful and experts and expertise. But I find it of little use well-organized establishment. Diesendorf, one for a practical understanding of what is of the world’s leading antifluoridation scien- involved in mounting a critical attack against tists, revealed much about this establishment experts. through his potent challenge to it. When I set about inviting contributors and Edward Herman has challenged the schol- case studies, I had several criteria. One was ars, commentators, politicians and government the existence of a powerful establishment functionaries who have defined “terrorism” in position with recognised experts or expertise, a way convenient to Western governments. It such as the nuclear industry, orthodox is a simple fact that most organized killing in medicine and mainstream political opinion. the world today is done at the behest of Second, I looked for critics who had devoted a governments, either in wars or by repressive major effort to attacking the experts rather governments against their own citizens. This is than primarily presenting their own particular forgotten or obscured when “terrorism” is alternative position. Finally, I looked for cases defined as the action of small antigovernment in which the dominant experts had responded groups or a few renegade governments. This is in a way which revealed the nature of the one example of how Western governments establishment with which they were linked. systematically shape popular perceptions of The contributors and case studies all satisfy political reality and are thus able to escape these requirements well. proper scrutiny of their actions. Herman is an Sharon Beder deals with an engineering eminent scholar and also a committed partisan establishment that set the parameters for the who has done as much as anyone to expose the Sydney sewerage system over many decades. double standards of the “terrorism” establish- Engineering establishments are incredibly ment experts — though this task is enormous, influential in shaping the infrastructure of considering the power and ideological sway of society: roads, rail, electricity, telephone, national security establishments. water, ports, computer networks and others. Harold Hillman started off just doing These are not just technical matters: there are biological research and ended up confronting questions of power and wealth involved, as an enormously powerful biology research well as the direct involvement of corporate establishment. In spite of popular views to the and government vested interests. But these contrary, scientific research is an incredibly political and economic dimensions are usually conservative enterprise: innovation of hidden behind a facade of technical expertise particular sorts is welcomed, but challenges to which is seldom considered something for fundamental principles are typically rejected public debate. Beder investigated and exposed out of hand. The reason is simple: many the operation of one such engineering estab- prestigious and not-so-prestigious scientists lishment, helping to force it, kicking and have an enormous stake in the prevailing set of screaming, into the public eye. ideas and directions. Hillman reveals much 6 Confronting the experts

about the power of scientific research estab- establishment, including insight into the lishments in his challenge to long-held operation of the establishment and into assumptions about standard methods for successful and unsuccessful methods of biological research. mounting a challenge to it. Michael Mallory and Gordon Moran Reading these accounts, especially the questioned the standard interpretation of a stories of attacks against the critics, makes it single art work and thereby came up against tempting to think of expert establishments as the full force of an art history establishment. unscrupulous conspiracies. Personally, I prefer To some, it might seem that not as much is at a different interpretation. Within establish- stake in the arts as in engineering or govern- ments, the dominant view is so taken for ment policy, but the same processes apply. Art granted that a radically different viewpoint is history is one facet of the more general virtually inconceivable and certainly has no process of creating and certifying ways of credibility. This means that the critics are easy understanding human culture. Various “culture to dismiss as ignorant or dangerous or both; experts” have set themselves up as the furthermore, the methods used against them authorities in this process, and it is as difficult are seen as necessary to protect a worthwhile to challenge orthodoxy here as anywhere else. enterprise. It has long been my view that What is at stake is primarily careers, status and nearly everyone has the best of intentions, and cultural self-understandings. Mallory and I believe that the stories told here are compati- Moran were led into a continuing engagement ble with this view. The stories can be with an art history establishment which, interpreted as struggles between groups and through its reactions, revealed more about individuals each of which believes they are itself than about the art work in question. defending or promoting important truths. But Dhirendra Sharma challenged the czars of some of the contributors may disagree with me nuclear power and nuclear weapons in India on this! and, as a result, was targeted for attack. In A big challenge faces any expert writing for numerous countries around the world, nuclear a general audience: how can the material be technology has been supported by powerful made understandable without sacrificing forces in government and industry and accuracy and rigor? This applies to an even opposed by citizen groups. A few experts have greater extent to critics of experts. (Make no had the courage to speak out against nuclear mistake, these critics are experts themselves. developments and many of them have been They simply disagree with the establishment attacked for doing so. In India, the task has position.) The views of the critics are much been especially difficult because of the close more likely to be unfamiliar to others, and personal links between the nuclear establish- therefore more space is needed for them to ment and powerful figures in government and explain things, since less can be taken for industry who had shown their capacity to granted. silence dissent. Another difficulty is the lack As a result, some of these chapters contain of any tradition within India’s scientific difficulties for some readers. Those without community of speaking out in the public scientific training may find parts of Harold interest. Sharma paid a serious price for his Hillman’s chapter difficult. Those without dissent, but even so he may have been familiarity with the visual arts may find parts fortunate that the price was not even higher. of Michael Mallory and Gordon Moran’s I think that each of these critics has a strong chapter challenging. My advice is to not get case, otherwise I would not have invited their stuck on difficult parts. There is plenty of contributions. However, the point of the book valuable material even for those with no as a whole is not to argue that each of these knowledge of the field. Technical detail has critics is correct and each of the establish- been kept to a minimum. For those specialists ments is wrong, but instead to provide insight who want more information, plenty of refer- into the process of confronting an expert ences are cited in each chapter. Introduction 7

There are a number of biases in my selec- Magrass, Power in the Highest Degree: tion of contributors. There are numerous Professionals and the Rise of a New Mandarin critics whose stories would be worth telling Order, New York, Oxford University Press and I managed to obtain contributors from a (1990); Eliot Freidson, Professional range of fields. Other problems were harder to Dominance: The Social Structure of Medical overcome. A gender balance is difficult to Care, New York: Atherton (1970); Terence J. achieve, and would be somewhat artificial, Johnson, Professions and Power, London: because in many fields most experts, critics or Macmillan (1972); Magali Sarfatti Larson, The otherwise, are men. For example, virtually Rise of Professionalism: A Sociological every leading figure in the fluoridation debate Analysis, Berkeley: University of California is a man. Another, related, bias is my selection Press (1977). of individual critics. Some of the most 7. Christopher Cerf and Victor Navasky, important challenges to establishment experts The Experts Speak: The Definitive come from collective endeavors, most notably Compendium of Authoritative Misinformation, within the feminist movement.12 Yet another New York: Pantheon (1984). bias is my restriction to English-language 8. Brian Martin, C. M. Ann Baker, Clyde critics. Manwell and Cedric Pugh (eds.), Intellectual To these and other biases I plead guilty. Suppression: Australian Case Histories, The extenuating circumstance is the impor- Analysis and Responses, Sydney: Angus and tance of the task. I hope that this book will Robertson (1986). encourage other critics to tell their stories. 9. This insight is confirmed by psychologi- More importantly, I hope these stories will cal experiments. See David Kipnis, The encourage some readers to become critics Powerholders, Chicago: University of themselves and to undertake the challenging Chicago Press (1981, second edition); David and stimulating task of confronting the estab- Kipnis, Technology and Power, New York: lishment experts. Springer-Verlag (1990). 10. Rachel Carson, Silent Spring, Boston: Notes Houghton Mifflin (1962); Ralph Nader, 1. Mark Diesendorf, a contributor to this Unsafe at any Speed: The Designed-in book on another topic, was especially Dangers of the American Automobile, New knowledgeable and helpful. York: Grossman (1965). 2. E. W. Titterton, letter, Canberra Times 11. Lois Marie Gibbs as told to Murray (30 March 1979): 2. Levine, Love Canal, My Story, Albany, State 3. Brian Martin, Nuclear Knights, University of New York Press (1982) is good Canberra: Rupert Public Interest Movement on this issue but deals much more with (1980). establishments than the experts. I thank a 4. Brian Martin, Strip the Experts, London: referee for mentioning this book and the one Freedom Press (1991). by Brint (note 6 above). 5. Sharon Beder collaborated in the initial 12. A prominent example is the Boston development of the plan for this book. Women’s Health Book Collective whose book 6. On the analysis of professions as systems Our Bodies, Ourselves, Boston: New England of power, see Steven Brint, In an Age of Free Press (1971, and several later editions) Experts: The Changing Role of Professionals constitutes a major challenge to the male in Politics and Public Life, Princeton: medical establishment. The Collective was too Princeton University Press (1994); Randall busy to contribute a chapter. Their approach is Collins, The Credential Society: An Historical described in, for example, Wendy Coppedge Sociology of Education and Stratification, Sanford, “Working together growing together: New York: Academic Press (1979); Charles A brief history of the Boston Women’s Health Derber, William A. Schwartz and Yale Book Collective,” Heresies, vol. 2, no. 3 (1979): 83-92. 2 Sewerage treatment and the engineering establishment Sharon Beder

Published in Brian Martin (editor), Confronting the Experts (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996), pp. 13-43

Sewerage experts only useful in understanding the engineers I was studying but that it helped in reducing the To be able to relegate the entire job of barriers between us when I began interviewing secondary treatment to a few holes in the engineers from the Water Board and the State end of a submarine pipe and the final Pollution Control Commission (the regulatory disposal of the effluent to a mass of authority for the State of New South Wales water into which the fluid is jetted, and (NSW)). Generally I was accepted as non- to accomplish this without material cost threatening because of my engineering of maintenance and none for operation, background. Engineers in both the Board and presents a picture of such great allure as the Commission were quite frank about their to capture the imagination of the dullest views of the public and the role of the and justify extensive exploration into the engineer, although they were careful about ways and means of satisfactory accom- what they said to me about their employers’ plishment.1 policies. At no time did any of the people I The sewerage engineers in Sydney, Australia, interviewed at these two organisations admit like many of their colleagues throughout the any misgivings about the ability of the world, believed that the ocean should be used proposed extended outfall scheme to solve the for sewage treatment. The rhetoric of the problems of ocean and beach pollution. Nor Sydney Water Board — that the ocean was did they criticise any other Water Board or “the world’s most efficient purification plant”2 government policies. — reflected an attitude that permeated the When I began my research the extent of the organisation. By the time I began studying the health and environmental problems caused by issue in 1985, the use of the ocean for sewage sewage in Sydney’s coastal waters had been treatment had led to the serious pollution of hidden from the public but complaints Sydney’s most popular beaches and the heavy persisted about the most visible pollution. The organochlorine contamination of fish in Board had begun construction of three nearshore waters. deepwater outfalls in 1984 that would extend I had decided that the development of existing shoreline outfalls two to four kilome- Sydney’s sewerage system would be a good tres out to sea. The pipes would be laid case study for a PhD.3 A study of the decision- beneath the sea bottom and the sewage would making processes surrounding the develop- emerge from a number of diffusers rising from ment of Sydney’s sewerage system offered an the end of the pipes. The sewage, which opportunity for me to combine my engineering contains 42% industrial waste, would remain training and experience with my new interest barely treated, with only 10-15% of the solids in the relationship between science, technol- removed. The ocean, the engineers assured ogy and society. I wanted to find out to what everyone, would do the rest. extent technology is shaped by social and The Water Board engineers were able to political considerations. convince many people of this because I was more interested in studying engineers sewerage engineers were the acknowledged and engineering than being an engineer but I experts when it comes to dealing with sewage. found my engineering background was not Sewage collection, treatment and disposal had Sewerage treatment 9

become part of the professional territory of the officials and municipal bureaucrats because engineer in the nineteenth century and despite they did not have sufficient breadth and depth the divergent fields of knowledge which bear of training. Sanitary engineers were to be civil on sewage decisions today, including engineers with additional knowledge of epidemiology, toxicology, oceanography, physical and natural sciences.5 marine biology, and many others, engineers The aptitude of engineers, however, have maintained their domination of the area. particularly with respect to sewage treatment, Engineers were called in to build and was not immediately apparent, even in the design the first sewerage systems in many nineteenth century. Sewage treatment involved European, US and colonial cities when the biological and chemical processes that idea of sanitary reform became popular in the scientists and others felt they had a claim to. mid-nineteenth century. At the time there had For example, towards the end of the nineteenth been high infant mortality rates and outbreaks century some scientists, biologists in particu- of epidemics in many densely populated cities lar, threatened to take control of sewage where there was no running water and no farming as the biological mechanisms of reliable and effective means to deal with sewage farming became better understood.6 human wastes. Contrary to popular opinion, Despite the enormous popular appeal of the marked increase in life expectancy sewage farming in the nineteenth century and achieved in these cities during the nineteenth to the present day (because it makes agricul- century was not due to the advances of the tural use of the nutrients and water in the medical profession, but rather to the engi- sewage) engineers were not inclined to favour neering works constructed at this time. it as a method of treatment because it was In the nineteenth century, whilst engineers unpredictable, less controllable and less designed the pipes, ideas about how to deal closely aligned to their traditional skills than with the human wastes, particularly once they more artificial methods of treatment. The had been removed from people’s residences, “naturalness” of a sewage farm, which were openly debated by the public and almost appealed to some sections of the public, was anyone could become an expert in the field by not a desirable attribute to engineers who studying the issue carefully and writing about sought to harness and control nature with their it. People from various professions, including technologies and thereby claim expertise in doctors and lawyers, wrote books and articles sewage treatment. on the subject. This is very different from the The triumph of engineers in taking control situation today when discussion is limited to of sewage treatment marked an end to sewage which engineering solution should be used in a farming as a feasible treatment option in most particular situation. Engineers today define Western countries. As a group, sewerage what is feasible — what can and can not be engineers (also called public health engineers done — and which technologies are appropri- and sanitary engineers) preferred certain ate. They also attempt to ensure that their technologies and methods and virtually preferred solutions are implemented. ignored others. They favoured water-carriage The authority of sewerage engineers as a methods to transport the sewage to the nearest profession, with its own body of specialist waterway for disposal despite considerable knowledge, emerged in the 1870s when two public opposition in some cases. Treatment British engineers published books with the methods were developed to ensure that the term “sanitary engineering” in their titles. This sewage, when discharged into a river, would was followed shortly after by an American not use up too much oxygen and choke the book.4 Attempts were made to exclude non- river or create a nuisance because of a build up engineers from the field: tradespeople because of rotting matter. A large variety of treatment of their non-scientific knowledge base, processes were soon reduced down to a physicians because they were unable to manageable few that were arranged into execute engineering works, and public health primary, secondary and tertiary stages. 10 Confronting the experts

Where engineers were able to use the sea wind, why did they not want the floats to for disposal they avoided treating the sewage travel in the direction of the wind? altogether because the sewage would be In Sydney, engineers used such float diluted and decomposed in the sea. Engineers studies to argue that the sewage would be always sought the cheapest solutions and carried away by the southerly current even preferred not to install treatment if the ocean though there was a predominant on-shore wind would do it for them. Their defence of this in summer. After the first ocean outfalls had practice was initially quite flimsy and been built evidence that the engineering unconvincing but over the years it has become predictions had been wrong inevitably more sophisticated with the addition of emerged. As the sewage comes to the surface complex oceanographic studies which are of the sea it forms a field with sharply defined designed to show that sewage will be diluted, edges which can be differentiated from the sea dispersed, carried away by currents, remain water by its discolouration. The fields can be submerged beneath the ocean surface, oxidised observed to travel in one direction or another and treated by the ocean and generally from adjacent headlands and if onshore winds rendered harmless. are blowing it is easy to trace their course onto nearby beaches. Other signs of pollution are Engineering proofs also readily visible. Floating solid material in In 1985 I became interested in how Water the water and grease balls on the sand are two Board engineers had managed to consistently obvious examples. Smell and greasy feel are claim for decades that sewage was being other good indications of the presence of carried away by a southerly current and sewage. diluted and decomposed far away from the Despite these obvious indicators, for almost beaches when it seemed obvious to anyone one hundred years the Water Board engineers who watched the movement of the sewage persistently denied that the pollution resulted fields that the sewage often came onto the from those outfalls. They explained that the beaches. And it must have been obvious to sewage could not have come from the outfalls those who went swimming on such occasions. because of the southerly current that would My historical research showed me that even have carried it away. Their theoretical before the first ocean outfall had been built in predictions were given more weight than the 1889 people who lived near the sea had seen real evidence that contradicted them. From garbage and offal disposed of at sea come then until the present day, the obvious back onto the beaches. The letters to the pollution was blamed on passing ships, algae, newspapers at the time showed that many beachgoers and stormwater drains. It is people did not believe the engineers’ claims difficult to understand such denials except in that the proposed outfall near Bondi Beach terms of deception of the beachgoing public. would not cause any pollution of the beach. And such deception relied on the authority of The engineering textbooks and expert expertise to gain the support of the wider writings of the late nineteenth century indicate public. that engineers were well aware of the fact that In the summer after I began my research, sewage would rise to the surface of the ocean the Water Board spent half a million dollars (because it had a higher temperature and lower telling the public how its deepwater outfalls specific gravity than sea water) and flow in the were going to clean up the beaches. The direction of the wind, which could be deepwater outfalls would, they said, end onshore.7 The textbooks recommended that sewage pollution of the beaches (which the engineers study the currents and tides with the Board now belatedly admitted came from the use of floats. But I found it puzzling that they outfalls). This message appeared in television instructed that the floats be kept submerged so and magazine advertisements that were always that they would not be affected by the winds.8 visually splendid. Pristine beaches and If the sewage travelled in the direction of the beautiful people evoked a promised future of Sewerage treatment 11

unpolluted beaches. the effluent/seawater mixture moves As in the past, it was claimed that the away from the initial dilution zone under sewage would be carried off by the southerly the influence of ocean currents. In current and treated in the ocean through Sydney, these currents are not normally dilution, oxidation and biodegradation.9 It all directed onshore during the summer sounded rather similar to the historical months. material I had been reading. But there was a A reprint of the same brochure was new element this time. The Board was changed to: predicting that the deepwater outfalls would keep the sewage field submerged. If the the effluent/seawater mixture moves sewage was submerged beneath the surface of away from the initial dilution zone under the ocean, it would not be blown in the the influence of strong offshore ocean direction of the wind. currents during the summer months.

The Board’s claims were based on the I examined the oceanographic studies under- existence of a thermoclyne, or difference in taken by the Board’s consultants, Caldwell densities, in the coastal waters off Sydney. Connell. In two studies, one in 1976 and one The idea was that sun-warmed waters on the in 1980, Caldwell Connell had measured surface would be less dense than the cooler, currents at various depths where the outfalls deeper waters and therefore would not mix would be discharging. These studies showed with them. Sewage released into those deeper, that even the deepwater currents were going denser waters would be trapped beneath the towards the shore for 30-50% of the time surface of the ocean, under the layer of during the summer. Yet they ignored their own warmer water and carried southwards by the evidence and concluded that in the long term ocean current. This theory had originated in the sewage discharges would be carried the United States when it had been discovered southward.10 I questioned the Board’s engi- that the Los Angeles deepwater outfall seemed neers on this point and was told that although to work this way most of the time. the currents were going towards the shore, However, it was apparent that conditions they turned when they got close to the shore off the coast of California were different from and headed southwards. This assumption was the conditions in the coastal waters off based on theory but had not been tested Sydney. For one thing, the current coming empirically. from the north of California came from the Even if you accepted this, there were cold northern regions and provided more significant differences between the claims in difference in temperature and therefore density the engineering reports and those being made from the sun-warmed layer on top. In by the advertisements. For example, while the Australia the northern current came down advertisements said sewage pollution would from tropical waters and so was much warmer be eliminated, the reports predicted that the to start with. Would the difference be enough sewage fields would still come onto the to keep the field submerged off Sydney? And beaches when the field surfaced and there was if it was, would the current really carry it all an onshore wind. This would happen, the away? reports stated, for a small amount of the time One person who claimed it wouldn’t was in summer and forty per cent of the time in Tom Mullins, a marine chemist at the winter, when many people still go to the beach University of Technology, Sydney. He said and surf. that there was no single unified south-going My suspicions were further aroused when I current off Sydney but rather a series of eddies discovered a retired Commission scientist, and other irregularities. A wording change in a Robert Brain, who had studied the Water Water Board’s public relations brochure also Board’s models in detail and who argued that made me suspicious. An early brochure stated they were wrong. Brain had given an honest that: appraisal of the Water Board’s predictions 12 Confronting the experts

when asked by his superiors at the Commis- Vested interests sion but now realised that was not what they This sort of behaviour only encouraged me to wanted. He claimed he had subsequently been delve deeper. Why was the Commission victimised, moved sideways and his career protecting the Board? They were the regula- ruined as a result. He told me that at one stage, tors and were supposed to be concerned about whilst he was away on holidays, his personal public health and environmental protection. files were gone through and some material Why were they so committed to the deepwater removed. Commission engineers, whom I outfalls? Was it because both organisations interviewed, tried to discredit Brain but I were dominated by engineers? Were they discovered during the course of my research subject to the same pressures from their politi- that Brain had actually been highly thought of cal masters? Some more historical research by senior Commission engineers before he allowed me to see another part of the puzzle. questioned the Water Board’s predictions. When the Commission had been formed in This discovery happened one day when I 1972 it had been charged with implementing was researching in the Commission’s offices, the Clean Waters Act and cleaning up and had asked to look at some files from a few Sydney’s waterways which were severely years before. They were brought up from the degraded with industrial waste. The Commis- bowels of the building by a junior officer and sion had achieved this feat by requiring firms placed on a desk where I set to work, reading that were discharging their wastes into the through them and taking handwritten notes. In rivers and creeks to divert their wastes into the the files I found a 1980 memo by the Principal sewers. The Water Board obliged the Engineer for Water, Wastes and Chemicals Commission by allowing those firms to do this saying that he believed that there were only and in this way the industrial waste was two Commission officers with the necessary removed from the rivers to the ocean. The expertise to undertake the assessment of the Commission was somewhat beholden to the Board’s models and calculations and Brain Board for this and could hardly turn around was one of them. Another memo from the and penalise the Board for the huge quantities Principal Engineer stated that he could not of toxic materials that were now pouring into find anything wrong with Brain’s criticisms the ocean from the Board’s outfalls nor for the and that the Commission should not ratify the resulting marine pollution. Instead it actively Board’s proposals until the issues raised had helped the Board to keep knowledge of the been resolved. “Otherwise in the event of a resulting fish contamination from being made public inquiry, the Commission might justifia- public. bly be subjected to serious criticism.” I found that the Commission placed no I was feverishly writing all this down when formal restrictions on what toxic material the a senior Commission officer who had been Board could put into the sea. The guidelines observing me, came up to me and asked me to for toxic materials were expressed in concen- stop as I had been given the files by mistake. trations in the environment rather than total He said he needed to consult the Commission amounts. When I multiplied the concentrations lawyer about whether I could look at these by the actual flows and claimed dilution particular files. He tried to explain that Brain factors I found that under the guidelines the had been discredited and that the material I Board could have discharged huge quantities was looking at was not relevant. He took the of heavy metals and organochlorines, in some files away and asked me for my notes. When I cases more than the total amounts produced in refused he wasn’t sure what to do and let me NSW. Even so some substances, particularly keep them. After that I was only allowed to organochlorines, were approaching those see parts of the files that had been given prior limits. However, the deepwater outfalls would approval for my perusal by the Water Board. ensure further dilution of the sewage and meant that the amounts of toxic waste that could be discharged under the guidelines, Sewerage treatment 13

when the deepwater outfalls were built, would York and Boston revealed statistically increase dramatically. significant increases in cases of When the choice was made between vomiting, diarrhoea, nausea, fever and upgrading sewage treatment onshore or stomach aches among swimmers who building deepwater outfalls that would had bathed in polluted waters… The delegate this task to the ocean, the Board had results show a strong link between chosen deepwater outfalls and the Commis- bacteria counts in the water at the time sion, after seeking advice from one of their of bathing and subsequent health of the consultants, a retired engineering professor, swimmers.11 agreed. Upgrading the treatment to secondary I also tracked down a paper given at an treatment would not only have been more International Conference on Water Quality expensive but would have required restrictions and Management for Recreation and Tourism on industrial waste being allowed into the in 1988 which summarised data collected by sewers because secondary treatment utilises the NSW Health Department between October naturally occurring micro-organisms that are 1983 and April 1987. Salmonella was detected sensitive to toxic waste. The deepwater in 183 out of 1058 (17%) samples tested at outfalls enabled industry to keep using the Sydney’s eastern suburbs swimming spots and sewers as a cheap toxic waste disposal service. beaches. Moreover, the Health Department’s The problem with using the ocean to treat monitoring of bacteria levels at beaches found the sewage is that most people don’t like that the same beaches were unsatisfactory for swimming in a de facto sewage treatment swimming for between 29% and 83% of the plant because they think it might be unhealthy. time, depending on the beach and whether it The Commission told the public that coastal had rained in the previous 24 hours (when the waters could be presumed to be bacteriologi- sewers overflowed and the treatment plants cally safe for swimming if aesthetic criteria were bypassed). were met; in other words, no undisintegrated However during this time the Water faecal matter or other materials “clearly of Board’s Annual Reports showed that the sewage origin” should be allowed into bathing beaches were meeting standards most of the areas and also no “noticeable” turbidity or time. How could this be? The standards the discolouration of bathing water attributable to Board was referring to were standards set by sewage and no “perceptible smell.” After the Commission which were different in some delving I discovered that this view was significant ways to the Health Department based on a 1959 study undertaken in the UK. I criteria. I found that the Health Department found that this study was still referred to in classified beaches satisfactory for bathing or Britain, Australia and New Zealand as the unsatisfactory on particular days whilst the classic paper on the subject yet it didn’t take Commission standards used a statistical much research to uncover a continuing debate measure that allowed days of heavy pollution amongst international experts on the extent to to be covered up. I was able to use raw which sewage polluted water posed a health sampling results from the previous summer to hazard. There was also plenty of more recent show that whilst the Commission standards research and developments in the field of were being met some beaches were in fact virology reaching conclusions contrary to the unsatisfactory for swimming according to the 1959 study. For example, I discovered that Health Department for half the time. epidemiological studies in the US since that I could find no record of the Health time demonstrated significant risks of bathing- Department telling the public of its contrary associated disease in recreational waters that findings or undertaking any sort of study to are mildly contaminated with sewage. In 1980 find out what the implications of their a US EPA spokesman claimed that sampling were in terms of human health. As surveys of 30,000 bathers and non- far as I knew, and this has been confirmed bathers contacted on beaches in New since, no epidemiological study had been 14 Confronting the experts

carried out of swimmers in Australian waters. dominated government authorities and the Without such a study, the Water Board and the engineering firms they worked with were Commission were able to continue claiming highly selective in their usage of other experts, that beaches which met Commission standards often drawing on them merely to justify their were not a health hazard. proposals and cover their failings, or not using Although many beachgoers knew the them at all as in this case. beaches were polluted and that they occasion- Having admitted their lack of expertise in ally got sick from swimming, the government the area of viruses, Caldwell Connell assumed experts were seldom challenged by outside that viruses would not live long in the ocean experts, either engineers, doctors or scientists. and their numbers would “diminish rapidly I found that formal complaints had been through treatment, dilution and natural die- regularly made by the beachside councils off.”14 Yet the textbooks said that the treat- behind the scenes but the councils were ment Sydney sewage received would not reluctant to take any public stance that might reduce the numbers of viruses and I uncovered advertise the fact that their beaches were several studies that showed that viruses could polluted and thereby turn away potential live for months in sea water, whereas the residents or visitors and beneficial business in faecal coliform15 that Caldwell Connell did the area. study die off in a matter of hours. Caldwell Connell admitted that there was very little Lack of evidence evidence that related “faecal coliform concen- If you’re going to use the ocean for sewage tration to the incidence of water borne treatment, it seemed to me that it was vital to disease” but studied their die-off rates “as a consider the fate of viruses and toxic materials matter of convenience.”16 I found this extraor- that enter the ocean in this way. Yet over more dinary. How did they get away with it? than a decade whilst the Board’s consultants, Their study of the fate of toxic material was Caldwell Connell, undertook their detailed similarly lacking. I know that whilst organic studies of Sydney’s oceans, these areas were matter does eventually decompose in ocean almost completely neglected. Their million- water, heavy metals and organochlorines tend dollar feasibility study12 was heralded by the to persist in the environment, accumulate in Board as the most comprehensive study of its seabed sediments and bioaccumulate in the kind ever undertaken in Australia. They food chain. Yet this possibility was not studied the biological characteristics of marine properly investigated by Caldwell Connell life in some detail, examined the composition who stated in their feasibility study that “a of the water and its concentrations of oxygen detailed investigation of levels of pesticides and nutrients and they mapped out the topog- and heavy metals in the marine environment is raphy and geology of the coastal region. But beyond the scope of this study.” they did not study viruses, pathogenic bacteria, In the environmental impact statements17, nor the toxic content of marine life in the area. which were also prepared by Caldwell Viruses, Caldwell Connell said, were Connell, the possibility of bioaccumulation of difficult and costly to test for and testing could toxic substances was dismissed as unlikely not be carried out without specialist assis- since no serious accumulation of these toxic tance.13 So why didn’t they get that specialist materials had been observed in sediments near assistance as they had in other areas? the existing outfalls. But I found they had Sewerage engineers recognise the limits of hardly even looked for sediments. They had their knowledge and increasingly draw on the only taken samples in three places for analysis expertise of environmental scientists and of toxic contamination and these were some others, by hiring them, using them as sub- distance away from the existing outfalls. In a consultants or drawing on their literature. But confidential report that I uncovered, the this use of other experts is often subordinated Commission noted that “The statistical to their own ends. I found the engineer- significance of single samples and the validity Sewerage treatment 15

of a sampling technique which does not uncovered a Caldwell Connell internal report segregate undisturbed surface material must be of a meeting to discuss the survey, published brought into question.” well before the completion of the feasibility Caldwell Connell assigned no importance study, which stated that “It was agreed that, to the fact that elevated levels of heavy metals while the data only represented analyses of and DDT were found in the sample taken individual specimens, levels of heavy metals nearest to the largest outfall at Malabar and and pesticides detected in this small number of argued that this material “appeared to be samples were such as to suggest that a deposited only during periods of low current potential public health threat or environmental velocities and was dispersed under the normal hazard might exist within the study area…”18 current regime.” These meagre observations Yet there was no mention of this in the were sufficient justification for Caldwell feasibility study and no further surveys Connell to assume that toxic material did not undertaken by Caldwell Connell. The only accumulate, despite the obvious evidence that public report of the fish survey that I could it had. find was in the 1979 environmental impact By studying the responses of government statement which stated: “Whilst the statistical departments to the environmental impact significance of the 1973 survey is not able to statements I found that they were less be clearly established the results are encour- optimistic than the Board and its consultants. aging in that they indicate that no serious A major concern of the Department of Mineral environmental problem existed even prior to Resources was the potential accumulation of the full implementation of source control of deposits of solid particles which might in turn restricted substances…”19 A very different lead to a concentration of heavy metals and public interpretation! toxic chemicals. They were sceptical of the On the whole I found fish contamination claims that ocean current velocities/settling reports the hardest to obtain. Some had been times/particle sizes were such that wide done by the Fisheries Research Institute (part dispersion of solid particles would occur. “It is of the Department of Agriculture) and never difficult to understand that these particles do published. These were not mentioned in the not go somewhere specific where they environmental impact statements despite their accumulate.” direct bearing on the environmental impact of The Australian Museum, which had the proposed deepwater outfalls. If toxic conducted ecological surveys of nearshore material was accumulating in fish life, as the waters for the Water Board, claimed that few reports I managed to get hold of indicated, particles from the diffusers which fell into the then the deepwater outfalls would be putting mud/clay range would be likely to be depos- the same toxic material further out to sea, ited in a relatively stable region of mud and closer to the commercial fishing grounds. One that heavy metals and other industrial wastes study of pesticides in fish caught near the which might behave like mud or clay sized outfalls20 seemed impossible to track down, particles were likely to also be deposited in even with the help of a member of parliament. this stable zone of muddy sediment. Such It had been carried out in 1979 but was not materials could then be assimilated by benthic published till 1989 after I told the newspapers organisms and enter the tissue of fish passing of its existence. Needless to say, it revealed through the area. “Such a situation could be contamination of fish above Australian harmful since the professional fishing grounds standards. of Sydney are located in this region.” I knew of at least one survey that had been My involvement done of fish contamination whilst Caldwell As I neared the completion of my research it Connell had been conducting their massive was obvious to me that there was a major feasibility study and this showed that heavy sewage pollution problem in Sydney waters metals were accumulating in the fish. I that had largely been covered up by the 16 Confronting the experts

experts and the organisations they worked for. talking to me. It also seemed that the deepwater outfalls, far There were rumours about engineers who from solving the problem, were likely to cover were critical of the proposed outfalls but they it up even more by removing some of the remained well hidden. Back in the 1970s when visible evidence of the pollution. It seemed the idea of the deepwater outfalls was fairly imperative that I go public with my findings. new the Daily Telegraph had reported that Whilst I was undertaking my research I had “private and government civil engineers” had refrained from making public statements about criticised it arguing that it would do little to the sewage pollution or the outfalls. Instead I solve the pollution problem.22 Such critics had kept the environmental group Stop The Ocean not been willing to put their names to their Pollution (STOP) informed so that they could criticisms, however. Most sewerage engineers campaign against the outfalls more effec- in Australia are employed by government tively.21 (STOP was a small group of beach- departments or instrumentalities and those goers, surfers and environmentalists.) who aren’t are consultants dependent on those It became evident that the Water Board same government departments for work, or suspected this connection when, at one academics dependent on them for research interview, Water Board public relations people funding. So critics face the possibility of confronted me about my environmental severely limiting their career prospects. Those affiliations, producing notes of a talk I had engineers who are not employed as sewerage given at a seminar at the University of engineers still face disapproval and censure Wollongong which had been attended by from the engineering profession. It is an about twenty people. They said that I had unwritten part of the engineering ethos not to apparently been influenced by members of criticise works designed by other engineers, STOP. They told me that I should not listen to because this may reflect badly on the them because they didn’t know what they profession. were talking about. They proceeded to put me John Tozer, a structural engineering right about what a good job the Board was consultant, found this when he criticised a doing. proposal to build an outfall near his home at It was partly because the Board’s public Look-At-Me-Now headland in northern NSW. relations people were so successful at under- In 1990 he was found guilty of breaching the mining STOP’s credentials that journalists engineer’s code of ethics because of his public were reluctant to report their statements criticisms of the local council engineers who regarding the scientific basis of the extended supported the scheme. He was subsequently outfalls. They repeatedly asked STOP eased out of the Association of Consulting members if there were any ‘experts’ that they Engineers, Australia (ACEA). Recently Tozer could refer them to. was publicly admonished by the Institution of My decision to speak out was not a difficult Engineers, Australia (IEAust) for failing to one. In many respects, although I was trained uphold the honour and dignity of the as an engineer, I have been far freer than most engineering profession because he used to challenge my fellow engineers since, as an “intemperate language” in a private letter he academic and writer, my career prospects are wrote to the Premier that criticised the outfall. not dependent on endearing myself to the The letter was on his business letterhead and engineering profession or gaining employment identified him as an engineer. in an engineering firm or government After I began to be quoted in the newspa- department. I could understand that engineers pers in 1989, I too was accused of breaching and scientists employed by the Board or the the engineering code of ethics. I was phoned Commission, who might have felt uncomfort- one evening by a senior member of the able with what was going on, could not speak Institution of Engineers and accused of not out because they were concerned about their upholding the dignity and honour of the jobs. One or two seemed very nervous just profession and speaking outside my area of Sewerage treatment 17

competence (despite the fact I had just done a Surfing was published later in the year,25 the doctorate on the subject). The caller threatened editor of Engineers Australia gave it a favour- to make a formal complaint against me. able review. I received a much less favourable The Institution of Engineers also sought to review in the magazine of the Australian and publicly support the Water Board engineers. New Zealand Association for the Advance- Its president issued a press release that read, in ment of Science (ANZAAS), Search. It was part: written by a government scientist who was an

I deplore the denigration of Australian inventor of a sewage treatment process I had engineering endeavours which seems to criticised. He called the book a “polemic occur too frequently these days. Innova- against engineers in general and the Sydney Water Board in particular” and stated: tive projects of this type should be recognised and supported by the As one who has watched the events from community. a safe distance, it is clear to me that the Australian engineering ability and debate has been maintained at an performance is recognised throughout the emotional level, with a propensity for world as being of the very highest exaggeration and limited vision being calibre, with the Water Board in Sydney displayed by both sides. While I found having its share of distinguished engi- the book both entertaining and informa- neers. It is important to Australia’s tive, the more I read the more competitive performance that, where uncomfortable I became, as the tone deserved, Australian engineering became shriller and the close personal excellence is supported by our mass involvement of the author with the issue media. I believe the Ocean Outfalls more obvious.26 project deserves this support. I was subsequently invited to speak at an It was later revealed that this man’s consulting ANZAAS Seminar on “Sydney’s Strangled firm had been retained by the Water Board as Sewerage System” and later to speak at the management consultants on the deepwater Institution of Engineer’s Annual conference. I outfall project.23 was well received at both although subject to Nevertheless, after this initial reaction, the some angry questions, particularly from Water Institution of Engineers itself has sought to Board employees and sympathisers. hear and incorporate my views. I was invited to join the Institution’s Environmental Controlling the interpretation of Engineering Branch committee the following information year, at the suggestion of the same President. During the course of my research at the State (I have been a member ever since and became Pollution Control Commission I had come chairperson in 1992.) across some figures for levels of organochlo- The Institution’s magazine, Engineers rines in fish caught near Sydney’s main outfall Australia, did a feature story on the outfalls at Malabar. They were in the business papers controversy in February 1989, which covered for a meeting of the Clean Waters Advisory my views fairly and promoted some discussion Committee which was a committee of repre- in the letters section. One letter said “it has sentatives of various government departments continually amazed me that the debate is being and government appointees representing carried out by laymen with nary a word from selected interest groups which advised the the professionals. Of all the people who should Commission. be able to provide information to the public, I copied the figures down without knowing civil engineers are the best placed yet are their meaning since there were no standards noticeably silent.”24 (It had obviously escaped included with them but when I later compared his attention that I was a civil engineer.) them to the National Health and Medical When my book Toxic Fish and Sewer Research Council (NH&MRC) maximum 18 Confronting the experts

residue limits I was astounded at how high government departments, through their repre- they were. Two out of three species of fish sentatives on the Clean Waters Advisory which were tested were over the NH&MRC Committee, had known of the findings. Yet limits and one species, the red morwong, was there had been no leaks. It later emerged that over the limits for benzene hexachloride the Minister for the Environment had (BHC) by 122 times on average (8 samples of instructed the Commission not to reveal results each species were tested) and over the limits of the study in its Annual Report.28 for heptachlor epoxide by an average of over It also emerged that Water Board officers 50 times. had met with Commission officers in May When Alan Tate, from the Sydney Morning 1988 and a memo of the meeting stated that Herald — Sydney’s quality daily newspaper “spearfishermen consuming red morwong — interviewed me a couple of months later for caught at Malabar could be at some health a story he was writing on sewage pollution, I risk”29. Yet the results were not even given to pulled out the figures to prove to him that the Australian Underwater Federation when it there was already a pollution problem caused wrote to the Commission in September 1988 by industrial waste being discharged through asking for results of the study. Their letter said the sewage outfalls. Tate was keen to publish that their members, including spearfishermen, the figures but could not rely on my notes had noticed that red morwong caught near the alone. He needed to authenticate them. He outfalls had mushy, tainted flesh and they made his own inquiries and finally found one were concerned about whether they were safe person in the Commission who said he could to eat.30 confirm the figures. The person then changed The Board’s planning manager later his mind because he was concerned about his defended their decision not to inform the job. Tate rang him several days in a row public of the results: without success until the day before the The criticism that by withholding the figures were due to be published. Tate suggested to the person that all he had to do study results the board was potentially was cough if the figures were correct. He putting public health at risk had to be coughed. weighed up against the risk of causing unwarranted public concern and panic.31 Tate then rang the Water Board to tell them he had the results of the study and was warned The significance of the study was that the by a senior Water Board officer that the Water Board engineers had been claiming for Herald should not publish the results because several years that toxic industrial waste did not they were open to question. The officer said accumulate in the marine environment near that the Board thought the BHC, found in such Sydney and therefore the extension of the high levels in the red morwong, might really outfalls would not cause a pollution problem have been lindane (a specific form of BHC) in deeper water, closer to the commercial and therefore only slightly over the limits. fishing areas. Several previous studies that had (The maximum residue limits for lindane are also shown accumulation of organochlorines much higher than for other forms of BHC). (particularly dieldrin and DDT) and heavy Tate then rang the Australian Analytical metals (particularly mercury and cadmium) in Laboratories, which had performed the fish caught near the outfalls had also been analysis, and was told that there was no doubt suppressed.32 that the substance in question was non-lindane With full knowledge of all these results the BHC. Board went ahead and published an adver- The results of the study which had been tisement for the extended outfalls which done in 1987 were published for the first time referred to the ocean as “the world’s most 27 the next day, 7 January 1989. Not only had efficient purification plant” and stated: the Commission kept the results of the study This is also the world’s largest and most secret for more than a year, but several other natural treatment plant, and it has some Sewerage treatment 19

of the most experienced employees as I would appreciate it if you would ensure well. Hundreds of species of fish and that media reporters are fully aware that other marine organisms exist here to do these reports do not have the scientific little more than thrive on breaking down standing that is being attributed to the pre-treated effluent discharged into them… we should take all possible the ocean off Sydney.33 action to prevent the continuation of the

Even after the leak to the Sydney Morning unsubstantiated reporting which is doing Herald, the Water Board, the Department of so much needless damage to one of our State’s most important industries.36 Agriculture (responsible for fisheries), and the Health Department continued to down play the An independent referee’s report, subsequently significance of the study. Water Board officers procured, generally approved of the studies claimed, “The results obtained from this study saying that the “basic nature of the problem were from a very small sample number and has been adequately identified and evalu- were not compared to any sample with a ated.”37 Another review was made by the known concentration. It is not unusual for Director of the Southern California Coastal studies of this nature to have high errors Water Research Project. He had no major associated with them due to natural variations criticisms of the studies. He agreed that both within the sample population.”34 They claimed showed that red morwong were contaminated that the large amounts of heptachlor epoxide near the outfalls. He suggested, as a public found in the study were really a sulphur relations strategy (and as a way of shaping 35 compound. perceptions of the meaning of the results):

A second study, that had been carried out in After evaluating the best world-wide 1988, had sampled red morwong at varying evidence for health risk from the various distances from the three major outfalls and organochlorines, you might want to included a comparison of four different release to the press a comparative table laboratories so as to meet criticisms of to put the risks in line with others Australian Analytical Laboratories, which had commonly accepted by the public.38 done the analyses for the first study. The study concluded that only that laboratory and one In a different report he advised the other accurately detected a wide range of government: organochlorines. It showed different The recent events in Sydney indicate a organochlorines accumulating in the fish route of communication to the public above the NH&MRC limits, particularly from the scientists should be developed. chlordane and hexachlorobenzene (HCB). This may reduce the “scare” from the This interlaboratory study raised even more press and shield the fishing industry from disputes. The Minister for Agriculture wrote to impacts produced by false or inaccurate the Minister for the Environment after both media reporting.39 studies had been reluctantly released in March 1989 to express his concern about the In the past the Board could be fairly confident continuing publicity being given to the about getting its press releases published and contamination of fish. He argued that very its version of events reported. The Board’s small errors in technique or measurement public relations department had a comfortable could seriously flaw the results when relationship with the media, putting out the measuring minute amounts of chemicals in occasional brush fire with their version of the fish. He argued that reports of both studies facts, and that version was almost never were potentially erroneous because they had challenged by journalists. ‘Serious’ papers like not been refereed “in the standard scientific the Sydney Morning Herald could be relied upon not to report unsubstantiated claims and manner”; to give preference to ‘expert’ opinions from government officials. 20 Confronting the experts

But in 1989 things had changed. The reporter, Alan Tate, claimed that virtually government and its advisers were well aware everything Wallis said during their meeting that the Sydney Morning Herald journalists “was useless as far as reporting the issues at and some television journalists were coming to hand” and Paul Bailey, the paper’s environ- me for interpretation of data, reports and ment writer, said that if they had reported the anything else that they found or that the meeting they would have reported Wallis’s government released that had to do with admission that further treatment would have to sewage pollution. Alan Tate from the Sydney be investigated eventually for the ocean Morning Herald had originally been referred outfalls. Yet many Water Board people were to me by the local Friends of the Earth office. incensed that Wallis, the expert, did not He found that I was a reliable source of receive any coverage in the Sydney Morning information and continued to come to me. Herald and took this as a further sign that the Other journalists soon followed and I became Herald was biased and was conducting some one of the people that journalists sought to sort of vendetta against them. provide an environmental point of view. STOP The relationship between the Board and the members were also now credible sources of Herald’s key sewage pollution investigators information for the media and part way continued to deteriorate. In a subsequent through 1989 STOP purchased a fax machine screaming match between Tate and the Water through which they could put out media Board’s public relations manager, the public releases. These releases were fairly successful relations man alleged that Bailey had admitted at gaining news coverage now that STOP had in the meeting with Wallis that he had no become known to the media. understanding of how the extended ocean The government sought to avoid alternative outfalls worked and hadn’t realised the interpretations by imposing their own at the complexity involved. Tate denied this but the time of release of reports, particularly those same story was reported in the Board’s likely to be damaging. Shortly after the results internal magazine, Aquarian, except that this of first bioaccumulation study were published time it indicated that it was Tate who admitted in the Sydney Morning Herald, a reporter he had no understanding of the project. Tate asked a senior Board scientist whether figures was incensed but no doubt it did wonders for given by the Board for concentrations of toxic the morale of Water Board employees who felt substances in discharged effluent in one of besieged by the Herald. their recent reports included the portion of In the meantime the Board had given the these toxic substances in sludge which was Herald some figures for concentrations of also discharged into the ocean. He was told by toxic substances in sludge but in a form that this scientist that of course they did, and “You was difficult to interpret. I studied the figures, don’t think I would let them be published if comparing them to other information I had, the sludge was not included do you?” I and decided they were not credible, but I was attempted to prove to the reporter that the unable to prove them to be false. A few days Board’s spokesman was lying and he made later the Commission admitted that it didn’t further inquiries at the Board. He was told by a require the Board to monitor the sludge for puzzled public relations officer that the toxic material and the Board’s monitoring Board’s engineers were rushing round and that manager was reported as saying that the Board the Board was in a state of chaos. The next did not know much about the concentration of day the same scientist admitted that the sludge toxic material in sludge discharged through its figures had not actually been included in the outfalls. “We have started looking at this in report and that “an honest mistake” had been the past few weeks” he said.40 made in telling the reporter otherwise. At the beginning of March, the Board That same week Ian Wallis of Caldwell placed a full page advertisement in the Herald Connell came up to Sydney and the Board which claimed that 70% of the volume of held a press conference. The Herald’s industrial discharge which could contain Sewerage treatment 21

damaging wastes had been controlled by their employee was under doctor’s orders to remain Trade Waste policy and that this meant that at home because of stress related illness which “this waste may no longer be discharged to the was attributable to what was happening. Not sewers or drains.” Such a statement was surprisingly the journalist was very upset by patently untrue. Neither the 70% of industrial this call and he considered what he was doing discharge nor the damaging wastes were very carefully but his colleagues rallied round prevented from entry into the sewers under the him and encouraged him to disregard what Trade Waste Policy. I pointed this out to they saw as an effort to intimidate him. journalists and the Board was forced to admit, When further fish contamination results shortly afterwards, that the advertisement was were released to the public in July, it was at a “certainly ambiguous” and “should be press conference held by the Minister of the clarified.” Environment. This time the Minister had an The Sydney Morning Herald had begun expert, a university professor, at the press labelling its articles on the issue “Sydney’s conference to ensure the correct interpretations Watergate” and the Minister tried to reassure a were conveyed to the media. The study had press conference that there would be no more been of heavy metals in red morwong caught cover-ups or lies. Indeed, he said: “We are near the outfalls. Despite the fact that most of determined the Water Board will tell the truth, the fish sampled were over NH&MRC limits the whole truth and nothing but the truth and if for mercury the Minister stated that the study that requires, as Richard Nixon once described showed there was no toxicological threat to it, minor correctional statements as we go humans from heavy metals discharged in along, then they will be taken.”41 effluent from ocean outfalls.42 The Board also tried a number of ways to The university professor compared average stem the bad publicity. Apart from direct levels of mercury in the Sydney fish to the threats of legal action it was rumoured that highest levels found in fish from Minamata Water Board executives were lobbying senior Bay in Japan where more than one hundred executives of the Sydney Morning Herald to people died and hundreds more were sick from get the series of damaging articles stopped. mercury poisoning after eating the fish there. Early in the piece the Board’s managing He concluded that “treated sewage as director accused the Herald of ignoring press presently discharged does not constitute a releases and statements made by the Board hazard in terms of heavy metal accumula- and other government organisations. The tion.”43 Board placed full page advertisements in The media left the press conference with various papers and their managing director, the impression that the new report gave the Bob Wilson, was worked off his feet with fish a clean bill of health. The professor’s radio and television interviews. Senior Board statement that one would have to eat 50 executives were forced to work late hours and kilogrammes of red morwong a week continu- weekends to cope with the crisis. ally “to get any real trouble” was shown on Individual journalists were subject to every television news broadcast that evening. various forms of manipulation by Water Board The Minister for the Environment was even public relations staff. For example, one was reported in the Sydney Morning Herald the subject to an angry phone call during which next day as saying that the “study proved that his professional ethics were questioned and he the effluent which was being discharged from was told that it was unlikely that any Water treatment plants at Malabar, Bondi and North Board employees would want to talk to him in Head was not deemed to be a health hazard for future. Ten minutes later the same person rang the fish.”44 him back and in quieter tones asked him to The problem was the public was not being excuse the first call but to understand that told was that these red morwong were the very everyone in the Board was under extreme same red morwong that had been kept in a pressure. He was told that at least one refrigerator since being analysed for and found 22 Confronting the experts

to be heavily contaminated with organochlo- independent after campaigning strongly on the rines earlier. These fish were far from being issue of sewage pollution in his electorate.) safe to eat. Fortunately, at the time I had easy Beach culture and seafood restaurants were access to the media and I was given a chance an essential part of Sydney’s identity but now to point this out in the Sydney Morning Herald people no longer knew whether it was safe to and on one of the commercial television go swimming, surf-lifesavers threatened to channels. After this the professor backed away walk off the job, and the fishing industry was from the statements he had made about the losing an estimated half a million dollars each fish being safe to eat. He was reported as week as people turned away from seafood in saying: droves. It was said that tourists were still

I didn’t mention the organochlorines visiting Sydney’s famous beaches “but only because it was not in my brief and I for quick strolls rather than long days at the beach where they once splurged on ice- wouldn’t talk about them anyway… I 48 made my comments on the basis that if creams, hot dogs and souvenirs.” It was there was no other contaminating factor, claimed that takings from shops and busi- then the fish would be all right to eat… nesses at the beachside suburb of Manly were Obviously if there are organochlorines I down 15% on the year before and some people think anyone who ate the fish from there were threatening legal actions. Property sales would be very foolish.45 were also reported to be affected by the pollution publicity and some residents believed that real-estate prices were being Outcomes 49 The events of early 1989 came as a shock to affected. the Water Board. The initial stories in the Various journalists and reporters were Sydney Morning Herald in January 1989 threatened for reporting on the pollution. Surf triggered other articles and stories in every Reporter John Ellis (radio station 2MMM) media outlet in Sydney, as well as the national received such a threat from a Manly busi- and international press, including Time nessman who claimed to represent 20 Manly magazine. People came forward with revela- businesses that had been adversely affected by tions about other Water Board coverups and Ellis’s warnings to people not to swim at journalists conducted their own investigations Manly. Kirk Willcox, long time member of into various aspects of the story. Alan Tate STOP, lost his job as surf reporter at radio and Paul Bailey at the Sydney Morning Herald station 2JJJ at about this time, because the won awards, including the prestigious Walkley Australian Broadcasting Corporation said it award for their series of investigative articles could no longer afford surf reports. “It’s on sewage pollution. ironic” Willcox said “that I’ve been thrown off Many television celebrities, musicians, the air at this time — when ocean pollution has finally become a front-page issue. Now I sporting stars and others added their voices to 50 the cry of outrage over the pollution. Some have no avenue to voice my opinion.” doctors finally spoke up. The Sun-Herald ran a On Good Friday 1989, almost a quarter of a feature on beachside doctors, more than half of million people gathered at Bondi Beach for a whom had reported an increase in ear infec- rock concert, the “Turn Back the Tide” tions, gastro-enteritis and viral infections. Concert, staged as a protest against the Most linked these problems to beach pollu- pollution of Sydney’s beaches. Some of tion.46 A month or so later, a group of 80 Australia’s leading singers and musicians doctors, led by Peter MacDonald, called upon donated their time and talent to the cause and local councils to close 15 northern suburbs the hundreds of thousands of young people, beaches until they could be proved safe.47 who had come along despite the occasional (Peter MacDonald was elected to State showers and overcast conditions, bellowed out Parliament at the following election as an their indignation as speakers from the stage condemned the authorities for allowing the Sewerage treatment 23

beaches to deteriorate so badly. Boston, they probably would not have To the Water Board officers, the whole recommended secondary treatment but it was episode from the Herald’s first revelations on mandatory under the legislation. 7 January to the 240,000 strong attendance at Nevertheless, Camp Dresser & McKee the Turn Back the Tide Concert on 24 March confirmed many of my own findings and was just a media beat-up. After all nothing found the Water Board’s extended outfalls substantial had changed from the previous would not solve the sewage pollution year. For example, Water Board officer Leigh problems in Sydney. They recommended that Richardson was reported as saying that the treatment at the main outfalls be upgraded, sudden interest in water pollution was largely although they stopped short of recommending a figment of the media’s imagination.51 And secondary treatment. They also recommended many others besides wondered why there was that $6 billion be spent on the Board’s suddenly so much interest in sewage pollution. sewerage system over the following twenty Was it just that the papers were short on years. In December 1989, the government stories? announced that it would be spending more However, the politicians were not so than $7 billion over the next 20 years to clean immune from public opinion and the govern- up water pollution in Sydney and surrounding ment initiated an independent review of the areas. Water Board proposals, although the Minister was careful to assure the Board engineers that Conclusions he was not bowing to public pressure: Many people would like to excuse the Water Board engineers from responsibility for what Although the review has come at a time when there has been considerable public has been happening on the beaches and in the debate over the role and achievements of oceans because, after all, it is the politicians and the Board members who set the budgets the Water Board and the levels of pollution of Sydney’s beaches, the and it is other agencies who set the standards review is not a response to those public to be met. The engineers were only doing their job in coming up with a technological solution comments or pressures. The purpose of the review… is to that would meet the required standards within the monetary constraints. Yet I found that ensure that the reputation of the Board and its employees is preserved and that engineers played an active role in shaping the Board is not seen to be acting as public perceptions and moulding impressions. Their studies set out to justify, legitimate and “judge and jury” on matters of public controversy relating to its operations.52 sell the technological solutions which they preferred, ones that used the ocean for sewage The successful tenderer for the review, the US treatment. based engineering firm Camp Dresser and For years the Caldwell Connell studies McKee, was announced in March 1989. Their convinced politicians, other government local Australian affiliate, Camp Scott Furphy authorities and a whole range of laypeople that Pty. Ltd., have had a long association of doing the consequences of the deepwater outfalls had work for the Board including work on been thoroughly researched and that they treatment plants, according to the Municipal would work as promised. The Board was aided Officers Union. Camp Dresser and McKee in this by other government experts and representatives, who were working out of the politicians who helped them to keep the extent offices of their Australian affiliate, told me of existing marine pollution secret. that they disagreed with US legislation that It was therefore not surprising that most of requires secondary treatment of all municipal the early opposition to the deepwater ocean discharges going into the ocean, because outfalls had come from people who were secondary treatment may only provide a small philosophically opposed to the idea of ocean improvement over primary treatment. In disposal because they felt it wasted resources, 24 Confronting the experts

rather than people who argued that the outfalls over.” What Wilson was concerned about was would not clean up the pollution. Environ- that the government might be swayed by pub- mentalists tended to put forward reuse and lic opinion to set different priorities from those recycling alternatives without challenging the that he and the experts advising him hold. claims made by the Water Board engineers It is not the emotionalism of those wanting and their consultants for the deepwater outfalls to protect the environment that we have to scheme. Because those engineers retained their worry about, but rather the emotional attach- credibility as experts, they were able to ment that some experts have to outdated ideas, authoritatively dismiss the alternatives as professional autonomy and status. Sewerage being too costly and not feasible. experts need to learn to respect community It wasn’t until the credibility of the Water concerns for the environment and incorporate Board engineers had been attacked that discus- them in their designs, not dismiss them as an sion of alternatives could take place. In fact a emotional fallacy. large range of new treatment technologies, which were not previously part of the engi- Notes neer’s normal repertoire, emerged following 1. A. M. Rawn, “Fixed and Changing the initial burst of publicity in 1989. Some of Valves in Ocean Disposal of Sewage and these were taken up by the Water Board, Wastes,” E. A. Pearson, ed., Proceedings of trialled and considered for implementation, the First International Conference on Waste particularly those that avoided the need for Disposal in the Marine Environment, biological treatment that might be sensitive to Pergamon Press (1959): 6-7. toxic materials in the sewage. 2. Water Board advertisement, The Good However, the Board engineers are still to be Weekend (supplement to the Sydney Morning convinced that the ocean is not a suitable place Herald) (12 December 1987). for sewerage treatment. An annual environ- 3. The PhD was carried out in the School of mental levy of $80 per ratepayer was raised to Science and Technology Studies at the cover the new measures that were recom- University of New South Wales. mended by Camp Dresser and McKee and 4. Joel Tarr et al., “Water and Wastes: were being demanded by the public. The Retrospective Assessment of Wastewater Board is now planning to spend only 28% of Technology in the United States 1800-1932,” the levy ($137 million) on reducing ocean Technology and Culture, vol. 25, no. 2 (1984): pollution and has during this time paid the 246-247. NSW government $200 million in dividends. 5. Ibid. Four years after the decision to clean up the 6. See for example, T. P. Anderson Stuart, waterways, the Board had still not decided “Anniversary Address,” Royal Society of how the treatment plants would be upgraded. NSW, vol. 28 (1894): 16-19. The deepwater outfalls were intended to make 7. For example, Henry Robinson, Sewerage the problem of sewage pollution less visible and Sewage Disposal, London: E. & F. N. and now this has been achieved, I think the Spon (1896); Baldwin Latham, Sanitary Board is hoping people will be happy with less Engineering, London: E. & F. N. Spon, (1878, treatment. second edition). At a recent Pricing Tribunal Seminar in 8. Robinson, op cit.: 45. Sydney, Bob Wilson, General Manager of the Sydney Water Board said that the Board’s 9. For example, The Water Board, Clear main problem was the “emotionalism of the Water. Clean Sand, brochure; MWS&DB, environment.” The media fanfare surrounding Deepwater Submarine Outfalls To Protect ocean pollution was based on emotion and had Sydney’s Beaches, brochure. distorted the picture of what the Board consid- 10. See for example, I. G. Wallis, “Ocean ered were the real problems. “Unless we get Currents Offshore from Sydney,” Sixth the science right” he said, “emotion can take Sewerage treatment 25

Australian Conference on Coastal & Ocean 31. Dietrich Georg, “Engineers Criticised Engineering, IEAust (1983): 210. for not Going Public on Pollution,” Engineers 11. New Scientist (16 July 1981). Australia (26 January 1990): 16. 12. Caldwell Connell, Sydney Submarine 32. For details of these, see Beder, op. cit., Outfall Studies, MWS&DB (1976). chapter 3. 13. Ibid.: 149. 33. Water Board advertisement, The Good 14. Ibid.: 12. Weekend (supplement to the Sydney Morning 15. Faecal coliform are naturally occuring Herald) (12 December 1987). organisms found in human wastes that are 34. Cover note on early copies of 1987 Bio- used as an indicator of the presence of sewage. Accumulation Report. 16. Ibid.: 34, 149. 35. For example, Bob Wilson, Managing 17. For example, Caldwell Connell, Director of Water Board, Sewage Summit, Environmental Impact Statement, Malabar Bondi Pavillion (18 February 1989). Water Pollution Control Plant, MWS&DB 36. Letter from Minister for Agriculture (1979). and Rural Affairs, Ian Armstrong, to Minister 18. Caldwell Connell, Reconnaissance for the Environment, Tim Moore (13 July Survey of Heavy Metal and Pesticide Levels in 1989). Marine Organisms in the Sydney Area 37. Letter from D. W. Connell, Griffith (October 1973). University, to Peter Fagan, Water Board (4 19. MWS&DB, Environmental Impact September 1989). Statement, Bondi Water Pollution Control 38. Letter from Jack Anderson, Southern Plant (1979). California Coastal Water Research Project, to 20. Fisheries Research Institute, Organo- Tony Misckiewicz, Water Board (24 July chlorine Pesticide and Polychlorinated 1989). Byphenyl (PCB) Residues in Fish and other 39. Jack Anderson, “Overview of the Aquatic Organisms in New South Wales, Part Planned Environmental Monitoring Pro- II, Department of Agriculture (undated). gramme,” (1989). 21. I had friends in STOP and in 1989 40. Sydney Morning Herald (17 January became a member and spokesperson for STOP 1989). myself. 41. Sydney Morning Herald (8 March 22. Telegraph (Sydney) (17 January 1977). 1989). 23. Sydney Morning Herald (27 February 42. Press Release from Minster for the 1989). Environment, Tim Moore (3 July 1989). 24. Engineers Australia (21 April 1989): 4. 43. Evening news, all channels (3 July 25. Sharon Beder, Toxic Fish and Sewer 1989). Surfing, Sydney: Allen and Unwin (1989). 44. Sydney Morning Herald (4 July 1989). 26. A. J. Priestley, Review, Search, vol. 21, 45. Sydney Morning Herald (6 July 1989). no. 3 (April/May 1990). 46. Sun-Herald (12 March 1989). 27. Alan Tate and Paul Bailey, “Fish off 47. Sun-Herald (16 April 1989). Sydney Beaches Polluted,” Sydney Morning 48. Sydney Morning Herald (28 January Herald (7 January 1989): 1. 1989). 28. SPCC, Annual Report 1987-88: 30. 49. Sun-Herald (16 April 1989). 29. Bioaccumulation of Organochlorine 50. Sydney Morning Herald (26 January Pesticides Near the Malabar Ocean Outfall, 1989). Meeting Notes (18 May 1988). 51. Sydney Morning Herald (28 January 30. Letter from Australian Underwater 1989). Federation to W. Forrest, Deputy Director, 52. Aquarian (April 1989). SPCC. 3 Fluoridation: breaking the silence barrier Mark Diesendorf

Published in Brian Martin (editor), Confronting the Experts (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996), pp. 45-75

Introduction to the issue said to be “beyond tions of 1 ppm or higher, in the vast majority scientific debate” of water supplies the natural fluoride concen- The scene is the town hall of Moruya, a small trations are typically one-tenth to one-fifth of town on the south coast of New South Wales, 1 ppm, and so fluoridation generally leads to Australia. I am sitting on the stage, waiting my considerable increases in people’s intake of turn to speak at a public meeting called to fluoride. discuss whether the town water supply should The purpose of fluoridation is to reduce the be fluoridated. At the speaker’s lectern is one prevalence of tooth decay, called ‘dental of the leading fluoridation campaigners of the caries’ in the dental, medical and public health Australian Dental Association. He is telling literature. Unlike chlorination, which is the audience that some water supplies contain designed to kill bacteria, thus making water fluoride naturally, which is true, and therefore safer to drink, fluoridation is designed to treat that fluoridation must be safe. This does not people, and so may be considered to be mass follow logically, nor is it true. Will the medication. This is an important ethical audience understand and believe me, an objection to fluoridation. Furthermore, some independent scientist opposing the dental and opponents describe fluoridation as compulsory medical establishment, when I present medication. More accurately, I would say that evidence that fluoridation is harmful to human it is medication which is expensive to avoid, health and that its benefits have been exagger- since people who do not wish to be dosed have ated? The dentist is now claiming that, if to purchase bottled water or equipment to fluoridation were harmful, the human race remove fluoride from their drinking water. would have been already wiped out by natural Apart from the ethical issues are the fluoride. My determination strengthens — in political issues of who controls, funds and the face of such ignorance or deceit, I will not profits from fluoridation, and the scientific give up. issues of the determination of the dental In most English-speaking countries, the benefits, health hazards and environmental fluoridation of water supplies is presented by impacts of fluoridation. As a research scientist, dentists, doctors and public health officials as I have concentrated on the scientific issues, the cornerstone of dental public health. In such while taking an interest in the ethical and countries it has been endorsed by the dental political contexts. and medical associations and departments of The practice of fluoridating drinking water health. It is described as having enormous supplies began in the USA in the 1950s, and benefits but no risks, and even as being then spread to Canada, Australia, New “beyond scientific debate”. Zealand, Ireland and a few other countries. Fluoridation is the addition of fluoride to But, fluoridation is almost non-existent in drinking water to increase the natural fluoride western continental Europe or in most other content to a concentration of about one part non-English-speaking countries1. It has been per million (1 ppm), that is, 1 milligram of discontinued in Sweden, Holland, Germany fluoride per litre of water. Although there are and Finland, mainly on account of concerns some regions of the world where natural about its health hazards, known or potential. fluoride exists in drinking water at concentra- Fluoridation 27

Only a few per cent of the world’s population researcher at Imperial College, London UK, I drink artificially fluoridated water, although performed analysis of ground and satellite data that information is rarely revealed to the in space science. Then, as a research fellow peoples of heavily fluoridated countries. and lecturer at the Australian National Univer- Although the establishment ‘experts’ sity, I collaborated with neurobiologists on generally receive better coverage in the media mechanisms of insect smell and vision, and than ‘dissidents’ on most environmental, also initiated my own research on cooperative health and political issues, only in the case of effects in biological catalysts which change fluoridation have the ‘experts’ succeeded in their shape. In the CSIRO2 Division of convincing the vast majority of people in Mathematics and Statistics from 1975 to 1985, whole countries that opponents must be either I worked on generation planning in electricity cranks, extreme right-wingers or health grids and the economic value of wind electric ‘faddists’. This remarkable propaganda power, among other things. success has been achieved primarily by trading This breadth of experience has been of on the authority of the medical profession and great of value to me in taking on interdiscipli- by putting pressure on ‘dissident’ medical nary public issues such as fluoridation. My doctors, dentists and scientists to keep silent. involvement in public issues was stimulated in The stereotyping of opponents has placed part by the shocked discovery that my PhD pressure on scientific and professional journals thesis had been used by hydrogen bomb and the media not to publish material critical scientists. This experience, imposed on my of fluoridation. So, the need to break the scientific training and interdisciplinary silence barrier is a special feature of opposi- inclinations, led me naturally into issues of tion to fluoridation. science and society from 1969 onwards3. In this chapter, I explain how I became For most of the 1970s, I was either vice- involved in the issue, how I found internal president or secretary of the Society for Social contradictions and misrepresentations in the Responsibility in Science (SSRS) in Canberra, pro-fluoridation case, how I campaigned Australia. Over that period SSRS had about against fluoridation, how the establishment 200 members, mostly scientists and academ- ‘experts’ tried to suppress me, and conclude ics, and aimed to inform decision-makers, by offering some lessons. Boxes are included scientists and the public about the social on (1) the fluoridation power structure and (2) consequences and implications of science and how fluoride acts on teeth. There is also an technology. As secretary, I had an overview of Appendix summarising my critique of almost all its activities, which were mostly on fluoridation. environmental issues, and was also able to introduce some of my own particular areas of How I became involved interest — a critique of modern medicine4, As one of the offspring of an engineer and a support for the new public health and poet, I could be expected to draw upon both community health movements5 and energy the disciplinary and holistic approaches to alternatives6. problem solving. So it will hardly be surpris- So it was not surprising that, when SSRS ing that I became a research scientist with occasionally received letters from people who broad interests and concerns: social justice, believed that they suffered ill-effects from environmental protection and the health drinking fluoridated water, I was ready to hazards of environmental chemicals and investigate the issue further. ionising radiation. Although my PhD research was mostly on a Searching the scientific literature specialised topic in applied mathematics, my As a research scientist, it was natural for me to subsequent research spanned a wide range of begin, in the mid 1970s, with a thorough practical applications of mathematics and review of the scientific literature on the other natural sciences. As a postdoctoral alleged benefits and health hazards of fluori- 28 Confronting the experts

dation. Also, because dental and medical full of fluoridated water to suffer ill-effects. I proponents claimed a scientific basis for found this to be misleading, because it fluoridation, I felt that I had to go back to the confused the acute effect of a single high dose original papers in dental, medical and with the chronic effects of drinking small scientific journals, and not allow myself to be doses over years and decades. When fluori- restricted to official reviews and reports of dated water is drunk, about half the fluoride is inquiries. excreted by the kidneys (provided they are The basic pro-fluoridation position was working properly) and the rest is stored in the easy to identify. In extensively fluoridated bones, accumulating until death. It is now countries there are many official leaflets, widely accepted that the bones become heav- brochures and reports spreading the message ier, but more brittle. Over a normal lifetime, that fluoridation produces enormous reduc- people living in fluoridated areas can store tions in tooth decay and is completely safe. In much more fluoride in their bones than that Australia, such documents are produced dissolved in a bathtub of fluoridated water. mainly by the Australian Dental Association In searching the literature on the hazards of (ADA), the National Health and Medical fluoridation to bones and other organs, I was Research Council (NH&MRC) and the state helped by the books and unpublished reports departments of health. But, in the 1970s, few of the anti-fluoridation movement which official documents contained references to contained many useful references. But, I had medical and scientific papers attempting to to examine their information critically too, justify the claims of safety. because some parts of the grassroots anti- On the alleged dental benefits, the pro- fluoridation movement are bound by their own fluoridation reviews did refer to the early traditions8. But, I soon found several scholarly studies of tooth decay in naturally fluoridated papers presenting evidence that skeletal regions of the USA by H. T. Dean, the “father fluorosis, a disease of the bones and joints, is of fluoridation”, and others. They also took as endemic in several naturally fluoridated areas part of their foundations the early trials of of the world. artificial fluoridation which commenced in Skeletal fluorosis is similar in symptoms to several North American cities in the mid- arthritis. Like arthritis, it can become crippling 1940s. in some cases. In naturally fluoridated areas of When I read the original papers, I was India and several other countries, skeletal amazed at the arbitrary selection of data and fluorosis is a well-recognised public health the absence of statistical analysis. The problem, particularly for the aged. In India it is scientific standard of many of the ‘classic’ even observed in some villages where the papers was that of junior high school rather fluoride concentration is as low as 0.7 parts than university research. Nevertheless, the per million.9 Yet, when proponents of fluori- sheer quantity of papers reporting enormous dation are asked about skeletal fluorosis, they benefits from fluoridation, natural or artificial, often create the false impression that it is only suggested to me initially that the results might seen when fluoride concentrations in drinking be genuine. In the 1980s, new evidence on the water are much higher, 8 ppm or more10. decline of tooth decay in unfluoridated areas When confronted with the studies of skeletal and the mechanism of action of fluoride on fluorosis at 0.7 to 2 ppm, they either deny teeth brought me to reconsider that position them or attempt to label these as special or (see below)7. peculiar cases. The task of finding original medical and Several other papers I found were by scientific literature on the health hazards of medical doctors and dentists who reported fluoridation was made difficult by pro- intolerance or hypersensitivity reactions to fluoridationists’ claims that such evidence did artificially fluoridated drinking water and not exist. Their leaflets and reports claimed fluoride tablets. The reactions include skin that someone would have to drink a bathtub rashes, stomach pains and effects on the Fluoridation 29

nervous system. Clinical reports of these medical doctors here and overseas who had reactions have been checked by ‘blind’ tests, doubts about the safety and/or the effective- in which the patients did not know when they ness of fluoridation. were ingesting fluoride and when they were In the 1970s and early 80s, my main profes- ingesting a placebo. There has been no sional and scientific advisers on fluoridation properly designed large-scale epidemiological were Dr Philip R. N. Sutton, a retired dental study on such reactions. However, a pilot researcher and senior lecturer from the School study in the USA indicated that possibly about of Dentistry, University of Melbourne15, one per cent of the population might be Albert Burgstahler, Professor of Chemistry at sufferers.11 the University of Kansas, and Mr Glen In the professional dental literature I found Walker, a retired businessman with expertise it well recognised that the ingestion of fluoride in metal-finishing and electrochemistry, who during early childhood can damage the was and is still the coordinator of the grass- enamel-forming cells, and that this in turn roots antifluoridation movement in Australia16. produces the particular type of dental mottling From the mid-1980s onwards, I benefitted known as dental fluorosis12. But, although its greatly from regular correspondence with Dr occurrence is clear evidence of physiological John Colquhoun of Auckland, New Zealand, damage, most proponents of fluoridation who was formerly chairperson of the Fluori- describe dental fluorosis as merely a dation Promotion Committee of New Zealand ‘cosmetic’ effect. To me this seems like and is now a leading opponent on the world shrewd marketing rather than an open scene. From the late 1980s, I corresponded acknowledgement of well-established disease. with Dr John R. Lee, a Californian medical At this stage of my research it was obvious doctor. These and other anti-establishment that the official pro-fluoridation reports and ‘experts’ exchange information and test their leaflets had ignored important scientific/ ideas in a fruitful way. Between us, we span a medical papers which raised doubts about the wide array of dental, medical and scientific alleged safety of fluoridation, or dismissed knowledge and experience. them on ludicrous grounds, or misrepresented I browsed regularly in dental and medical them. My appetite for the fluoridation issue libraries and identified the key journals which was whetted by these discrepancies and I publish papers on fluoridation. With a little decided to devote some time to fluoridation as help from my medical and dental mentors, I a serious issue of public interest science. soon learned the basic jargon and found that My determination to do something about it professionals sometimes make damaging was strengthened by reading the report of the admissions in their own journals which they Tasmanian Royal Commission13, which in would never dream of making to the public. parts verged on racism. It did discuss skeletal Subsequently it turned out to be valuable to be fluorosis, but denigrated the overseas evidence able to quote these admissions in my publica- by classifying the disease as occurring in tions on fluoridation and in the rare public ‘native’ populations and therefore by implica- debates. tion as being irrelevant to (white) Australians. As in the case of the issues of nuclear energy My first publications on fluoridation and the health hazards of ionising radiation14, I By the mid-1970s I had reached the stage found that the establishment ‘experts’ on where I wished to publish the evidence in fluoridation were misleading the public and support of my concerns about fluoridation. decision-makers. But, in the climate where I would immediately be labelled as a crank, fanatic or faddist if I Finding allies raised the issue, I could find few outlets apart By writing to or phoning leaders of the anti- from local newspapers and radio in the towns fluoridation movement in Australia, I was put where controversy about fluoridation was in touch with other scientists, dentists and raging. 30 Confronting the experts

Meanwhile, my main voluntary work for College of Physicians21. Although this was a SSRS was conceiving and then editing a book direct attack on fluoridation, my newly estab- called The Magic Bullet, a critique of modern lished credibility in the public/community medicine, something which was new to health field apparently enabled the paper to Australia at that time17. The chapter on receive serious consideration by Community “Environment and health”, written by the Health Studies, journal of the Australian eminent human ecologist, Dr Stephen Boyden, Public Health Association. After I had and myself, referred to fluoridation as an responded to the comments of a referee who example of an ‘antidotal’ form of preventive accused me of bias, the journal published my medicine, rather than a ‘corrective’ form like paper22. having adequate vitamin C in the diet to prevent scurvy. Fluoridation is ‘antidotal’, like A controversial debate gains media a dental fissure sealant, because, contrary to coverage much pro-fluoridation propaganda, dietary In 1979, a visit to Australia by the US fluoride in doses of typically a milligram per biochemist, Dr John Yiamouyiannis, principal day is not necessary for sound teeth. Some author of a paper claiming that there is a link people have excellent teeth yet have fluoride between fluoridation and cancer23, offered the intakes far below the level recommended by opportunity to air this controversial issue more pro-fluoridationists. thoroughly. Almost as soon as he arrived, the The Magic Bullet created widespread public medical and dental establishment attacked and media interest18 and sold out rapidly. As a Yiamouyiannis personally in the media, but follow-up, I became the co-organiser of a seemed unwilling to debate the scientific national conference on The Impact of evidence he put forward. So I arranged for Environment and Lifestyle on Human Health19. SSRS to sponsor a scientific debate at the The conference was devoted to reducing the Australian National University between power of the medical profession over health Yiamouyiannis and a spokesperson for the issues, which are nowadays mostly environ- NH&MRC. The NH&MRC first took the mental and lifestyle in origin, and enhancing traditional pro-fluoridation stance that the the role of public and community health. The subject was beyond scientific debate, but I had time was ripe for such a conference, which managed to interest the Canberra Times in the turned out to be a great success. issue and the NH&MRC had placed itself At the conference I took a risk and publicly in a position where it either had to put presented a paper entitled “A closer look at up or retract. So, reluctantly, they nominated a prevention”, in which I included fluoridation speaker, retired professor of pharmacy Roland as the principal example of a form of preven- Thorp. tive medicine which may have health In the debate which followed, it soon hazards20. Possibly because the paper was became obvious that Thorp had little specific presented humorously in an appropriate knowledge of the data on fluoridation and context and was not simply a head-on attack cancer. He simply gave the standard general on fluoridation, it was well received. Perhaps pro-fluoridation speech. He was unable to for the first time in Australia, a paper review- answer Yiamouyiannis’ specific points on ing some of the health hazards of fluoridation fluoridation and cancer, and could not or was presented to an audience of public health would not reveal who in Australia had professionals, medical doctors with concerns assessed the scientific literature on fluorida- about environment and lifestyle, other health tion and cancer for the NH&MRC and had professionals and academics. pronounced Yiamouyiannis wrong. The debate Encouraged by these limited successes in was reported fairly in the Canberra Times and breaking the professional silence barrier, I subsequently there was some interesting then wrote a critical review of the 1976 pro- correspondence. fluoridation report by the British Royal Fluoridation 31

It must be stressed that at no time did SSRS their professional associations, and propa- or I take the position that fluoridation causes ganda produced for decision-makers and the cancer. In my view, there is conflicting public by a small group of pro-fluoridation scientific evidence, but sufficient grounds for cadres. This is a reflection of the way concern to require further studies and for fluoridation has been promoted and SSRS to provide a public forum for debate.24 implemented — by lobbying and capturing the A response of the medical-dental establish- support of a few top people in key institutions. ment was to wait until I was overseas, giving a It has never been a grassroots movement. paper at an international conference on wind When the public has been given the opportu- energy.25 In my absence a group of dentists nity to express an opinion about fluoridation and doctors met with my fellow SSRS — in referenda, public debates, letters to committee members to pressure SSRS to drop newspapers and petitions — the majority the issue. Also the proponents of fluoridation usually opposes it. held a joint workshop on fluoridation with the In the USA, as late as 1943, fluoride was Australian Statistical Society, at which only officially regarded as a pollutant of air and proponents were speakers. The pro-fluorida- water, and the US Public Health Service tionists clearly needed the support of statisti- (USPHS) regarded fluoride concentrations in cians to refute the alleged fluoride-cancer link. excess of 1 ppm as constituting grounds for Disappointed at the lack of support of my the rejection of drinking water supplies. But, colleagues in SSRS on this and other issues, I research funded by the aluminium industry, resigned as secretary and redirected my for which the disposal of fluoride used in the energies into other community groups. smelting process was an expensive problem, suggested that fluoride may be required for tooth formation. Then a group of dentists and Box 1: The fluoridation power structure: its state dental health officials in Wisconsin history and tactics carried out a long lobbying campaign. Eventu- In Australia, the principal institutional ally, in 1950, they succeeded in getting the proponents of fluoridation are the National USPHS to reverse its previous cautious stance Health and Medical Research Council and endorse fluoridation. Like the NH&MRC (NH&MRC), which first endorsed fluoridation in Australia, the USPHS exercised enormous in 1952, the Australian Dental Association influence through its funding of research (ADA), the Australian Medical Association grants. From the endorsement by the executive (AMA) and the State Departments of Health. committees of the USPHS, NH&MRC and the Until a few years ago, the Federal Department medical and dental associations many others of Health also played an important role, but flowed.27 Although many medical doctors and then its dental health branch was closed as part 26 a few dentists spoke out against fluoridation at of a cost-cutting program. Martin’s book lists the time28, they were not organised and their some of the main personalities in the objections were overridden by the rising tide Australian fluoridation debate and surveys of official endorsements. their views. As fluoridation spread in the USA, an Within the above pro-fluoridation organisa- eminent allergist, Dr George L. Waldbott, tions, very few people seem to have read the reported that some of his patients suffered original scientific, medical and dental litera- allergic, intolerance or hypersensitivity ture on fluoridation and very few can stand up reactions from fluoridated drinking water. His on a public platform or at a university and books also reveal the unprofessional means credibly debate the issue with a scientific used by some members of the fluoridation opponent who has. Their support for fluorida- establishment to try and discredit him and to tion is based on simplistic teaching in dental keep his reports out of medical and scientific and medical schools, the endorsement of journals and out of the media29. Indeed, when fluoridation by the executive committees of the US-based medical journals would no 32 Confronting the experts

longer publish papers on the health hazards of • The Victorian Health (Fluoridation) Act fluoridation, Waldbott even had to publish one 1973 allows the State Government to of his papers in the Medical Journal of impose substantial daily fines on water Australia.30 Subsequently, the curtain of authorities which, following the will of silence fell also in Australia. Reading communities which elect them, decline the Waldbott’s 1965 book helped to prepare me government’s request to fluoridate. for the similar attempts at intellectual suppres- sion to be used against me in the 1980s. • In the State of Tasmania, clause 13 of the By using the authority of the medical, Fluoridation Act 1968 makes it illegal for local governments to hold polls to deter- dental and public health establishments, the 33 proponents of fluoridation succeeded until the mine public opinion on fluoridation. mid-1980s in Australia and New Zealand in keeping the scientific evidence against The ANZAAS symposium gains wide fluoridation out of almost all mainstream publicity media31. The fluoridation establishment In the early 1980s, it was very difficult to gain brought pressure to bear from the highest open discussion of the health hazards of levels on editors and publishers of newspa- fluoridation in the mainstream media. pers, magazines and books and on producers However, by addressing public meetings, of programs in the electronic media. After the speaking on local radio and writing letters to unexpected broadcast in 1979 of an Australian local newspapers, I did help several local Broadcasting Commission ‘4 Corners’ televi- communities to fend off attempts by the New sion program, which presented both sides of South Wales Government to impose fluorida- the fluoridation issue, senior medical doctors tion upon them. I was spending most of my and dentists influenced the ABC to keep the time on windpower research and on building subject off the air for years afterwards32. A up the Australasian Wind Energy Association journalist on a leading Australian newspaper of which I had been a co-founder in 1980. But published in Melbourne, The Age, told me that I still kept up an occasional watching brief on he had been instructed to drop the issue or be the dental literature on fluoridation. fired. Chris Wheeler, the editor of an My own research on fluoridation was Auckland, New Zealand, suburban newspaper, reactivated by the publication of papers the Shore News, was fired on the day in 1988 overseas reporting that there had been large when he brought out an issue containing a declines in tooth decay over the 1960s and large number of letters-to-the-editor about 1970s in several unfluoridated developed fluoridation from both sides. countries34. I was also aware of evidence of In the USA, the history of settlement by similar declines in Australia — in prefluorida- dissenting religious communities and the tion Sydney and unfluoridated Brisbane35. tradition of local democracy allowed local These declines had commenced too early to communities a greater say in decision-making have been caused by fluoride toothpaste and and may have helped keep the proportion of there was evidence suggesting that fluoride people with fluoridated drinking water down tablets had not played a major role. The to 50 per cent. But, in Australia, with its obvious question, avoided by the dental authoritarian forms of state government researchers and fluoridation promoters, was: if descending from the colonial governments of similar large reductions in tooth decay were convict settlements, legislation promoting occurring over a similar period in both fluoridation is distinctly anti-democratic: e.g. fluoridated and unfluoridated areas, is it not • In the State of New South Wales, the likely that the same factor was responsible in Fluoridation of Water Supplies both cases? If so, that common factor could (Amendment) Bill 1989 has the effect of not be fluoridation. preventing local governments from In Australia the promoters of fluoridation terminating fluoridation. had not revealed in their official reports36 even Fluoridation 33

a hint of the new scientific evidence. I thought Wendy Varney and myself, but instead they that the new material would be of interest to tried to disparage us personally. In participat- the Australian scientific community and also ing in this symposium and in the media possibly to the media. So I enlisted the reports, I was described as a CSIRO scientist, collaboration of Dr Philip Sutton, and together as I was entitled, but I was careful to state that we convened a symposium on fluoridation at my conclusions were not necessarily those of the 1985 Festival of Science sponsored by the any organisation with which I was associated. Australian and New Zealand Association for The real counterattack by the proponents of the Advancement of Science (ANZAAS). We fluoridation took place behind the scenes. The invited Wendy Varney, who had just written ADA wrote to the chairman of my employer, an insightful political science thesis on CSIRO, and the Minister for Science and fluoridation37, to join us as a speaker and then, Technology, who is responsible for CSIRO, to liven things up even further and to inject complaining about my ‘activities’, describing ‘balance’, we invited the profluoridation them as “misleading, verging on fraudulent” Australian Dental Association (ADA) and and attacking me for allowing myself to be NH&MRC to each provide a speaker as well. identified as a CSIRO scientist38. Fortunately, The ADA wrote back promptly, not to us, neither the Chairman nor the Minister was but to the organisers of the ANZAAS Festival impressed with these heavy-handed tactics. A of Science, declining to participate and CSIRO administrator informed me about the questioning our motivations. Some of the complaints and I was then able to obtain the ANZAAS organisers interpreted this letter as correspondence under Freedom of Informa- an unsubtle attempt to stop the symposium. tion. The Minister, Barry O. Jones, had The NH&MRC only replied about a fortnight annotated one ADA letter with the following before the symposium, stating that they would comment: “Had the possibility of countering only participate under conditions which were his argument occurred to their collective by then essentially impossible to fulfil. minds?… Perhaps unfamiliar with the concept Fortunately, these establishment responses of scientific debate.” failed to stop the symposium. Indeed, when Dentists and medical doctors are more we explained the situation to the media, they vulnerable to this kind of pressure than I was. found it to be ‘news’ and gave excellent Several cases of intellectual suppression of advance publicity for the symposium. As a dentists, scientists and medical doctors result, about 100 people attended, including concerned about fluoridation are described by the media and many scholars who were Waldbott39, Moolenburgh40 and Martin41. previously uncommitted on this issue. For the first time, widespread media publicity was obtained in Australia for the evidence that the Box 2: How fluoride acts on teeth benefits of fluoridation have been greatly In the early days of fluoridation, the 1950s and exaggerated, that there are genuine health 1960s, dental researchers believed that hazards from fluoridated water, and that the fluoride had to be swallowed to be effective. promotion of fluoridation and fluoride The theory was that fluoride acts systemically products has been funded in part by vested (i.e. internally), going from the bloodstream interests such as the aluminium and sugary into the tooth enamel, allegedly strengthening food industries. the teeth. But measurements showed that In the subsequent media coverage, the hardly any fluoride goes back from the fluoridation proponents were forced to come bloodstream into saliva. About half the out and debate. Unaccustomed to discussing ingested fluoride is stored in the bones where openly the issue which they had labelled as it builds up over a lifetime; the rest is excreted ‘beyond scientific debate’, they did not offer in urine by the kidneys, provided they are meaningful answers to many of the points functioning properly. Furthermore, the raised at the symposium by Philip Sutton, systemic theory did not explain the action of 34 Confronting the experts

fluoride toothpastes and gels, which became submitted it to what is arguably the leading widely used in the late 1970s, requiring a general science journal in the world, Nature. mechanism based on the action of fluoride on A few months later, the editor of Nature the surfaces of teeth. So, then dentists believed sent back a referee’s report which presented in a mixture of mechanisms with both the usual profluoridation line. I pointed out to systemic and surface action. the editor that my original manuscript had But, in the 1980s, researchers observed already answered most of the referee’s that, contrary to the systemic theory, the criticisms. To account for the remaining points amount of tooth decay in individuals’ teeth I made some minor revisions and resubmitted does not seem to depend on the fluoride the paper. To my delight, “The mystery of content of their dental enamel and that the declining tooth decay” was published in July observed differences in fluoride level in dental 198644. I think it must have helped my enamel between fluoridated and unfluoridated credibility as a serious scientist with the editor areas were too small to explain large differ- that over the previous 16 years I had already ences in tooth decay. Moreover, experiments published several refereed research papers in on laboratory rats showed that, when fluoride his journal on such ‘hard science’ topics as was released gradually into the bloodstream astrophysics, space physics and windpower. without first passing over the teeth, there was The publication of such a substantial, no reduction in tooth decay, but if the fluoride controversial paper in Nature gained media at high concentrations was released in the coverage around the world. It was a major mouth, there was a reduction.42 breakthrough for the anti-fluoridation case. It So, there is now a large body of scientific also strengthened my links with overseas evidence indicating that there is little or no scientists, dentists and medical doctors who benefit from swallowing fluoride. Rather, were questioning fluoridation, including fluoride seems to work by its surface action on Albert W. Burgstahler from the USA and John the teeth.43 Some establishment experts, such Colquhoun from New Zealand. Prof. Ole Fejerskov in Denmark, accept this, The counterattack of the fluoridation while others, perhaps recognising the damage establishment was to circulate covert critiques this admission does to the case for the misrepresenting my paper, to spread the false fluoridation of drinking water, still ignore the statement that my paper had not been scientific evidence and maintain that systemic refereed45, and to put pressure on the editor of and surface actions are about equally Nature which could have stopped him important. publishing any further articles by me on fluoridation.

I only learned of the last move several years Publication in Nature later when someone in the USA sent me a Following the success of the ANZAAS copy of a letter and an attached unpublished symposium, I felt that it was time to foster an critique of my Nature paper, which had been international scientific debate on the alleged addressed to the editor of Nature by one of enormous benefits of fluoridation. So I Australia’s most vocal pro-fluoridation assembled all the data I could find on the campaigners of the 1980s, Dr Graham Craig. decline in tooth decay in unfluoridated areas, Contrary to the normal scientific practice of summarised it in a form comprehensible to encouraging open debate, the letter (dated 15 scientists who are not dentists, incorporated August 1986) commenced: “This letter and its new data from the Australian School Dental enclosures are not intended for your corre- Services, posed the ‘obvious question’ about spondence columns.” I had not previously the mechanism of the decline in tooth decay in seen this material, although the way in which unfluoridated areas, offered some possible it reached me suggested that it must have been answers, gave the paper a catchy title and circulated widely around the world. Craig’s material is very easy to refute, so it does not Fluoridation 35

surprise me that it was not submitted for Also in 1988, I was invited to Brazil to take publication. part in an international scientific symposium- Someone also sent me a copy of a letter, debate on fluoridation, with several scientists dated 18 September 1986, from the then head or professionals on each side. The audience of Dental Health in the Federal Department of consisted of water supply and environmental Health, Dr Lloyd Carr, to Dr David E. Barmes, engineers, dentists, medical doctors and public Chief of Oral Health, World Health Organisa- health officials. This was a valuable experi- tion. Carr’s letter was obviously a response to ence, both in testing my arguments against a request to “Please explain and counter the some of the world’s leading pro-fluoridation- Australian data used in Diesendorf’s Nature ists and in being part of a team with top-notch paper”.46 There could be no doubt that the antifluoridationists, such as Dr John publication of my Nature paper had upset the Colquhoun and Dr John R. Lee. On the other international fluoridation establishment. side, I was impressed with the manner of presentation of the American pro-fluoridation Campaigning from the Australian Institute dentist, Dr Herschel S. Horowitz, who was a of Health dramatic speaker with professionally prepared My appointment in 1988 to the position of slides, but I could see that he was limited by senior research fellow at the Australian the poor content of the pro-fluoridation case. Institute of Health (AIH), the Australian Despite our hand-drawn slides, we must have government’s health statistics institute, gave communicated to the audience the logic and me opportunities to create further discussion conviction of our case, because an outcome of of fluoridation in scholarly and public health the symposium was that the proposed circles. My main work at AIH was to analyse expansion of fluoridation in Brazil was data on the use and costs of medical services stopped.48 in Australia. During the job interview it was In 1989, I took some leave from AIH and made clear to me that I would not be permitted went on a round-the-world lecture tour, to do research on fluoridation. Fortunately, I speaking on fluoridation at the University of had just completed a period of research as a Sheffield UK; Dunn Nutrition Laboratory in Visiting Fellow at the Australian National Cambridge UK; St Thomas’s Hospital in University, where I had examined critically London UK; the New York State Health some of the well-known studies done in Department Inquiry; the US Environment Australia and overseas which purported to Protection Agency in Washington DC; and prove enormous dental benefits for fluorida- Stanford University in California. This trip tion47. I had found that these ‘classic’ studies contributed to breaking the silence barrier at were so poorly designed that they were almost some eminent institutions and also gained worthless. Upon joining AIH my immediate some limited media coverage for the anti- unofficial goal was to publicise this latest fluoridation case in these ‘difficult’ countries. work rather than to do further research on Back in Canberra, I gave evidence before a fluoridation. local government inquiry into fluoridation. So, I gave two seminars on fluoridation, The committee was divided and eventually which were well received by all except the accepted a compromise proposal made by medical and dental establishment. The another witness, Professor Bob Douglas, head proponents of fluoridation try very hard to of the National Centre for Epidemiology and diminish the credibility of anti-fluoridation Population Health. The committee recom- speakers, so it must have been galling for them mended that the fluoride concentration in to see me identified as an AIH researcher at Canberra’s drinking water be halved, and this these seminars. Immediately after the second was eventually implemented. But the ADA seminar, the Director of AIH suggested that I and AMA lobbied the local government and keep silent about fluoridation in future, but I opposition parties, with the result that, did not take this advice. following a change of government, the 36 Confronting the experts

fluoride level was restored to 1 ppm in early we had presented and must have felt that they 1992. had to cover themselves. So, the fine print of Subsequently, some of the lobbying the report admits cautiously that: material used by the ADA was published as an • some ‘isolated’ cases of skeletal fluorosis anonymous article in the ADA News Bulletin. are observed in some places overseas The article contained a series of falsehoods where the fluoride concentration in about and misrepresentations of my work and drinking water is as low as 0.7 ppm; that of John Colquhoun that were so gross that • there is ‘an urgent need’ to monitor the they were defamatory, according to legal levels of fluoride exposure and dental advice received49. As a consequence, both Dr fluorosis in Australia; Colquhoun and I managed to get our replies • some infants and children are overdosed exposing the misrepresentations published in with fluoride54; full in ADA News Bulletin.50 But that did not • the quality of the early intervention trials to restore the fluoride level in Canberra’s water determine the benefits of fluoridation ‘was supply to the less harmful level of 0.5 ppm. generally poor…’ Neither our submission nor the NH&MRC The NH&MRC Inquiry report considered the recent revelations that In 1989, in response to a joint letter by John there are more hip fractures (often fatal) in Colquhoun, Philip Sutton and myself, the elderly women in fluoridated areas of the USA NH&MRC set up a new Working Group to and Britain than in unfluoridated areas. Much hold an inquiry into fluoridation and into our of that evidence was published during the allegations of misrepresentations and misuses course of the NH&MRC inquiry.55 of scientific data by some fluoridation Although the NH&MRC report stated that proponents51. On the surface, the final report52, the Working Group “found no evidence of which appeared in 1991, is a whitewash of fraud or misleading presentations of data”, we fluoridation and its leading proponents. have published the evidence for anyone to For instance, the Executive Summary see56. After the NH&MRC inquiry one of the contains such misleading statements as “The leading old guard fluoridation proponents, Dr Working Group could find no evidence within Graham Craig, suddenly left Sydney Univer- Australia of skeletal fluorosis…” and “There sity and the battlefield, and several other is no evidence of adverse health effects members of the working party responsible for attributable to fluoride in communities exposed the misleading 1985 NH&MRC report have to a combination of fluoridated water (1 ppm) subsequently retired from the scene. and contemporary discretionary sources of Professor Tony McMichael, the epidemi- fluoride” (italics added). The phrases in italics ologist who chaired the new Working Group, exclude the well-founded overseas evidence of and Professor AJ Spencer, a dentist/statistician skeletal fluorosis, which was acknowledged member of the Working Group, seem to have cautiously in the main body of the report, but become leaders of a new guard for fluorida- most people reading only the Executive tion. Although I consider them to be more Summary would not realise this. The result is sophisticated scholars than many of the old that most readers are led to assume incorrectly guard, I am not impressed with some of their that there is no evidence of adverse health tactics. For instance, as principal author of a effects attributable to artificially or naturally laudatory review of the NH&MRC (1991) fluoridated water. The pro-fluoridation bias of report, written in the form of an editorial in the the report is also demonstrated by its failure to Australian Journal of Public Health, cite in its extensive bibliography the relevant McMichael failed to declare his role as published scholarly papers on fluoridation of chairperson of the Working Group. Further- Dr Colquhoun, Dr Sutton and myself.53 more, the ‘review’ misrepresented the work of But clearly the Working Group was John Colquhoun and myself, and even misrep- nervous about some of the scientific evidence resented some of the conclusions of the Fluoridation 37

author’s own report, making them appear damaging the credibility of anti-establishment more pro-fluoridation than they are. experts: Fortunately, the journal published our • the production of misleading information replies.57 (e.g. see Table 1, page 44) for distribution In early 1990, my submissions to the to decision-makers and the public; NH&MRC inquiry, revised and updated, were • de facto censorship of scientific, medical published as two major review papers on the and dental journals, by pressuring editors to alleged benefits and health hazards of send manuscripts which raise awkward fluoridation58. The main points from these questions about fluoridation to hostile papers, together with the ethical and political referees who are establishment ‘experts’; dimensions of the fluoridation issue, are listed • intimidating into silence dentists, in the Appendix. medical doctors and scientists who have Shortly after the publication of these concerns about fluoridation, by means of: papers, I resigned from the Australian Institute - personal attacks, and misrepresentation of Health to became coordinator of the of the fluoridation critics’ work, in the Australian Conservation Foundation’s Global media and professional journals; Change Program, a national campaign to - damage to the career prospects of critics reduce the emission of greenhouse gases and through professional associations and to restore the ozone layer. This, the most employers; exciting and demanding job I have ever had, • keeping informed opposition out of the does not leave me much spare time to press/media by informing journalists and campaign on fluoridation. However, I have editors that: managed to write this chapter in my holidays. - opponents are either cranks, right wing extremists or alternative health Conclusion and lessons ‘faddists’; As a scientist who tries to work for the - the issues being raised have already community, I have over the years had to been considered 20 years ago and are confront several powerful industries and therefore not news; interests. In my view the fluoridation estab- - publishing or broadcasting anything on lishment has been more influential and more the issue would be damaging to public misleading in the information it provides than health; the uranium/nuclear power industry. - fluoridation is endorsed by the WHO, In challenging the establishment ‘experts’ USPHS, NH&MRC, AMA, ADA, etc. on fluoridation and other issues, I have found All except the last of these claims are false. that both grassroots opposition and anti- In the latter claim, it is mainly small elites establishment ‘experts’ are necessary. Without within the listed organisations which have the former there is no community base and no actually endorsed fluoridation. political pressure for stopping fluoridation, • if critics of fluoridation somehow and without the latter the movement would manage to get media coverage, ensuring have much less credibility with the media, that a pro-fluoridation ‘expert’ always has other professionals or scientists and decision- the right of reply and if possible the final makers. say; and then publicly attacking the The profluoridation establishment is aware motivations and qualifications of critics; of the danger to their power and influence • circulating covertly, to decision-makers from anti-establishment ‘experts’. My own and media, dossiers and reports attacking experience, and that of other anti-fluoridation opponents personally or by association and scientists, medical doctors and dentists, has misrepresenting their work on fluoridation. exposed the following techniques used by the Until recently, these tactics by the profluori- establishment for suppressing scientific and dation establishment successfully stereotyped public questioning of fluoridation and for the opposition to fluoridation and intimidated 38 Confronting the experts

some opponents, thereby creating a barrier of fluoridation of drinking water will come to be silence in the dental and medical literature and recognised as the harmful aberration that it is. in the popular media. An outcome is that two- thirds of Australians and half of New Zealand- Appendix: Outline of my critique of ers, US Americans and Irish drink fluoridated fluoridation drinking water. These human guinea pigs are As I see it, the case against fluoridation has at risk of developing skeletal fluorosis, hip three dimensions: scientific (risks and alleged fractures, hypersensitivity or intolerance reac- benefits), political (including the establish- tions, and dental fluorosis. It may also turn out ment power structure and sources of funding) that they risk damage to the immune system, and ethical. genetic damage and bone cancer, but the latter At the beginning of 1990 my scientific three issues have not as yet been resolved. position on the alleged benefits and health Since the late-1970s, the tide has slowly hazards of water fluoridation was given in begun to turn. First the implementation of some detail in two major review papers60 fluoridation of community water supplies has Before then a valuable review was published almost ground to a halt as a consequence of 61 the efforts of the community based anti- in Chemical & Engineering News and still earlier the detailed classic book by Waldbott, fluoridation movement, assisted by a few non- 62 establishment ‘experts’. The curtain of silence Burgstahler and McKinney . Since 1990, has been torn in many places, most notably in important new scientific evidence has been Australia and New Zealand. This has been published on the role of fluoride in increasing mainly the result of efforts the determination hip fractures in older people and possibly bone of a few dentists, medical doctors, scientists cancer in rats (see below). On the politics and sociology of fluoridation, I recommend the and other scholars scattered around the world. 63 64 I think that my own greatest impact on books by Varney and Martin respectively; a brief account is also given in the paper by opening up the fluoridation debate has been 65 through the publication of my paper in the Diesendorf and Varney . On the ethics of leading international science journal, Nature, fluoridation, I wrote a paper in 1989 which I and the associated media publicity it gained. am still trying to publish in a ‘respectable’ Further progress in rolling back fluoridation journal. will come from building alliances with the Established health hazards consumer, environmental and community Dental fluorosis, skeletal fluorosis, hip health movements, and by continuing to fractures and hypersensitivity/intolerance present the evidence of concern to uncommit- reactions (see text). ted scientists and health professionals. The Note (1): Most of the major cities of original power of the pro-fluoridation estab- Australia were only fluoridated in the 1960s lishment, its foundation of hierarchical and 70s, and so by 1992 older Australians had endorsement, is also its greatest weakness. As only ingested fluoridated water typically for the silence barrier is broken in more places, 15-28 years. Both skeletal fluorosis and hip more health professionals and dentists will fractures will be much more prevalent in become better informed about the issue and artificially fluoridated areas in the future when more of these will dare to voice publicly their people have been exposed to fluoridated doubts about fluoridation. drinking water from birth to old age.66 I hope that this exposé of the fluoridation Note (2): The prevalence and severity of establishment and its tactics will assist in that dental fluorosis are increasing in fluoridated process. However distasteful it may seem, the countries where they have been monitored (i.e. public exposure of intellectual suppression is USA and New Zealand)67. 59 the best way of countering it . As the suppres- sion is illuminated and destroyed, the Fluoridation 39

compared large fluoridated cities with small Possible health hazards unfluoridated rural towns. This is an inappro- In addition to the above established health priate comparison, because diet is often worse hazards, which are each confirmed by several and tooth decay higher in rural areas. But, by independent studies in the medical or scientific comparing major cities we can reduce dietary literature, there is evidence that the following differences. Then we find that tooth decay in may also be health hazards, but this has not yet Australia’s only unfluoridated major city, been proven beyond reasonable doubt. Brisbane, is about the same as in fluoridated Cancer: In 1990 a study by the US National Adelaide and Perth, and is less than in Toxicology Program found that a small fluoridated Melbourne74. In New Zealand, fraction of laboratory rats which ate fluoride tooth decay in unfluoridated Christchurch is developed bone cancers, but not any in the about the same as that in all the other major control group which ate much lower amounts cities of that country, which are fluoridated75. of fluoride68. The results of this study were Similar results have been reported from the officially labelled as ‘equivocal’ (although this USA, Canada and elsewhere76. Nowadays is contested by independent scientists) and there is little or no significant difference in other studies are in progress. Most epidemiol- tooth decay in permanent teeth between many ogical studies of human populations have not comparable fluoridated and unfluoridated been able to establish a link between fluoride regions. and cancer when differences in age, sex and Furthermore, the pro-fluoridationists’ race are included properly, but an important attempt to explain the low tooth decay in study by Erickson is an exception.69 70 unfluoridated Brisbane and Christchurch as Damage to the immune system . resulting from imported soft drinks processed Hazards to formula-fed babies: There is a in fluoridated areas, is unconvincing, because natural physiological mechanism which stops Brisbane and Christchurch are so large and almost all fluoride ingested by mothers from isolated that these cities manufacture most of entering breast milk. The result is that babies their own soft drinks, or just import the which drink milk formula made up with concentrate but not the water. fluoridated water consume over 100 times the Recently, some proponents have admitted fluoride ingested by breast fed babies. So, that the benefits of fluoridation are now people who were fluoridated as babies are considerably less than the alleged 50-70 per likely to be at higher risk of developing the cent reductions in tooth decay, for example, above diseases.71 only 20 per cent reduction. Nowadays, in an Exaggerated benefits average 10-year-old Australian, this corre- Until quite recently, it was claimed by sponds to only one-fifth of a dental cavity, proponents that fluoridation reduces tooth which is negligible. decay in children by 50 to 70 per cent There are well-designed experiments77 compared with that in unfluoridated areas. In which show, beyond reasonable doubt, that general, the studies which were supposed to fluoride toothpaste is effective in reducing support this large alleged reduction tended to tooth decay. But, fluoride toothpaste has about be conducted by enthusiasts for fluoridation 1000 times the fluoride concentration of and their scientific quality was very low. Not fluoridated water, so we cannot deduce from one was a time dependent study with its effectiveness that fluoridated water is also randomly chosen test and control populations effective. There is now a large body of and ‘blind’ examination of teeth.72 The reports evidence that fluoride at sufficiently high of some studies claiming large benefits from concentration acts on the surface of teeth to fluoridation were so misleading that questions reduce tooth decay, but there is little or no of possible fraud have been raised.73 benefit from actually ingesting fluoride (see Another means of overestimating benefits Box 2). came from pro-fluoridation studies which 40 Confronting the experts

Manufacturers, Kelloggs (sugary processed In most western countries, tooth decay has cereals) and Scanlens (sweets), among declined substantially in unfluoridated regions others80. over the past 2 to 3 decades. In several cases Academic dentists and dental public health — such as Sydney Australia, New Zealand, officials gain promotion for themselves and Gloucestershire UK and parts of Canada — status for their professions by promoting the this decline commenced at least several years fluoridation of water supplies as a public before water fluoridation was introduced. But health measure. Bodies like the Australian fluoridation was often wrongly given the Dental Association and the National Health credit.78 Other factors which could be and Medical Research Council have been responsible for the declines in unfluoridated claiming since the early 1950s that “fluorida- areas are dietary changes, improved dental tion is safe and effective”. Now they seem health education and toothbrushing habits, unable to give unbiased consideration to fluoride toothpaste (in the 1970s, but not scientific data showing that they were before) and changes in immunity. wrong.81 In support of dietary changes as an impor- tant factor, there is now scientific evidence Ethics that chewing cheese reduces tooth decay. In Fluoridation is mass medication with an Australia, the consumption of cheese increased uncontrolled dose with a chemical which is substantially from the 1950s to the 1980s, expensive to remove (see text). spanning the period of declining tooth decay.

Politics Notes

Fluoridation has been heavily funded by the 1. B. Martin, Scientific Knowledge in aluminium and sugary food industries, which Controversy: The Social Dynamics of the have vested interests in the image of fluoride Fluoridation Debate. Albany: State University as a safe and effective reducer of tooth decay. of New York Press (1991), Appendix. Aluminium smelters benefited both directly 2. CSIRO, the Commonwealth Scientific and indirectly from fluoridation. Initially they and Industrial Research Organisation, is the 79 sold their fluoride wastes to water authorities Australian Government’s national research and, once the image of fluoride was changed organisation. For several years around 1980 I from that of a pollutant to a beneficial was a Principal Research Scientist and leader dental/public health chemical, they obtained of the Applied Mathematics Group in CSIRO. decades of relief from pollution controls. The 3. M. Diesendorf, “On being a dissident latter was the principal payoff for that scientist,” Ockham’s Razor 2, Sydney: industry. Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1988a): The sugary food industry gains sales from 9-14. the notion that there is a magic substance in 4. M. Diesendorf (ed.), The Magic Bullet: drinking water which reduces tooth decay, Social Implications and Limitations of Modern whatever sugary food our children may eat. In Medicine, an Environmental Approach, the USA, research on diet, nutrition and tooth Canberra: Society for Social Responsibility in decay has been funded by the Sugar Research Science (1976). Foundation, enabling the industry to exercise 5. M. Diesendorf and B. Furnass (eds.), The some control over the direction of research Impact of Environment and Lifestyle on and the production of results which could Human Health, Canberra: Society for Social embarrass it. In Australia, the Dental Health Responsibility in Science (1977). Education and Research Foundation, one of 6. M. Diesendorf (ed.), Energy and People: the main fluoridation promoting bodies in Social Implications of Different Energy New South Wales, has been funded by Coca- Futures, Canberra: Society for Social Cola, Colonial Sugar Refining Co., Cadbury- Responsibility in Science (1979). Schweppes, Australian Council of Soft Drink Fluoridation 41

7. M. Diesendorf, “Have the benefits of cancer mortality related to artificial fluorida- water fluoridation been over-estimated?” tion,” Fluoride, vol. 10, no. 3 (1977): 102-123. International Clinical Nutrition Review, vol. 24. See Appendix. 10, no. 2 (1990a): 292-303. 25. Before my departure I received several 8. For instance, members of the alternative phone calls from strangers who pretended to health movement sometimes claim incorrectly be anti-fluoridation but were clearly trying to that, while artificially fluoridated water is find out my movements and those of Dr harmful, naturally fluoridated water is safe. Yiamouyiannis. When I called one of these 9. For a recent review, see M. Diesendorf, people back, the phone was picked up by her “The health hazards of fluoridation: a re- husband who inadvertently revealed that she examination,” International Clinical Nutrition had given me a false name. Review, vol. 10, no. 2 (1990b): 304-321. 26. See Martin, op. cit., chapter 3. 10. E.g. see M. Diesendorf, “International 27. G. L. Waldbott, A. W. Burgstahler, and symposium on fluoridation,” Social Science H. L. McKinney, Fluoridation: The Great and Medicine, vol. 27, no. 9 (1988b): 1003- Dilemma, Lawrence, Kansas: Coronado Press 1005. (1978). 11. For references, see Diesendorf (1990b), 28. As witness the debate in the letters op. cit. columns of the Medical Journal of Australia. 12. O. Fejerskov et al., Dental Fluorosis: A 29. G. L. Waldbott, A Struggle with Titans, Handbook for Health Workers, Copenhagen: New York: Carlton Press (1965); Waldbott et Munksgaard (1988). al., op. cit. 13. M. P. Crisp, Report of the Royal 30. Waldbott, op. cit. Commissioner into Fluoridation of Public 31. This curtain of silence is still quite thick Water Supplies, Hobart: Government Printer in the USA and the UK. (1968). 32. Private communications from ABC 14. These were two of my particular journalists. “science and society” interests in the 1970s. 33. I understand that this legislation was 15. P. R. N. Sutton, Fluoridation: Errors revoked recently, thanks to the efforts of the and Omissions in Experimental Trials, Green Independents. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press 34. D. H. Leverett, “Fluorides and the (1960, second edition). changing prevalence of dental caries,” 16. See G. Walker, Fluoridation: Poison on Science, vol. 217 (2 July 1982): 26-30; First Tap, Melbourne: Glen Walker (1982). International Conference on Declining 17. Diesendorf (1976), op. cit. Prevalence of Dental Caries, Journal of Dental 18. Not because of the brief mention of Research, vol. 61 (1982) (Special Issue). fluoride. 35. Reviewed in Diesendorf (1990a), op. 19. The conference proceedings were cit. published as Diesendorf and Furnass, op. cit. 36. E.g. National Health and Medical 20. Published in Diesendorf and Furnass, Research Council, Report of the Working op. cit.: 265-280. Party on Fluorides in the Control of Dental 21. Royal College of Physicians, Fluoride, Caries, Canberra: Australian Government Teeth and Health, Tunbridge Wells, Kent: Publishing Service (1985). Pitman Medical (1976). 37. Published subsequently as W. Varney, 22. M. Diesendorf, “Is there a scientific Fluoride in Australia: A Case to Answer, basis for fluoridation?” Community Health Sydney: Hale & Iremonger (1986). Studies, vol. 4 (1980): 224-230. 38. E.g. Letter from N. L. Henry, Federal 23. J. A. Yiamouyiannis and D. Burk, President, Australian Dental Association, to “Fluoridation and cancer: age dependence of Barry O. Jones, Minister for Science and 42 Confronting the experts

Technology, dated 28 August 1985, with swindle?” The Ecologist, vol. 16 (1986): 243- Minister’s annotations. 248; J. Colquhoun and R. Mann, “The 39. Waldbott, op. cit. Hastings fluoridation experiment: postscript,” 40. H. Moolenburg, Fluoride: The Freedom The Ecologist, vol. 17 (1987): 125-126; M. Fight, Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing Diesendorf, “Misleading publicity for a (1987). fluoridation trial,” New Zealand Medical 41. Martin, op. cit., chapter 5. Journal, vol. 101 (13 December 1988c): 832- 42. For details and references see 833. Diesendorf (1990a), op. cit. 52. National Health and Medical Research 43. My own view is that fluoride at 1 ppm Council, The Effectiveness of Water Fluorida- in drinking water has at best a very small tion, Canberra: Australian Government benefit as it passes over the teeth, and that it is Publishing Service (1991). more effective at 1000 ppm in fluoride 53. Out of more than a dozen of our toothpaste. scholarly papers and books on fluoridation, the 44. M. Diesendorf, “The mystery of report cited only one and that was published in declining tooth decay,” Nature, vol. 322 (10 a popular journal, The Ecologist, and so has July 1986a): 125-129. less scientific status. 45. See Martin, op. cit.: 76. 54. But the report obscured the evidence we 46. The WHO committee on fluoridation presented that water fluoridation, rather than contains no opponents — see Waldbott et al., fluoride toothpaste or fluoride tablets, was op. cit., chapter 16 and Varney, op. cit. often the principal source of overdosing. 47. Published as M. Diesendorf, “A re- 55. C. Cooper and S. J. Jacobsen, “Water examination of Australian fluoridation trials,” fluoridation and hip fracture,” Journal of the Search, vol. 17 (1986b): 256-262; M. American Medical Association, vol. 266, no. 4 Diesendorf, “Anglesey fluoridation trials re- (1991): 513-514; S. J. Jacobsen et al., examined,” Fluoride, vol. 22, no. 2 (1989): “Regional variation in the incidence of hip 53-58. fracture: US white women aged 65 year and 48. I have given a detailed account of this older,” Journal of the American Medical exciting symposium-debate in Diesendorf Association, vol. 264 (1990): 500-502; M. F. (1988b), op. cit. R. Sowers et al., “A prospective study of bone 49. E.g. the article claimed falsely that mineral content and fracture in communities “When the data [Dr Colquhoun’s] was [sic] re- with differential fluoride exposure,” American analysed for previous fluoride exposure by the Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 133 (1991): NZ Medical Research Council, Colquhoun’s 649-660; C. Danielson et al., “Hip fractures ‘findings’ evaporated.” But, when Dr and fluoridation in Utah’s elderly population,” Colquhoun referred this passage to the Journal of the American Medical Association, Director of the Medical Research Council of vol. 26 (1992): 746-748. New Zealand, he replied: “You are right in 56. Colquhoun and Mann (1986), op. cit.; your assumption that this Council has not at Diesendorf (1988c), op. cit. any stage set out to re-analyse your research 57. A. J. McMichael and G. D. Slade, “An data, nor has it contracted others to do so.” element of dental health? Fluoride and dental 50. Anon, “Fluoridation disaster in the disease in contemporary Australia” (editorial), A.C.T.,” ADA News Bulletin, no. 162 Australian Journal of Public Health, vol. 15, (November 1989): 7-8. Replies by M. no. 2 (1991): 80-83. Replies by M. Diesendorf Diesendorf, ADA News Bulletin, no. 166 and by J. Colquhoun, Australian Journal of (March 1990): 6, 8 and J. Colquhoun, ADA Public Health, vol. 15, no. 4 (1991): 308-310. News Bulletin, no. 167 (April 1990): 17-18 . 58. See Diesendorf (1990a), op. cit. and 51. J. Colquhoun and R. Mann, “The Diesendorf (1990b), op. cit. Hastings fluoridation experiment: science or Fluoridation 43

59. B. Martin, C. M. A. Baker, C. Manwell evidence of a harmful effect, including cancer, and C. Pugh (eds.), Intellectual Suppression: attributable to fluoridation.” Australian Case Histories, Analysis and 70. J. Yiamouyiannis, Fluoride: The Ageing Responses, Sydney: Angus & Robertson Factor, Delaware, Ohio: Health Action Press (1986). (1986); S. L. M. Gibson, “Effects of fluoride 60. See Diesendorf (1990a & b), op. cit. on immune system function,” Complementary 61. B. Hileman, “Fluoridation of water,” Medical Research, vol. 6, no. 3 (1992): 111- Chemical & Engineering News, vol. 66, no. 31 113. (1988): 26-42. 71. Diesendorf (1990b), op. cit. 62. See Waldbott et al., op. cit. 72. Diesendorf (1986b), op. cit.; Diesendorf 63. Varney, op. cit. (1989), op. cit. 64 . Martin, op. cit. 73. See Colquhoun and Mann (1986) and 65. M. Diesendorf and W. Varney, Diesendorf (1988c), op. cit. “Fluoridation: politics and strategies,” Social 74. Diesendorf (1990a), op. cit. Alternatives, vol. 5, no. 2 (1986): 48-53. 75. J. Colquhoun, “Child dental health 66. See Diesendorf (1990b), op. cit. differences in New Zealand,” Community 67. J. Colquhoun, “Disfiguring dental Health Studies, vol. 11 (1987): 85-90; J. fluorosis in Auckland,” Fluoride, vol. 17 Colquhoun, “Is there a dental benefit from (1984): 234-242; Diesendorf (1990a), op. cit. water fluoride?” Fluoride, vol. 27 (1994): 13- 68. National Toxicology Program, Toxicol- 22. ogy and Carcinogenesis Studies of Sodium 76. Reviewed in Diesendorf (1990a), op. Fluoride in F344/N Rats and B6C3F1 Mice, cit. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health 77. I.e. randomised double-blind controlled (August 1990). trials. 69. When I was a member of the CSIRO 78. Diesendorf (1986) and Diesendorf Division of Mathematics and Statistics, I (1990a), op. cit., and J. Colquhoun, “Decline worked through the evidence on fluoridation in primary tooth decay in New Zealand,” with my statistician colleagues and verified Community Health Studies, vol. 12 (1988): that the controversial study by Yiamouyiannis 187-191. and Burk, op. cit., which claimed that there is 79. Nowadays fluoride used in water a link between fluoridation and cancer in supplies is mostly obtained as a waste of the human populations, did not adjust adequately fertiliser industry. for the different age, sex and race distributions 80. Diesendorf and Varney, op. cit., and in the fluoridated and unfluoridated cities. But Varney, op. cit. an epidemiological study by a pro-fluorida- 81. Diesendorf and Varney, op. cit., and tionist, Erickson, did show a clear correlation Varney, op. cit. between fluoridation and cancer when age, race and sex had been allowed for properly [J. D. Erickson, “Mortality in selected cities with fluoridated and non-fluoridated water supplies,” New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 298 (1978): 1112-1116]. In his paper, Erickson made further adjustments for population density and median education, and these non-standard adjustments removed the original correlation between fluoridation and cancer. Strangely, the author stated in the conclusion of his paper that “There was no 44 Confronting the experts

Table 1: Some mystifications by fluoridation proponents

Mystification or propaganda My response ______

Fluoride is a natural substance Some natural substances are harmful, even those found and so it must be safe naturally in drinking water (e.g. radium). There is scientific evidence that both radium in above-average concentrations in drinking water and natural fluoride at 1 ppm in drinking water are harmful.

Fluoride is a natural substance Many medications are or were originally natural and so is not a medication. substances: e.g. penicillin, digitalis, salicilates (in aspirin). Since fluoride is used to treat people rather than to purify the water, it is a medication and so should not be taken unless the dose is controlled.

Fluoride is an essential nutrient Fluoride in doses of 1 mg/day is neither necessary for life and tooth decay is caused by a nor for sound teeth. Even at much lower doses, nobody has “deficiency of fluoride.” ever been able to show that there is a nutritional requirement for fluoride. Any small benefit of fluoride in reducing tooth decay arises from its action on the surface of teeth.

Fluoride strengthens bones and Fluoride increases bone mass in a disordered way, making so is a valuable treatment for bones more brittle. There are now several major osteoporosis. epidemiological studies from the US and Britain showing a higher rate of hip fracture in the aged living in fluoridated areas than in unfluoridated areas. Moreover, treatment of osteoporosis with high doses of fluoride has been discontinued in most places.

The fluoride concentration in It is the fluoride dose (e.g. in mg/day), not the drinking water is controlled to concentration in mg/litre, which determines the health within plus or minus 20 per cent. hazards. The dose depends on the amount of water drunk and so cannot be controlled.

The bone/joint disease skeletal In India, skeletal fluorosis is quite common when the fluorosis is only seen in areas (natural) fluoride concentration in drinking water is less where drinking water contains than 2 ppm, and has even been reported in a few locations more than 8 ppm fluoride. where it is as low as 0.7 ppm.

To suffer ill-effects from This confuses acute toxicity from a single high dose of fluoride, one would have to fluoride with chronic toxicity from many low doses. Over a drink a bathtub full of lifetime spent in a fluoridated area, one consumes and fluoridated water. stores in the bones much more fluoride than that contained in a bathtub full of fluoridated water.

4 Terrorism: the struggle against closure Edward S. Herman

Published in Brian Martin (editor), Confronting the Experts (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996), pp. 77-97

Introduction ment experts, who don’t like open debate any In one important respect confronting the more than Commissars (see below, under “The experts on a subject like terrorism is more marginalization process”). difficult than on issues like fluoridation or It is not at all difficult to deconstruct and nuclear power. On the latter topics, the reveal terrible flaws and bias in the writings of public’s health and safety are clearly and the establishment terrorism experts; their work directly at stake, its interest in rational inquiry is often extremely crude, rhetorical, and bears is evident, and anti- or non-establishment little resemblance to serious social science experts or spokespersons, while at a serious scholarship, so that refuting them generally disadvantage in reaching the public, can involves merely looking at obvious sources sometimes be heard widely and exert influ- and using the rules of logic, as I describe ence.1 In the case of terrorism, where mainly below. But their work, though technically distant and hazy foreign enemies are claimed vulnerable, is immune to critical attack by to be posing a threat, the public’s interest is virtue of the closure process and exclusion of more remote, its knowledge is slight, and it is dissenting views. Neither my occasional therefore more easily caught up in and collaborator, Professor Noam Chomsky, nor I manipulated by a web of symbols. For have ever had an opinion column or article in example, political leaders in the United States, the New York Times. I had a single opinion with the help of the mass media, have easily column on terrorism in my home town mobilised a consensus on the dire threat posed newspaper, The Philadelphia Inquirer, in by a demonised foreign enemy like Libyan 1983, after which I was blacklisted for the leader Muammar Kadaffi,2 that has given them next decade. In the US, dissident experts on political and popular backing for attacks on terrorism have been restricted almost entirely Libya and indirect support for larger political to reaching audiences of 50 to 2,000 in public agendas.3 gatherings, and by writing articles in small This consensus has been quickly estab- circulation journals and books that reach lished, and alternative definitions and ways of thousands, but in the aggregate with direct looking at terrorism have been extremely access to substantially less than five percent of difficult to introduce into discussions of the the public.4 subject. This process of “closure” occurs not It is a cliché of the West that under free only because of the symbolic power of the institutions, truth will eventually conquer demonised enemy, but also because the falsehood and correct error; but in the terror- mainstream media confine themselves to an ism field the question must be asked: what if exceptional degree to official sources and unconventional views are systematically establishment experts. Given the rapid marginalized by the free institutions through- consensus, unaccredited experts would hardly out the periods when they are socially be understood, would elicit protests by vocal relevant? groups (including the government itself), and their participation in public forums is often Terrorism and its politicization vetoed in advance by officials and establish- The Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary’s defini- tion of terrorism captures both the vagueness 46 Confronting the experts

and historical scope of usage of the term: “a in world terrorism was repeatedly cited by the mode of governing, or of opposing govern- US Secretaries of State and Reagan himself, ment, by intimidation.” “Mode of governing” and was a core element in the western by intimidation is “state terrorism,” and for a ideology of terrorism elaborated in the 1980s. long time the word conjured up images of the But the US president was about to meet with mobs and guillotines of the French Revolu- the Soviet head of state, so the Soviet Union tion’s “terror.” In the twentieth century, the was momentarily exempted from status as a use of extreme violence by Hitler’s Nazi terrorist state for diplomatic reasons. Syria had Germany, Mussolini’s Italy, and Stalin’s just helped the US win the release of hostages Soviet Union reinforced the tie-in of state and in Lebanon, so it too was relieved of terrorist terrorism. state onus as a reward for services rendered. An alternative vision of terrorism emerged Saddam Hussein’s Iraq was also exempt from in the late nineteenth century, which pointed to terrorist status, despite its ongoing aggression alienated and radical individuals and small against Iran, employment of chemical groups who used violence to disrupt the weapons in the Iran war and against its own established order. Here the image was the Kurdish people, and more general repression bewhiskered, fanatical looking, foreigner at home. But Iraq’s aggression against Iran (earlier, Jewish or eastern European, more was approved and aided by the West, and Iraq recently Middle Eastern), although the phrases was, like South Africa and Guatemala, “state terrorism” and “terrorist state” have “constructively engaged,” not treated as an remained in use. Thus, in a speech given on aggressor or terrorist state. It was only when it July 8, 1985, US president Ronald Reagan attacked the wrong victim (Kuwait) that the denounced state terrorism and listed the cast of US officials spoke of “naked aggression,” and villains on the world stage as Iran, Cuba, Iraq was reclassified as a terrorist state. North Korea, Libya and Nicaragua. It should also be noted that in western Reagan’s list illustrates the enormous semantics, countries were not classed as politicization in the use of the word terrorism. “terrorist states” if they merely abused their The named villains were all states with which own citizens, but only if they sponsored the US was in conflict. Nicaragua was actually terrorist groups outside their own borders. under attack by a US-organised and funded Thus states like Argentina, Chile, El Salvador, proxy army (the contras), and was therefore a and Guatemala, which carried out indigenous literal victim of US-sponsored terrorism,5 but holocausts in the 1970s and early 1980s, were its designation as one of the world’s terrorist not terrorists but merely indulging in “human states was presented in the mainstream media rights” abuses, in the memorable distinction without comment in news stories and editori- made by Secretary of State Alexander Haig in als. South Africa, which was supporting its January 1981. Haig went on to disclose that own cross-border insurgents in Angola the US was going to shift its attention from (Savimbi and UNITA) and Mozambique “human rights” to “terrorism,” claiming that (RENAMO), and engaged in regular the latter was a more serious problem and even commando raids and invasions across the an extreme version of human rights abuse. But borders of the front line states, was not this was a gross misrepresentation of fact. designated a terrorist state, nor was Israel, Nobody but Haig has ever claimed that which had invaded Lebanon in 1982, terrorists in the narrow sense in which he used maintained a cross-border proxy army in the term have intimidated and killed on the Southern Lebanon, and carried out frequent air scale of state terrorists. The 13-year total, and commando attacks on Lebanon. 1968-1980, for world-wide terrorist killings, As a further reflection of the politicization given by the CIA in 1981, was 3,680, a figure of usage, the Soviet Union, Syria, and Iraq exceeded by Guatemalan government killings were excluded from Reagan’s 1985 list, by more than twenty-fold between 1978 and although the Soviet Union’s alleged centrality 1983.6 Terrorism 47

The fact is that the Reagan administration obvious arbitrariness and political basis of was actively supporting state terrorists in their selections. They also accepted the Argentina, Chile, El Salvador, Guatemala, and implicit model of terrorism in which the South Africa (among others) in the early Soviet Union and its leading proxy, Libya, 1980s. The Reaganite redefinition of terrorism were encouraging and sustaining terrorism in so as to exclude the state terrorism of its order to destabilize the western “democracies” clients was thus an arbitrary politicization of (presumably including Guatemala and South the word, a manipulation of language to serve Africa). Even the truly laughable politicization an immediate political agenda. The Reaganites of 1985 noted earlier, where Reagan listed the did want to capture some states in the US enemies of the moment, including the terrorism web, however, so they retained the victimized Nicaragua, and “temporarily” notion of state terrorism in the form of excluded the Evil Empire, Syria and Iraq for possible sponsorship of “international good behaviour, did not evoke any comment. terrorism” across borders. The world’s The terrorists were what a very opportunist terrorists therefore included the various state apparatus declared to be terrorists, governments which aided individuals, groups, however absurd and vacillating the desig- and insurgencies labelled terrorist, the nations. supporting governments being “sponsors” of Although a clear prima facie case can be terrorism. This convenient lexicon permits the made that the 1980s insurgents in South invidious word “terrorist” to be applied to Africa, Guatemala and El Salvador were anybody using force against the West, or victims of state terrorism and that the word helping those who do so. The latter were part terrorist should have been applied to the of The Terror Network, as set forth in a 1981 governments of those countries, this was not book by Claire Sterling, who tied all the left done by accredited experts in the US and its and insurgent groups of the world to a Soviet allied countries. Thus, a study I and a support system. colleague carried out of the work of 32 of the A further problem for the new lexicon was most prominent western experts on terrorism how to exclude numerous groups like the showed that 31 focused almost exclusively on Cuban refugee network in the US, UNITA in insurgent terrorists — minus the Reagan- Angola, supported by South Africa and the designated “freedom fighters,” of course — US, the contras attacking “soft targets” in along with the Reagan-approved list of state Nicaragua from Honduras, under US sponsor- terrorists.8 As another dramatic illustration of ship, that fit the mainstream notion of the bias of the establishment experts, we terrorists perfectly. The Reagan administration tabulated the index references to rightwing and handled this easily: those apparent terrorists leftwing terrorists in four major and reasona- supported by the US and South Africa were bly representative establishment studies of “freedom fighters,” so that neither the US nor terrorism,9 including popular works by South Africa were terrorist states. In fact, Sterling and by Dobson and Payne, and however, the African National Congress’s “scholarly” studies by Laqueur and Wilkin- (ANC’s) insurgency had a majority-based son.10 We included in the listings both small- constituency in South Africa, whereas UNITA scale terrorists of the right and left (e.g. the and the contras were essentially creatures of Italian Stefano Delle Chiaie and Salvadoran their foreign organizers and sponsors.7 Roberto D’Aubuisson on the right, Arab Abu Nidal and the US Weathermen on the left) and The accommodating experts state terrorists allied with the West and those What is most interesting is the fact that the US deemed enemies of the West (South Africa’s mainstream experts and media accepted Botha, Argentina’s Videla versus Kadaffi and without challenge the Reagan administration’s Castro). The aggregated totals of index definition of terrorism and the classification of references to non-Western and leftwing terrorists and terrorist states, despite the terrorists versus Western and rightwing 48 Confronting the experts

terrorists was 733 to 2! In short, the establish- One would think that such relationships ment experts focused unremittingly on those would rule out most of these experts from use that fit the US and Western political agenda by the media on grounds of conflict of and simply ignored those who did not fit. interests. It works just the opposite in the It should also be pointed out that the Soviet West: conflict of interest accredits the expert conspiracy model of terrorism, according to because it demonstrates contacts, knowledge, which the world’s terrorism was a result of a and credentials. Bias is irrelevant if it is Soviet destabilization plan and its implemen- consistent with dominant mainstream opinion tation, was accepted by a solid majority of the or reflects the opinion of very powerful 32 experts.11 The “scholarly” Wilkinson, for people. Affiliation with a leftwing party or example, castigated the Central Intelligence funding by an interest group that represented a Agency (CIA) professionals who opposed the non-establishment viewpoint would be Soviet conspiracy model and he implicitly regarded as posing a conflict problem, and if supported CIA head William Casey’s efforts those representatives were allowed to speak at to make the CIA into a completely politicized all, their conflict would be mentioned. The US instrument of state policy in its evaluation and public broadcasting system has barred union presentation of data. In dealing with South funding of programs as posing a conflict of Africa, Wilkinson not only failed to call South interest problem, but corporate underwriting of Africa a terrorist state, he suggested that the rightwing economists and commentators is not “troubles” were in good part a function of seen as conflictual.13 Thirty-year CIA veteran Soviet meddling. He even chided Kadaffi for propaganda expert and former CIA station giving aid to Nicaragua, under US attack, and chief in Turkey, Paul Henze, was one of the expressed the view that Britain owed the US leading commentators on the alleged KGB- support for its past services to the Free World, Bulgarian plot to kill the Pope. Not only was making the facts in any particular case quite his CIA affiliation not considered by the irrelevant.12 media to compromise his objectivity, it was not even disclosed to the public.14 Accreditation by conflict of interest The US system thus works with great One of the most interesting facts about the efficiency to get over and continually reaffirm dominant experts on terrorism is their rampant the government-establishment preferred line conflicts of interest. Of the 32 we studied, 22 on terrorism. The government view is had worked for a western government, explained by officials, who focus with great including 7 who had worked for the US CIA. indignation on their preferred terrorists, Another (but overlapping) group of 15 were sometimes offering outright lies.15 The experts principals or employees of private security — accredited by their conflict of interest that firms that served a government and business assures their adherence to the government clientele. Twenty-three were or had been view — solemnly restate the government affiliated with non-profit research and policy view, and mull over why the terrorists are institutes (so-called think tanks), 13 with the misbehaving and what our anti-terrorism big four (American Enterprise Institute, options are. What makes the system so Georgetown Center for Strategic and Interna- efficient is its uncoerced character, with the tional Studies, Heritage Foundation and the free market, not a censoring government, Hoover Institution). These thinktanks are filtering out unwanted facts and perspectives. closely affiliated with the government, but are And the free market participants usually do largely underwritten by the corporate their private censoring with a certain inno- community. Given these relationships, the cence, as the biases they require from their experts’ identification of “terrorists” as those experts are seen as the mere accepting of self- so regarded by their employers and funders evident truths from which any intelligent was a foregone conclusion. debate must begin.

Terrorism 49

My own writings on terrorism format and small print edition. But it was not My own writings began during the Vietnam advertised and was not kept available for very War years 1965-1975. They were driven by long — the residual copies were destroyed, not outrage at the events in progress and the US remaindered (or even offered to the author for establishment and media apologetics, which purchase).16 The editor who had defended and included some remarkable word usage, double pushed the book was fired within six months standards, and rewriting of history. The US after it was issued. had entered Vietnamese affairs as a successor An even more extreme case of suppression to the French colonial regime, whose return to occurred in connection with a work on power the US had underwritten after World terrorism written with Professor Noam War II, until the French withdrawal in 1953. In Chomsky, with whom I began to collaborate 1954 the US put into office in Vietnam a US- during the Vietnam War era. Our experience trained and imported puppet, Ngo Dinh Diem. with suppression occurred in our dealings with Although devoid of substantial indigenous Warner Modular Publications, a small support, Diem nevertheless got 99% of the subsidiary of Warner Brothers, that specialized vote in a 1955 election, and used increasingly in short dissident studies in various fields that ferocious tactics and weaponry against the could be used as course modules. Chomsky peasant population. Despite these considera- and I produced a module in 1973 entitled tions, the US media consistently supported the Counter-Revolutionary Violence: Bloodbaths US intrusion as reasonable and democratic in in Fact and Propaganda. “Bloodbaths” were a intent. Although the Diem regime and the US favourite topic of those years, with much relied on force and terror to achieve their ends establishment concern and speculation over from 1954-1975, the US media used the word those that might occur under future “terrorism” only in reference to the operations Communist rule, but with comprehensive of local enemy insurgents. “Sideshows” such neglect of ongoing bloodbaths. Our mono- as the invasion and intensive bombing of graph focused on these. We distinguished Cambodia and the US-sponsored coup and between Benign and Constructive Bloodbaths slaughter in Indonesia were also treated very — those of the US and its client states and antiseptically and without indignation, never allies — and Nefarious and Mythical as state terrorism. Bloodbaths in Vietnam — which were bad and One of my earlier books on terrorism, deserving of indignation and concern. Atrocities in Vietnam: Myths and Realities, After 20,000 copies of our book had been was published in 1971 by the church- printed, it came to the attention of the top supported Pilgrim Press. It focused on the brass of the parent corporation. They were different types of atrocity — insurgent outraged, cancelled the already arranged shootings and bombings, B-52 and other advertising, refused to sell the module, and bombing raids, and the use of napalm and shortly thereafter fired the officers of Warner chemical warfare, including crop destruction Modular Publications and liquidated the programs — addressing their levels, casualties organization. The stocks of our book were inflicted, and legality. There was little transferred to another company that never ad- difficulty in showing that US direct and vertised it, so that the volume was effectively indirect atrocities were vastly larger, enor- suppressed. We considered suing for breach of mously more costly to the civilian population, contract, but ended up obtaining full rights to and more consistently in violation of the laws republish. The story of this suppression was of war, than those of the enemy. Even before recorded in Ben Bagdikian’s book The Media this book was in print, the editor ran into Monopoly,17 and in our own later writings, but opposition within the publishing house, and a it was of no interest to the mainstream media struggle ensued over whether the book should or civil libertarians. In retrospect, one of the be published in accord with the contract. It notable features of this suppression was the was issued, after a delay, in a very small active participation of Mr. Stephen Ross, then 50 Confronting the experts

head of Warner, and until his recent death the any non-left group or government favored by top officer of Time-Warner, the world’s the West. This fitted precisely the demands of largest media conglomerate. western power brokers, anxious to pin the Evil Six years later Chomsky and I published a Empire label on the Soviet Union and to greatly enlarged and updated version of the discredit groups challenging western interests suppressed volume, entitled The Washington (PLO, ANC, insurgencies from below in Connection and Third World Fascism as the general) by tying them into a global conspir- first the first of a two-volume set on The acy.19 Sterling nowhere defined what she Political Economy of Human Rights.18 We meant by terrorism, provided no quantitative included there “A Prefatory Note on the information, but relied heavily on dramatized History of the Suppression of the First Edition recountings of carefully selected terrorist of This Book,” and the book elaborated on the incidents and testimony of western intelli- themes of the earlier volume. In particular, it gence agencies. Her gullibility was enormous, put great emphasis on the political-economic and eventually CIA personnel disclosed that underpinning of US relationships with states she had been an unknowing channel for the like Brazil, Chile, Indonesia, and the Philippi- “blowing back” of CIA disinformation into the nes, the centrality of “favorable climate of US media.20 investment,” and the importance of state terror My book The Real Terror Network pro- to serve that dominant objective. Along with vided a formal critique of Sterling’s methods extensive documentation of terror conditions and sources. I distinguished between “retail” in “The Pentagon-CIA Archipelago” (title of and “wholesale” terrorism, the former the chapter 2), the book addressed and criticized terror of individuals and small groups, the the way in which usage of “terrorism” in the latter states. The point of this use of adjectives West had been nicely adjusted to exempt the was to stress the fact that retail terrorists have West and its clients. The Washington limited capabilities for terrorizing, whereas Connection, published by South End Press, a states can intimidate and kill on a very large recently formed non-profit and critical (wholesale) scale. The plague of human publisher located in Boston, received a fair torture that grew in the post-World War II era amount of attention in the dissident press and and the growth of death squads and disappear- underground, and its aggregate sale of some ances were state-directed phenomena. 40,000 copies was huge for a dissident Sterling’s exclusion of wholesale terror was publication. The book was not reviewed in the not only a highly political choice, it missed the leading mainstream media, however, and was main subject. But insofar as the function of the given hostile treatment by The Nation, which political-“expert” focus on “terrorism” is to had it reviewed by a New York Times reporter, divert attention from the greater to the lesser A. J. Langguth, despite the book’s severe terror, Sterling’s choices were entirely criticism of his paper. comprehensible. I followed this up with another volume The greater part of The Real Terror published by South End Press in 1982, The Network was devoted to describing an alterna- Real Terror Network: Terrorism in Fact and tive terror network of US client states in Latin Propaganda. In title and substance the work America, enumerating their terror practices, was a response to a 1981 bestseller by Claire tracing the network to US training and support Sterling, The Terror Network. Sterling systems, and showing how this worked out in constructed her terror network with the Soviet accord with a “development model” that Union as center, with Libya, Cuba and the stressed providing a “favorable climate of PLO as major proxies, and with insurgent investment” for transnational corporations. In movements like the ANC and other left states with huge inequalities and pressures insurgencies as Soviet agents. It also carefully from below for directly helping the majority excluded South Africa, Argentina, and the (which adversely affect profitability), a Cuban refugee network in the US, and in fact favorable investment climate required a strong Terrorism 51

dose of terror from leaders like Marcos, book, The Rise and Fall of the Bulgarian Pinochet, and the assorted other Latin Connection, through Sheridan Square Press in American generals who led the fight for New York City, timed to coincide with the end “stability.” of the trial in March 1986. The essence of the This book had a great deal of quantitative book, with further updating, was also information, and did not rely on anecdotes and presented as chapter 4 in a book written in stories from intelligence agencies as Sterling’s collaboration with Noam Chomsky, Manu- book did. It was very well received in facturing Consent: The Political Economy of dissident and Third World circles, but could the Mass Media, published by Pantheon Books not be heard by the US public through the in 1988. In all of these works, an effort was mainstream media. The New York Times, for made to stress the remarkable convenience of example, deeply interested in terrorism, “lost” the case for western political interests, and to half a dozen copies of the book and never did show the implausibility of the accepted get round to even a notice of its existence. premises, the dubiousness of reliance on the Sterling, meanwhile, was not only reviewed, claims of the accused Agca, given his but became a TV expert of choice, treated with background, the circumstances of his confes- virtual reverence, and was never asked sion, and the absence of any evidence challenging questions. confirming his assertions about Bulgarian After Pope John Paul II was shot in Rome involvement. I tried to spell out an alternative in May 1981, Claire Sterling soon surfaced explanation of why Agca shot the Pope and again as an authority, claiming that this was a why the crime was being pinned on the KGB-Bulgarian plot. Funded by the Reader’s Bulgarians and KGB. I analyzed the Sterling- Digest, she published an article “The Plot to Henze-Kalb model, showing the faultiness of Kill the Pope,” in the Digest issue of its premises and its internal illogic, and September 1982, then a 1984 book on the pointing out some of the real world facts that it subject, The Time of the Terrorists, and was ignored (and which the US media ignored, in the top media expert on the subject from 1982 lockstep). As in the case of Sterling’s Terror till after the conclusion of the trial against the Network and model, the mainstream media Bulgarians in March 1986. The number two gave her version of the case huge and uncriti- expert was Paul Henze, a longtime CIA cal publicity and simply ignored my (or any official, who also wrote a book, The Plot other) counter arguments or claims. Contesting Against the Pope, and became a very views didn’t have to be refuted — they could prominent expert in both print media and on never be aired, but had to circulate in the TV. Sterling and Henze collaborated with dissident media as de facto samizdats, without Marvin Kalb, of NBC-TV, in a major TV access to the general public. special, “The Man Who Shot the Pope,” The Rome trial which ended in March 1986 shown in September 1982 and again in resulted in the release of the Bulgarian for lack January 1983. Sterling, Henze and Kalb took of evidence, but even at this point the US Soviet-Bulgarian involvement as a foregone media allowed Sterling and company a conclusion, based on the confessions of the convenient fall-back position: the case was assassin, a half-crazed Turkish rightist, alleged to be too “politically sensitive” for the Mehmet Ai Agca, made after many months in court to find the Bulgarians guilty, and, an Italian prison, along with a set of ideologi- furthermore, Italian law distinguishes between cal presumptions and imputed motives and a finding of clear innocence and non-guilt for plots worthy of a James Bond movie.21 The lack of evidence. Of course, an even stronger mainstream media swallowed the line with case can be made that “political sensitivity” gusto and remarkable gullibility. (or convenience) and hostility toward the Evil I followed the case closely and wrote a Empire and Communist Party in Italy, which number of articles on it with a historian friend, dictated the bringing of the case in the first Frank Brodhead. We eventually published a place, made for juror bias toward finding 52 Confronting the experts

communists guilty; and that the failure to find terrorism, much like advertisers who push a the Bulgarians completely innocent may have certain brand of soap.22 been to protect the powerful vested interests in As noted earlier, we stressed the close Italy who had supported the case. Further- association of the experts of the industry with more, Sterling and Henze had claimed back in government and private business firms that 1984 that the “evidence” was virtually have “security” problems, who constitute the complete, yet a very extensive effort by the “demanders” for the services of the industry. Italian state failed to produce a single piece of The longest chapter in the book, entitled “The evidence confirming Agca’s claims of Experts,” provides a great deal of information Bulgarian involvement. on the linkages and opinions of the experts, In a final touch, in the confirmation including an extended account of the work of a hearings on Robert Gates as head of the CIA dozen of the majors. We underscore the fact in 1991, former CIA official Melvin Goodman that the terrorism industry is multinational, as testified to the politicization of the Bulgarian the governments, institutes, and experts of the Plot case under CIA head William Casey, and US, Great Britain, and Israel, in particular, but added that the CIA professionals had consid- many others as well (including South Africa) ered the Sterling claims a farce, one reason have worked closely together and shared the being that the CIA had excellent penetration of same vision of terrorism. The book also the Bulgarian secret services. Following this describes how the US mass media take the testimony, the Wall Street Journal, which had terrorism industry’s experts as “independent” given Sterling uncontested rights to peddle her and properly accredited, allowing them to views up to then, gave her a final word on a reinforce the official version of terrorism as “plot.” A letter which I wrote in response, the true one, providing a “natural” and pointing out her neglect of the Goodman beautiful closed system of discourse allowing admission of the CIA penetration of the Libya and the PLO to be the serious terrorists, Bulgarian secret services, was not published, with the Nicaraguan contras and the Cuban nicely completing and illustrating the working terror network ignored, and the governments of a closed “free market” system. of South Africa and Guatemala fighting A final major work I wrote on terrorism, in against terrorism. collaboration with University of Pennsylvania The “Terrorism” Industry was published PhD student Gerry O’Sullivan and published by Pantheon books, a subsidiary of Random in 1990 by Pantheon Books, was entitled The House, which is a subsidiary of Advance “Terrorism” Industry: The Experts and Publications, the top company in the Institutions that Shape Our View of Terror. Newhouse media empire. Unfortunately, the Again, the intent was to show the one- book was about to go to press just at the point sidedness and huge bias in the mainstream where Pantheon was in the process of being perceptions of terrorism. But the focus here “defanged” by its parent, in the name of was on the institutional roots of the bias. Thus, profitability considerations. The long-standing after background chapters on the western stake management of the noted progressive in “terrorism” and the model constructed to publisher André Schiffrin was replaced with a identify the West’s oppositional forces as the more compliant market-oriented one, and “terrorists,” the major part of the book Pantheon has ceased to be a haven for quality describes the institutional apparatus — critical books. Meanwhile, The “Terrorism” government, thinktanks, security firms, and Industry was not advertised or pushed and the experts — that expound and elaborate the normal reaction of the mainstream media to chosen model. The phrase “terrorism industry” such a critical work (mainly ignore; alterna- calls ironic attention to the fact that “terror- tively pan) was exacerbated by publisher ism” is modelled and pushed by experts who confusion, disinterest and neglect. The book service a market demand for a certain view of fell stillborn from the press, receiving only modest attention even in the dissident media, Terrorism 53

and it was not permitted to enter in any way been easy to show that the definitions and the national debate on terrorism. We believe models used in the mainstream studies are that this was a function of its message and special cases that serve special interests — and backing, not its quality. often survive only because contesting facts and alternative models are kept under the rug. Methodology Because of the extreme difficulty in getting I obtained a PhD in economics at the Univer- an alternative view heard, I have often sought sity of California, Berkeley, in 1953, with two out dramatic and powerful illustrations of the minor fields, American history and economic state (wholesale) terror that the western history. As a trained economist and student of terrorism industry refuses to recognize. I have history, with a strong bent toward structural frequently also emphasized the method of analysis and structural explanations of dichotomization and juxtaposed comparison to behavior and performance, my basic illustrate forcefully the fact and inappropriate- methodological approach has been, ness of selective western attention. For mundanely, the use of traditional scientific example, with the help of the Pentagon itself, methods. I have long been a devotee of the during the Vietnam war I was able to show work of the great French historian Marc that the US was using ordnance in Vietnam Bloch, who put great stress on the comparative that exceeded that used by the enemy by a method,23 which has seemed to me extremely ratio of 500 to 1.24 It was not difficult to show useful in studying the treatment of terrorism. I the huge bias in the US press in attention have spent a lot of time exploring definitions given to victims of terrorism in the Soviet and concepts, spelling out and analysing Union and in US client states.25 It was not hard models used in the terrorism field, and to demonstrate that on standard definitions of searching for relevant empirical evidence. This terrorism, South Africa was a far more serious is unusual in the world of terrorism studies, terrorist state than Libya, and that — to where serious traditional academic investiga- understate the case — the “experts” and tion is sparse and badly tarnished by conflict mainstream media did not recognize this of interest and ideological bias. A number of fact.26 terrorism experts have been journalists, most A great deal of the information needed for a often with strong ideological commitments. proper study of terrorism is readily available But even the “scholars” of the field, like in the reports of human rights groups like Laqueur and Wilkinson, work at a huge Amnesty International and Americas Watch, distance from Thucydides’ self-imposed who cover a wide terrain, and from more guideline that “the accuracy of a report [be specialized groups, frequently victims and subject]…to the most severe and detailed tests expatriates, who put out newsletters and possible.” special reports on their home countries. There Because of the high degree of politicization are also numerous books, journals, govern- and one-sidedness of establishment terrorism ment documents, and news reports that accounts in the press and purported “schol- provide valuable information. This material is arly” studies of terrorism, the questions available to mainstream experts; they ignore it deserving my close attention as a critic have because it doesn’t fit their hypotheses and been obvious. The manipulation of definitions models. Because of the extensiveness of and to serve western interests called for a close the frequent need to actively seek out analysis of the semantics and selectivity of information, I have been prone to work with usage of terrorism. The models of terrorism collaborators, to help share the research have been similarly structured to yield a burden. The ones I have worked with have proper political result, with the basic model of been excellent researchers, and the benefits of “Soviet control” and with specific models collaboration in all cases have greatly adapted for special occasions, as with the exceeded the costs. KGB-Bulgarian plot against the Pope. It has 54 Confronting the experts

In sum, writing as a critic on terrorism has The experts with fundamentally dissenting been easy in that the establishment studies are views are simply left out of the discussion. so grossly biased and intellectually thin that They are not accredited by former government their refutation has been like shooting sitting employment or affiliation with the proper ducks. Counter-models have been easy to thinktank or Council on Foreign Relations; construct. Mobilizing the requisite evidence that is, they don’t have the requisite conflict of requires a great deal of digging, assembling interest! In the usual flurry of propaganda data, and checking, but the evidence is there, following a terrorist incident, the government, sitting unused by the mainstream experts. experts, and media quickly accept as obvious Given the “self-evident” character of the the official version of terrorism. Thereafter, establishment position, the reply has to be dissident experts would hardly be understood, extensive, powerful and error-free. Even then, as they consider the issues too selectively the problem remains of how one can get heard chosen and in urgent need of contextualiza- in the mainstream, even at the most minimal tion, whereas the media want commentary and level. debate only on the basis of accepted funda- mentals (e.g., that Kadaffi is the issue, and that The marginalization process the problem is why he does nasty things and I have myself “modelled” the process whereby how we can stop him). my own writing is marginalized. Chapter 1 of Only twice was I ever considered for Manufacturing Consent, entitled “A appearance on TV as a terrorism expert. In the Propaganda Model,” describes in detail a set first case, I was called by a representative of of interacting forces that filter out unwanted the Phil Donahue Show, who wanted to see if I thoughts: the ownership and control structure qualified for an appearance. She asked me and profit orientation of the mainstream what I would suggest the US do about media; their dependence on advertising terrorism. I said that the first thing was for it to revenue; their tie-in with government as stop directly doing it and indirectly sponsoring primary information source and licencer (for it. This left her at a loss for words, and when radio and TV) and external protector (for our conversation ended I knew that I was not global media); the threat of flak from the going on the Donahue Show. (I realized later powerful; and ideological constraints. These that I should have played dumb and not forces press the media toward political revealed my hand so early if I wanted to get on conformity and protect establishment positions the show.) The second instance was in against attacks by critics who address connection with the Plot against the Pope. I fundamental rather than tactical errors. was again “felt out” by TV representatives on One of the media’s routes to safety is to ABC, but nothing came of it. Subsequently, confine “independent” opinion to the experts however, a reporter contact within ABC from within the establishment. This process informed me that Mrs. Claire Sterling refused has been carried to the extreme in the case of to appear on TV with anyone who would the “terrorism” issue, as it is largely a foreign seriously oppose her views, and exercised de policy matter, with properly demonized facto veto power over panel appearances.27 I villains (Arafat, Kadaffi) and with the victims don’t know whether that explained the of western terrorism and double standards particular case on ABC in which the inquiry having no voice in the West (Guatemalan was never followed up with an appearance. I Indians, Brazilian peasants, South African do know, however, that Sterling refused to blacks). Under these conditions, the system debate with me on the Plot against the Pope at quickly closes: the government names the the University of Pittsburgh, where the terrorists, the affiliated terrorism experts students offered her market rates or better to solemnly agree and discuss proper tactics, and appear. the media asks no hard questions. Terrorism 55

Lessons and reflections fields often have substantial technical expertise Although I have been denied any direct access and qualifications. The experts on terrorism are to the mainstream media over the past dozen commonly journalists, popular writers, former years, with minor exceptions, I do not consider officials, and not very distinguished or well- my efforts futile. I have been a part of a trained political scientists. dissident movement that depends on mutual 2. On the demonisation process, see J. support, including intellectual support, and I Haiman and A. Meigs, “Khaddafy: Man and have received hundreds of letters from persons Myth,” African Events (February 1986). previously unknown to me who have told me that my writings “opened their eyes” or 3. The US Reagan administration, which infused them with energy. The dissident entered office in January 1981, was notorious movement has been a force helping contain for using “terrorism” as a propaganda weapon the national establishment, and its energy and for mobilizing the US public for attacks on strength depends in part on raising questions, Libya, and indirectly as a means of helping presenting inconvenient facts, and formulating justify its renewal of the arms race and as a alternative models of where we are, why, and cover for its regressive economic policies. See where we should be going. Even marginalized Edward S. Herman and Gerry O’Sullivan, The intellectuals serve the containment process by “Terrorism” Industry: The Experts and strengthening oppositional forces, and their Institutions that Shape Our View of Terror, ideas sometimes trickle upward into New York: Pantheon Books (1990): 22-25 and mainstream discourse. In the Vietnam war era passim. and Central American wars of the 1980s, fear 4. A State Department funded study in the of repercussions at home was an important mid-1980s, based on interviews with 2,800 element in the calculus of aggression. In the former Soviet citizens living in the US, absence of criticism and protest, violence estimated that 77% of blue collar workers and would have been greater. 96% of the middle elite in the Soviet Union In retrospect, I believe that I and many of listened to foreign broadcasts, and that my dissident allies have put too much underground publications were read by 45% of emphasis on scholarly analyses and too little on reaching the general public. This is a result high level professionals and 14% of blue collar of the fact that many of us are academicians workers. [James R. Miller and Peter Donhowe, and gravitate easily to traditional academic “The Class Society Has a Wide Gap Between modes of discourse. However, many of the Rich and Poor,” Washington Post National issues are fairly complex, so that with our Weekly (17 February 1986).] US dissidents views so unfamiliar and jarring, we need more have a much smaller outreach than did Soviet space than ten sentences on TV or a 750-word dissidents, and, of course, foreign broadcasts opinion column to explain our position, which are not as important in the US, nor do they makes some reluctant to try. Furthermore, present seriously alternative views. access to mainstream TV and opinion columns 5. These mercenary forces were referred to often requires a struggle, and is sometimes by the Defence Intelligence Agency in its 16 foreclosed entirely. Nevertheless, I still think it July 1982 “Weekly Intelligence Summary” as a has been a mistake to opt so disproportionately “terrorist” army, before they were officially for the easy route of books and articles in designated as “freedom fighters.” This point dissident journals and papers with circulations was only disclosed in 1984 by the Council on of 2,000-30,000. Hemispheric Affairs, a public interest group specializing in critiques of US policy in Latin Notes America. 1. See Diesendorf’s and Sharma’s chapters 6. See Edward S. Herman, The Real Terror in this volume. An offsetting consideration is Network: Terrorism in Fact and Propaganda, that the establishment experts in the science 56 Confronting the experts

Boston: South End Press (1982): 8 and 14. This was a result in good part of the passim. fact that Henze fixed his own identification, 7. This was more true of the contras than and never mentioned CIA. Henze also UNITA, which did have an indigenous tribal regularly insisted on clearing guests with base, although one heavily dependent on and a whom he would appear and questions he tool of South Africa. would be asked on TV. See Edward S. Herman 8. The 32 experts included the 13 most and Frank Brodhead, The Rise and Fall of the frequently cited by other terrorism experts, as Bulgarian Connection, New York: Sheridan reported in Alex Schmid, Political Terrorism, Square Publications (1986): 123-124 [footnote Amsterdam: North Holland (1983), the 16 1] and 146-159. most frequently cited in a large mass media 15. For a compendium of official lies by US sample, and eight others based on our own officials on the Sandinista government of assessment of importance and influence. There Nicaragua in the 1980s, see Peter Kornbluh, were five individuals common to the Schmid Nicaragua: The Price of Intervention, and media sample list, giving 24 net, plus the Washington, D.C.: Institute for Policy Studies eight ad hoc. See further Herman and (1987): chapter 4. For broader compendia of O’Sullivan, op. cit.: 143-146, 183-190. official US lies, see Noam Chomsky, The 9. Rightwing and leftwing are imprecise Culture of Terrorism, Boston: South End political categories, “rightwing” implying Press (1988) and Necessary Illusions: Thought conservative or reactionary and supportive of Control in Democratic Societies, Boston: regimes of private property along with South End Press (1989). oligarchic and authoritarian rule; “leftwing” 16. Edward S. Herman, Atrocities in implies reformist or radical support of more Vietnam: Myths and Realities, Philadelphia: equalitarian ownership and control, to be Pilgrim Press (1971). The book is now a obtained by democratic or sometimes authori- collector’s item, for which I get periodic frantic tarian rule and methods. In Third World appeals from firms specializing in finding disputes, the great powers of the West have scarce volumes. often supported rightwing movements, only 17. Ben Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, rarely those on the left. Boston: Beacon Press (1983, 1987, 1990 and 10. I included Claire Sterling, The Terror 1992). Network, New York: Holt Rinehart and 18. The second volume, also published by Winston/Reader’s Digest (1981); Charles South End Press in 1979, was entitled Beyond Dobson and Robert Payne, The Terrorists, the Cataclysm: Postwar Indochina and the New York: Facts on File (1982); Walter Reconstruction of Imperial Ideology . Laqueur, The Age of Terrorism, Boston: Little 19. This was especially true of the Reagan Brown (1987); and Paul Wilkinson, Terrorism administration in the US and the Begin and the Liberal State, New York: New York government in Israel, the latter eager to make University Press (1986). See Herman and the PLO into an agent of World Communism, O’Sullivan, op. cit., Table 7-4: 189. thus justifying its refusal to negotiate with 11. See ibid., Table 7-2: 184 Palestinians. The first conference of the Israel- 12. See ibid.: 176-184. sponsored Jonathon Institute, held in 13. Pat Aufderheide, “‘This program was Jerusalem in July 1979, was clearly designed not made possible....’: If PBS let GM sponsor to mobilize such an ideological offensive. Both Milton Friedman, why can’t unions sponsor a George Bush and Claire Sterling attended that labor history series?,” In These Times (5-18 conference. See Herman and O’Sullivan, op. March 1980): 13. cit.: 22-25, 29-36, 104-106. Terrorism 57

20. Gregory Treverton, Covert Action, New York: Basic Books (1987): 165. 21. For example, the TV program argues that as Bulgaria was a police state, if Agca stopped for a period in Sofia, the secret police must have known he was there and therefore been using him. During the trial in Rome a high official of Agca’s rightwing group the Gray Wolves testified that the Gray Wolves like to go through Bulgaria because with the large flow of Turkish immigrants it was easy to hide. This statement, which completely contradicted the extremely silly Kalb view, was never picked up in the US mainstream media. 22. This analogy was made by the head of the Heritage Foundation explaining that rightwing institutions like his own must operate like Proctor and Gamble to get over proper ideas. See Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media, New York: Pantheon (1988): 23-24. 23. Especially, Marc Bloch, The Historian’s Craft, Manchester: Manchester University Press (1954) and “A Contribution Toward a Comparative History of European Societies,” in Life and Work in Medieval Europe, London: Routlege and Kegan Paul (1967). 24. See Herman (1971), op. cit., Table II: 57. 25. See Herman (1982), op. cit., Table 4-1, “Press Coverage of Abused Persons in the Soviet Union and in Eight U.S. Client States,”: 196. 26. See Herman and O’Sullivan, op. cit.: chapters 2, 7, and 8. 27. The same holds for Paul Henze: see note 14 above. 5 “What price intellectual honesty?” asks a neurobiologist Harold Hillman

Published in Brian Martin (editor), Confronting the Experts (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996), pp. 99-130

Career the University at that time, and have been the I was born in London, although both of my senior physiologist since then. In 1970, I set parents went to Scottish Universities. I was up the Unity Laboratory of Applied Neurobi- brought up to respect academics, and to ology, which I have directed ever since. I have believe that their paramount interest in life published about 150 full-length publications in was the pursuit of truth. My intention had cytology, neurobiology and resuscitation, and always been to take up a career in a university, have written five books. in which — as long as one carried out the Throughout my career, my upbringing and teaching duties assigned by the head of training led me to entertain the following department — one was free to do research in assumptions: academics’ first priority is to any area in one’s discipline, which seemed seek the truth as they define it; they are exciting. At that time in Britain academics prepared to enter into dialogue about their were protected from those with orthodox beliefs and research; they believe that opinions in power by long established tenure. evidence and reasoning should take prece- I obtained a scholarship to University dence over belief and emotion; they behave College School, London, and took a medical fairly in argument; they do not practice degree at Middlesex Hospital Medical School casuistry; and they do not use power to defend in 1956, since when I have practiced as a part- their views. I have reluctantly come to the time physician. I proceeded to a degree in conclusion that these assumptions are not neurophysiology and biophysics at the always warranted. Department of Physiology, University College, London, and completed it in 1958. I A student of the Institute of Psychiatry, also obtained a diploma in biophysics from 1958-1962 Kings College, London. My first job in 1958 was as research assistant I then went to the Institute of Psychiatry, to Professor Henry McIlwain, at the Institute first as a research assistant and then as an of Psychiatry, London. He was the most active Honorary Lecturer in Biochemistry, and I exponent of the use of thin slivers cut from stayed there until 1962. I was working on the brain for the study of the biochemistry and electrical properties of slices of brain, and was physiology of the intact living brain. I believe invited to examine similar properties of nerve that he had learnt the technique from Professor cells dissected out by hand, in Sweden. I Sir Hans Krebs, the Nobel Laureate in returned to Britain in 1964 and took up the biochemistry, with whom he had worked in position of Biochemist and Honorary Lecturer Sheffield, England. The properties of the in Applied Neurobiology at the Institute of brains of adult animals could be studied in Neurology in London. The following year I slices for up to two hours before they degener- was appointed Senior Lecturer in Physiology ated. Professor McIlwain had built up the at Battersea College and, in 1968, I was made Department of Biochemistry with a small a personal Reader in the University of Surrey. nucleus of permanent staff, and 10-15 visiting I was in charge of all physiology teaching in What price intellectual honesty? 59

research workers and students for doctorates that it was just a different way of expressing of philosophy. the value. No, I maintained that this was not At the Institute of Psychiatry, I became true, because a similar constituent had been aware of certain fairly common practices. calculated correctly, and the result reported Some people did not quote authors they did was in impossible units. not like personally, or others who had predated This mistake, once published, became the them, or had findings that senior staff did not correct values, and later publications showed like. They would fail to do control experi- similar ones. In a book written later, different ments or would discard results which gave pages show different values for the same different results from those they expected. parameter. The book is very authoritative. I When I first heard about these practices, I was did not wish to hurt the feelings of those shocked by them, but I was even more responsible, but when I wrote a paper shocked by the tolerance and cynicism which subsequently on the same subject, I inserted some of my colleagues displayed towards the correct calculation; there was some them. difficulty in publishing it. In 1958, I was discussing a particular I learned several lessons from my time at biochemical problem with a senior Hungarian the Institute of Psychiatry. Firstly, doctoral biochemist, who came to the Institute legally students have no redress against their supervi- before the Revolution and had applied for sors, since their careers would be ruined if asylum in Britain. This was granted on they made determined criticisms, or resigned condition that he remained in the same their studentships. Furthermore, well-known position. He told me that he quite agreed with academics find it relatively easy to publish in a me, but would not say so in public, as it might journal, especially if they are on the editorial risk his appointment here. board. Thirdly, the data reported in weighty I devised a simple technique for cutting books acquire an authority and inertia, which slices quickly, so that they could be studied encourages some other people to find similar sooner than by the previous technique. One of results, and dissuades others from submitting my colleagues liked the idea, and was put on different results for publication. This was my to the task of studying the properties of slices first personal experience of misdemeanour, cut in this way. We worked harmoniously and it disturbed me greatly. together, until one day he stopped coming to my laboratory, and I noticed that he was Research Fellow in Göteborg, Sweden, avoiding me in the corridor. A senior 1962-1964 colleague had ordered my friend to work with In 1962, Professor Holger Hydén, at the him rather than to develop my technique, but I Institute of Neurobiology, Göteborg, invited was too junior to be able to protest. me to do similar studies on single nerve cells I heard along the grapevine that this senior dissected out by hand from the brains of colleague was writing up a paper based on my freshly killed rabbits.1 The technique is work, and when I asked if I would be a co- brilliant in its simplicity, and is not difficult.2 author, I was told that my help would be A large number of experiments were carried acknowledged. In the event, when the paper out on the biochemistry and anatomy of the appeared, I noticed that it ended with an cell bodies, but the same question was asked, acknowledgement for my “help” with the as had been asked about cerebral slices. How technique, but I had not been asked to be a co- many of the electrical properties of the living author. nerve cell survived its separation? I was When I read the published paper, I noticed employed with many others to find out. an important mistake in one of the calcula- I had a very interesting and fruitful time at tions. I pointed this out politely, but I was told the Institute of Neurobiology under Professor 60 Confronting the experts

Hydén, who was very kind to me personally. so I wondered if one could measure the change However, I saw there two practices of which I of this ‘high-energy’ compound in retina (part had been previously unaware. A technician of the eye), composed of thousands of cells, would produce a table of results, and the when light was shone on to it. I found a supervisor would strike out some of them, considerable change. Since the retina is an without giving any reason for so doing; the outgrowth of the brain, I sought the same technician then retyped the table, discarded the effect in slices of brain, spinal cord and the original, and the new table became the raw sciatic nerve (which runs down the back of the data. In recent times in Britain, I have seen leg), and found that all these tissues exhibited research workers simply deleting values from it. Then I asked myself, “Why should one have the computers attached to their instruments. I a light-sensitive enzyme in the nerve upon do not believe these practices are widespread which one sits?” After 3 months of intensive in Sweden or in Britain. experiments; I left out all the tissue. To my The real worry was that such selected and, astonishment, the ATP itself was sensitive to therefore, misleading data should occur in light. This was unexpected and had not been published papers, and then become part of the reported before. I repeated the experiments canon of knowledge. In the real world, the with a much less sensitive method of measur- idea that they would be corrected when other ing phosphate.6 The results were the same. people tried to reproduce the experiment is I have always been of the opinion that when just wishful thinking. As a consequence of a humble journeyman of a research worker these observations, I made the decision that I finds something exciting about such an would never myself indulge in, or put my important molecule, it is likely to be either a name on publications, in which I knew that mistake or an artifact resulting from the manipulation of results or intellectual casuistry procedure. All living tissues employ compli- had occurred. During the next few years, I cated and fragile biochemical mechanisms. identified a large number of widely practised Most experiments involve killing an animal or and tolerated misdemeanours, such as not plant, arresting change within it (fixation or discussing results which disagreed with one’s inhibition), spinning it, freezing it or adding own, avoiding doing crucial control experi- powerful reagents. Any of these stages of a ments, answering important questions with procedure can and often do change the artful circumlocutions, etc.3 biochemistry of the tissue drastically, or Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is one of the relocate particular chemicals within it. most important chemicals in the body. It is Therefore, biochemists have to demonstrate required for many metabolic reactions and it unequivocally that any effects they find arise helps to synthesise proteins. Its energy is used from the innate properties of the tissues, rather to move water and it causes muscle to than from the procedures used to examine contract. them. Experiments to test the effects of the An American research worker visiting procedures themselves are known as ‘control’ Göteborg, Dr. Joseph Cummins, developed observations, and the fundamental validity of with Professor Hydén a method for measuring any experiment designed to find out what in single nerve cell bodies4 the activity of the happens in the intact human being, animal or enzyme ATPase which breaks down ATP; plant, is largely determined by the care with these cell bodies had diameters of a fifteenth which the controls have been carried out. to a thirtieth of a millimetre; this was a very Popper7 told us that one should try to falsify significant achievement, and we were able to one’s own hypothesis with relevant ‘control’ modify the technique and find much more experiments. enzyme activity.5 The experiment involved So I embarked on a long series of control measuring very small concentrations of ATP, experiments, testing the effects of light on What price intellectual honesty? 61

compounds allied to ATP, including ADP, talking altered the stability of the ATP. I AMP, and inorganic phosphate; I tried the sought a source of sound, rich in high frequen- effect at 22oC rather than 37oC on ATP; I cies, and used some recorded bagpipe music. washed the glassware with detergents not We started doing experiments early in the containing phosphate; I took out the oxygen. morning in the warm room, close to the None of the other substances showed the light entrance of the Institute. By coincidence, sensitivity of ATP, which required oxygen, members of staff coming to work passed the and occurred at body temperature, but not door and heard the bagpipes, which they room temperature. thought I was playing to the two young ladies. I made extensive literature searches and The bagpipe music had a considerable effect could not find previous reports of this finding. on the stability of the ATP, so we tested pure One day, my technician, Miss Anita Bäckman, notes at different intensities, and different was away, and I was making up the solution. I frequencies at the same intensity; they all took the bottle of ATP out of the refrigerator, showed that at 37oC, ATP was sensitive to and noticed that it was labelled, ‘keep cool, in sound. We subsequently showed that it was the dark.’ So I wrote to Dr. Berger, the chief also sensitive to spinning in a desk top centri- chemist of the manufacturer, Sigma, to ask if fuge at 1000 rpm for 5 minutes, electric he knew of any publication of this phenome- current induced from a loudspeaker coil, and non. He replied that his company had found it different concentrations of sodium and by accident, because it had been despatching potassium ions in the range of concentrations chromatographically pure ATP from the normally found in the body. United States, but customers in Europe had ATP provides the immediate energy for complained that they were receiving mixtures muscle contraction,11 but energy is stored in of ATP and its breakdown products, ADP and muscle as creatine phosphate,12 and the ‘high AMP. When Sigma put the ATP in dark energy phosphate’ of cold-blooded animals is bottles, it did not break down spontaneously. arginine phosphate.13 So we repeated all the The company had not published the finding. experiments we had carried out on ATP on However, I felt reassured by the knowledge creatine phosphate at 37°C, and arginine that someone else had previously and quite phosphate at 23°C. They all showed the same independently detected ATP’s sensitivity to effects. Between 1962 and 1964, we did each light. experiment at least six times, and the analyses ATP used to be regarded as a ‘high energy’ 8 9 were made at random, the technicians not phosphate, until the concept was reexamined knowing when they measured the samples and it was also shown to be completely wrong whether they were control or experimental, or by the redoubtable Dr. Barbara Banks, who when they had been extracted. We did about had great difficulty in publishing these 10 70 experiments before we were satisfied that views. the technique14 was as sensitive as we could One day, Miss Anita Bäckman, Miss Inger make it, and then carried out over 330 further Augustsson and I were sitting in the warm experiments for publication. room at 37oC with the lights turned off doing an experiment. It was necessary to study light Return to Britain: the Medical Research sensitivity in the dark. We were talking to Council Unit of Applied Neurobiology, relieve the boredom of waiting for 20 minutes. London, 1964-1965 That evening, when I analysed the results of Light, sound, centrifugation and electric the experiment, it became clear that some current and physiological concentrations of agent in addition to light was having an effect. sodium or potassium ions, all affected the Virtually the only explanation was that the stability of the three phosphates. Each of the 62 Confronting the experts

six different kinds of energy could be trans- In 1964, I presented my findings at the duced or converted into chemical energy for International Union of Biochemistry in metabolism, so in 1964 I wrote a paper Washington, the (British) Biochemical Society entitled, ‘The phosphate bond as a transducer.’ and the Physiological Society, in order to hear It was a tactical error to mention a hypothesis any new criticism, and to create a better in the title, and also to include the experiments climate for publication of a full paper. At the on bagpipes, as this enabled referees to two biochemical meetings, the audiences made trivialise them. I submitted the paper for humorous or sarcastic comments, but very publication to the Journal of Physiology, strange events occurred at the Physiological whose referees said that my reagents ATP, Society Meeting in Mill Hill, London, in creatine phosphate and arginine phosphate November 1964. were not of the highest purity obtainable; I About a fortnight before the meeting, answered that such naturally occurring Professor Max Born, of the Department of substances were not pure in living animals. Pharmacology of the Royal College of The journal Nature said it had no room. The Surgeons, asked me to come over to his Journal of Molecular Biology gave no reason laboratory to set up the ATP experiments for rejecting it. The Biochemical Journal which I was going to report. I had just done wrote to me that the idea “that physical agents the first two experiments to set up the could have biochemical effects was revolu- procedure. These were not accurate enough to tionary.” I replied that, on the contrary, it had give reliable results. He then told me that he been concluded that physical agents could had wasted enough time and he wanted to stop have chemical effects, when Count Rumford doing them. I told him that I did not think this at the time of the French Revolution showed was fair, since I had done over 70 experiments that boring canons generated a great deal of in Sweden before I was satisfied that the heat. It became fairly clear that the journals reliability was great enough to start a substan- did not wish to publish my paper. The referees tive series. did not like the findings, perhaps because they I was then the second most senior worker at felt threatened by them, but I have never found the Medical Research Council Unit of Applied out why. Neurobiology at the Institute of Neurology in Professor Hans Krebs — the Nobel London. The Director was Dr. John Cavanagh. Laureate in biochemistry — wrote to me that He heard about my proposed paper, and said he thought a journal had the right to refuse to that someone — whom he refused to name — publish a paper if the referees thought that had told him that my paper would meet much there was something wrong with it, but could opposition at the Physiological Society, and I not identify the error; I respectfully disagreed. would be wise to withdraw it. He would not Professor A.V. Hill — the Nobel Laureate in say on what grounds it was to be attacked. His physiology — agreed that the effects had concern seemed so strong that I offered three probably been demonstrated, but he could not times to withdraw it if he were to say that my recommend a journal which would publish the presentation would damage the reputation of manuscript. Sir Ernest Chain, whose method15 the newly formed unit. No, he insisted, that I I had modified, agreed that the modification had the right to present it, but still he advised was reasonable, and that I had, in fact, me strongly against doing so. demonstrated the effects we claimed. Dr. Isaac Dr. Olof Lippold, the Reader in Physiology Berenblum also agreed that we had modified at University College, had agreed to introduce his technique16 suitably, but he would not my paper, since I was not then a member of comment on the experiments, as his field of the Society. He also told me that I was going research had moved to cancer. to be attacked by Professor Born, who sent me a summary of what he was going to say. I told What price intellectual honesty? 63

Dr. Lippold that I believed that I had precise in physiology in Britain. My director, answers to any questions, including Professor Dr. Cavanagh, said that he had heard that I had Born’s, which were likely to be raised. “made a fool of myself,” and that the Medical Before the meeting, Dr. William Feldberg, Research Council did not like my research. I the chairman of my session, said that he had replied that before taking up the job in his unit, heard that my presentation would be strongly I had listed the experiments I wanted to do, attacked, and probably refused publication. including those on ‘high-energy phosphates.’ I This could happen by a simple majority of requested to discuss this opinion about my those who chose to vote, and would damage experiments with those members of the my career seriously. He even offered to say Medical Research Council who did not like that I was not present, which would defer my them, but he would not tell me their names or paper to the next meeting. Knowing that arrange a meeting. Professor Born was to lead the attack, I The Physiological Society Meeting taught offered to defer giving my paper if those who me something. Eventually I published the did not like it were prepared to try to repeat effect of light on ATP,17 but not on creatine my experiments. I received no such under- phosphate or arginine phosphate, nor the effect taking. of light, sound, centrifugation, electric current As soon as I had finished my ten-minute or sodium and potassium ions in the natural presentation, Professor Born rose and showed concentrations found in living tissues on one of the two experiments I had done in his creatine phosphate or arginine phosphate. laboratory. He asserted that since these two However, a short report appeared,18 and the experiments had not shown a significant full text was circulated by the Information effect, those from Sweden I reported were not Exchange.19 significant either. I answered that I did not see Some years earlier, the American, how only two experiments with 300% error Dr. B. Chance,20 the Russian Dr. S. E. Shnoll could be used to invalidate about 330 with and collaborators21 and a Dutchman, Dr. F. only 0.3% error. Professor G.S. Brindley said A. Hommes,22 had shown similar effects, so I that I had not shown the effect of shining light wrote to each of them privately to ask if they on inorganic phosphate, or not shining light on had ever observed the phenomena I had seen. ATP solution. I replied that these had been my None of them answered, so I asked them first two slides. I was asked if I had used through the Information Exchange,23 but none spectroscopically pure reagents. No, I of them replied. Their findings supported answered, but the ‘high-energy’ phosphates mine, but I still failed to obtain full publication were chromatographically pure. Had I tried the in a refereed journal. My experiments effect on ADP and AMP? Yes, I said, and the remained suspended in an agnostic limbo, and effect was not there, as I had said in my my career was at risk. presentation. I was satisfied that I had answered every question fully and without Subcellular fractionation equivocation. In 1964 in Göteborg, I started looking into the I counted about 200 people in the audience, theory of the effects of light, sound, electricity of whom some were visitors. About four voted and centrifugation. The latter was of particular in favour of publication, about 15 against — interest, because centrifugation was so widely the rest abstained. The abstract was not used in subcellular fractionation. Usually, published. Professor Born came up to me to when biochemists, biophysicists, cytologists, say that he was sorry that my paper had been pharmacologists or oncologists tell one what rejected. I did not answer him. Professor John happens in, say, the nucleus, the cytoplasm or Butler of the Chester Beatty Institute said that the membrane of cells, they have used the I would probably not now be able to find a job procedure of subcellular fractionation. This is 64 Confronting the experts

intended to separate a fraction believed to be examined subcellular fractionation,24 I identi- particularly rich in that part of the cell, so that fied 15 assumptions, some of them contrary to its unique biochemical properties may be the laws of physics and thermodynamics; the examined separately. The steps of the second time I looked, I found 24 assump- procedure are listed in the next paragraph. All tions.25 Other biochemists might deny that experimental procedures used in the sciences some of these assumptions were inherent, or imply necessarily the assumption either that they might add others, but, with one exception, the procedure itself does not change the they have not done so. biochemistry of the tissue being studied to a In 1972, I first raised the question of greater extent than the changes claimed control experiments to test the effects of between the control and the experimental procedures on the final results of experi- tissues, or that any changes produced are too ments.26 It seemed that no one had done these, small to affect the result of the experiments. and this meant that the experiments were Does the final material extracted reflect the incomplete, and that conclusions could not be properties of the living tissue from which it drawn from them, nor could theories be came? derived from the conclusions. My uncertainty I used the following approach. I made a list about control experiments led me to write to of the steps of the procedure: for example, the the (British) Biochemistry Society Bulletin,27 animal is killed; it cools down; a particular asking whether any biochemists knew of any tissue, such as the liver, is excised; a strong published references that control experiments reagent is added to facilitate homogenisation on the effects of the procedures on the results (mashing up); the tissue is cooled; it is of experiments had indeed been done, or they homogenised; it is cooled again; the homogen- would say that these were not necessary. There ate is centrifuged (spun round rapidly); was no answer to these questions. fractions each believed to consist largely of a particular cell constituent are separated and Other procedures widely used in cytological frequently washed; substrate mixtures are research added; the product is coloured, so that the I was so disturbed by the thought that intensity of the colour read on a spectropho- subcellular fractionation might be an unsatis- tometer tells one the rate of a reaction in a factory technique that I decided to take a particular part of the cells. Of course, there are completely different technique and subject it numerous variations of this procedure. to a similar analysis. I took electron micros- Having identified the steps, I sought in the copy, asking the question, ‘How much does a literature findings indicating the extent to picture taken with this instrument tell one which each of the steps of the procedure could about the structure of the living cell?’ Since change the properties of the part of the cell, its the early 1950s, there has been a passion for distribution or activity. I then listed the relating ‘structure’ to ‘function,’ that is, the assumptions built into the procedure, which appearance by electron microscopy of a had to be true if the properties of the cells particular identifiable part of a cell with the were to reflect those in life. Finally, I listed the biochemistry it exhibits. minimum control experiments which might The light microscope had been used to satisfy one that measurements at the end of the examine living cells, unfixed tissue and long procedures reflected the original stained sections for 100 years until the 1940s. properties of the living intact structures. At that time, the electron microscope was The assumptions inherent in a procedure introduced. It permits much higher resolution are crucially important, since, like a chain, the and magnification than the light microscope, validity of a whole experiment is dependant on but the tissue can not survive the low pressure, the strength of its weakest link. When I first the bombardment of electrons and x-radiation What price intellectual honesty? 65

in the electron microscope, so it has to be is dehydrated with increasing concentrations coated with a deposit of salts of osmium, lead of alcohol; it shrinks; the alcohol is extracted or tungsten, which is not destroyed by these with a fat solvent, propylene oxide; the latter agents, and can therefore be examined. is replaced by an epoxy resin; it hardens in a Cytologists were very anxious to use this more few days; sections one tenth of a micrometre powerful instrument to look at the fine thick, or less, are cut; they are placed in the structure of cells. electron microscope, nearly all the air of Science is so complex nowadays that which is pumped out; a beam of electrons at frequently research workers have to resort to 10,000 volts to 3,000,000 volts is directed at evidence derived by other specialists using it; some electrons strike a phosphorescent techniques those citing them do not under- screen; the electron microscopists select the stand. They assume that their colleagues field and the magnification which show the perform careful and valid experiments, whose features they wish to demonstrate; the image fundaments have been examined adequately. may be enhanced; photographs are taken; My experience is that this is not always the some are selected as evidence. One can case. I believe that a proper philosophy for immediately see how far the tissue has scientists is that they should understand all travelled from life to an illustration in a book. techniques whose results they use or quote. I sought permission to do some of the They should be prepared to examine criticisms control experiments, and was told that they of findings they use as evidence in case their would be a waste of time, ‘controversial’ and I invalidity would throw doubt on the conclu- would not be able to get the results published. sions derived from them, and their value as Neither the Science Research Council, the evidence in other fields. Since truth should be Medical Research Council, nor the University universal, all scientists have a duty to resolve of Surrey would support such a project. So I all anomalies and inconsistencies not only in wrote a book about the uncertainty of bio- their own beliefs but also in those they quote, chemical techniques.29 Well known publishers and between their findings and those of other turned down my manuscript. The University workers using the same and different of Surrey Press published it as its first book techniques. and printed 2,500 copies. It sold out in Britain Unfortunately, electron microscopy was and the United States, but the publishers even more questionable than subcellular would not allow me to write a second edition. fractionation. So was histochemistry (the study In 1975, unknown to me, the Russians of tissue sections), which I chose to analyse translated it and sold out 12,500 copies. because it was somewhere between subcellular The book was reviewed by Nature, the fractionation and electron microscopy. I then Times Higher Education Supplement, Science took three techniques nearer the measurement Progress and Acta Biologica Academica end rather than the preparation end of the Scientia Hungarica. In the latter, Dr. Sandor former techniques: these were chromatogra- Kerpel-Fronius wrote, “I feel strongly that the phy, electrophoresis and radioactive measure- uncertainty is far from being as absolute as ments. Each of these had their burden of Dr. Hillman postulates. It should be remem- assumptions, many of them evidently bered, for example, that in situ experiments unwarranted.28 with radioactive tracers and those carried out For example, most cytologists know, but in vitro on isolated organelles or enzymes are readers of elementary textbooks do not, that very often in essential harmony in spite of the when one looks at an illustration of an electron unquestionable shortcomings of the methods micrograph: an animal has been killed; it cools used. Such corroborative results should assure down; its tissue is excised; the tissue is fixed us that the present understanding of at least (killed); it is stained with a heavy metal salt; it 66 Confronting the experts

some biochemical processes is close to Hydén always took the cells out in a sugar reality.” solution,32 but we tried taking them out in At the time, I regarded this as the substan- saline, which was more natural. Immediately, tive answer to my reservations about we saw a membrane around the nucleolus,33 biochemical techniques. While each technique which had not been seen before. We tried to only gave an approximation to the whole publish this finding, even resorting to the very picture, the whole story put together produced ancient practice of sending the editor of a consistent picture. various journals not only the photographs, but The most hostile reviewer of my book was slides of cells showing our membranes. We Professor J. Lucy of the Royal Free Medical demonstrated it to the distinguished micro- School. He wrote, in Biochemical Education,30 scopist, Dr. John Baker, who agreed that he that I had overstated my case “in stating that could see it. The journals turned it down, the validity of a localisation of an enzyme firstly, because it had not been shown by activity is dependant upon all fifteen assump- electron microscopy, which distorted it34; tions listed being warranted,” then he added secondly, it had not been seen before; thirdly, “(sic).” This implied clearly that he himself we had not shown that our membrane did not believe that the conclusion of an consisted of lipids and proteins, as the experiment must depend upon all its assump- Davson-Danielli and the Singer-Nicolson tions being warranted — he was saying this to models assumed. We pointed out that any lecturers, teachers and students. He pointed lipids in the original membrane would not out a real mistake I had made about liquid have survived the extraction by alcohol and scintillation although it did not affect my propylene oxide during preparation for argument. electron microscopy — despite all textbooks of life sciences showing cell membranes they Light microscopy and the brain, University believe to be of this composition. So far, there of Surrey, 1965 to date has been a Trappist response to this rather Mr. Peter Sartory, although an amateur, was in awkward point by the many electron micro- my judgement one of the most expert British scopists with whom we have tried to discuss it. light microscopists. He was a distinguished I have never understood the reasons for natural historian, a former microscope resistance to the belief in the nucleolar manufacturer, an amateur astronomer, a membrane, even although we have published former Committee Member of the Royal many photographs of it35 and offered to send Microscopical Society, and former President microscope slides to anyone in the world who of the Quekett Microscopical Club, founded in wanted to see it. 1865. By the time I met him in 1967, he was chronically ill with lung disease, having Electron microscopy smoked heavily all his life. Although at that time we did entertain doubts I had recently returned from Sweden, and about the value of electron microscopy in asked Mr. Sartory if he was interested in biology of tissues containing much water, both looking at single fresh mammalian nerve cells of us still felt that the best source of informa- dissected out from the brain by the technique tion about the fine structure of cells was which Hydén had used to examine the proper- probably electron micrographs. We were ties of cells.31 Hydén himself had agreed that it comparing our high contrast light micrographs would be useful to look at these cells by a of unstained nerve cell bodies with the latest variety of light microscopical techniques in the electron micrographs. We suddenly noticed unfixed state, which is the nearest to the living that the endoplasmic reticulum, which is a state in which cells can be examined. network believed to be a structure in the cytoplasm (the cell sap), appeared to be cut What price intellectual honesty? 67

perpendicular to the section far too often than would not accept a small piece about our solid geometry would permit. It was as if one views. Nor would La Recherche or New threw into the air a large number of coins, and Scientist. The latter wrote to me that it did not when one photographed them, the vast accept controversial articles, in a letter I majority were to appear edge on — instead of received the same week as it featured in all possible orientations. Unfortunately, this Dr. Rupert Sheldrake on the exceedingly was also true of all the apparent membranes in controversial concept of ‘morphic resonance.’ the cell, the Golgi apparatus, the mitochondrial As for the assertion that no one then membranes, the cell membrane and the believed in the ‘unit membrane’ or that it was nuclear membrane. attached to the cell or nuclear membrane, I Whereas we did not doubt the existence of listed all the latest books on life sciences in the the cell, nuclear and mitochondrial mem- reference collection of the University of branes, their sandwich (‘trilaminar’) appear- Surrey; every single one of them indicated that ance was simply impossible in solid geometry they believed the former points. At meetings (Fig. 1). Obviously, if they were random, they of learned societies, whenever anyone alleged should be seen as flat sheets as often as they that these beliefs were no longer agreed, I are seen in almost perfect transverse section. produced photocopies of these lists, and After we had begun to doubt the existence of challenged those who had denied my assertion the cytoplasmic network (the endoplasmic to name one textbook or paper (other than our reticulum) and the Golgi body on geometrical own) which said that it did not believe in the grounds, we suddenly realised that if they ‘unit membrane’ or the attachment of the existed, they would not permit the intracellular reticulum to the cell and nuclear membrane. movements which are generally regarded as Subsequently, the cytologists replied, “You evidence of the life of the cell. These don’t want to believe what you read in text- movements can be seen by low power light books.” We were so horrified by this latter microscopy, while there is supposed to be a sentiment that we wrote a letter to Nature fine network throughout the cytoplasm asking anyone at the Physiological Society, requiring very much higher magnification to the Anatomical Society or the Royal Micro- see. Furthermore, iron filings, carbon particles scopical Society to justify this view in or pollen injected into the cytoplasm spread writing.36 No one replied. So we put this list in quite freely, quite unimpeded by any fine a book we subsequently wrote on cell network which would shackle them. structure.37 Thus we had two quite different lines of Let us be clear what was happening. Firstly, evidence — each of them powerful enough to senior research workers recommended only question the existence of all the new structures textbooks containing description of cell in the cytoplasm seen with the electron structures with which they disagreed; then microscope, plus the Golgi apparatus. When they denied that these structures were so we were satisfied that we had overwhelming described; then they could not name any books evidence, we submitted a paper for publica- or papers describing what they taught as the tion. The Editor of Nature rejected it on the correct cell structure; then they alleged that grounds that the referee believed that no one at one should not believe what one read in that time (1975) still believed in the ‘unit textbooks; then they were not prepared to membrane’ or that the reticulum was attached justify such cynicism in print. The situation to the cell membrane or nuclear membrane, has not changed. but added that he agreed with us. Science gave Most cell biologists today believe that no reason for rejection. Scientific American intracytoplasmic movements of subcellular would not consider it as it had not been organelles occur, but also that there is a fine previously published; after it had, they still dense cytoskeleton in the cytoplasm; they 68 Confronting the experts

believe that the image of the cell seen by useful?,’ ‘What do you see when you look electron microscopy is three-dimensional, but down a light microscope?,’ ‘What is the nature have to tilt the stage to show some of the of the image seen by the electron micro- orientations. Thus, the views they hold about scope?’ It is only fair to say that these cell structure are inconsistent. This is questions are not usually raised when one extremely worrying, because the use of so submits a paper on the structure of cells for many approximate techniques in biochemistry publication. Various well-meaning, but is usually justified by the assertion that perhaps naive, friends suggested that if we together they make a fully consistent story. If expanded our manuscript into a book, also they do not, the justification for using such dealing with these fundamental questions, we popular techniques becomes even weaker, and might have a greater chance of publishing it. the urgency to examine the validity of the With the Audio Visual Aids Unit of the procedures even greater. University of Surrey, we made a 35-minute We were quite unable to obtain publication film, and I showed it at the International of our paper showing that all the structures in Physiological Society Meeting in Paris, the the cell first shown by electron microscopy Biochemical Society in Cambridge, the plus the Golgi body were artifacts. Among the Society of Experimental Biology at Brighton, criticism we faced was that we were not the Quekett Microscopical Club in London, electron microscopists, although I had been the Physiological Society at University using the instrument for 17 years when this College, London, and other places. was first said. Even if it were true, we believe At University College, Dr. A. Lieberman, that we do have a right to use the currency the well-known electron microscopist, said which authoritative electron microscopists after the film had been shown that he had have put into circulation. many pictures of the endoplasmic reticulum Another tactic used against us was to label and the ‘unit membranes’ in all orientations, our ideas as ‘old hat.’ Critics said that ideas which we had denied. Since his laboratory was had been considered in the 1940s and 1950s, close at hand, I suggested that he go to get when the electron microscope was first used them immediately to show the audience. His for biological tissues, and refuted then. laboratory was untidy, he said, so I asked him Unfortunately, they could produce no refer- if he would show me these micrographs if I ences to support this assertion. Another trick called on him. I telephoned him five times was to say that all biochemists and cytologists altogether, but he would not send me any studied artifacts. This was a smart way of micrographs or references showing the images avoiding discussions of which artifacts gave I requested. He did, however, send me an useful information about cells and which did interesting reference on interpreting electron not. A social trick was to exaggerate or joke micrographs, which I did not feel was a about our views. Said one chairman, “As you relevant response. I offered to announce it in know, Dr. Hillman does not believe in public, if I were to receive a micrograph membranes — ha-ha!.” At a coffee queue at a showing a full range in the expected incidence Physiological Society Meeting at University of any of the structures whose existence we College, London, I heard two students had doubted, but the full range would have to agreeing that “Hillman’s views are rubbish.” be in the same picture. That offer still remains “Have you ever read any of his papers?” I open. asked. “Of course not, I would not waste my In 1977 I was invited to give a 40-minute time.” paper at the 1979 Leopoldina Symposium on Among the more difficult questions raised ‘Cell Structure’ in Thuringia, Germany, but by our critics were ‘What do you mean by when I arrived, I found that I was not on the truth?,’ ‘What is an artifact?,’ ‘When is it programme. The Secretariat would not accept What price intellectual honesty? 69

my paper for publication on the grounds that it the economic consequences of the enormous had not been received beforehand, although I cost of electron microscopy in medical had sent in the manuscript over six months research, and I kept trying to talk about the before. I offered the Secretary another copy, scientific points. About three months later, a but was told that it was too late. As I was short article appeared on the front page.39 waiting, I heard the Secretary telling a young Exactly a week later, the Observer published a research worker, who apologised for bringing letter from the senior elected officers of the her manuscript with her, that there was “plenty Royal Microscopical Society.40 They said that of time.” When I pointed this out, the our views had been generally rejected “in the Secretary became confused, and referred me to light of overwhelming evidence to the the organisers. Nevertheless, by dint of contrary.” They said that biologists had not diplomacy, I showed my 35-minute film, and seen our views in print. (We thought that this it was followed by a 50-minute discussion. My was somewhat cynical, since some of the paper was not included in the proceedings. signatories of the letter had resisted the We had written a paper which we could not publication of our manuscript). get published, a book that solicitous referees Two weeks later, we replied.41 “We know were sure would be published by another of no circumstances in which our views have publisher, and a film which was irritating been generally rejected… Nor do we believe audiences. One day, I was invited to show our that in scientific discussions, the correctness of film by the Bristol Fine Structures Group, an idea is measured by the number of its which was composed mainly of electron supporters.” We ended, “The protagonists of microscopists. Professor Richard Gregory, the the current view have so far been remarkably psychologist, was in the audience, and asked reticent in discussing with us these important me if we had ever tried to get our views questions. May we, Sir, through the hospitality published. Yes, I said, but without success. of your columns invite the distinguished Had we thought of Perception, the journal of signatories of the letter, or anyone else who which he was editor? I said that our geometri- agrees with them, to debate these questions in cal points were suitable for his journal, but not front of a scientific audience at any place or at the biological ones. He asked me if I would be any time.” prepared to rewrite the paper to emphasise the Two years later, although I had lectured geometrical arguments. Mr. Sartory and I were widely, no one had responded to our invita- rather reluctant to do this, and then have the tion, so we repeated it in the Observer.42 One paper rejected for publication. Eventually we debate eventually occurred, Dr. John Douglas agreed to rewrite it and submit it, on condition of Brunel University arranged it with Dr. A. that we did not have to leave out any points of Robards of York University and the Royal substance. It was eventually published,38 and Microscopical Society and Dr. K. Roberts of the editor told me that “I have had a lot of the John Innes Institute on the one hand, and stick from the electron microscopists for doing Mr. Peter Sartory and myself on the other. By so.” that time, Mr. Sartory was so ill that he only About July 1977, Mr. Sartory suggested spoke for a few minutes. Dr. Robards started that we had to open a ‘second front’ — that by saying that he was speaking in a private was, we had to tell the public about this capacity, not representing any organisation. situation. I was reluctant, and it took him three The new point he made in reply to the months to persuade me that we had properly question about why most of the membranes explored all the usual scientific channels. He appeared edge on in electron micrographs was telephoned the London Observer, and I was that, like a barn door, one would not necessar- interviewed by its then science correspondent, ily see it if it were open. I replied by asking Mr. Nigel Hawkes. He kept trying to discuss why one did not see a space corresponding to 70 Confronting the experts

the size of the door when it was closed. Mr. the others had reasons why they could not: Anthony Tucker, the science correspondent of they were writing theses, seeking lectureships, the Guardian, gave a short summary of the applying for grants, or being considered for meeting,43 and Dr. P. Evennett, a signatory of chairs. Did I blame them? Do you? What the letter attacking us,44 wrote an account in would happen to their careers if they embraced the Proceedings of the Royal Microscopical controversial views? Society.45 In 1981, not long afterwards, BBC Televi- We wrote to Sir Peter Medawar, the Nobel sion made a ‘Horizon’ programme, ‘No one Prize Laureate who has published several will listen to me.’ It took the cases of Profes- books of advice on ‘good’ science, telling him sor John Laithwaite, Dr. John Hastead and that we would like to see him, and enclosing a ours. A fair attempt was made to summarise four-page summary of our views; we pointed our views, but these were ‘answered’ out that these would be understandable to a anonymously by the programme — those student aged 15. He replied that he could not disagreeing with us not appearing. Of course, comment as he was not an electron micro- this gave the impression that our views were scopist, but he referred our letter to ‘his’ so ridiculous that the ‘Establishment’ did not electron microscopist. Five polite letters and itself want to counter them. Needless to say, ten years later, we have not heard from ‘his’ we had answered the particular points several man. A recently knighted Oxford professor times. Although the producers of the invited me to discuss the matters; I travelled programme did not intend this, the effect was all the way from Guildford (taking about four most unfair to us. Nevertheless, the hours each way), but he only had 20 minutes programme no doubt gave our views more to see me, not enough time, I suppose, to visibility than desired by our critics. comment on what I said or offer me a cup of Soon after the broadcast, I was taken off all coffee. He passed me to his electron undergraduate teaching in the University of microscopist, who, after 15 minutes, said, “I Surrey, without any reason being given. I was have to go to lunch.” an elected member of the Senate. So I asked at A famous textbook writer agreed that the a meeting attended by the Dean and the Heads Robertson model of the ‘unit membrane’46 was of the Biological Departments whether I had impossible, but said that he could not take it been removed from the teaching because of out of the next edition. When I asked him why my views on cytology. I pointed out that I was not, he smiled benignly. At about that time, the senior physiologist, that I taught relatively the publisher Mr. Michael Packard agreed to little cytology, and that I told my students the publish our book,47 in the belief, which we accepted wisdom because I wanted them to shared, that biologists in general would be pass their examinations. There was no answer. very interested in a new look at the structure The Department of Human Biology was of the living cell. closed down a couple of years later. Although As I travelled round, there was hardly a I was the second senior person in the depart- single place at which I lectured where several ment and had London University degrees in people did not come up to me when I had medicine, in physiology and in biochemistry, I finished and say that they agreed with us. I was the only member of that department not always asked them their names. Would they be placed elsewhere in the University. prepared to say in public that, for example, Our policy in the 1970s had been to refuse they did not think the cell membrane was to speak to school or undergraduate students, trilaminar (Fig. 1) or that there was a reticu- because doubts at that stage might discourage lum in the cytoplasm? (Mentioning our names them from learning biology at all. However, was not necessary.) One lecturer in Edinburgh, we changed our minds, firstly because we whose name I did not note, said he would. All realised that ten to sixteen year-olds were What price intellectual honesty? 71

being taught about the reality of structures we students think about this? I subsequently said were artifacts at a time when they published a full-length paper addressing all the believed that everything they learnt was gospel points our electron microscopic colleagues had truth. They were so conditioned. Secondly, we ever raised in discussion with us or in publi- were persuaded that motivated young people cation.53 often learned better when they were presented with opposing views. Thirdly, even the Structure of the brain briefest acquaintance with the history of Every day pathologists examine beautifully science teaches us that advances have nearly stained thin sections of brain. They see the always been made when established views nerve cells and occasional nuclei clearly but were re-examined. most of the section does not stain at all, when Mr. A. Bishop, the Editor of School Science viewed by light microscopy. In 1846, the great Review, which was widely read by school German histologist Virchow gave the name science teachers, invited us to submit a ‘neuroglia’ or ‘nerve glue’ to this unstained manuscript. We wrote an 11-page paper.48 material.54 The general consensus among Two groups of electron microscopists, Dr. R. neurobiologists today is that there are four W. Horne and Dr. J. R. Harris,49 and then kinds of cells in the brain and spinal cord, Dr. R. H. Michell, Dr. J. B. Finean and Dr. A. besides the blood vessels. The nerve cells are Coleman50 took issue with us in writing; they the excitable cells, which show up; the nuclei acknowledged the help of Professor W. belong to the other cells, the neuroglial cells, E. Coslett, Dr. A. W. Robards, Dr. J. Burgess, classified into astrocytes, oligodendrocytes Dr. S. Hunt and Professor H. W. Woolhouse. and microglia. The neuroglial material is They attacked us, inter alia, for not having believed to consist of the three latter types of dealt with the considerable volume of data cells, with very little space in between them. from biochemistry which they believed After I had been taking out nerve cells for supported their view. Although we had cited it about 17 years, by Hydén’s technique,55 I several times in our paper, they had failed to conceived of the idea that Virchow was right notice that our views had originated from a — the unstained material in the brain was not book I had written about just this subject.51 We composed of neuroglial cells.56 I did a series of wanted to reply to the points made by the experiments lasting another five years, and electron microscopists. Our original paper had they all supported the following conclusions. been 12 pages long, and theirs together added There are relatively few, widely spaced nerve up to 25 pages, but we were only accorded a cells in the brain and spinal cord. Any cell letter of five pages to reply. We therefore with processes (like wires) is a nerve cell. The decided to list the 11 questions which we had greatest proportion of the central nervous raised52 which had not been answered. We system is a ground substance consisting of a wrote to all the authors of the two papers and fine granular material with ‘naked nuclei.’ I those whom they had acknowledged, inviting published this conclusion in a monograph57 them to an informal discussion of the differ- containing much evidence from the literature ences between us. Only Dr. Michell replied, as well as my own experiments. It contained and he was not willing to discuss these matters blurred micrographs, was camera-ready, and with us. He was subsequently elected a Fellow was expensive. Dr. J. R. Parker reviewed it in of the Royal Society. a neutral fashion in the Lancet and Professor This brings up some fundamental questions Brian Leonard was laudatory in Neurochem- about the behaviour of scientists. Do they have istry International, but it sold badly. a duty to engage in serious dialogue about I was also unwise enough to find that the their published work? Is it satisfactory that evidence for the existence of the synapses — they should not answer letters? What should by which nerve cells are believed to 72 Confronting the experts

communicate — contains so many inconsis- the Council of the University on 18 December tencies, that they are likely to be staining 1987. artifacts.58 I analysed transmission, whereby I took drastic action. On 5 November, I signals are believed to pass from one part of presented a paper to the Finance and General the nervous system to another, and concluded Purposes Committee showing that my labora- that the view that transmission was chemical, tory was the cheapest in the faculty, that most formulated in detail by Professor Sir Bernard academic staff members of the University of Katz,59 contained too many unproved and Surrey did not have outside funds, and that I unprovable assumptions for the theory as a had an above average research output. At least whole to be acceptable.60 I have also spoken 12 of my senior friends, mostly from abroad, about this at many meetings, but so far no one wrote to the Vice-Chancellor supporting me, has addressed my objections to the theory. although he did not report this to Senate or However, I felt a duty to propose an alterna- Council. Articles about the proposed closure tive hypothesis.61 Of course, there is not appeared in the Times, the Guardian and the enough room here to give evidence for these Times Higher Education Supplement. Two conclusions, but they are given in detail in the resolutions opposing the closure of the Unity published references cited. Laboratory were passed unanimously at the Annual Council of the Association of Closure of the Unity Laboratory University Teachers in 1988. A question was In 1988, the Vice-Chancellor of the University asked in Parliament. of Surrey forced me to take ‘voluntary’ early The Handicapped Children’s Aid Commit- retirement, on the following grounds. tee of London, which founded the Unity • The University was short of money. (It Laboratory and financed it from 1968-1981, has since acquired enough to set up five rallied around and promised me support for research professorships, and has received one year. Dr. David Horrobin, Managing £30,000,000 from its Research Park.) Director of Scotia Pharmaceuticals, who had • The University had selected those areas himself suffered for his scientific views in which it wanted to support, but mine was not Canada, also came to my aid. With this outside among them. (I have never been able to funding, the University agreed to allow my persuade the University to tell me (1) what laboratory to remain open for a further three committee met, (2) whom else it considered to years, but without any support from University select my work for not supporting, (3) why I funds for my research. was not asked to submit my publications or an annual report of my laboratory’s work, or (4) ‘Voluntary’ retirement why my laboratory’s work was not submitted Not long afterwards, I was asked to take to the University Grant’s Committee for ‘voluntary’ early retirement. The University evaluation.) offered to buy in seven years of my pension, to • My work was of poor quality. (I had give me a lump sum, and to reengage me for published at least 80 full length papers, mostly 40% part time. The total financial settlement in refereed journals, and I had written three would leave me with almost as much income books by 1988.) as if I were still a full-time assistant professor, • I had not obtained outside funds. (Nor had but I would lose my tenure. I was given three about 70% of the academic staff.) two-day ultimata delivered by the hand of an The Senate on 30 September 1987 Assistant Secretary of the University. approved a ‘Revised Academic Plan’ for The Association of University Teachers 1987-1990,62 in which all departments were took legal advice in my support. Our Univer- cut by 5%, but my laboratory was to be cut by sity had one of the strongest tenures in the 100%, that is, closed. This was approved by country. I had thought that I was fully What price intellectual honesty? 73

protected. However, the Association advised to send in an abstract and then would not me that if the University dismissed me publish it; they said that it was only because illegally, I would have to take legal action the film could not be understood unless one against it. If I won, damages to me would only saw it, but they would not tell me how many relate to my loss of income, not my senior others had been refused publication. At a position, research facilities, prestige, etc. Such meeting in August 1992 of the European a case had not been heard before. The Society of Neurochemistry in Dublin, although certainty of my winning was not by any means I was a founder member, I was speaking on a absolute. The consequences of failure of my subject relevant to most other papers, and had plea would be financially disastrous to me, and requested an oral presentation, I was given the I had a wife and four young children to last slot at 5.15 pm, after 171 papers at the end support. The Association advised me to take of a five-day meeting. The chairperson did not the offer. turn up, the room was changed, several Reluctantly, I agreed to surrender my speakers did not arrive, and several others who tenure under a number of conditions, not all of wanted to hear my talk missed it. I received an which were met. I believe that I am the only apology, but no redress. tenured academic in Britain who has lost his tenure because of his or her scientific views. Present situation Strangely enough, a few months before, I had I have shown, to my own satisfaction that (i) at ended an article on academic freedom in the least some popular important biochemical Times Higher Education Supplement with the research techniques have never been sentence, “Would you not be thankful that you controlled, (ii) most of the new structures in had tenure, and lived in a democratic cells apparent by electron microscopy are country?” artifacts, (iii) there are only nerve cells and I have continued my full time research naked nuclei in a ground substance in the brain work with my colleague Mr. David Jarman in and spinal cord, (iv) there are no synapses, (v) the Unity Laboratory. We have produced an the transmitter hypothesis is doubtful. I have atlas of the human nervous system,63 and I published all the evidence for these state- have written a book, originally entitled Letter ments, although this has not always been easy. to Students of Biology of the Twenty First The stakes are high. If I am right a very Century, now with a new name.64 I have also large proportion of experiments in basic listed the mechanisms whereby the dissemina- research in life sciences will have to be tion of unpopular views is prevented in liberal completed, and this may result in quite societies.65 different conclusions. If I am wrong, only my In recent years, without any reason being reputation is destroyed. It would be natural for given, I have been prevented from presenting a lay person to think that it would be very my views at a joint meeting in Würzburg of unlikely that any single individual was right the German and British Physiological and nearly all other life scientists wrong. Even Societies (they told me that mine was the only if my conclusions were totally correct, it is paper they would not allow to be presented). very unlikely that they would be acted upon, The European Society of Neurochemistry because there are so many academics, doctors, would not allow me to speak at Leipzig. The teachers and publishers who have a vested British Society of Neuropathology prevented interest in current views. History tells us that me showing a film because the Society said this does not happen quickly. that it had seen it before — remarkable, Every day that goes by more people have because it had never been shown before. The carried out more experiments apparently joint meeting of the Norwegian and British compatible with the current consensus, Biochemical Societies at Eidsvoll invited me therefore more people have a career interest in 74 Confronting the experts

it being correct. At the same time, in Britain at Message for the future least — where academic tenure has been Irrespective of the truth or otherwise of my virtually abolished — it is unlikely that views in biology, I believe that it would be anyone who raised the fundamental questions generally agreed that there is an international or came to the same conclusions publicly as tendency to increases in: size of research units; Mr. Sartory and I have, would ever be complexity of research; cost of carrying it out; appointed to a lectureship, be awarded a large competition for academic positions; power of grant for research, or enjoy a successful career those who decide on the allocation of research in science. funds; influence of those who control prestig- There is a widespread belief that medical ious research journals; and censorship by the and biological research is very successful66 establishments of access to the popular media. and, therefore, more resources should be put It would also be agreed that knowledge can into it. I have differentiated between two only advance when the current consensus is aspects of medical research. Since the 1940s, challenged. This is usually a consequence of many new drugs have been discovered and thought by one or a few individuals, who by developed empirically, intensive care units for definition constitute a minority. Thus it is dying patients have been set up in most large reasonable to be concerned that current trends towns, new antibiotics have been found will increase conformity and decrease individ- empirically and modified, transplantation of ual or minority challenges, which will slow skin, kidneys and other organs has become down the advance of knowledge.67 routine, cardiac surgery has become a major In addition, the large number of mecha- speciality, and steroids have been used for skin nisms discouraging the dissemination of diseases. All these have been highly successful challenging and new ideas will discourage applications of simple technologies. However, intellectual honesty,68 which is the overwhelm- we must ask what has been discovered about ing force which advances knowledge. Thus, the genesis of cancer, multiple sclerosis, the present situation will discourage academ- Alzheimer’s disease or schizophrenia. The ics from free thought. I would like to give a answer is remarkably little which has helped historical warning to all biologists that, unless us to understand the mechanism of the they address some of the fundamental ques- diseases, so that we can design rational tions which I have raised69 they are in danger treatments for them. The same may be said of spending the whole of their research about the understanding of the molecular careers, using thermodynamically illegal mechanisms by which drugs act; a large procedures, studying artifacts, repeating amount is known about what they do, but uncontrolled experiments, indulging in remarkably little about how they act in the intellectual casuistry or becoming cynical — living person or animal. none of which is good for science. If we leave aside my hypothesis that basic medical, biological and pharmacological research has not been successful because it has not addressed the fundamental problems and assumptions inherent in most of the tech- niques, the current situation is dangerous because it suppresses free thought, without which the advance of knowledge can only be slow.

What price intellectual honesty? 75

5. H. Hillman and H. Hydén, “Characteris- tics of the ATPase activity of isolated neurons of rabbit,” Histochemie, vol. 4 (1965): 446-450. 6. I. Berenblum and E. Chain, “Studies on the colorimetric determination of phosphates,” Biochemical Journal, vol. 32 (1938): 286-298. 7. K. Popper, Objective Knowledge, Oxford: Clarendon Press (1972): 14-17. 8. F. Lipmann, “Metabolic generation and utilization of phosphate bond energy,” Figure 1. The structure of the cell, at the left Advances in Enzymology, vol. 1 (1941): as agreed by most modern cytologists and at 99-162. the right as believed by me. In the structure on 9. P. George and R. J. Rutman, “The ‘high- the left, u is adjacent to the double cell energy phosphate’ bond concept,” Progress in membrane, g to the Golgi apparatus, and ser Biophysics and Biophysical Chemistry, vol. 10 and rer to the endoplasmic reticulum, a (1960): 1-53. network in the cytoplasm. m is a mitochon- 10. B. Banks, “A misapplication of chemis- drion containing the ‘shelves’ of cristae. np try in biology,” School Science Review, vol. represents holes in the nucleus, the ‘nuclear 179 (1970): 286-297. pores.’ In my publications, I have shown that 11. E. W. Taylor, “Chemistry of muscle the double cell membrane should not always contraction,” Annual Review of Biochemistry, appear to be cut at right angles, and the vol. 41 (1972): 577-616. reticulum or network would prevent intracel- 12. K. Lohmann, “Uber der enzymatische lular movements which are characteristic of Aufspaltung der Kreatinphosphorsaure; living cells. In the structure on the right, the zugleich ein Beitrag zum Chemismus der mitochondria appear in the cytoplasm smaller Muskelkontraktion,” Biochemische Zeitschrift, and are oriented randomly. Further details are vol. 271 (1934): 264-277. given in references.70 13. J. F. Morrison and A. H. Ennor, “N- phosphorylated guanidines,” in P. D. Boyer, Notes H. Lardy, and K. Myrbäck (eds.), The 1. H. Hydén, “Quantitative assay of Enzymes, Vol. 2, New York: Academic Press compounds in isolated fresh nerve cells and (1960): 89-109. glial cells from control and stimulated animals,” 14. Hillman and Hydén, op. cit. Nature, vol. 184 (1959): 433-435. 15. Berenblum and Chain, op. cit. 2. H. Hillman, “Hydén’s technique of 16. Ibid. isolating mammalian cerebral neurons by hand 17. H. Hillman, “The effect of visible light dissection,” Microscopy, vol. 35 (1986): 382- on ATP in solution,” Life Sciences, vol. 5 389. (1966): 589-605. 3. H. Hillman, “Fraud versus carelessness” 18. H. Hillman, “The terminal phosphate (letter), Science, vol. 326 (1987): 736. bond as a transducer” (abstract), Sixth Interna- 4. J. T. Cummins and H. Hydén, “Adeno- tional Congress of Biochemistry, New York sine triphosphatase in neurons, glia and City (26 July–1 August 1964). neuronal membranes of the vestibular nucleus,” 19. H. Hillman, “The phosphate bond as a Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, vol. 60 (1962): transducer,” Information Exchange No 1, vol. 271-283. 190 (3 July 1964): 1-33. 76 Confronting the experts

20. B. Chance, “Spectra and reaction dimensions and appearance of isolated rabbit kinetics of respiratory pigments of homoge- medullary neurons,” Microscopy, vol. 35 nised and intact cells,” Nature, vol. 169 (1952): (1987): 652-659. 215-221. 35. Hussain et al., op. cit.; H. Hillman and 21. S. E. Shnoll, M. N. Kondrashova, and D. Jarman, Atlas of the Cellular Structure of the K. F. Sholts, “Multi-phase alterations of the Human Nervous System, London: Academic ATPase activity of actomyosin preparations Press (1991). and the effect of different features,” Voprosy 36. H. Hillman and P. Sartory, “Value of Meditsinskoi Khimii, vol. 3 (1957): 54-63. textbooks” (letter), Nature, vol. 267 (1977): 22. F. A. Hommes, “Oscillation times of 102. the oscillatory reduction of pyridine nucleo- 37. H. Hillman and P. Sartory, The Living tides during aerobic glycolysis in brewer’s Cell, Chichester: Packard (1980): 102-105. yeast,” Archives of Biochemistry and 38. H. Hillman and P. Sartory, “The ‘unit’ Biophysics, vol. 108 (1964): 500-504. membrane, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the 23. H. Hillman, “Do oscillations in biologi- nuclear pores are artifacts,” Perception, vol. 6 cal system originate in their substrates and (1977): 667-673. nucleotides?” Information Exchange No. 1, vol. 39. N. Hawkes, “Mirages from micro- 298 (14 January 1965): 1-2. scopes,” Observer (11 December 1977). 24. H. Hillman, Certainty and Uncertainty 40. A. W. Robards, P. J. Evennett, J. in Biochemical Techniques, Henley on Sikorski, J. A. Chapman, R. W. Horne, and A. Thames: Surrey University Press (1972): U. Glauert, “Whose illusions” (letter), 34-35. Observer (18 December 1977). 25. H. Hillman, “Some fundamental 41. H. Hillman and P. Sartory, “Whose theoretical and practical problems associated illusions” (letter), Observer (1 January 1978). with neurochemical techniques in mammalian 42. H. Hillman and P. Sartory, “A challenge studies,” Neurochemistry International, vol. 5 repeated” (letter), Observer (16 December (1983): 1-13. 1979). 26. Hillman (1972), op. cit. 43. A. Tucker, “A sight too powerful,” 27. H. Hillman, “Control experiments for Guardian (22 May 1980), and “Seeing is biochemical techniques,” Biochemical Society. believing,” Guardian (5 June 1980). Bulletin, vol. 1, part 3 (1979): 11. 44. Robards et al., op. cit. 28. Hillman (1972), op. cit. 45. P. J. Evennett, “Fact or artifact. Debate 29. Ibid. on the reality of the unit membrane,” 30. J. A. Lucy, “Review of Certainty and Proceedings of the Royal Microscopical Uncertainty in Biochemical Techniques,” Society, vol. 15 (1980): 334-335. Biochemical Education, vol. 1 (1973): 32. 46. J. D. Robertson, “The ultrastructure of 31. Hydén, op. cit.; H. Hydén, “The the cell membranes and their derivatives,” neuron,” in J. Brachet and A. E. Mirsky (eds.), Biochemical Society. Symposia, vol. 18 (1959): The Cell, Vol. IV, New York: Academic Press 3-43. (1961): 215-324. 47. Hillman and Sartory (1980), op. cit. 32. Hydén (1959), op. cit. 48. H. Hillman and P. Sartory, “A reexami- 33. T. S. Hussain, H. Hillman, and P. nation of the structure of the living cell and its Sartory, “A nucleolar membrane in neurons,” implications for biological education,” School Microscopy, vol. 32 (1974): 348-353. Science Review, vol. 61 (1980): 241-252. 34. I. Chughtai, H. Hillman, and D. Jarman, 49. R. W. Horne and J. R. Harris, “The “The effect of haematoxylin and eosin, electron microscope in biology,” School Palmgren’s and osmic acid procedures on the Science Review, vol. 63 (1981): 53-69. What price intellectual honesty? 77

50. R. H. Michell, J. B. Finean, and A. 65. H. Hillman, “Resistance to the spread Coleman, “Widely accepted modern views of of unpopular academic findings and views in cell structure are fundamentally correct,” liberal societies, including a personal case,” School Science Review, vol. 63 (1982): Accountability in Research, vol. 1 (1991): 434-441. 259-272. 51. Hillman (1972), op. cit. 66. H. Hillman, “How to make medical 52. H. Hillman, “Some questions not research more successful,” The Practitioner, answered by the electron microscopists” vol. 231 (1987): 998-1003; 1403-1409. (letter), School Science Review, vol. 224 67. H. Hillman, “The modern tendency to (1982): 173-177. conformity with proposals for reversing it,” 53. H. Hillman, “Some microscopic consid- New Humanist, Vol. 109 (1993): 13-15. erations about cell structure. Light versus 68. H. Hillman, “Honest research,” Science electron microscopy,” Microscopy, vol. 36 and Engineering Ethics, Vol. 1 (1995). (1991): 557-576. 69. See notes 24, 25, 38, 52, 57, 58, 60 and 54. R. Virchow, “Uber das granulierte 64. Ansehen der Wanderungen der Gehirnsven- 70. Hillman and Sartory (1977), Perception, trikel,” Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie, op. cit.; Hillman and Sartory (1980), The vol. 3 (1846): 242-250. Living Cell, op. cit.; Hillman (1986), The 55. Hydén (1959), op. cit. Cellular Structure of the Mammalian Nervous 56. W. J. J. Nauta and M. Feirtag, “The System, op. cit. organisation of the brain,” Scientific American (September 1979): 88-111. 57. H. Hillman, Cellular Structure of the Mammalian Nervous System, Lancaster: MTP Press (1986). 58. H. Hillman, “The anatomical synapse by light and electron microscopy,” Medical Hypotheses, vol. 17 (1985): 1-32. 59. B. Katz, The Release of Neural Trans- mitter Substances (Sherrington Lecture), Liverpool: Liverpool University Press (1969). 60. H. Hillman, “A re-examination of the vesicle hypothesis of transmission in relation to its applicability to the mammalian central nervous system,” Physiological Chemistry and Physics and Medical NMR., vol. 23 (1991): 177-198. 61. H. Hillman, “A new hypothesis for electrical transmission in the mammalian central nervous system,” Medical Hypotheses, vol. 34 (1991): 220-224. 62. Senate, University of Surrey, (8/87) (30 September 1987): 1-20. 63. Hillman and Jarman, op. cit. 64. H. Hillman, The Case for New Para- digms in Cell Biology and in Neurobiology, Lampeter: Mellen Press (1991). 6

The Guido Riccio controversy in art history Michael Mallory and Gordon Moran

Published in Brian Martin (editor), Confronting the Experts (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996), pp. 131-154

Introduction can be challenged both inside and outside The Guido Riccio is a fresco, or wall painting, academia. in the city of Siena in Italy. Guido Riccio is The lengthy duration of the Guido Riccio short for the full name, Guido Riccio da controversy has given us the time and the Fogliano at the Siege of Montemassi. The opportunity to study other academic contro- standard view has long been that Simone versies of the past and present, and to compare Martini, a famous painter from Siena, painted notes with other scholars who are involved in the entire fresco in 1328-1330, a view adopted ongoing disputes of their own. Such compari- by generations of scholars and repeated in sons have enabled us to detect, even predict, many textbooks, guidebooks, reference books, patterns of behaviour on the part of experts as and classroom lectures. This was also our own they attempt to overcome challenges. These view until 1977, when we proposed that a patterns include: the suppression and censor- portion of the fresco, namely the horse and ship of the challengers’ ideas from scholarly rider, was painted by a close follower of conferences, symposia, and journals; personal Simone Martini in 1352, while still attributing attacks, including insults, retaliation, and the rest of the painting to Simone. ostracism, against the challengers; and On the face of it, it would seem that the secrecy, instead of open discussion and debate. Guido Riccio discussion would be an obvious candidate to remain limited to a small group of Vested interests and motivation academics with a specialization in Sienese As the Guido Riccio controversy has pro- painting, with discussion involving fine points gressed, an increasing number of persons have of an intellectual, if not erudite, nature. After taken an interest in it, including undergraduate all, a portion of a painting was being dated 20 and graduate students, art students, alumni years later then commonly believed, and this groups, culturally minded tourist groups, and specific portion was being attributed to a close local Sienese civic groups. Frequently we are follower of a famous painter, rather than to the asked: “Why can’t they accept the truth?”; famous painter. Yet, for various reasons, the “Why can’t they admit Simone didn’t paint the issue became hotly contested, immediately got famous Guido Riccio fresco?”; “Why into the mass media, and swiftly escalated into wouldn’t they let you be on the program of the what several writers have described as “the Simone Martini conference in Siena in case of the century,” or the “enigma” of the 1985?”; “Why don’t they want to uncover the century in art history. fourteenth century frescoes that might be The controversy — or “war,” as one scholar hidden under the plaster on the walls of the put it — over Guido Riccio has raged for more same room where the Guido Riccio painting is than a decade. Hence, this chapter can be no located?” “They” in these questions are the more than a progress report, revealing some various persons who have vested interests in highlights from the history of the controversy. confirming the standard view of the Guido We hope to provide some insights into how Riccio. experts react to upsetting hypotheses and also The famous fresco is located in the main into how their various tactics and manoeuvres council room of the museum of the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena, situated on one side of the Guido Riccio controversy 79

famous town piazza known as the “Campo.” A The producers of Chianti Classico and large wall painting or mural, painted in the Brunello wines have a vested interest in Guido fresco technique, it is one of the most — if not Riccio since he appears on their wine labels. the most — famous painting in Siena, and in Even more so the city government officials the history of Italian Renaissance art. It is who are the “owners” of the painting located listed in many art history textbooks, reference in their city hall and the officials of the books, and monographs, as well as guidebooks Soprintendenza (the federal Italian govern- and brochures, as one of the few documented ment agency with responsibility for preserva- works of the fourteenth-century Sienese tion of works of art in Italy) who must painter Simone Martini. Simone, in turn, is preserve it have a vested interest in the Guido regarded as one of the most famous and Riccio. Obviously the local tourist board has a important painters of the Late Medieval and vested interest in it, since the painting is one of Early Renaissance period both in Siena and in the big attractions of Siena. And the citizens of Italy. Siena themselves, and their cultural institu- Reproductions of the famous Guido Riccio tions, such as the Accademia degli Intronati, — particularly its image of the horse and rider have vested interests based on their pride in — are found on posters for the local Sienese their city, its history and its artistic heritage. tourist agency, on the covers of guidebooks As the Guido Riccio controversy developed, and textbooks, postcards, plates, ash trays, other persons and institutions became cookie box covers, lampshades, bathroom involved, such as the powerful Monte dei tiles, calendars, wine bottle labels, and even Paschi Bank, which financed a monograph blankets. It seems clear that much of the book on the Palazzo Pubblico, certain art popularity of the image of Guido Riccio on libraries and art library associations which in horseback stems from the belief that it was turn involved the German government, the painted by Simone Martini. In fact, genera- editors of scholarly journals and specialized tions of Sienese children have been brought encyclopedias, and certain academic profes- into the Palazzo Pubblico museum in Siena by sional societies, such as the College Art their school teachers and told that Simone Association of America, a member of the Martini painted the image of Guido Riccio on American Council of Learned Societies. horseback for the glory of the Sienese Rather than trying to guess what prompted Republic of the fourteenth century, or some the actions, reactions, and manoeuvres of these remark to that effect. The painting has become persons and organizations, we will describe as part of Sienese pride in its history and and analyze events and situations that have artistic patrimony and heritage. Moreover, the actually taken place. Readers can then decide local Sienese government controls, as a virtual for themselves what the motivation might have monopoly, the touristic guided tours of the city been. and its museums and grants licenses to only a select and limited number of official guides Historical and art historical background who claim exclusive rights to show groups of Siena is a small city in central Italy, about an tourists around the city. Over the years, these hour’s drive south of the larger and more well- “official guides” have told many thousands — known city of Florence (Firenze), its historic if not millions — of tourists that the famous rival. Siena’s history most likely extends to Guido Riccio fresco was painted by Simone Etruscan times, and it is referred to in Roman Martini, and some continue to do so. And, to literature and historical writings. In Medieval be sure, for many years, numerous art history times, Siena developed into something of a professors in art history classes in universities political and economic power in its own right, around the world have waxed eloquently about in part through international banking. In fact, the painting, describing it as Simone’s in the fourteenth century Siena was a masterpiece. flourishing city-state, expanding its territory in all directions, to the west as far as the Mediter- 80 Confronting the experts

ranean coast, to the north to the Chianti region, Riccio became entrenched in the history of art to the south as far as Mt. Amiata, and to the as a documented masterpiece. east into the Val di Chiana. This territorial In 1980, a second fresco was uncovered expansion revived centuries’ old conflicts with from under modern plaster on the same wall as the leaders of the feudal lords who owned the the Guido Riccio. This newly-uncovered castles and territory in the areas of the Sienese painting has subsequently been regarded countryside. During the twelfth, thirteenth and unanimously by all scholars who have written fourteenth centuries military conquests or on the subject as being one of the castles of the financial transactions by the Sienese govern- castle program described above. Its discovery ment brought many castles and their raised hopes that other masterpieces of surrounding land into its jurisdiction and under fourteenth century Sienese painting might still its military control. be hidden under the plaster in the room, It is precisely during this territorial waiting to be uncovered for the world to see. It expansion program that the Guido Riccio story was also soon evident that the Guido Riccio begins. Early in the fourteenth century, the was in every respect very different from the Sienese government had decided to depict in newly discovered work that everyone regarded wall paintings castles that the government had as original. Doubts about the origin of the recently taken under its jurisdiction that were famous work began to rise. deemed to be important and strategic from a military/political standpoint. These castle Connoisseurship in art history depictions eventually covered large portions of In the field of art history, expert claims for two walls of the main council room of the intellectual and professional superiority often Palazzo Pubblico. It is documented that at rest on their skills as connoisseurs. They least seven castles were painted on the walls as profess to be able to “see” and to attribute part of this artistic-political propaganda works of art better than others, especially the program. The first castles were painted before press and the public. Perhaps the classic 1314 and they continued to be painted at least example of this supposed higher sensibility is through 1331. Simone Martini painted at least illustrated by a tale involving one of the four, namely Montemassi and Sassoforte in greatest acknowledged connoisseurs of Italian 1330 and Arcidosso and Castel del Piano in paintings, Bernard Berenson. It is said that a 1331. Secondary sources state that other person had a painting thought to be by the castles, including Ansedonia and Sinalunga, famous fourteenth century painter Duccio, an were also painted as part of this series. We feel earlier contemporary of Simone Martini, and that as many as twenty castles were painted in brought the painting to Berenson for his the room and, moreover, we believe that opinion. Berenson, according to the story, said several — if not many — of these paintings the painting was not by Duccio. When the are still preserved, hidden under the plaster of owner of the painter asked Berenson how he later paintings that currently decorate the could be sure of his opinion, Berenson room. allegedly replied that had it been by Duccio he Until 1980, it was believed that not only would have swooned with aesthetic rapture. was the famous Guido Riccio at the Siege of This type of reply intimidates the nonex- Montemassi one of the castle depictions by pert. If a group of “experts” — self-appointed Simone Martini, but that it was the only one of or otherwise — band together and agree on the series to have survived. Specifically, it was attributions, it is virtually impossible to mount associated with the document stating that a challenge. When “experts” disagree with Simone painted the castle of Montemassi in each other, however, the subjective nature of 1330. What was at best a tentative hypothesis connoisseurship becomes obvious. Different soon was presented as fact in textbooks and attributions for the same work make it clear guidebooks and in classroom lectures. Guido that one or more of the experts is mistaken. And once an expert is shown to be fallible, Guido Riccio controversy 81

doubts begin to arise about connoisseurship documented masterpiece by Simone Martini being the definitive methodology for art by guidebooks published in Siena and history. elsewhere. Despite appeals to the authority of An analysis of how connoisseurship has connoisseurship and stylistic evidence that been applied to the Guido Riccio case was have since been heard in the Guido Riccio made by Joseph Falcone: “In reading all of the debate, it appears that the Simone Martini material of the scholarly debate between Mr. attribution for the famous fresco slipped into Moran and what I call the ‘normative art the art history literature without academics and history community,’ … I have come to some connoisseurs making close stylistic analyses to interesting conclusions about how art histori- support such an attribution. ans debate, including their language and In fact, some doubts about the attribution acceptable criteria for evidence in support of did surface. Early in this century, a widely- their arguments … The use of specific recognized expert of Italian painting, Adolfo evidence is important to note in the Guido- Venturi, wrote in his monumental work Storia riccio debate, as it seems to be representative dell’Arte Italiana that he did not believe that of a normal research tradition … The most the figure of Guido Riccio on horseback was important form of evidence that is considered painted by Simone Martini, but rather that it appropriate to use in debate in the discipline of was painted after Simone’s death as a art history is stylistic evidence … ‘Normal’ art symbolic figure of power above a revolving historians were bounded in the Guidoriccio map that was placed on the same wall. case, as we shall see, by this shared criterion Venturi’s doubts, however, appeared in a for research … Because Mr. Moran through- footnote and were not cited. out the intellectual debate has advocated the Furthermore, in an Early Italian Renais- use of technical-empirical and historical sance Art course taught in 1957-1958, evidence as the basis for his arguments, he is Professor Hellmut Wohl expressed doubts operating outside of the ‘normal’ tradition of about the Guido Riccio when he discussed art history.”1 Simone Martini, though he did not categori- The earlier-mentioned discovery in 1980 of cally exclude it as a work by Simone. We were another very different fresco on the same wall both students in Wohl’s course and it may well as the Guido Riccio caused havoc among the be that he planted the seeds of doubt for the experts. The juxtaposition of the frescoes, with sustained challenge which we mounted a the Guido Riccio work overlapping the one couple of decades later. Who knows how below it, seemed to demonstrate unequivocally many other scholars had similar questions that the Guido Riccio was not part of the castle about the painting, but did not follow up on series and was of a more recent origin. When them in a way that allowed discussion within several experts involved in the debate were the scholarly communication system in art asked to state how they viewed the chrono- history? logical relationships of the two works, they refused to answer. Connoisseurship may have The challenge begins (by chance!) backfired on the experts this time, for it The Guido Riccio challenge originated by seemed clear that many non-experts — such as chance, almost as an afterthought. We are both students, the press, and the public — “saw” specialists in Sienese painting, particularly of what the experts claim they could not see, or the fourteenth century, and for a long time we didn’t want to admit that they saw. went along with the traditional attribution. In 1976-1977, one of us (Moran) undertook a Preludes to the challenge study of the overlapping of attributions to When, during the late nineteenth and early Luca di Tommé and Niccolò di Ser Sozzo of twentieth century, art history became a bona- various paintings dating from the second half fide scholarly discipline, the Guido Riccio of the fourteenth century. Originally, the fresco had already become accepted as a 82 Confronting the experts

Guido Riccio did not enter in any way we focussed our attention on two main whatsoever in this study. observations: During the course of the Luca di Tommé (1) From the standpoint of space and and Niccolò di Ser Sozzo research, Moran setting, the horse and rider did not seem to be found a document in the Archivio di Stato di integrated into the scene of the siege of Siena referring to a payment, allegedly of Montemassi. Instead of being part of the 1346-1347, to “Simone dipegnitore,” for a narrative, it looks as if the horse and rider are painting on the Porta Camollia in Siena. This floating across the front of the picture plane, document aroused great curiosity, inasmuch as with the left front hoof of the horse resting on Simone Martini had died in 1344. There had the border of the fresco at a point where the been considerable discussion in art history stakes of a wooden fence recede below the literature about whether Simone Martini border, and with the other three legs of the painted the Porta Romana or the Porta horse suspended in mid-air above a valley Camollia. With the discovery of this which swoops below. document, Moran hypothesized that perhaps (2) Guido Riccio left Siena in disgrace in there had been another painter, a close 1333. According to documents and secondary contemporary of Simone Martini, also named sources, he let the enemy escape when he had Simone, and that this coincidence might have them within striking distance, he was bribed caused some of the confusion about who by the enemy, he let supplies get in when he painted Porta Camollia. Since Moran believed had them besieged at Arcidosso in 1331, and that this unpublished document might be an he was accused of cowardice. Also, he left important key to resolving this art historical Siena with considerable unpaid debts. Based problem, he undertook further investigations on these notices, we thought that if Simone in this direction, putting the Luca di Tommé Martini had in 1330 painted a portrait of and Niccolò di Ser Sozzo project on the back Guido Riccio, a mercenary soldier who sold burner indefinitely. These further investiga- his services, this portrait would have been tions regarding “Simone dipegnitore” painted over or destroyed in 1333 or soon eventually involved the famous Guido Riccio thereafter. (We later discovered that from painting, and a series of incongruities and around 1333 to around 1350, Guido Riccio anomalies in this work came to light. was a leader of forces that were enemies of Ironically, it turns out that there might have Siena, a fact which reinforced the theory that been an error in the compilation of the archival the Sienese government would have erased records and that the “Simone dipegnitore” any portrait of him in their main council room mentioned in the aforementioned document after 1333.) might actually refer to Simone Martini after The Sienese hired Guido Riccio again in all. Be that as it may, the challenge to Guido 1351 as their military chief, perhaps thereby Riccio was about to begin. buying off a threat to their security. He died in office several months later and was given an Content and form of the original challenge elaborate military funeral by the Sienese In 1977, the challenge did not include the government, for which the services of some entire painting, only the horse and rider. We Sienese painters were engaged. We proposed hypothesized that the equestrian figure of that the portrait we see in Siena today was Guido Riccio was a posthumous memorial painted in the context of the funeral celebra- portrait painted in 1352 or soon thereafter tion as a memorial portrait of a soldier of superimposed on the documented depiction of fortune who had died while in service for the castle of Montemassi. Siena. But since Simone Martini himself had Documentary and iconographical consid- died in 1344, the artist of the portrait must erations were already becoming complex in have been someone else, perhaps a close the first year of the challenge, but at that time follower of Simone. (We now prefer Venturi’s Guido Riccio controversy 83

theory to our own, as does Professor Federico authorities in Siena were taken by surprise by Zeri.) the sudden “onore della cronaca” (honour by It did not take long for the first reactions to means of press coverage) for such a heretical take place. theory. From this point on, the press, particu- larly the Sienese press, has played an active The first attempts by the experts to squash role in the controversy, with well over 100 the heretical theory articles on the subject. For the most part, the One day in Siena in 1977, Moran ran into press has shown what we consider to be a Alberto Cornice, an official of the Soprinten- great sense of responsibility throughout the denza, and told him of the new theory about controversy, and the Sienese journalists have Guido Riccio. At the advice of Professor shown an extraordinary openness for continual Ulrich Middledorf, the former Director of the up-to-date coverage of our findings and ideas. Kunsthistorisches Institut in Florence, he made The following day, the Florentine journalist an informal request to have the opportunity to Wanda Lattes’ article, entitled “The Mystery study the fresco closely. Eventually a portable of Simone Martini,” appeared in La Nazione.3 scaffold was put up in front of the fresco and She reported the opinions of various experts the Soprintenza requested the restorer Donato and acknowledged the existence of real Martelli to make some preliminary examina- problems of art criticism, attribution, and tions. Several scholars (experts) were also dating, and conservation regarding the invited to view the fresco from the scaffold. painting. She detected two trends among the During these first investigations, Martelli replies she elicited: one group expected an removed some of the plaster on the wall just academic debate to resolve the question, while below the Guido Riccio and found traces of the other group was determined to defend the another fresco which extended underneath the traditional attribution. Among the latter, Lattes famous fresco’s lower border. Since the Guido quoted Professor Giovanni Previtali at length, Riccio fresco overlapped the newly discovered and he soon became the unquestioned leader one, the former was later in date than the of the experts who dedicated themselves to latter. When the invited scholars called up to defending the attribution to Simone regardless Martelli to ask if he had found anything of of the evidence. importance, the restorer, with a sense of The first organized attempt to squash the humour that might have masked his own heretical theory about Guido Riccio occurred suspicions about Guido Riccio’s portrait, at a round table discussion held in Siena in replied that he had not found anything early November 1977 at the Accademia degli unusual, merely a portrait of Garibaldi, the Intronati. Invited speakers included Moran and nineteenth century Italian military and a number of experts of Italian art. This event political hero, underneath the famous fresco. was open to the public and many Sienese A few days later, the office of the Soprin- citizens who were merely curious or even tendenza, headed by Piero Torriti, called in the shocked or outraged about the new theory also famous restorer Leonetto Tintori to make showed up. It was an overflow crowd, in some further investigations. Meanwhile, Cornice ways reminiscent of a partisan hometown telephoned to say that a friend of his, Serafina crowd for a sporting event. Baglioni, a journalist in Siena, was interested Although promoted as a “round table” in knowing more about the new Guido Riccio session to discuss the issue, at least two theory. An interview was arranged in front of Sienese have told us that the forum was the fresco on the day Tintori and his colleague organized with the intention of refuting the were carrying out their investigations. heretical theory, to nip it in the bud, as it were, Baglioni’s article, entitled “Simone Martini in a civilized and scholarly manner. And with Contested,” appeared in the October 4, 1977 Professor Enzo Carli of Siena acting as edition of the nationally distributed La chairman of the event, there was every Nazione.2 The experts and the political assurance that the discussion would be carried 84 Confronting the experts

out with open, civilized exchange among the now he has taken on the form of a monoma- participants. But as hard as they tried, the niac.” — Professor Giovanni Previtali.8 experts could not dispel the doubts. Most “… Professor Bellosi, in an interview, difficult to rebut was the idea that had Simone declares that perhaps Moran has become Martini painted a portrait of Guido Riccio in insane …” — Giorgio Sacchi.9 1330, this portrait would have been erased “… the two ‘monomaniacs’ (I’m speaking after 1333 when Guido Riccio fell into of Gordon Moran and Michael Mallory) …” disgrace. Once again, La Nazione covered the — Arrigo Pecchioli.10 event with a long article entitled “Enigmatic “Moran published his theories about the Guido Riccio.” The last paragraph begins: ‘Guido Riccio’ in 1977 … From the start, he “The debate is not closed.”4 was denounced by the Italian art establishment in vicious terms; he was called a CIA agent, a Subsequent reactions, including personal monomaniac and a paranoid.” — Jacob Young insults with Lin Widmann.11 Not all of the experts and other persons “… the tenacious attempts to contest the involved have abided by the same high hypotheses of Moran … immediately were professional standards that Professor Carli transferred to a personal level, with bizarre maintained at the round table discussion and objections to the effect that Moran was not a subsequently throughout the controversy. real historian, but a lightweight dilettante on Although Professor Previtali made some bitter the subject matter …” — Marco Carminati.12 comments, the round table chaired by Carli “Professors at the University of Siena provided no indication of the future reactions dismissed him with thinly veiled condescen- that were to take place as the debate escalated sion … Zeri … got right to the point … and intensified. ‘Moran is not a Sienese, he’s not a member of Insults of various types against one or both this inbred confraternity of scholars and he’s of us became an inherent part of the Guido an American. Therefore, the Sienese profes- Riccio controversy. Here are some selected sors feel that he has no right to his opinions.’” examples: — Jane Boutwell.13 “Go back to America, by boat … and to the During the course of our research into the next presumptuous person who comes here Guido Riccio problem, we have formulated no we’ll tell him to his pig’s snout that we don’t less than sixty reasons — historical, want to give him a little glory …” — Arrigo documentary, technical-scientific, stylistic, Pecchioli.5 and iconographical — to doubt the traditional “… the absurd and defamatory accusations attribution. Despite our findings, the above list … published by Gordon Moran and Michael of comments indicates that some experts Mallory …” — Piero Torriti.6 involved in the controversy have chosen to “… Gordon…gets more pushy, more treat us not as scholars involved in critical paranoid, more upset … I think if he were a inquiry and discussion concerning a subject of genuine art historian … he would do like I mutual interest but, rather, to treat us as would do … He just thinks all the time about unqualified, crazy outsiders who are trying to this case … He’s become almost insanely intrude upon their writings on and teaching of obsessed with it. I think he has taken it over art history. As might be expected in such a the brink.” — Professor Samuel Edgerton.7 case, some of the experts involved tried to “… It is only the invention of a non-expert censor our ideas from scholarly journals in the who has not found anyone who agrees with field. him. This American was mistaken from the beginning … then he had to eat his words, and Suppression and censorship he is spending all his life trying to demonstrate The rhetoric of academia treats academic that the fresco is not by Simone. Poor man, by freedom as a sacred cow. If material that has Guido Riccio controversy 85

been censored becomes known, however, all that we had recently discovered but not yet the more attention is drawn to it. published. The mayor of Siena, Mazzone della In the Guido Riccio controversy, there have Stella, replied that the Organizing Committee been well-documented efforts to censor our had rejected our request. We then wrote to ideas. Our writings have been rejected by several members of the Organizing Commit- some leading art history journals and we have tee, asking them if they had personally made a been excluded as speakers during Guido negative judgement against us in the Organiz- Riccio discussions. In the longer run, attempts ing Committee’s rejection. Some of the to censor our ideas have failed miserably. If members replied that not only had they not our ideas were rejected by a scholarly journal, voted against us, but that they were not even they would appear somewhere else. And when aware that other members of the committee we were excluded from the program of a had rejected us. One member of the commit- scholarly conference, our absence was noted tee, Professor M. Frinta, wrote to us that he by the press and our ideas gained even wider considered our rejection in this case to be an coverage. example of “foul play.” Leading art history journals in England We then enquired precisely why our request (Burlington Magazine), Germany (Zeitschrift had been denied. After all, among works für Kunstgeschichte), Italy (Rivista d’Arte), attributed to Simone Martini, the Guido Riccio and America (Art Bulletin) rejected our was currently the focus of considerable articles on Guido Riccio. The editors did not attention among art historians and we felt our question our evidence let alone try to refute it. new findings were significant and timely. The Instead, they objected to the length (even reason for our rejection was explained by though they recently published articles longer Professor Bellosi, one of the Inner Committee and shorter than ours), format, and style. of the Organizing Committee that disallowed The editor of Burlington Magazine sent our our request to speak, to another member of the paper to a referee for her opinion about Organizing Committee, Professor Miklos whether our article should be published. The Boskovits, who conveyed it to us. According issue of Guido Riccio was so important, she is to Boskovits, Bellosi stated that by then reported to have said, that the new information scholars knew where each side stood on the in our article should be accepted. In spite of issue of Guido Riccio, that the subject had this, it was rejected. The editor of Rivista been worked over in detail recently, and that d’Arte rejected our article on the basis that it there should be a pause for reflection. should appear as a letter to the editor. When Boskovits said he agreed with the reasoning we rewrote the piece in the form of a letter to behind the decision to exclude us from the the editor as he had suggested, he quickly program. rejected it, claiming that his journal does not However, after having kept us off the publish letters to the editor. And so it went. program because Guido Riccio was not to be The refusal to allow new hypotheses and discussed, the Inner Committee included one new findings to be presented and discussed of their own members, Soprintendente Piero during scholarly conferences is another form Torriti, on the program to give a long talk on of academic censorship. A clamorous case the Guido Riccio situation in which he occurred in 1985 at a conference held in Siena attempted to refute our views. Once revealed, to study the works of Simone Martini. The the hypocrisy of this particular instance of conference was jointly organized by the censorship was evident to many in Siena, University of Siena, the local government of including the media and the art historical Siena, and the office of the Soprintendenza of community. Siena. Hearing that scholars were being A more subtle form of de facto suppression requested to participate on the program of the existed — intentionally or unwittingly — by conference, we asked permission to be on the making certain materials far less accessible in speakers’ program to present new evidence at least one library. At the Kunsthistorisches 86 Confronting the experts

Institut in Florence, Italy, where Professor Miles Chappell invited us to publish our views Max Seidel and Irene Heueck, two members in a journal, Studies in Iconography, for which of the Organizing Committee’s Inner he was Acting Editor.15 Committee cited above, hold powerful After we had been excluded from the positions, all publications challenging the Speakers’ Program of the Simone Martini traditional interpretation of the Guido Riccio conference in Siena, and in the wake of the remained unindexed for a long period of time. rejection of our article by Burlington Later, after Moran exposed this situation at a Magazine, the leadership of the Harvard conference of art librarians, the Director of the University Center for Italian Renaissance Kunsthistorisches Institute tried to take Studies in Florence, Italy, known as Villa I retaliatory action by not renewing his library Tatti, offered to give us some assistance. card and making him sign a declaration Professor Craig Smyth, Director at the time, agreeing to keep silent in order to have it and Eve Borsook, a Research Associate there, renewed. helped revise the article that Burlington turned down and they strongly recommended that the Overcoming censorship and suppression journal publish it. Thanks to their sense of fair Since academic censorship is contrary to the play, our article appeared in the April 1986 tenets of academic freedom, the mere issue of Burlington.16 suggestion that ideas have been censored When Rivista d’Arte rejected our article in might put the censors and suppressors on the which we attempted to correct Professor defensive, while widespread exposure of Seidel’s incomplete transcriptions of a academic censorship might put them on the document regarding the 1314 submission of run and might also cause additional potential Giuncarico to Siena, we were invited to submit future would-be censors to refrain from the same material to La Gazzetta di Siena, a censorship. At the same time, within a given local newspaper, which published it in 1983.17 academic discipline there may well be some Eventually we managed to get some of this editors of scholarly journals willing to publish information in a footnote of our Burlington the material that has been censored by other Magazine article when correcting the proofs. journals, either out of a sense of justice and Thus, serious flaws in Professor Seidel’s fair play, out of a desire to end up on the research on Guido Riccio were finally winning side, or out of a true belief in open revealed in the art history literature, but only academic debate. Also, some scholars who partially and in a footnote and only well after have felt the effect of censorship imposed these same defects had been fully exposed in a upon them might well increase their efforts to local newspaper for all Siena citizens to see. get their views known. In Siena, we requested permission to write In fact, some individuals went out of their a short rebuttal article in the scholarly way to offer to publish our views after the publication of the Accademia Senese Degli debate had intensified in 1980-1981. Among Intronati, Bulletino Senese di Storia Patria, the first was Giorgio Sacchi, a Sienese artist and our article was published.18 In this case, who heads Notizie d’Arte. Although this the editorial board included Professors Enzo journal appears only sporadically and is Carli, Mario Ascheri, and Giuliano Catoni, all chronically short of funds, it has given of whom disapproved of the censorious extensive coverage to the Guido Riccio treatment that we had been receiving. In fact, debate, particularly the issues of August 1981 it turned out that Professor Ascheri was on a and September 1985, the latter of which receiving end of censorship himself in the contains an article of ours giving an update on Guido Riccio case. During the public the controversy.14 Sacchi became outraged by discussion period at the Simone Martini the censorship he perceived to be taking place conference in Siena, he pointed out that it was and he has been a thorn in the side of the highly unlikely, if not impossible, for the large official group of experts. In addition, Professor equestrian portrait of Guido Riccio to have Guido Riccio controversy 87

been painted during Simone Martini’s lifetime. not mean, however, that they will not try As a leading expert in the field of the history again. of Medieval law, Ascheri’s arguments were based on the political and legal realities of that Falsifications and stonewalling time. When it became apparent that his ideas It is our opinion that some of the research put supported our hypotheses and cast very strong forth by the experts in most Guido Riccio doubts on the official view, he was interrupted studies contains serious falsifications of by art historian Ferdinando Bologna and told, evidence. Whether these misleading errors in front of the large audience, that he could not were made intentionally or unwittingly is not talk like that at an art history conference. for us to say. It does appear that our attempts Ascheri subsequently published several to describe and expose falsifications that we articles in Sienese newspapers and magazines have detected results in our censorship by developing his ideas, and they were repub- those in authority. An attempt to illustrate all lished in a recent book.19 of the falsifications we have detected so far The censorship imposed by the experts would take up more space than this chapter against anyone who dared oppose their official allows, so we will give one example to views about Guido Riccio at the Simone indicate just how preposterous some of the Martini conference created a negative scholarship of the experts has become and impression among Sienese citizens, the how difficult it has been to make this known Sienese press, and the national media. This to art historians. situation only worsened when, during his talk In the March 1987 issue of Burlington on Guido Riccio at the conference, Torriti Magazine, we pointed out in a letter to the repeatedly castigated the press for their editor that a portion of the lower border of the interference in the Guido Riccio question. The Guido Riccio fresco had been destroyed press reaction to the experts is perhaps best during the 1980-1981 restoration and that this summed up by the title of an article which destroyed portion of the fresco constituted appeared in Siena, “Guido Riccio Drowns in a crucial evidence that could no longer be Sea of Intolerance.”20 Soon after, we were studied by scholars.22 Piero Torriti wrote in invited to present our views at various civic reply that we had made “absurd and defama- and cultural groups in Siena, including Rotary tory accusations” and in his letter he purported Club Siena Est and the cultural clubs Hobbit to “refute” them “once and for all.”23 He and Ignacio Silone. included a color photograph as part of his The Kunsthistorisches Institut’s selective letter and claimed that the portion of the fresco indexing of the Guido Riccio literature was in question still exists in its original form. But presented as a case study for art librarians at anyone who looks at either the fresco or the the 2nd European Conference of the Art photograph that Torriti published can easily Libraries of the International Federation of see for themselves that the portion of the Library Associations in Amsterdam in October border in question has disappeared. As in the 1986. A few years later, the papers given at fable The Emperor’s New Suit of Clothes by the conference were published. As mentioned Hans Christian Anderson, art historians are above, Joseph Falcone later wrote about this asked to “see” something that has been situation, as did John Swan, Head Librarian at removed. Bennington College, and a leader in Intellec- We regarded Torriti’s charges against us as tual Freedom Roundtable activities of the completely false and we attempted to publish a American Library Association.21 rebuttal in which we pointed out the obvious. It seems to us, then, that attempts at censor- We were met with adamant and persistent ship and suppression in the case of Guido stonewalling by Burlington editor Caroline Riccio have turned out to be counterproductive Elam, who wrote no less than five rejection and embarrassing for the experts. This does letters in her efforts to keep our response out of the journal. We countered with a series of 88 Confronting the experts

letters and open letters to a widening group of academics interested in problems of peer How and when will the controversy end? review, scholarly communication, and Debate and discussion about the two frescoes academic ethics. Eventually the Board of have been raging for more than a decade Directors of Burlington Magazine reversed without resolution. Hundreds of writings, Elam’s decision and we were allowed to including newspaper articles, letters to the publish our reply.24 editor, articles in scholarly journals, and In the Burlington case, stonewalling was articles in popular magazines have been not confined to the editor. Among other devoted to the subject. It is very unusual in art officials of the journal, we wrote to Sir history that a question of attribution and dating Brinsley Ford, a Trustee of The Burlington for two works of art should occupy so much Magazine Foundation, enquiring if he thought time and space in the scholarly literature and that scholars who had been charged with in the mass media. having made “absurd and defamatory accusa- We should recall at the same time that the tions” should be allowed to reply to the Guido Riccio is a kind of secular icon, the charges. He quickly responded: “You have delight of museum-going tourists and student made accusations to which Professor Torriti groups who discuss it and read about it every had the right to reply, and that, in my opinion, year. Also, there has been the desire among should be the end of the matter so far as the many Sienese citizens to be kept up to date on Burlington is concerned.” Just what, in his any new developments in the controversy. opinion, did our accusations consist of and Moreover, the Guido Riccio case has against whom were they made, we replied. expanded beyond a narrow art historical issue Despite a follow up letter, we never heard of dating and attribution to enter the arena of from him again. Eventually Elam intervened, academic ethics, peer review, scholarly requesting that we not “badger” Brinsley Ford communication, and the sociology of higher further because he was about 80 years old and education. Therefore, it seems unlikely that the did not have secretarial help. So here we had a controversy will die down in the near future. situation in which a Burlington Trustee was in More likely, it will intensify. If so, two no way prevented by age or lack of secretarial consequences seem likely. On the one hand, help from firing off an immediate reply that the multiple attributions for the fresco discov- leveled false charges against us, but when he ered in 1980 might well lead to confusion was requested to back up his charges, among scholars and even to distrust on the part suddenly age and lack of secretarial help of younger scholars of the traditional prevented him from doing so. methodology of connoisseurship relied upon In his recent monograph on Simone so heavily by the experts. On the other hand, Martini, Professor Andrew Martindale wrote there might well be a widening gap between a that he believes the famous Guido Riccio growing number of students and members of fresco and the fresco discovered in 1980-1981 the public who no longer accept the Simone were both commissioned to Simone Martini in Martini attribution and the experts such as a time span of about eighteen months between Bellosi, Seidel, Polzer, Christiansen, 1331 and 1333.25 At one point, believing that Martindale, Liedtke, Strehlke, and Torriti who the reviewers and supporters of Martindale’s seem further and further committed to views were perpetuating an obvious error in defending it. the scholarly literature, we wrote specific Some indications of these latter develop- questions to some of Martindale’s reviewers ments can already be detected. For example, in and supporters. We received few replies. We a recent monograph on Simone Martini, feel that this sort of stonewalling is very Cecelia Jannella writes about the fact that revealing about what is currently going on various scholars have written different attribu- concerning a crucial aspect of the Guido tions for the fresco discovered in 1980: “This Riccio story. incredible difference of opinions … The Guido Riccio controversy 89

observer may be surprised by this variety of from the Palazzo Pubblico) — interpreting the attributions, especially since the artists Guidoriccio as a sixteenth-century fake, the mentioned are all so different. But for the others maintaining that it is a genuine Martini public in general, informed by the unusual overpainted by subsequent restorers. The amount of space the press devoted to the newly revealed fresco below the portrait, of matter, and also for those who take a profes- two figures in front of a castle, is meanwhile sional interest, the main problem was how to variously attributed to Martini, Duccio and form one’s own opinion. How disorienting … Pietro Lorenzetti.”27 Two standard textbooks, when learned art historians contradict one Gardner’s Art Through the Ages and Hartt’s another so drastically.”26 It seems to us that History of Renaissance Art, have excluded these contradictions among art historians in Guido Riccio as a work by Simone Martini in this instance, and the disorientation that results their most recent editions, with Hartt acknowl- among the public, students, and scholars edging our view that Guido Riccio is a post- themselves, all serve to prolong and draw sixteenth century work. Also, several other attention to the controversy. scholars have written their doubts about the The official guidebooks in Siena, the traditional Simone Martini attribution, in- signage in the Museum of the Palazzo cluding Zeri, Briganti, Jannella, Frugoni, Pubblico of Siena, and the audio-visual guide Redon, Parronchi, and Ascheri. machines in the museum that museum-goers It appears we are headed for a confrontation use, all maintain the traditional attribution for between the experts and their official guides Guido Riccio, with hardly a word that there on the one hand, and a growing number of has been a long and ongoing controversy. students, art historians, Sienese citizens, and Also, some if not many of the official guides museum-goers from outside Siena on the other who are licensed by the local government of hand. Aleana Altmann, a student from near Siena and who have virtual monopolistic Geneva, Switzerland, has recently written a authority to show tourist groups around Siena, term paper on the Guido Riccio controversy. spout the official views about Guido Riccio In the course of her studies, she was at a when describing the paintings to the tourists in gathering at which some Sienese residents the Sala del Consiglio of the Palazzo Pubblico. were present. When she approached a man But many of the guides have shown a keen who by appearance seemed quite cultured and interest in following the controversy closely asked him what he thought about the Guido and somehow the tourists in their groups hear Riccio question, he replied to the effect that something of the other side of the story and the officials in Siena were trying hard to get a pretty good idea of how things stand. maintain and sustain the traditional attribution, Moreover, some guidebooks from outside of but that everyone in Siena knew that the Siena, particularly those published in England, painting is a fake! If this is an accurate report the challenge to the official view. For assessment, a “show down” may occur sooner example, “The Rough Guide” to Tuscany and than we ever imagined, with further embar- Umbria relates the following: “The fresco on rassment for the experts.28 the opposite wall … Guidoriccio da Fogliano But there is another possibility. If discover- … was until recently also credited to Martini ies are made which bring to light other hidden … Art historians, however, have long puzzled fresco masterpieces from the painted castle over the anachronistic castles — much later in cycle in the Palazzo Pubblico, much progress style than the painting’s supposed date of 1328 toward resolution of the Guido Riccio question — and in the mid-1980s further evidence was could easily take place. In our view, the found when, during restoration, an earlier combination of these potential additions to art fresco was revealed underneath. The current history and the artistic patrimony of Siena as state of the debate is confused, with a number well as to the new chapters in art history that of historians — led by the American Gordon will have to be written might well result in a Moran (whom the council for a while banned sort of cultural euphoria that would allow the 90 Confronting the experts

past bitterness of the controversy to fade away. the topography and orography of Montemassi, And in the end everyone would turn out to be and in the studies published by Max Seidel on the winning side, including the experts regarding the fortifications of Arcidosso and themselves. the topography of Giuncarico. As the controversy intensified, the mass media, which was involved locally from the Methods of research and related activities start, began to take an interest on an interna- Research for the Guido Riccio painting began tional level, and in addition to submitting our with the discovery of a document in the Siena findings and rebuttals for publication in art archives (Archivio di State). At that point, the history journals, we also gave such informa- research proceeded in a manner that would be tion during interviews with magazines and considered normal for art history studies. In newspapers, during TV shows and news addition to a stylistic analysis and study of the broadcasts, and also during press conferences painting itself, studies were undertaken to that we held recently. Newsweek (international determine what other scholars have observed edition), International Herald Tribune, The and written about the painting in the past. Economist, The Observer (London), The Such studies were carried out in art history London Times, RAI (Italian national televi- libraries such as I Tatti (of Harvard Univer- sion), and ABC television are among some of sity) and the Kunsthistorisches Institute (of the the more widely known members of the mass German government), both located in Firenze. media which asked to hear our side of the As the studies progressed and as a contro- story. Several leading national Italian versy developed around the painting, the newspapers also interviewed us, including La nature of the research involved expanded. Repubblica, La Stampa, Il Giornale and La Anomalies and anachronisms were detected in Nazione. various aspects of the painting. As Alice Wohl In addition, many scholarly groups and observed, “But the questions are many, and universities asked us to give updates on our they are not resolved … The range of issues, studies. Mallory gave talks, illustrated with involving not merely Trecento painting in slides, to the annual meetings of the College Siena but also heraldry, costume, seals, Art Association of America and of the military architecture and the history of International Foundation for Art Research as warfare, political and social history, topog- well as to the Institute for Advanced Study at raphical illustration, technical expertise, and Princeton University, New York University the interpretations of documents, engages Institute of Fine Arts, Temple University, every aspect of the discipline of art history.”29 Wesleyan College, etc. We gave joint lectures Questions relating to genealogy, heraldry, at Harvard University as well as at their I Tatti political alliances, etc. led to research being study center in Firenze. Moran has been conducted in the archives and libraries in requested to speak to various university groups varies cities of Italy, including Bologna, that made field trips to Siena as part of their Modena, Reggio Emilia, Ferrara, Padova, academic program, including groups from Milano, and further investigations might Toronto University, Zurich University, Bokum include study trips to Verona and Venice. University, Syracuse University, Pennsylvania Other research activity included several on- State University, Georgetown University, site inspections and investigations of various American Institute for Foreign Study, castles historically linked, in one way or Association of Midwest Colleges, Tulane another, to the Guido Riccio controversy, University, Lewis and Clark College, including Arcidosso, Montemassi, Giuncarico, California State University, and Williams and Castel del Piano. These investigations College. Tour groups such as Butterfield and revealed what we consider to be gross errors, Robinson and the Smithsonian Institute have if not serious misrepresentations, in the also shown an interest, as have study groups, published studies of Italo Moretti relating to including Art History Abroad (London). Guido Riccio controversy 91

Since the range of topics extends beyond states that it seems to him that Moran has fourteenth century Sienese painting, as Alice suddenly become insane. Bellosi’s words are, Wohl, cited above, mentions, we have come “… mi sembra che a Gordon Moran abbia dato across much information not directly related to di volta il cervello.” the Guido Riccio painting. Some of this 10. Arrigo Pecchioli, “La Storia Dice: È di information pertains to artists other than Simone,” Il Campo (29 September 1989): 12 Simone Martini. In fact, in the course of our (our translation from the Italian). research for the Guido Riccio case we have 11. Jacob Young with Lin Widmann, come across rather startling information “Italy’s Great Fresco Fracas,” Newsweek relating to studies about the famous sixteenth (International edition) (4 February 1985): 49. century painter Beccafumi and the fifthteenth 12. Marco Carminati, “Un ‘affresco un po’ century Sienese painters Giovanni di Bindino frescone,” Il Sole — 24 Ore (31 December and Stefano di Giovanni (known as 1989): 13 (our translation from the Italian). “Sassetta”). We intend to publish more on 13. Jane Boutwell, “Fiasco al Fresco,” these subjects in the future, in addition to Domino (March 1989): 131-133, 147. whatever new significant findings come to 14. Michael Mallory and Gordon Moran, light relating to Guido Riccio. “Aggiornamenti sulla Controversia su Guido Riccio ad il Ciclo di Castelli Dipinti nel Notes Palazzo Pubblico di Siena,” Notizie d’Arte

1. Joseph Falcone, Is Knowledge Consti- (September 1985). tuted by Power? The Politics of Knowledge in 15. Michael Mallory and Gordon Moran, the Art History Community: A Case Study of “Guido Riccio da Fogliano: A Challenge to the ‘The Guidoriccio Controversy’, Honors Thesis Famous Fresco Long Ascribed to Simone in Anthropology, Hamilton College, Clinton, Martini and the Discovery of a New One in New York (3 May 1991): 3, 7, 8. the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena,” Studies in 2. Serafina Baglioni, “Simone Martini Iconography, Vol. 7-8 (1981): 1-13; Gordon contestato,” La Nazione (4 October 1977): 4. Moran, “Guido Riccio Da Fogliano: A 3. Wanda Lattes, “Il mistero di Simone Controversy Unfolds in the Palazzo Pubblico Martini,” La Nazione (5 October 1977): 3. in Siena,” Studies in Iconography, Vol. 7-8 4. “L’enigmatico Guido Riccio,” La Nazione (1981): 14-20. (5 November 1977): 4. The quoted sentence 16. Michael Mallory and Gordon Moran, was “Il dibattito non é chiuso.” “New Evidence Concerning ‘Guidoriccio,’” 5. Arrigo Pecchioli, “E adesso signor Burlington Magazine (April 1986): 250-256. avvocato,” Il Campo (25 May 1979) (our 17. Michael Mallory and Gordon Moran, translation from the Italian). “Interessante documentazione sul Guido 6. Piero Torriti, The Burlington Magazine Riccio e sul ciclo di castelli dipinti nel civico (July 1989): 485. palazzo,” La Gazzetta di Siena (5 November 7. See Falcone, op. cit.: 49. 1983): 4. 8. Eleonora Mariotti, “Da Modì a 18. Michael Mallory and Gordon Moran, Guidoriccio,” Nuovo Corriere Senese (19 “Precisazioni e aggiornamenti sul ‘caso’ Guido September 1984): 6, 7 (our translation from Riccio,” Bulletino Senese di Storia Patria the Italian). (1985): 334-343. 9. Giorgio Sacchi, letter, Nuovo Corriere 19. Mario Ascheri, Dedicato a Siena, Siena: Senese (21 September 1988) (our translation Edizioni Il Leccio (1989): 61-80, in the chapter from the Italian). In the interview that Sacchi “Arte: Guidoriccio e dintorni.” refers to, published in Nuovo Corriere Senese (3 August 1988): 13, it is reported that Bellosi 92 Confronting the experts

20. Duccio Balestracci, “Il Guidoriccio annega in mezzo all ‘intelleranza,’” Nuovo Corriere Senese (3 April 1985). 21. John Swan, “Ethics Inside and Out: The Case of Guidoriccio,” Library Trends (Fall, 1991): 258-274. Among his research sources, Swan uses Alice Sedgwick Wohl, “In Siena, an Old Masterpiece Challenged, a New One Discovered,” News from RILA (February 1984), an important bibliographic survey that helped make our views known in the midst of efforts to suppress them in various scholarly forums and settings. 22. Michael Mallory and Gordon Moran, letter, Burlington Magazine (March 1987): 187. 23. Piero Torriti, letter, Burlington Maga- zine (July 1989): 485. 24. Michael Mallory and Gordon Moran, letter, Burlington Magazine (January 1991): 37. 25. Andrew Martindale, Simone Martini, Oxford: Phaiden Press (1988). 26. Cecelia Jannella, Simone Martini, Firenze: Scala (1989): 63. 27. Jonathan Buckley, Tim Jepson and Mark Ellingham, Tuscany and Umbria (The Rough Guide), London, Harrap Columbus (1991): 282. 28. Our latest publications on the subject of the Guido Riccio controversy include: “The Guido Riccio Controversy and Resistance to Critical Thinking,” Syracuse Scholar (Spring 1991); and “Did Siena Get Its Carta Before Its Horse?,” The Journal of Art (May 1991): 76. In these articles we describe some of the tactics of the experts that are discussed in this chapter. 29. Wohl, op. cit.: 11. 7 Confronting the nuclear power structure in India Dhirendra Sharma

Published in Brian Martin (editor), Confronting the Experts (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996), pp. 155-174

In 1974, after my return from the United in academic councils, scientific meetings, States, I joined the most prestigious national seminars and through my writings. I organised university in New Delhi, named after India’s street marches against nuclear power when first Prime Minister: Jawaharlal Nehru Uni- only a few knew about radiation hazards. I versity (JNU). I joined as associate professor took up the task of educating members of with a promise to be elevated in due course to parliament, petitioned the heads of govern- full professor, and was also made chairperson ments against nuclear weapons and actively of the recently established Centre for Studies opposed India’s secret nuclear programme. in Science Policy at the School of Social Though I challenged the political power- Sciences, JNU. brokers and their operative influence in scien- Those were the years when India was ruled tific and technological decision making, I did by dynastic Prime Minister Mrs. Indira not join any political party. Nor did I establish Gandhi. She was autocratic and corrupt and a my own political group. All through my years shrewd manipulator of money forces and of struggle in India (and earlier in the US) I industrial and government machinery to her sought no political advantage, and basically I personal advantage. She wanted India’s major remain anti-establishment. Fundamentally, I scientific and academic institutions and followed my academic discipline and tried to governmental agencies to work towards her implement my findings in socio-political dynastic aspirations and, therefore, the new policy decisions. university established in the early 1970s on the Perhaps that was my mistake or perhaps it US academic pattern was named after her was my strength. I have no way to measure my illustrious father, Jawaharlal Nehru. For success. What mistakes, tactical or otherwise, obtaining research grants or for advancement I made are for the reader to judge. I shall here of your institution, you were supposed to attempt to narrate my story of confronting the praise the dynasty. It was, therefore, no combined forces of political corruption and coincidence that almost all top scientists in secret scientific sub-government of atomic India panegyrized the Nehru family. energy in India — including the retribution I Within a few months of my joining JNU, received. Mrs. Gandhi was found guilty of corrupt practices by the Supreme Court. Instead of The politics of nuclear power resigning, she imposed what was called the In 1975-76, I began studying the sociology of Emergency. Thousands of citizens and science purely as an academic undertaking. opposition leaders were imprisoned, democ- Unaware of the seriousness of problems ratic freedoms were removed, press censorship related to science policy in general and atomic was imposed, and free associations, meetings, energy policy in particular, I, as chairperson of discussions, demonstrations and unions were the Centre for Studies in Science Policy at banned. It was in that historic moment of JNU, organised seminar lectures on energy national crisis that I decided to dissent in policy. Among those invited to give a series of academic circles, and offered a critical voice lectures was Professor B. D. Nag Chaudhuri, a against corruption and misuse of science for brilliant nuclear scientist and former director narrow political ends. I challenged the system of Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics. Nag 94 Confronting the experts

Chaudhuri had been the Scientific Adviser to contact with Dr. Atma Ram, once the the Prime Minister and headed the Defence President of Indian National Science Academy Research Organisations. I was to learn later and former Director-General of the Council of that he was one of the six advisers of Mrs. Scientific and Industrial Research. In the Gandhi when she decided to explode a nuclear Janata Government, Atma Ram was the bomb at Pokharan in the Rajasthan desert on Scientific Advisor to Prime Minister Moraraji May 18, 1974. But now he was my Vice- Desai. He invited me to examine the nuclear Chancellor and had shown keen interest in my establishment critically and report my findings research. In fact, he was instrumental in to the new government. Prime Minister Desai appointing me to the chair of Science Policy and Atma Ram both were known to be Studies. Gandhian and anti-nuclear in their philosophi- During his lectures on energy policy, Nag cal inclinations. Chaudhuri was evasive on issues of nuclear During 1978-79, a few months were energy. But he encouraged me to investigate available to me to peep into the secret and suggested that little work had been done in chambers of nuclear sub-government. But India on this critically important subject. soon after, due to Mrs. Gandhi’s machinations, There existed no critical writings on the the Janata government fell, and I received a subject and most academics, politicians and curt note from a Joint Secretary of the the media were not aware of critical assess- government debarring my visits to nuclear ments of nuclear technology in the west. A facilities. I was also asked to seek clearance powerful and insular group controlled the before I made public any information gathered nuclear establishment, comfortably protected during my visits to nuclear establishment. It by the Atomic Energy Act 1962, which was then, when I challenged the order, that I provided them with all-pervasive legal was shown the provisions of the Atomic authority to refuse the public access to any Energy Act 1962 which bar any disclosure information. The Act forbade any disclosure about the nuclear programme. Around that of information which relates to “an existing or time, the US Energy Research and Develop- proposed plant used or proposed to be used for ment Administration downgraded its forecast the purpose of producing, developing or using of 1,200 nuclear plants of 1,000 MWe atomic energy.” The Act further read that “No capacity each to about 400 plants by the year person shall disclose, or obtain or attempt to 2000, and Sweden adopted a new policy of obtain any information” about nuclear energy phasing out its 12 reactors by 2010. activities which was thus restricted under the I prepared a comprehensive critical analysis Act. of nuclear power, including a cost-benefit Because of such repressive provisions and analysis. In a two-part article published by The in view of the strategic importance of the Times of India I challenged, for the first time programme, no one in my country had in India, the official claims to “clean, safe and ventured to look into the affairs of the nuclear cheap source of energy.”2 In the conclusion I energy department. The patriotic and populist stated that the arguments against nuclear political culture backed by the dynastic regime technology were too well-established to be of Mrs. Gandhi had reinforced denial of public rejected as “anti-science.” Little debate was access to critical scientific information. permitted by the government on the question During the internal Emergency imposed by of advantages and disadvantages and undue Mrs. Gandhi from 1975 to 1977, I joined publicity and the glamour attached to the “big underground activities.1 During those dark bang” grossly distorted our national perception days of political repression, underground of nuclear reality. Otherwise, “every million activism brought me closer to some of the earmarked now for the nuclear programme political bigwigs who later became ministers will simply drag us into a quagmire of many in the Janata (People’s) Government during a more millions within a few years. It is brief spell of 1977-79. In 1978, I came in close imperative that we consider the economic, Nuclear power structure in India 95

industrial and ecological implications of our nuclear programme in India in spite of all the nuclear policy seriously and give the due official restrictions. importance to renewable energy sources.” I In December 1980 I visited England and concluded, “There is a great danger of our met Rt. Hon. Tony Benn, who had been the energy policy becoming the captive of the Energy Secretary from 1974 to 1979 and who nuclear technological elite. Our national was known for his critical view on nuclear energy planning and our military and defence energy. During long discussions with Benn I interests would be better served by developing learned about the secret functioning of nuclear solar technology.” establishments and received some important In the Indian context, this was the first ever tips for comparative analysis of nuclear critical evaluation of nuclear power in relation establishments in India and abroad. to solar energy, and these articles became To make a critical study of any government basis for active campaigning for renewable policy is not an easy task, especially when one sources of energy. Until then, the Indian investigates activities relating to strategic government had made no move to spend importance. The state acts as if it has some- anything on research and development in solar thing to hide from its own people, and I energy. confirmed with Benn that most policies are conceived and executed without the Alarm bells start ringing knowledge of the citizens. More often than By early 1981, Mrs. Gandhi was back in not, even legislators do not know the official power and her anti-people and undemocratic secrets. In India the citizens have no legal style of governance was evident in a study rights to information and the situation is still released by the Press Council of India in July worse as there exists no group such as a 1981. It stated that two of the wings of the “Union of Concerned Scientists” or “Society government, namely the legislature and the for Social Responsibility in Science.” judiciary, functioned in the open but “the I soon realised my personal responsibility: I executive does its business in its secret was equipped to undertake a critical study of chambers to which the people have hardly any nuclear power and was in possession of access.” In the name of “national security” and information about the working of the Indian “public interest” any information could be nuclear programme. In an atmosphere of the denied to the people. The condition relating to official secrecy, even if my investigations the nuclear energy department was even worse were inconclusive, I felt it my patriotic duty to due to its sensitive nature. offer a critical examination of the nuclear In addition, I noticed secret and close establishment for public scrutiny. I believed linkages between big industrial establishments that so long as the nuclear policy decisions of and the ruling political elite, particularly the the government were not subjected to prime minister’s family members and the independent scrutiny, proper understanding of financial business interests in the country. In its objectives would not be realised, and my investigation I was venturing into a responsibility and accountability would not be sensitive area. But being a naive academician, properly attributed. In the total absence of I believed that by exposing the secret deals information and critical evaluation, no and unscientific nature of nuclear enterprises I recommendations for reforms could be would be able to reform the system. Instead, as offered. I systematically advanced in my investigative In early 1981, while finalising my book for exposures of nuclear industrial-cum-political publication, I sought a meeting with India’s operations, I invited the attention of the secret top nuclear scientist, the father of India’s A- agencies of the state. Besides articles and bomb, Dr. Raja Ramanna. On an earlier interviews appearing in the newspapers, I was occasion, he had received me inside his preparing the first book-length study of the official headquarters at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre and accorded due courtesies, 96 Confronting the experts

as I was then sent there by Prime Minister initial inputs in its reactors and about 2,000 Desai. In reply to my request for another tonnes of heavy water annually to run 44 meeting, Ramanna replied: CANDU reactors each of 230 MW capacity, plus about 50,000 trained personnel to run Dear Prof. Dhirendra Sharma, these atomic power stations. All this would Please refer to your letter dated March cost the enormous sum of about 25,000 16, 1981. As I have seen several of your million rupees at the 1983 rate. In early 1980s, articles, especially the one that appeared I declared that the country did not have the in the Manchester Guardian some time industrial or financial resources to produce ago, it is clear that we have very diver- 10,000 MW power even by the year 2000. gent views on the development of atomic By 1993, India’s installed nuclear power energy in this country. I also feel that capacity was just about 1500 MW, and the these your articles have damaged the country is nowhere near the nuclear establish- country’s reputation abroad. In view of ment’s proclaimed targets of the 1980s. In this, I feel that there is no point in having fact, the official estimates now have been a discussion on this matter. lowered to about 5000 MW by the year 2000. With regards, But it was not this criticism which disturbed Yours sincerely, the authorities. It was, in fact, my exposures of (R. Ramanna) corruption, mismanagement and the issues Date: 23 March 1981. relating to secret deals and financial arrange- Ramanna was also then the Scientific Adviser ments that invited the wrath of the authorities. to the Minister of Defence and later became The government argued that nuclear weap- the Chairman of Atomic Energy Commission. ons were bad, but that nuclear power can be I was to learn later that Ramanna, the used beneficially. But I saw the reality: atoms Edward Teller of India, was by nature intoler- for peace and atoms for war were Siamese ant of criticism and more than once had twins which cannot be separated. If supply of suggested to the Prime Minister to “stop electricity was the aim, I questioned the Sharma,” if necessary, by arresting me under government, why not give just 10 percent of the secrecy provisions of the Atomic Energy funds to research and development for Act. The campaign or conspiracy to shut me renewable energy? And as I carried the up had begun under the instigation of campaign against the whole nuclear strategy, Ramanna in 1981. the nervousness of the establishment became But my investigative research continued. I more and more apparent. was getting my chapters typed in pieces and in India’s official spokesperson for its three copies: one copy I kept in my office at Defence Policy (sic) and then director of the university, another one I hid in my Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, residence, and the third one posted to my son Dr. K. Subrahmanyam, launched a campaign in England for safe keeping. But I was still for India to obtain nuclear weapons to deter naive and did not visualise how far my threats to the country’s security.3 adversaries could go … Once again I alone challenged this call for Until then, I maintained my academic the bomb which was rooted in jingoism and posture and my criticism was directed against lacked any science policy and/or defence nuclear power policy. I was asking critical policy perspectives. I claimed that simply questions. If the government claimed 10,000 shouting that the enemy is holding the A- MW of nuclear electricity would be produced bomb against us is not a serious “policy” by 1990, the nation must be told its cost and statement. In formulating a national defence whether the country had the industrial and policy, one must examine national and financial resources to support such a international implications and industrial and programme. I estimated that India would financial ramifications. Making the bomb is a require 32,000 tonnes of heavy water for technological mission and does not constitute Nuclear power structure in India 97

a national defence policy goal which should be lectures and organised marches. But my safety, security and stability with social and problem was not so much to explain radiation industrial advancement of the country. I hazards to educated citizens who mostly retorted that “to make a few bangs is easier understood English. The vast majority of than to run industrial and economic institu- Indians live in villages and 60-70 percent of tions efficiently. It is even more difficult to them are illiterate. My co-activists were provide the millions with the daily basic university students, mostly urban, and all of us needs. But the bomb hysteria would divert our had acquired a critical approach to nuclear attention from the fundamental issues of power technology by reading material in building up a just and equitable society.” English. The problem was how to explain But the editor of the Times refused to radiation safety in local idioms to the villagers. publish my article or even a rebuttal letter. I There were also problems of transport now recognised the urgency to combat this services, and lack of communication where no bomb-cry which was apparently raised by the telephone facilities existed. We had made a pro-bomb lobby with the approval of Mrs. propaganda video against nukes but due to Gandhi. In order to boost her popularity she lack of electricity any modern gadgetry had imitated Mrs. Thatcher and encouraged little usefulness in rural India. Activists from jingoism. I saw the necessity to make an cities had also to experience the privation of organized counter campaign to stop the bomb washing facilities where there was no running hysteria. water nor any public toilets. In the 1960s I had In order to alert citizens against the nuclear participated in anti-Vietnam War demonstra- bomb and nuclear power, I organized the tions at Lincoln Memorial in Washington, Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy D.C. It was not the same to organise a (COSNUP) in June 1981. This was the first demonstration in India’s villages. But I found anti-nuclear organisation in India. Under the doing it just as rewarding an experience. For banner of COSNUP I prepared a statement the first time, a highly qualified and signed by 24 prominent citizens including the westernised science policy critic was late Madam Vijayalakshmi Pandit, former witnessing the Indian village realities. It was Secretary-General of the United Nations and an enriching experience which strengthened the sister of Jawaharlal Nehru, Ms. Nayantara my resolve that most high-tech systems, Sehagal, a noted novelist and the first cousin particularly nuclear power, were not of Mrs. Gandhi, and a few eminent jurists, appropriate for India and other Third World renowned writers and journalists. In the nations, where 70 to 80 percent of the statement released by COSNUP on June 28, population live in rural areas and lack even 1981, we expressed “deep concern over the re- elementary modern amenities. Without proper emergence of nuclear bomb lobby in India,” roads and communication systems, how would and urged the government not to take a rash you evacuate a few million citizens in the decision in favour of the nuclear bomb event of a nuclear accident? because diplomatic channels are open to the Moreover, to have an attentive village country. We advised the government to audience was another problem. They were perceive the problem of security from the accustomed to listen to bargaining over wheat wider South Asian perspective. After a lapse and sugarcane, or discussion about irrigation of three months, the editor of The Times of of their fields or even the electioneering of India relented and published my rebuttal to K. political parties. But no one had come to them Subrahmanayan’s pro-bomb article as a to discuss scientific arguments or to give lengthy letter.4 technological information about safety As I emerged as India’s most vocal anti- problems in a CANDU reactor. I found it nuclear campaigner, COSNUP became a difficult to explain scientific terms in the local movement. I toured various cities and towns, village dialects. Radiation is invisible and wrote anti-nuclear articles, gave seminar odourless, so how could I explain that it 98 Confronting the experts

remains hazardous for 25,000 years? The Defence, Government of India. A review villagers could not believe that I was telling committee was appointed to “formulate a the truth. How come no one else, no political working programme” for the Centre for leader, no prime minister or political party, Studies in Science Policy, JNU. Ramanna told us about this danger of nuclear power? himself headed the committee. I could foretell Why is it only Professor Sharma? “Because I the outcome. After a few casual meetings with am a professor,” I persisted. a few faculty members of JNU, on February 7, But the problem was different with the 1981, Ramanna gave his verdict that the educated scientific community: most of them Science Policy Centre should be closed down. knew what radiation was and what the He wrote: problems are in nuclear power. They consider it prudent not to oppose the government policy A Nine Men committee was constituted as the state commands enormous powers of by the Executive Council of the patronage and punishment. In India, almost 95 Jawaharlal Nehru University to advise percent of scientific institutions and research the Vice-Chancellor on the need for a grants come from the government. Hence Centre for Studies on Science Policy and there existed no scientific autonomy, particu- its activities. After considerable larly in higher research and educational discussions, the Committee made the institutions. Appointments to all top posts, following recommendations: including university heads and heads of 1. That as a field of research there research and development organisations, were definitely exists subject which can be made on approval of the Prime Minister. termed “Science Policy.” In this field, When I approached the scientists at the Tata studies could be undertaken on a number Institute of Fundamental Research, the of topics, e.g., law of Seas, Science foremost institution in India, I was rebuffed: Education, Energy Option etc. It may “no one here is qualified to comment on the also include foundational areas like question of safety in nuclear reactors.” Philosophy of Science, Sociology of Internationally renowned astrophysicist Dr. Science, History of Science and Jayant Narlikar told me that he was seeking a Technology and Psychology of Science. grant of 10 million rupees to establish his For this purpose, it does not seem quite Institute of Astrophysics and so could not be necessary that Centre for Studies in bothered with nuclear policy controversies Science Policy should exist, but the especially since it was likely to offend the research worker should be able to move Prime Minister. freely, in various related departments My anti-nuclear campaign was picking up where they can discuss the issues with momentum but so also were efforts to “stop experts in the concerned overlapping fields of knowledge. Sharma.” The main character in my confron- tation with nuclear power in India was the lion Ramanna disregarded my request for a of the Indian Atomic Energy establishment, meeting with the committee and refused to Dr. Raja Ramanna, the father of India’s look at my course material and research Pokharan explosion and the chairman of the publications. But his official report stated that Atomic Energy Commission, 1982-87. For I was abroad on the day called for discussion, years he headed secret research as Director of and recommended that I should be transferred the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre to “any other center willing to accept him” or (Bombay). Although he had asked more than sent out of the university, if necessary! once for my arrest under the secrecy provi- I strongly opposed the Ramanna Report in sions of the Atomic Energy Act 1962, a more the Academic Council and in the Boards of efficient and benign procedure was adopted. Advanced Studies and warned my colleagues At that time, in 1981, Raja Ramanna was that if they accepted the report, it would set a the Scientific Adviser to the Minister of precedent, and the government in future could Nuclear power structure in India 99

close down any other centre whose faculty in JNU was avowedly anti-Prime Minister and might express critical opinion on government pro-Opposition Party. Srivastava banned policies. JNU Academic Council formally student political activities and ruthlessly thanked Raja Ramanna for painstaking efforts crushed all student agitation on campus. but the report was shelved. Yet, for all practi- Hundreds of students were mercilessly beaten cal purposes the Science Policy Centre was and arrested and a host of them were expelled placed in deep freeze. The Centre was not from the campus, leaving their academic permitted to admit new students or supervise careers in ruins. The message was clear that any doctoral candidate. the new Vice-Chancellor would act as the Around this time, the late Dr. Y. henchman of the Prime Minister. Nayudamma became JNU Vice-Chancellor. He was himself concerned about science The final blow to my academic career policy issues and was personally known to me. The 1982-83 period was most productive for In fact, he had written the foreword to my me from many aspects: the anti-nuclear volume Science and Social Imperatives campaign was at its height and my articles (1976). Those were the days of the Emer- were appearing in national newspapers. My gency, and he was then Director-General of most controversial book, India’s Nuclear the Council of Scientific and Industrial Estate, was released in May 1983.5 Research. Now, being my vice-chancellor, he Dr. Raja Ramanna’s appointment as invited me to restructure the Centre and in Chairman of Atomic Energy Commission was view of my senior colleague retiring within a announced on August 6, 1983. In a scathing few months, suggested that I should plan for criticism of Ramanna’s policy, I wrote: “since taking over responsibilities of the Science he has been affiliated with, and is known for Policy Centre again. Nayudamma was a his keen interest in, advanced nuclear and scientist of integrity and held independent defence research, the new chairman is likely to views. He was one who often disagreed with push the country towards an open nuclear the Prime Minister. Mrs. Gandhi respected weapons policy. If he does this he will receive him for his courage and appointed him Vice- support from populist politicians and the Chancellor for a term of five years. But as he powerful military-industrial complex in the worked to clean up the JNU administration, in country.”6 I concluded by demanding more less than two years he was forced to resign. open and democratic decision making The man who succeeded Nayudamma, Dr. P. processes in the Department of Atomic N. Srivastava, though a scientist of some Energy. I also pointed out the significance of repute, was a climber at best. the announcement of Dr Ramanna’s appoint- Srivastava, while a professor of biology at ment occurring on Hiroshima Day. the university, had written a research paper In November, I criticised the Atomic supportive of the official line that low-level Energy Department for constructing an atomic ionizing radiation is not hazardous (and indeed power station in a high seismic zone, 100 in low doses is good for health) and that miles from New Delhi at Narora, situated only nuclear energy is safe. On the question of the 56 miles from the active Moradabad fault of appropriateness of nuclear power, I confronted the 1956 earthquake. Based on my study of him in a national debate before a group of official secret reports, I claimed that the scientists and anti-nuclear activists in the Narora site was never cleared by the Site “science city” of India, Bangalore. Selection Committee; it was a political As the new Vice-Chancellor, Srivastava ran decision of Mrs. Gandhi who offered the a totally secretive and repressive regime in the project to upset the popular base of her university. He was apparently in league with powerful political opponent Chaudhuri Charan Mrs. Gandhi’s power brokers as was evident Singh.7 from his later posting to a ministerial post in At the end of November that year, Mrs. the Planning Commission. The Students Union Gandhi hosted the Commonwealth Heads of 100 Confronting the experts

Government Meeting (CHOGM) in New latest anti-nuclear salvo which I thought would Delhi. I took the occasion for launching embarrass the Conservative Government of another campaign: “let all the [British] Mrs. Thatcher more than Mrs. Gandhi. The Commonwealth countries collectively declare Vice-Chancellor of JNU, Srivastava, saw the themselves nuclear-free territories.” Under the opportunity to please the Prime Minister. banner of COSNUP, I organised a petition Immediately after the CHOGM meeting, when signed by some 200 eminent citizens including the Executive Council of the University met members of parliament, professors, lawyers, on December 6, 1983, he got a resolution architects, editors and journalists, which passed “to agree to transfer Dr. Sharma from appealed to the Commonwealth leaders to the Centre for the Study of Science Policy, provide “moral courage and leadership” to the School of Social Sciences to the School of world by taking the first step towards Languages with immediate effect.” Who could collective nuclear disarmament. My petition oppose such a brilliant move to make the urged CHOGM to assert that no Common- Prime Minister happy? wealth state would enter into agreement with In my reply to the Vice-Chancellor I any other government for stationing nuclear pointed out that only a few days earlier, when weapons or for their possession or production. I had called on him to discuss some work of The COSNUP appeal decried global military the Science Policy Centre, he had given me no expenditure which had then reached the indication about any possibility of my transfer. alarming level of $800 billion a year. The And only a few weeks before that, I was petition warned that radiation does not invited to plan the future development of the discriminate between friends and foes, and Centre and was assured that I would be urged, “There is no necessity to add a single promoted to full professor and take up the nuclear weapon to the stockpile and safety and chair of the Centre. I asserted that if the security of the world cannot be brought closer decision was due to “any academic compul- by nuclear weapons. Therefore, we call upon sion, the matter could have been discussed CHOGM to affirm a Commonwealth Nuclear with me, as I alone to be affected by the Weapons Policy, which collectively renounces decision. I am the seniormost faculty in the the testing, production and use of nuclear Centre and the order of transfer at this stage is weapons by the Commonwealth countries, evidently to stop my chances of promotion” in bans installation and stationing of nuclear the field of science policy. weapons from all Commonwealth territories I pointed out that there is no provision in and assures never to use or support the threat the Rules of the University which allows an of deployment of nuclear weapons to resolve arbitrary transfer of a faculty member, after international conflicts.” having confirmed him/her in a centre for more Indian newspapers welcomed such an than ten years. One sympathetic official of the appeal and Indian Express, the most popular university passed on to me photocopy of the national daily, editorially supported Rules relating to transfer within the university COSNUP’s appeal to CHOGM.8 I took the which read “The transfer of faculty members appeal to the Secretariat of CHOGM so that it from one Centre to another may be made with could be included in the agenda. I sent my the written concurrence of both the Centres as request to a few embassies but I was told that well as of the faculty member concerned.”9 only a head of the government can insert an But all my appeals and petitions to the Vice- item in the agenda. Except for the Australian Chancellor, Registrar, the Minister of Minister for Disarmament, no one was willing Education and the JNU Teachers Association to discuss my innovative approach to nuclear remained unacknowledged.10 disarmament. The two most powerful individuals in the Evidence of an anti-Sharma conspiracy Government of India, Mrs. Gandhi and Dr. In December 1983 I was transferred and the Ramanna, were reported to be upset on my Centre was closed. But the government in a Nuclear power structure in India 101

reply to the Parliament promised that the not tape him nor could I take notes. If only I Centre would be reopened within a year. A had had a premonition of what I was going to decade later the Centre still remains closed. receive. The Nehru said something like this: For more than a decade now, science policy, as an academic discipline in India, has been We Nehrus have ruled this land for 100 dead. During my tenure, I had developed years, since the first Nehru [Motilal, the M.Phil. and Ph.D. programmes and there were father of Jawaharlal Nehru] became eight research fellowships for Ph.D. president of Indian National Congress in candidates. Perhaps I was incompetent to run a 1920s. We are the masters here whether Science Policy Centre. But what I learned you like it or not. Go to any city or town about the official approach to my confronta- and you will see a park, road, school or tionist attacks on powerful individuals was hospital named after Nehru family. Turn alarming. any stone and you’ll see Nehru engraved After my transfer from the Centre, rumour in every mountain … Of course, you are was spread that I was a foreign agent, specifi- a great scholar and you have right to cally “a CIA agent.” Because of this character hold your views. That is your democratic assassination and whispering campaign, within right. But who cares for your constitu- and without the university, for all practical tional rights in this country? It is we purposes I became persona non grata. In the Nehrus who grant you that right. But if university no faculty would speak to me and we say No, NO, then that goes in this activist students stayed clear of me. There was country. If you don’t like it, you are free nothing I could do effectively in isolation. to go. Your family lives abroad, in During these days, once I walked into a Britain and in America. Why don’t you government scientific department to visit an too go away? I advise you to leave India, old friend of my family. He did not speak to as you will do better there. In this me, and after some time when I questioned his country we shall not allow you to teach behaviour, he blurted out that “we have been any science policy. If necessary we told that you were a CIA agent.” I left would close down the whole university … if necessary. hurriedly in disgust. I personally knew a Nehru, a first cousin of The Nehru was fuming. After a few minutes’ Mrs. Gandhi, Mr. B. K. Nehru, Director of pause he became a bit composed, and slowly Nehru Memorial Funds and executive head of tried to explain the background of his many other foundations relating to the frustration. dynasty. (He is different from his brother of the same initials. The other B. K. Nehru, more You see, it is not a simple academic intelligent and forthright, was India’s High freedom issue here, as it is in America or Commissioner in the UK and was removed in the UK. They [in the Ministry of from Governorship of Jammu and Kashmir Education and in the Department of state for his critical stance vis-a-vis Mrs. Security] have a huge file on you and of Gandhi.) your writings and reports of your Sometime in summer 1984, by chance I met speeches. You have one refrain that Mrs. the Nehru in a restaurant, and asked his help to Gandhi is anti-people and that the present my case to the Minister of Education, nuclear programme is designed for evil who was his and Mrs. Gandhi’s aunt. He said purposes. At best one twists the tail of a “there should be no problem” to arrange it. lion. But you have placed your head in After a few days he asked me to see him in his his mouth and the lion had crushed your office at Teen Murti House. His face was head, smashed you … You have been burning red and, without the usual pleasant- challenging the power and the power has ries, he showered me with condemnation. I responded. You can do nothing to us … cannot quote him here verbatim because I did 102 Confronting the experts

As I left the Teen Murti House — former year 1969-70. No stranger to contro- official residence of the late Prime Minister versy, Dr. Sharma has always conducted Jawaharlal Nehru — I noted that whole acres himself with great honour and integrity, of the palatial estate of the Indian government both in his scholarly work and his have been taken over free for a personal Nehru activities in connection with problems of Memorial Foundation. While thanking him for freedom and justice. such a frank talk about the system of our It is hardly necessary to stress that the democratic India, while leaving Teen Murti I very existence of a free university heard myself saying “I’ll not be ruled by the depends on vigilant defence of the right dynasty and leave India. I shall confront you of scholars to draw the conclusions to with all my scientific knowledge and political which their research leads them without wisdom.” fear of punishment and discriminatory Within the university circles I felt dejected, action by higher authorities. I trust that not because my Centre was closed and I was this decision [of his transfer] will be transferred but because I was labeled a CIA revoked and that Dr. Sharma will be Agent. In the 1960s, I taught at Michigan State afforded the opportunity to continue his University in East Lansing, and then I actively important work unhampered. opposed Vietnam War and joined in civil rights marches. In the US I was accused of Chomsky’s letter was dated March 26, 1984. being a red — a Maoist. Consequently, the Mr. Girilal Jain was then the editor of The Fulbright-Heys Research Fellowship awarded Times. He was known for his pro-Mrs. Gandhi to me in 1969-70 was withdrawn by the US policy. In a letter to me dated May 2, 1984, Department of Health and Education under the Mr. Girilal Jain curtly stated that he was intervention by newly elected President “unable to publish Prof. Chomsky’s letter.” Richard Nixon.11 Now, in India, in my home Meanwhile, Tony Benn and concerned country, I was supposed to be a CIA agent! scholars, including editors Les Levidow and I decided to mobilise international support, Robert Young of the London-based journal Science as Culture, sent protest letters to the particularly since in India no scientist or intellectual came forward to defend my editor. Eventually, on May 18, 1984, the editor reluctantly published the protests in the letters academic freedom. I had known Noam column of The Times of India. Chomsky from my US activist days. I had also been in touch with Tony Benn in the UK. I How could these radical thinkers of the west be defending a CIA agent? Noam also wrote to Professor Paul Sweezy, who had suffered under the McCarthyist repression in Chomsky’s and Tony Benn’s letters had a the US for his liberal economic theories. All of sobering effect upon self-styled radical intellectuals of India. The government intelli- them and many others sent their protests to the university and Chomsky in a lengthy letter to gence services must have goofed up some- the editor of The Times of India wrote: where. But interestingly no JNU faculty member, no scientist, no political party or I have known Dr. Sharma for almost 20 prominent leader in India came forward to years. He was a courageous and effective defend my academic rights. The JNU Teachers participant in the American anti-war Association lodged no protest at the violation movement, and has since done important of university rules of the transfer of a faculty and highly-valued academic work in the member from one centre to another which area of science policy while continuing required the written consent of the faculty with his engagement in defence of civil member concerned. and human rights in India and elsewhere There was, however, one exception: the in the world. His active opposition to the former Foreign Minister in the Janata Indo-China war apparently cost him U.S. Government (1977-79), a senior parliamen- government research fellowship in the tarian, and the leader of the Opposition in Lok Nuclear power structure in India 103

Sabha (Lower House), Hon. Atal Behari blasphemy to criticise those in power and Vajpayee, addressed a protest communication where it is not customary to be critical of the to the Chancellor, JNU, Dr. D. S. Kothari — government science policy, I have some another known yes-man to Mrs. Gandhi. Mr. successes to record. Following the publication Vajpayee on October 8, 1984, referring to the of my book India’s Nuclear Estate in 1983, in rule of transfer, asked the pertinent question: which I criticised and made constructive suggestions for reforms, the following What were the reasons that led to the initiatives were taken by the Government of transfer of a teacher from the Centre, in India: which he was appointed and confirmed, 1. In 1984, a small unit under the name about a decade after his appointment? “Atomic Energy Regulatory Board,” with a It appears from the circumstances of few rooms and furniture inside the Department the case as reported in the Press that Dr. of Atomic Energy, was created. It is still only Sharma has been transferred because of a Board, under the Atomic Energy Commis- his views — his critical examination of sion. And though it is not an independent India’s nuclear programme. If so, I am commission, over the last few years it has sure you will agree that this is a serious better office facilities and about 50 personnel. matter. 2. In 1984-85, the Government of India He referred to Noam Chomsky’s letter about established an independent Department of academic freedom and asserted that “dissent Non-Conventional Sources of Energy to and debate, on public policies in particular, is encourage research and development in an essential element of the democratic way of renewable resources of energy. Until then, life. As a member of the Lok Sabha from nuclear power was considered to be the sole Delhi, and as a member of the Court of the contender for energy future and zero funds JNU, I feel particularly concerned about the were made available for renewable energy case.” He urged reconsideration of my sources. transfer. 3. In 1984, following the criticism I made But for all practical purposes JNU’s in my book that India’s Comptroller and Science Policy Centre was closed and there Auditor-General did not look into the accounts was no institution of higher learning and of Atomic Energy Department, a special cell research in the country which could offer me was formed by the Auditor-General of India to teaching and research facilities in science investigate and do some accounting of atomic policy. But my anti-nuclear campaign contin- energy, space and defence research and ued with better media coverage in the country development departments. This has now and I enjoyed greater international recognition. become a regular feature and, even though not completely satisfying, a beginning has been Postscript made to look into the financial affairs of the On June 6, 1992, when I retired from the atomic energy and other secret science and university unceremoniously, it took me six technology departments of strategic impor- months to get all my dues from the university tance which used to be free of mandatory and I do not remember how many times and accounting of government departments by the how many administrators I had to visit Comptroller and Auditor-General of India. personally in order to complete unnecessary At the end of my story of confrontation formalities. But this was not harassment. with the state power, I have the satisfaction Within six months of my retirement, the that I did not bend or break throughout the Science Policy Centre at JNU was reopened period of my struggle. During all those critical with new faculty appointments. years three things sustained me. But in my efforts to build up a critical First was repeated confirmation that I was perspective towards scientific and technologi- fighting for the right cause. Access to scien- cal policies in a country where it was tific literature, and my constant exchanges 104 Confronting the experts

with science policy critics abroad, proved (1983). See also Dhirendra Sharma (ed.), The great help. My campaigning against the Indian Atom: Power and Proliferation: A dynastic government and for the anti-nuclear Documentary History of Nuclear Policies, movement, as I perceived them, was part of Development and the Critics: 1958-86, New global scientific-democratic movements of the Delhi: Central News Agency (distributor) twentieth century in which radical forces of (1986); Dhirendra Sharma, “India’s Lopsided scientific values offered revalidation of socio- Science,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists political systems. (May 1991): 32-36. Second: temperamentally, I perform best 6. Dhirendra Sharma, “Dawn of a New when in confrontation with powerful authori- Atomic Era?” The Hindustan Times (1 ties. And in this I was very much inspired by September 1983). Bertrand Russell who laughed at the intellec- 7. Dhirendra Sharma, “Narora: Threat To tual weaknesses of rulers and heads of Ganga,” The Hindustan Times (12 November government departments. Basically I was 1983). opposed to authoritarianism and believed that 8. Indian Express (23 November 1983). in the final analysis “Truth must win.” 9. Resolution No. 4. 1/EC/17. 9 (1979). Third, I was sustained by my life-partner 10. For an account of my transfer see Brian Nirmala, my wife, who, at every critical Martin, “Nuclear suppression,” Science and juncture, stood by me. She nursed my Public Policy, vol. 13 (December 1986): 312- determination not to give in or compromise 320. with unjust pressures or to succumb to the 11. For details see The State Journal, East temptations of grants, position or promotions. Lansing, Michigan (3, 5, 6 and 10 June 1969) During the Emergency, she provided shelter to and the autobiography of the then president of my underground political activists who were Michigan State University, Walter Adams, hounded by the secret police of Mrs. Gandhi. The Test, New York: Macmillan (1971), pp. She was always there when I needed assurance 152-158, “The outside agitators.” that the path of confrontation I had chosen was for a just cause. If I had my time again, I would confront the challenges with even greater vigour.

Notes

1. See Dhirendra Sharma (ed.), The Janata (People’s) Struggle: The Finest Hour of the Indian People, New Delhi: PSA Publication [M-120 Greater Kailash-I, New Delhi 110048, India] (1977), which includes underground documents, resistance literature, and corre- spondence relating to advent of the Janata (People’s) Party, which challenged Mrs. Gandhi’s dynastic government. 2. Dhirendra Sharma, “Time to Move away from Nuclear Power,” The Times of India (21 and 22 August 1980). 3. K. Subrahmanyam, “A-Bomb the Only Answer,” The Times of India (26 April 1981). 4. Dhirendra Sharma, “No Bomb, Please,” The Times of India (5 July 1981). 5. Dhirendra Sharma, India’s Nuclear Estate, New Delhi: Lancer International 8 Conclusion: learning from struggle Brian Martin

Published in Brian Martin (editor), Confronting the Experts (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996), pp. 175-183

Each of the six preceding chapters has become too noisy, too credible or too influen- described a challenge to a powerful establish- tial, then they are liable to be suppressed in a ment. Since I invited most of the contributors more overt and heavy-handed fashion, for independently of each other, they do not example by personal attacks on the dissident. necessarily agree with the positions or This is a pattern found over and over again methods adopted by the others. What they in challenges to expert establishments. For have in common is the experience of chal- example, when Hillman simply published his lenging the experts. critiques of standard methods in biology in Drawing on these case studies, this final scientific journals — and often that was hard chapter has three main points. The first is that enough to achieve — other scientists could it is incredibly difficult to dent an establish- simply decline to take notice. But when he ment position. A second important message, in issued challenges in prestigious scientific direct contrast, is that even a few critics can meetings or obtained publicity in the media, make an enormous difference. The third then “quiet” suppression was not enough. He message is that most people are excessively was met by deceitful “refutations” of his acquiescent, and that more should be done to views, bureaucratic slights and “mistakes” that increase the possibilities of debate. hindered presentation of his views at scientific meetings, and a major threat to his laboratory The power of establishments and his academic career. His experiences are Establishment experts are in a powerful replicated repeatedly in other challenges to position. Typically, they have superior establishments, though with innumerable numbers, prestigious positions, high credibility variations depending on the situation and with the media and the public, control over issue. professional and academic journals, and links If being ignored or being suppressed were with powerful groups. Faced by a challenge, the major problems in confronting establish- their usual initial response is simply to ignore ment experts, this would not be such a difficult it. Harold Hillman, for example, published business. There is something more involved: many papers critical of biological orthodoxy, vested interests behind the establishment but for many years it appeared that no one position. Indeed, vested interests are crucial in took any notice. Only an establishment can get making a position into one called an “estab- away with this. The standard view is so lishment.”1 completely taken for granted that critics are For example, Edward Herman confronted assumed to be misguided. not just a few establishment experts on terror- When a critique is “ignored,” often there is ism but also an entire political system that suppression involved, such as the prevention benefits from the orthodox position on of publication in key journals or a refusal to terrorism. This includes the US government review writings by critics in suitably promi- agencies and businesses — including spy nent fashion. In other words, to say that the agencies, diplomatic corps and multinational critique can be “ignored” often means that corporations — that want to keep on good suppression is working in a quiet, behind-the- relations with murderous regimes, and so scenes fashion. If, in spite of this, critics 106 Confronting the experts

prefer that the label “terrorist” be reserved for threats to peace and freedom. In the case of something else. This establishment provides sewage, the establishment engineers believe the sponsorship for intellectuals who defend that their approach is the only effective way to the orthodox view. All in all, there is proceed. And so on through every case study. enormous material benefit for supporting the An establishment based on cynicism would standard view on terrorism versus little not last long. Most people seek to mesh their reward, and possibly a lot of lose, by beliefs with their actions. An establishment questioning it. position heavily based on conscious deception The link between experts and vested or consciously unfair behaviour would quickly interests is even more obvious in the case of lead to defections. Personally, even though I the nuclear establishment in India. Dhirendra may consider the behavior of some experts to Sharma, by challenging nuclear policy openly, be underhand or reprehensible, nevertheless I came up not just against nuclear experts and have always considered them to be sincere — bureaucrats but also against a close-knit though that sincerity may be based in a world political and economic elite with a stake in view quite contrary to mine. nuclear developments. Indeed, the nuclear No doubt some establishment experts scientists and engineers would not have been a consciously lie in order to defend orthodoxy, formidable force without their connections but this should be put in context. The power of with some of India’s most powerful figures. rationalization is enormous, and so it can be Because the power of establishments is so expected that most experts (like other people) great, many of the most effective critics come are likely to adapt their beliefs to a world view from the outside, where they are less tied to that serves their self-interest. Furthermore, for the main professional bodies or patronage some, lying occasionally may be a means to a system. For example, Sharon Beder was not a greater end, namely defending a position they Water Board engineer, Mark Diesendorf was know is best. not a dentist or doctor, Edward Herman was It is the combination of vested interests and not sponsored by the US government, Michael commitment to a world view that makes the Mallory and Gordon Moran were not from establishment position so hard to dent. The Siena or even Italy, and Dhirendra Sharma material factors (the vested interests) provide was not a nuclear scientist. Ironically, this the basis for power and the mental factors (the independence of vested interests is often world view) provide the willingness to use the criticized as a lack of proper credentials or power. Critics often begin by thinking that if expertise. When an expert establishment holds they can find and demonstrate holes in the sway, being coopted by the official patronage arguments used to defend orthodoxy, then its system actually adds to an expert’s credibility. position will collapse. But picking holes in But it would be too crass to attribute the arguments neither changes the vested interests strength of the establishment simply to money, nor, in most cases, undercuts the prevailing jobs and power. These are the material world view. Furthermore, if the critics only foundation for a position, but to be really occasionally get a chance to be heard, the effective, psychological commitment must be establishment position may be accepted purely involved. In every case, the establishment has through repetition: it is so often stated that it a comprehensive world view to which leading seems to be “common sense.” Is it any wonder figures are intensely committed. Most of the that critics can so easily be ignored? establishment experts believe that the critics are wrong, misguided and even dangerous — The power of critique in fact, in the view of many, sufficiently The second message from the cases in this misguided and dangerous to warrant the book is that a small number of critics — various actions taken against them. sometimes just one — can make an enormous In the case of terrorism, the establishment impact. Indeed, suppression of dissent is a experts believe they are addressing the greatest Conclusion 107

signal that dissent can make a difference. If The visibility of just a few critics turns there is no dissent, suppression is not required. unanimity, or at least the appearance of A crucial part of the critic’s effectiveness is complete agreement, into a debate. From the strong arguments. In every case, the critics point of view of outsiders, this is enormously have begun by mustering powerful intellectual important. Instead of the orthodox view being attacks on the orthodox position. This is not taken for granted, it becomes simply one point just a matter of moral conviction, of standing of view. This weakens the position of the up and shouting “You’re wrong!” in the face establishment dramatically. For example, of the establishment. No, the secret of every Sharon Beder describes the crisis at the successful critic is good arguments, based on Sydney Water Board when sewerage issues collecting information, carrying out careful became of widespread interest, with the media analyses, preparing well thought-out written reporting critics as well as establishment and verbal presentations. views. All of this requires a lot of hard work. None of this would make any difference if Reading the case studies is not likely to give a the critics had only arguments. To be effec- full sense of the amount of work involved. A tive, these arguments need to be linked to chapter recounting days in the library would interest groups, in the same manner that hardly be interesting, and every author establishment experts are linked to vested inevitably emphasizes the more dramatic interests. For example, the arguments of critics events in the story. But without the long hours of Sydney sewerage policies were taken up by of study and preparation, the highlights would environmentalists and beach-goers. For never have occurred. establishments, critics alone are not much to There seems to be a contradiction in my worry about. It is their potential to aid and argument: I said that establishments are held help to mobilize interest groups that is a real together psychologically through a world view threat. and yet I’m saying that the arguments of It is for this reason that critics are likely to critics can be effective. How can arguments be attacked. If the credibility of the critics can puncture the world view? The resolution to be undermined, then their threat to establish- this apparent dilemma is that the arguments of ment legitimacy can be minimized. Each case critics are most effective in convincing third study has plenty of examples of attempts to parties, namely people who are not part of the discredit dissidents, such as accusing establishment position. This might be politi- Dhirendra Sharma of being a CIA agent, and cians, media, experts in related fields, or to suppress them or their work, such as forcing members of the “general public.” Sharma to move from his science policy post. Both establishment experts and critics are But suppression, however damaging it may be engaged in a contest over loyalties. The for the person or position attacked, can also be establishment, by definition, has the advantage counterproductive for the attacker. Suppres- of the loyalties of the most powerful and sion can backfire because it is perceived to be authoritative experts. The establishment, to unfair. Many people believe, in principle maintain its power and authority, has to keep it anyway, in the value of open debate. When this way. The critics can make inroads by they are informed that debate is being winning over a few recruits, for example from suppressed, they may become more sympa- new or marginal members in the orthodox thetic to the suppressed position. Michael camp, from groups that are not officially part Mallory and Gordon Moran give some of the establishment, or occasionally even a excellent examples of this phenomenon. convert from the mainstream of orthodoxy. In The key players in these confrontations all these cases, arguments can be effective, include the mass media. If the establishment is though they are not enough on their own to unquestioned, there is no story. Even a single win the day. critic who has sufficient credibility, such as the appropriate credentials, turns the situation 108 Confronting the experts

into a debate that is, therefore, newsworthy. To become an effective critic of establish- The media has played a big role in the disputes ment experts, I think the following are crucial: over sewerage, fluoridation, the Guido Riccio • lots of hard work, in order to understand and nuclear power, among others. the issues and develop the critique; The involvement of the media is especially • a commitment to accuracy, since critics potent in cases where establishment experts are more easily attacked and discredited by normally operate in the background without errors than are establishment experts; scrutiny, as in the case of most scientists and • a willingness and ability to take the engineers. These experts generally detest arguments to broad audiences, especially media coverage. Ironically, it can force them through the media; to become more media savvy, as in the case of • persistence; the Sydney Water Board, which has launched • courage to disagree with peers and to publicity campaigns defending its policies. But continue in the face of attacks; at least this visibility also makes the issue • a secure livelihood. more available for debate than before. The last item, a secure livelihood, is far from The case of terrorism shows a different trivial. Many potential critics are deterred pattern. Here, a central feature of the estab- because of worries about their jobs. The most lishment position is use of the media to secure position is one completely independent inculcate the orthodox view of terrorism and of the establishment being confronted. Edward to authenticate the establishment experts. In Herman is closest to this situation. The most this situation, it is not a simple matter for the risky position is to attack the establishment media to “open up the debate” because a key that provides one’s livelihood. Harold Hillman part of the “debate” should be the ways in is in this category and found that even which the media shape perceptions of academic tenure was insufficient protection. terrorism and of expertise about it. In this In summary, even a single critic can do a situation, the “alternative” media, including lot against a seemingly impregnable estab- community radio and small independent lishment. By developing cogent arguments and magazines and newspapers, become more raising them wherever possible, an undisputed important. orthodoxy can be turned into a debatable issue. As well as the media, there are some other In this, the involvement of a range of key players. Social movements are vital in a individuals and groups is important, including number of cases: the environmental movement social movements, the media, and inside in the case of sewerage, the antifluoridation sympathizers. The critic is likely to encounter movement, the peace and Central American various forms of suppression but, on the other solidarity movements in the case of terrorism, hand, may be supported by neutral parties who and the antinuclear movement. Movements are believe in fair play. Finally, in order to eager recipients and disseminators of work become an effective critic, there is a need for done by critics. Also important are quiet hard work, accuracy, taking the arguments to sympathizers or facilitators of debate. This can wide audiences, persistence, courage and a include an editor who decides to publish an livelihood. There is certainly room for more to article by a critic in a journal normally join their ranks. monopolized by the orthodox, or the organizer of a conference who makes a special point of An acquiescent society inviting critics as well as defenders of the In any study of critics versus establishments, establishment. Some of these individuals may there is a great temptation to focus on the sympathize with the critics but be unable to personalities of the critics. This might be to make a public stand; others simply believe in discredit them by pointing to psychological the value of open debate. In either case, their quirks or to praise them as exceptional human efforts, while seldom dramatic, are vitally specimens. Of course, personalities are important in opening up the issue. fascinating and worthy of study, but I think it Conclusion 109

is just as important to ask why there are so few ment, church and trade union bureaucracies, critics. In Western liberal democracies there is suppression of dissent is the usual pattern.2 much rhetoric about the importance of Even within social movements such as the individual freedom and autonomy, but the feminist or environmental movements, which reality is that most people are highly reluctant themselves are engaged in challenging to openly challenge their superiors or even establishments, internal criticism is often their peers, whether in corporations, govern- unwelcome. ments, professions or whatever. Most people To support debate is often seen a tanta- are quite comfortable conforming to the mount to supporting the critics, since debate prevailing views. gives the critics a platform that the establish- That in itself is not necessarily a bad thing. ment would prefer to deny. But this is no What is worrying is the limited support for excuse for acquiescence. Without debate, no open, vigorous debate. The contributors to this position is worthy of the unreserved support book each think that their position is correct, that establishments come to expect. That is but they would not want a dictator to enforce precisely why it is necessary for more people their views by fiat. Rather, their wish is that to learn how to confront the experts. the issues be debated openly and fully, allowing individuals to make up their own Notes minds. For any society that calls itself free, 1. In some cases, the main body of experts this seems like an obvious and essential is opposed to the primary vested interests, as requirement. Honest debate often generates the case of nuclear winter scientists versus the new positions and insights which are not military establishment (see Brian Martin, available to any individual or group working “Nuclear winter: science and politics,” Science within its own framework. Debate thus is and Public Policy, vol. 15, no. 5 (October essential to any society that aspires to be 1988): 321-334). This creates a somewhat creative in the widest sense. different dynamic to the one presented in this As I’ve indicated, becoming a critic book. requires a considerable commitment, and is 2. Deena Weinstein, Bureaucratic Opposi- certainly not for everyone. Furthermore, many tion, New York: Pergamon Press (1979). people are quite satisfied with either the establishment position or a particular alterna- tive position. But there is still an important role for those who do not want to join the debate as participants, and that is to be supporters of debate itself. Journalists can do this by seeking out minority viewpoints. Editors of newspapers and journals can do it by being more receptive to submissions by critics, or by setting up special for-and-against columns. Teachers can promote debate by collecting materials by critics to counterbal- ance establishment experts, and by inviting speakers from both sides of issues. Indeed, anyone can promote debate by organizing a public meeting with speakers from different viewpoints or having a meeting of friends to discuss conflicting writings. Promoting debate sounds easy in principle but it can be difficult in practice. In most bureaucracies, including corporate, govern-

Contributors

Published in Brian Martin (editor), Confronting the Experts (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996), pp. 185-187

Dr Sharon Beder worked as an engineer Dr Edward S. Herman is Professor Emeritus before undertaking a Ph.D. at the University of of Finance, Wharton School, University of New South Wales on the history and politics Pennsylvania, where he specialized in of sewage disposal in Sydney. Her work was corporate and finanacial power and regulation. instrumental in undermining the credibility of For some years he also taught a course on the Water Board and its engineers and Media Bias in the Annenberg School of bringing the debate about sewage policy onto Communications at Penn. He is the author of the front pages of newspapers. Her book Toxic numerous books on economics, politics and Fish and Sewer Surfing appeared in 1989 and the media, including The Political Economy of was an immediate success. In 1992 she joined Human Rights (with Noam Chomsky) the Department of Science and Technology (Boston: South End Press, 1979, 2 volumes), Studies at the University of Wollongong. Her Manufacturing Consent (also with Chomsky) social research has included special attention (New York: Pantheon, 1988), and Corporate to the role of the expert. Her latest book is The Control, Corporate Power (New York: Nature of Sustainable Development (1993). Cambridge University Press, 1981), and two volumes devoted to the subject of terrorism. Dr Mark Diesendorf in 1994 joined the Australian National University to teach in the Dr Harold Hillman has University of London interdisciplinary Human Ecology Program. In degrees in medicine, physiology and bio- the early 1980s he was a principal research chemistry. He is Reader in Physiology and the scientist in the Commonwealth Scientific and Director of the Unity Laboratory of Applied Industrial Research Organization, where he Neurobiology at the University of Surrey, became leader of the Applied Mathematics Guildford, England. He is also medical advisor Unit. More recently, he was senior research to the Institute of Biological Psychiatry, fellow and head of the Medical Services Unit, Bangor, Wales. He has written five books and Australian Institute of Health, and then about 150 full-length publications on cell Coordinator of the Australian Conservation biology, neurobiology and resuscitation. Foundation’s Global Climate Change Program. He has been an active member of Professor Michael Mallory was educated at several community and professional groups, Yale University and received his Ph.D. in art including secretary of the Society for Social history from Columbia University. He has Responsibility in Science, president of the taught at Brooklyn College of the City Australasian Wind Energy Association and University of New York since 1965 and committee member of the Australian and New presently is the Chairman of the Art Zealand Solar Energy Society. He has Department. He is also on the Doctoral published over 70 scholarly papers, edited four Faculty of the CUNY Graduate Center. He has books, written many popular articles and published extensively on early Italian art. broadcast a number of radio talks and interviews.

Contributors 111

Dr Brian Martin works in the Department of Dr Dhirendra Sharma, former chair of the Science and Technology Studies, University of Centre for Studies in Science Policy at Wollongong, Australia. He is the author of Jawaharlal Nehru University in New Delhi, 150 research papers in the sciences and social received his Ph.D. in Philosophy from the sciences, in areas including stratospheric University of London. He has taught at modelling, astrophysics, numerical methods, Columbia University and Michigan State electricity grids with wind power, environ- University. He has been a leading critic of the mental issues, nonviolent alternatives to Indian government’s nuclear power and military defence, information technology, the nuclear weapons programs. Author and editor politics of higher education and strategies for of numerous articles and books, his major social movements, plus the books The Bias of publications include Freedom Struggle of Science (1979), Uprooting War (1984), Vietnam (1973), India’s Nuclear Estate Scientific Knowledge in Controversy (1991) (1983), The Indian Atom (1986), American and Social Defence, Social Change (1993). He Empire Building (1981), Asian Science & has specialized in studying the exercise of Industrial Policy (1992) and India’s power in the scientific community in a range Commitment to Kashmir (1994). He has been of areas, including nuclear power, fluoridation, editor of the journal Philosophy and Social pesticides, repetition strain injury (with Action since founding it in 1975, has been Gabriele Bammer), nuclear winter and the convener of the National Committee for a origin of AIDS. He has been studying and Sane Nuclear Policy (India), and in 1991 opposing the suppression of intellectual founded the Centre for Asian Science & dissent since the late 1970s. Industrial Policy Research.

Gordon Moran, an independent scholar residing in Florence, Italy, received a B.A. from Yale University in 1960. He is the author or co-author of more than 50 publications, primarily involving art history and Sienese painting, but also dealing with topics such as scholarly communication, academic librarian- ship and academic ethics.