1 Making the Clarinet Sing

Home , Bel Canto (opera), Chest voice, Musical phrasing, Simeon Bellison, Sustain (composition)

Making the Clarinet Sing: Enhancing Clarinet Tone, Breathing, and Phrase Nuance

through Voice Pedagogy

D.M.A Document

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Musical Arts in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

Alyssa Rose Powell, M.M.

Graduate Program in Music

The Ohio State University

2020

D.M.A. Document Committee

Dr. Caroline A. Hartig, Advisor

Dr. Scott McCoy

Dr. Eugenia Costa-Giomi

Professor Katherine Borst Jones

Copyrighted by

Alyssa Rose Powell

2020

Abstract

The clarinet has been favorably compared to the human singing voice since its invention and continues to be sought after for its expressive, singing qualities. How is the clarinet like the human singing voice? What facets of singing do clarinetists strive to imitate? Can voice pedagogy inform clarinet playing to improve technique and artistry?

This study begins with a brief historical investigation into the origins of modern voice technique, bel canto, and highlights the way it influenced the development of the clarinet.

Bel canto set the standards for tone, expression, and pedagogy in classical western singing which was reflected in the clarinet tradition a hundred years later. Present day clarinetists still use bel canto principles, implying the potential relevance of other facets of modern voice pedagogy. Singing techniques for breathing, tone conceptualization, registration, and timbral nuance are explored along with their possible relevance to clarinet performance. The singer ‘in action’ is presented through an analysis of the phrasing used by Maria Callas in a portion of ‘Donde lieta’ from Puccini’s La Bohème.

This demonstrates the influence of text on interpretation for singers. Together, these points suggest that voice pedagogy may be used to positively influence clarinet performance and pedagogy, ensuring that clarinetists will continue the tradition of

‘making the clarinet sing.’

Dedication

To Mom, Dad, Thomas, and Noby for your never-ending love and support.

iii

Acknowledgments

I would like to extend my heart-felt thanks to the many professors I have had the privilege of working with during my studies at The Ohio State University. I appreciate the knowledge and inspiration you have imparted through your teaching and musicianship.

I am especially grateful to my committee members who have supported my studies over the past three years. Many thanks to Dr. Costa-Giomi for countless fascinating discussions about all aspects of music, to Professor KBJ for inspiring me to think outside the box, to Dr. Mikkelson for expanding my understanding of being an ensemble musician, to Dr. McCoy for encouraging me to pursue this research, and to Dr.

Caroline Hartig for pushing, encouraging, challenging, nurturing, and inspiring me to grow as an artist and teacher. Thank you!

I would like to acknowledge the wonderful music teachers I studied with prior to attending OSU: Keith Lemmons, Maxine Ramey, Chris Kirkpatrick, Kimberly Gratland

James, Polly Huppert, Nita Smith, and Gary Gillett. You shared your knowledge and love of music with me. Both have helped me in my music studies and this final document.

Lastly, I would like to thank my family. Thank you for believing in me and supporting me. Noby, I don’t know where I would be without your humor, understanding, and encouragement.

Vita

2007……………………..Sentinel High School, Missoula, MT

2010……………………..B.M., B.A., University of Montana

2012-2014……………….Graduate Teaching Associate, University of New Mexico

2015……………………..M.M., With Distinction, University of New Mexico

2014-2017……………….Adjunct Instructor, Adams State University, Alamosa, CO

2015-2017……………….Music Teacher, Queen of Heaven School, Albuquerque, NM

2017-2018……………….University Fellow, The Ohio State University

2018-Present…………….Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University

Fields of Study

Major Field: Music

Table of Contents

Abstract ...... ii Dedication ...... iii Acknowledgments...... iv Vita ...... v Table of Contents ...... vi List of Figures ...... viii Chapter 1. Introduction ...... 1 Research Overview ...... 2 Chapter 2. The Historical Origins of Vocal and Clarinet Pedagogy ...... 7 Renaissance ...... 8 Bel Canto ...... 11 The Invention of the Clarinet ...... 17 19th Century Advancements ...... 19 19th Century Italy ...... 23 Summary ...... 26 Chapter 3. Breathing for Clarinet; Breathing for Voice ...... 28 Breathing for Clarinet Playing: Pedagogic Trends ...... 29 Breathing Anatomy and Physiology in Singing...... 42 Breathing for Singing ...... 56 Application of Appoggio to Clarinet Playing ...... 62 Chapter 4. Tone ...... 65 Chiaroscuro ...... 65 Tone Onset, Beginning ...... 68 Tone Offset, Release ...... 72 vi

Registers ...... 72 Vowel Modification ...... 78 Chapter 5. Phrase Nuance ...... 83 Interpretive Tools ...... 83 Interpretive Observations of Puccini’s ‘Donde Lieta’ ...... 88 Chapter 6. Discussion and Conclusion ...... 98 Artistry ...... 99 Modern Pedagogy ...... 101 Future Research ...... 104 Conclusion ...... 105 Glossary ...... 107 Bibliography ...... 110 Appendix A. On Vibrato ...... 114 Appendix B. ‘Donde lieta’ Transposed for Clarinet ...... 118

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List of Figures

Figure 1. Sketch of Jean Xavier Lefèvre from Méthode de clarinette (1802) ...... 21 Figure 2. Sketch of lungs while breathing for clarinet playing, drawn by Stubbins...... 31 Figure 3. Ribcage, sternum, lungs, pleural membrane...... 48 Figure 4. Diaphragm separating abdominal viscera from thorax...... 49 Figure 5. Intercostal muscles, Internal Oblique, Rectus Abdominus...... 50 Figure 6. Transverse Abdominus and Rectus Abdominus...... 51 Figure 7. Quadratus Lumborum. Muscles of the back...... 52 Figure 8. Larynx and trachea ...... 53 Figure 9. View above the larynx...... 54 Figure 10. Vocal folds: Laryngoscopic view of interior of larynx ...... 55 Figure 11. Chart of Miller’s Breathing Methods ...... 57 Figure 12. Chiaroscuro visualization...... 67 Figure 13. Fundamental pitches in the chalumeau register of the clarinet...... 68 Figure 14. Soprano Range...... 74 Figure 15. Clarinet Range ...... 75 Figure 16. Vocal Tract...... 80 Figure 17. Excerpt from ‘Donde lieta’ by Puccini...... 90 Figure 18. Key of expressive markings for clarinet interpretation ...... 95 Figure 19.‘Donde lieta’ with markings for clarinet ...... 96

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Chapter 1. Introduction

As a student of clarinet and voice from childhood to the present, I have observed similarities and differences in how the voice and clarinet are taught. My most exciting

‘light-bulb’ moments often came to me when a singing concept inspired me to better understand an element of clarinet playing. Often these realizations related directly to phrasing and expression in music. I found myself asking “Why are similar concepts taught so differently in voice and clarinet?” I now realize that there are extensive traditions that span hundreds of years that determine the “why” each medium teaches and performs as they do. However, examining concepts common to both voice and clarinet performance may provide fresh performing and teaching ideas, especially for clarinetists from the older, more extensive voice tradition.1

The purpose of this document is to demonstrate that certain techniques and pedagogic strategies used by classically trained singers can be beneficial to clarinetists.

This is certainly a tall order and requires practical understanding of both the voice and clarinet. My background is somewhat unique in that I studied voice and clarinet equally through the third year of my undergraduate degree. At the start of my fourth year, it was time to consider graduate programs and I decided to concentrate on clarinet. Although I

1 Although clarinet traditions are well-established today, modern singing developed long before the clarinet and the body of repertoire for the human voice far exceeds that of the clarinet. 1

did not graduate with a vocal performance degree, I did complete the vocal major requirements of diction, pedagogy, voice literature, foreign language, as well as eight semesters of voice lessons, and performed roles in university opera productions. I studied a wide variety of repertoire from art songs by Schubert, jazz standards, Broadway show tunes, as well as standard arias. I was engaged in the community, singing as a soloist at churches, for community performances, and with a semi-professional choir, and maintained a small voice studio. While completing my master’s degree in clarinet performance at the University of New Mexico, I continued to freelance in the community as a high school choir clinician, then taught singing as a general music teacher for two years.

As a doctoral student at OSU I took the graduate level History of Voice Pedagogy

Course. It was apparent to me that many of the comparative observations I made about voice and clarinet pedagogy were relevant to my understanding of advanced clarinet performance which has largely shaped my understanding of phrasing and technique for clarinet playing. In this document, I share insight into the similarities of the voice and clarinet and suggest considerations for clarinet teachers specifically about tone, breathing, and phrasing nuance that may be borrowed from voice pedagogy.

Research Overview

The clarinet is praised for its ability to emulate the human singing voice. Is this merely a surface-level observation, or can clarinet playing and singing techniques be compared? Furthermore, can singing techniques and pedagogy inform clarinet

performance and pedagogy? Although many instrumentalists (not only clarinetists) have addressed the idea of applying voice concepts such as bel canto to playing or considered the importance of interpretive elements such as the text and stage acting required in singing, none have explained singing technique but rather emphasize a singing style.

This research examines the possibility of comparing the clarinet and voice mediums. To understand this relationship in broad terms, a history of voice and clarinet pedagogy reveals the dependence of early clarinetists on the more established vocal medium as an example for artistic and pedagogical principles. This suggests that indeed these mediums may well be comparable and lends support for additionally examining technical elements in clarinet playing and singing. To determine the extent of this comparison, the techniques of breathing, tone, and phrase nuance are explored. These categories were intentionally selected. The clarinet tone is specifically praised for its vocality in literature from the 1700s to present, suggesting parallels in conception if not production. Breathing is an important commonality between singers and clarinetists, and some clarinet pedagogues suggest players should learn breathing from singers. Phrase nuance is examined to discover how the differences in sound production result in different interpretation between singers and clarinetists. Because the voice and clarinet are melodic in nature, they share basic principles such as producing a beautiful tone and expressive performance. They share noticeable similarities in phrasing, but because of the variation in sound production, the differences are of particular interest to clarinetists, seeking to emulate the voice.

The sources consulted for this study fall into four categories: music history, vocal pedagogy, clarinet pedagogy, and resources by instrumentalists seeking to incorporate vocal principles in their playing. Music history textbooks by Bonds and Hanning offer broad perspectives from western music history spanning 1400-1900. Specifically, these sources contextualize the pre- and post- bel canto periods, demonstrating the importance of that era. James Stark’s book, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy explains modern vocal terminology and techniques related to the broader vocal history. Cornelius

Reid’s Bel Canto: Principles and Practices, Philip A. Duey’s Bel Canto in its Golden

Age, and Ida Franca’s Manuel of Bel Canto support Stark’s findings. The history of the clarinet is largely described by Eric Hoeprich in The Clarinet. Details about performers are filled in by Pamela Weston in Clarinet Virtuosi of the Past and F. Geoffrey Rendall in

The Clarinet. The Early Clarinet: A Practical Guide and The Cambridge Companion to the Clarinet by Colin Lawson were consulted but are not cited in this work as they offer similar historical perspectives provided by Hoeprich. A short book by Alfredo Vena, The

Nineteenth-Century Italian Clarinet Tradition and its Revaluation; and an article by

Ingrid Elizabeth Pearson, “Ferdinando Sebastiani, Gennaro Bosa and the Clarinet in

Nineteenth-Century Naples,” fill in the history of the Italian clarinet tradition.

The voice pedagogy literature is substantially larger than that for clarinet. As such, the voice sources are academic and historical publications that demonstrate the past and current pedagogical practice. Some of these sources include detailed illustrations of the human anatomy and explanations of the physiology of singing such as, English,

French, German and Italian Techniques of Singing, by Richard Miller and Your Voice:

An Inside View, by Scott McCoy. Other voice sources also go into depth about the physics of sound that pertain to singing, such as Ingo R. Titze’s Principles of Voice

Production and Johan Sundberg’s The Science of the Singing Voice. Sundberg additionally wrote The Science of Musical Sounds, which was invaluable in understanding the physics of the clarinet sound production related to singing.

The clarinet pedagogy sources include applied method books that contain valuable introductions, such as Hyacinthe Klosé’s Celebrated Method for the Clarinet,

Reiner Wehle’s Clarinet Fundamentals 1, William Stubbins’s publication, The Study of the Clarinet. Jack Brymer’s Clarinet, David Pino’s The Clarinet, and Michèle Gingras’s

Clarinet Secrets: 52 Performance Strategies for the Advanced Clarinetist all provide an explanation of each author’s ideas regarding teaching and playing clarinet. The

Clarinetist’s Compendium, by Daniel Bonade and The Art of Clarinet Playing, by Keith

Stein offer the opinions from the mid-twentieth century, which are still adhered to today.

Of these sources, Keith Stein’s eighty-page book is the most complete explanation of clarinet technique and artistry. Articles are additionally included in this sample of clarinet pedagogy literature to offer recent opinions from important, living pedagogues.

Dissertations that detail the application of bel canto to instrumental playing are plentiful. “The Application of Bel Canto Concepts and Principles to Trumpet Pedagogy and Performance,” by Malcolm Eugene Beauchamp and “Applying the Study of Bel

Canto Vocal Technique to Artistic Horn Playing: Perfect Legato, Beautiful Sound,

Agility, and Musical Expression,” by Denise Root Pierce are most relevant in that they are also wind players. Both concentrate on identifying the principles of bel canto from

history and applying them to the instrument. Peirce provides explanations of voice technique in relation to the French horn, but with little explanation of the physiology.

A master’s thesis by Bruce Edward Foster called, “A Bel Canto Approach to

Performance Practice for the Clarinet Player,” identifies areas of playing and teaching that may be improved with bel canto, though the explanation of clarinet technique is largely observational. “The Clarinetist as Vocalist: Transcriptions of Mozart Arias to

Teach Lyricism,” is a doctoral document by Peter Bianca that identifies style characteristics of vocal music and relates them to clarinet playing, though does not address specifics of technique. “Sounding the Inner Voice: Emotion and Vocal Emulation in Trumpet Performance and Pedagogy,” a doctoral thesis by Geoffrey Tiller offers insight into what emulation means and how singers convey emotion. This paper demonstrates the importance of considering the psychology of music in the comparison of voice and clarinet.

Together, these resources suggest that the influence of singing on instrumental playing continues to be of interest. They also suggest that applying specific voice techniques may be beneficial to clarinet playing and pedagogy.

Chapter 2. The Historical Origins of Vocal and Clarinet Pedagogy

“Music has the power of producing a certain effect on the moral character of the soul, and if it has the power to do this, it is clear that the young must be directed to music and must be educated in it.” Aristotle 2

The clarinet has been compared to the human singing voice for its expressive and singing qualities since its invention. It has become an expectation that clarinetists learn to emulate the voice. What are the specific qualities of singing that clarinetists strive to imitate? How did these qualities develop in the vocal medium, and how are they taught today? Many of the traits we associate with superb singing developed with bel canto singing from roughly 1600-1850. Historically this shaped our opinions about beautiful lyrical music, as well as the style and technique developed by singers that arguably served as a model for clarinetists.

To understand the context in which these stylistic and technical features developed first for the voice then later the clarinet, a brief history of modern voice pedagogy and clarinet pedagogy will be explored. The term ‘modern’ is important, as the human voice has likely been used for singing for as many as tens of thousands of years.3

However, the roots of modern voice pedagogy began to take hold in approximately 1562

2 NAfME, “Quotes,” accessed April 26, 2020, https://nafme.org/advocacy/what-to-say/quotes/. 3 William Forde Thompson, Music, Thought, and Feeling: Understanding the Psychology of Music (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009) 23. 7

with the development of what was retrospectively called, bel canto, meaning ‘beautiful singing’.4 In the many sources about bel canto, the history leading up to this period is rarely discussed. However, to better understand the relationship of singing with the origin of the clarinet, reviewing the history prior to bel canto is relevant to this study, beginning with the Renaissance.

Renaissance

Events during the Renaissance resulted in new music moving in trends across

Europe. The decline of the Byzantine Empire and the end of the Hundred Years War

(1453) between England and France allowed (in part) the economy to stabilize and regions of Europe to develop more individually. Scholars who had fled Byzantium with their prized, ancient texts began to teach in the communities in which they found themselves.5 In Italy, ancient writings, especially from the Greeks, were introduced into education practices. Once translated to Latin, the Greek texts spread across Western

Europe. Humanist ideals became accepted, allowing for new principles other than strictly religious morals to govern the thoughts and actions of the people.6 Rulers of Italian principalities sought to demonstrate their power and importance through the arts.

Elements of the arts also evolved, as painters moved closer to realism with improved perspective. Musicians expanded the pitch ranges of pieces as well added points of imitation to enhance the interaction of polyphonic lines.

4 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 191. 5 Barbara Hanning, Concise History of Western Music, 5th ed. (W. W. Norton & Company, 2014) 88-89. 6 Barbara Hanning, Concise History of Western Music, 5th ed. (W. W. Norton & Company, 2014) 91. 8

Ancient texts regarding Greek music were considered especially inspiring for the musicians of the time. The Ancient Greeks valued music for its emotional power. They believed in the ethos of the musical modes to elevate the text to an even greater meaning.

The idea that the Greek modes could almost supernaturally influence the listener’s emotions resulted in musicians reconsidering the emotional affect of the music they composed.7 The importance of the poetry of Ancient Greek dramas and music inspired composers of the Renaissance to consider the text more fully when composing. The spread of these ideas and other knowledge were aided by the invention of the printing press in the mid-fifteenth century. Music scores and parts were more available, resulting in more performing ensembles. These groups were employed and supported by the many ruling families of Western Europe, who sought to convey their own importance through large palaces, impressive militaries, an abundance of artwork, and exciting live performances.

In the fifteenth century, instruments were used in conjunction with voices. The parts were often relatively equal so an instrument could easily replace a singer on a line of a polyphonic work. Music composed solely for instrumental ensembles was rare, though instrumentalists would make use of vocal pieces, each person playing a part and mixing and matching with the instruments available.8 Recorders as well as shawms and crumhorns were the woodwinds of the time. Composers categorized them as high and low, which referred to their loudness rather than pitch. These instruments were made in

7 Barbara Hanning, Concise History of Western Music, 5th ed. (W. W. Norton & Company, 2014) 92. 8 Mark Bonds, A History of Music in Western Culture, 2nd ed. (New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2006) 150. 9

families with soprano, alto, tenor, and bass tessituras, like singers of a chorus.9

Many changes in musical structure from the medieval period to the Renaissance originated in the northern part of Europe. These new ideas eventually spread as composers traveled across Europe. For example, Josquin des Prez (1450-1521) lived and worked in northern France, then Milan, then Rome and Ferrara, then eventually returned to France.10 Composers of the time were trained in singing and primarily composed vocal forms.11 By the 1530s, the Italian style madrigal became popular. Often the rediscovered poetry of Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) was the inspiration as well as text for these through-composed works.12 These songs did not rely on repetitive rhythms or sing-song melodies, but rather were composed in a way that enhanced Petrarch’s masterfully- crafted words, especially through text-painting.13

It is important to note that the Italian madrigal was sung in Italian, not Latin. This allowed both the full expression of the Italian language, and physical production of the

Italian language to be used to convey the thoughts and emotions of a work. This was surprisingly significant to the development of voice pedagogy. The Italian language is unique in that vowels are voiced in their pure form and consonants are pronounced in a way that minimally disrupts the resonance of the vowels.14 The purity of the language

9 Mark Bonds, A History of Music in Western Culture, 2nd ed. (New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2006) 154. 10 Mark Bonds, A History of Music in Western Culture, 2nd ed. (New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2006) 111. 11 Barbara Hanning, Concise History of Western Music, 5th ed. (W. W. Norton & Company, 2014) 141. 12 Mark Bonds, A History of Music in Western Culture, 2nd ed. (New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2006) 159. 13 Mark Bonds, A History of Music in Western Culture, 2nd ed. (New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2006) 159. 14 Richard Miller English, French, German and Italian Techniques of Singing (New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1977) 174. 10

combined with soloistic singing, along with the desire to inflect with greater emotional variety led to a bursting forth of bel canto, ‘beautiful singing.’15 Italian madrigals were accessible, enjoyable to perform, and available to singers due to the printing press.16

Some ensembles excelled, becoming famous for their skills, and inspiring the composition of more challenging pieces. In particular, a female vocal group in the employ of the dukes of Ferrara and Mantua in the 1560s was highly regarded for their beautiful timbre, tasteful embellishments, dynamic contrast, virtuosic legato and leaps, with sensitive gestures and facial expressions.17 These singers are considered by some historians to be the first documented practitioners of early bel canto singing.18

Bel Canto

Bel canto means ‘beautiful singing’ in Italian, its country of origin.19 Bel canto required a balance of the registers of the voice⎯ known as the chest voice and head voice⎯ an increase in singing range, projection, stamina, flexibility, balanced tone, dynamic subtlety, use of vibrato, as well as a new artistic aesthetic. Certain techniques

15 Modern vocal pedagogy demonstrates that the harmonics of the voice (also called formants) are dependent on the shape of the vocal tract. The vowels in the text largely determine the shape of the vocal tract. 16 Barbara Hanning, Concise History of Western Music, 5th ed. (W. W. Norton & Company, 2014) 128. 17 Barbara Hanning, Concise History of Western Music, 5th ed. (W. W. Norton & Company, 2014) 128. 18 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 191. 19 The term bel canto is complicated in that it refers to a genre of music that was known for lyricism, expressivity, legato lines, subtle use of dynamics, textual emphasis, tasteful ornaments, and earnest emotional portrayal of the themes (acting). Bel canto also refers to a style of singing (including specific vocal techniques) that is still prized today. Additionally, the principals of the bel canto genre and techniques have been adopted by many instrumentalists and are a part of instrumental history and technique as well. This term was not used during the period of application but has been given retrospectively to refer to the technique, genre, and style, bel canto. While many instrumentalists apply principles of bel canto, some singers and historians believe the term can only truly relate to singing due to the element of vocal technique that is part of the whole definition. According to Duey, the term bel canto may have first been used in 1819 by Bennelli. (Philip A. Duey, Bel Canto in its Golden Age (New York: King’s Crown Press, 1951) 4.) 11

and terminology developed overtime that are included in the meaning of bel canto. These concepts will be expanded upon in later chapters but are important in an explanation of bel canto. Registers of the voice were generally thought of as chest voice and head voice, and an emphasis was placed on strengthening both registers so that one was not stronger than the other. Singers also sought to balance and blend the registers during transitional notes. The term chiaroscuro was adopted from the visual arts. It refers to the light, dark, and shadow that were used to define three-dimensional forms in paintings and also collectively create artistic balance within a composition.20 In singing, chiaroscuro was used to describe the bright and dark qualities of the ideal tone. This allowed for gradation in tone color and subtle phrasing. Tasteful vibrato was also a part of the tone during this period.

The nuance achieved by bel canto singers was largely due to excellent use of the breath while singing. Appoggio breathing allowed singers to perfectly balance subglottal pressure21 as the air was released through the tone of the sung line. This technique addressed the direct interaction of breathing muscles with the glottis (vibrator) in a way that connected breathing to singing both simply and completely. Legato singing, the

“smooth unbroken passage from one tone to the other,”22 was produced through the combined application of appoggio and chiaroscuro. Legato aided in expression as well as increased stamina. Portamento was similar to legato but was used more deliberately for

20 “Chiaroscuro: Art Technique,” In Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., October 7, 2019, Accessed May 10, 2020, https://www.britannica.com/art/chiaroscuro. 21 Subglottal pressure refers to the air pressure below the glottis and ideally regulated through the muscular antagonism of respiratory muscles. 22James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 165. Quote by F. Lamperti. 12

expressive emphasis. The listener could hear every pitch between the two notes of an interval in a beautiful portamento.23

Another expressive technique originating in the bel canto tradition was messa di voce. On one note the singer would move from a quiet dynamic to a louder dynamic and then back to quiet, while also subtly shifting the tone from veiled or slightly covered to brighter, then returning to the veiled timbre. This technique requires great breath control, and so was used as a teaching strategy during this period to develop skill in manipulating the timbre and volume of the voice with the breath.

Tasteful ornamentation added by the soloist was admired, and pedagogues such as

Caccini and Tosi provided many suggestions for the appropriate application of ornaments and trills in their treatises. Such pedagogues emphasized using ornaments to enhance the meaning of the text and mood and to maintain the ethos developed in the work rather than to merely demonstrate virtuosity. Similarly, singers were required to exhibit natural acting with facial expressions that matched the music but that were not overly dramatic.

These traits provided the stylistic backbone of much of the music performed from approximately 1600 to 1850, and also influenced the developing technique of singers and instrumentalists.

The first significant teacher of Bel canto was Giulio Caccini, who lived from 1550 to 1618.24 Caccini was a member of the Florentine Camerata, which began with Girolamo

Mei circa 1570.25 Mei directed a group of poets, writers, and musicians to revisit the

23 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 165. F. Lamperti quoting M. Garcia. 24 Cornelius L. Reid, Bel canto: principles and practices (New York: J. Pattelson House, 1978) 15. 25 Barbara Hanning, Concise History of Western Music, 5th ed. (W. W. Norton & Company, 2014) 189. 13

power and emotional authenticity of Greek dramas and discuss humanist ideals.26 After studying treatises on early Greek music, Mei believed that a single melodic line should deliver the text to the audience while other voices and instruments should be used to support the primary line as this texture would be more impactful than polyphony.27

Caccini was a young virtuoso and composer when he attended the meetings. He formed the belief that the emphasis on text with emotionally stimulating melody required fewer florid embellishments.

Caccini wrote an early vocal guide called Le nuove musiche (1602), that specifically addressed bel canto. In his treatise, he emphasized the importance of the matching of text and music. He maintained that the words should move rhythmically in such a way as to mimic the patterns of speech. This could be accomplished by expressing primarily with elongated vowels and adding ornaments tastefully only at cadences or to strengthen the textual meaning. He was critical of singers for adding too many embellishments to show off their technique, as it distracted from the message of the lyrics. Caccini’s treatise demonstrates a rise in musical literacy, as he wrote out intricate ornaments as examples of good practice, expecting readers to understand the meaning of his writing. Not included in his treatise are explanations on how to produce the quintessential traits of bel canto, for example, breathing, tone, and devices of phrase nuance. These topics were not discussed in detail until later treatises.

In approximately 1600, more changes occurred as the Renaissance transitioned to

26 Barbara Hanning, Concise History of Western Music, 5th ed. (W. W. Norton & Company, 2014) 189. 27 Barbara Hanning, Concise History of Western Music, 5th ed. (W. W. Norton & Company, 2014) 189. 14

the Baroque era. Some liturgical works used wind instruments that could blend with singers, like the sackbut and cornett to support the vocal lines.28 Instrumental music began to expand with the development of dance forms and basso continuo accompaniment. Musical structure became more vertical rather than linear as chordal harmony became the preferred texture. The homophonic texture consisting of a solo vocal line with accompaniment influenced the form of the music.29 Opera blossomed, first with small courtly performances, then with L’Euridice by Caccini and Peri in 1600, followed by Orfeo by Monteverdi in 1607. Recitative and aria forms became the norm in operas.

During this time castrati singers were on the rise and by the mid-seventeenth century, were the stars of opera.30 As many as four thousand boys were castrated annually in Italy during the eighteenth century in the hopes that they would become famous singers.31 Barbier suggests that depending on who carried out the procedure, there was a ten to eighty percent mortality rate for these boys.32 Many perished due to hemorrhaging or infection.33

The castrati were prized for their extensive vocal range, flexibility, tone, and stamina, all honed over years of practice.34 They became valuable commodities who were hired, traded, adored and practically worshipped in the ruling courts and opera houses.

28 Christina Marie Armendarez, “The Development of Works for Choir and Brass: A Study of Four Representative Works,” North Dakota State University of Agriculture and Applied Science, 2012. 29 Barbara Hanning, Concise History of Western Music, 5th ed. (W. W. Norton & Company, 2014) 195. 30 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 199. 31 Philip A. Duey, Bel Canto in its Golden Age ( New York: King’s Crown Press, 1951) 46. 32 Patrick Barbier, The World of the Castrati, trans. Margaret Crosland (London: Souvenir Press, 1996) 11. 33 Patrick Barbier, The World of the Castrati, trans. Margaret Crosland (London: Souvenir Press, 1996) 11. 34 Philip A. Duey, Bel Canto in its Golden Age ( New York: King’s Crown Press, 1951) 53. 15

This mindset of and toward opera singers continued well into the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and remains to some extent today. Duey remarks on the importance of the castrati for the development of modern singing technique.35 Specifically, modern breathing may have been influenced by the castrato who had a small larynx but the lung capacity of an adult. Presumably this would have resulted in more subglottal pressure than in naturally matured voices. Castrati were known for their ability to sing extremely long phrases without stopping for additional breaths. One historian, John Potter, suggests that the interest in developing good breathing techniques did not actually occur until the fall of the castrati.36 As non-castrati divas and divos took to the stage, they would have needed excellent breath control to continue singing the difficult repertoire of the time.

The decline of the castrati began in the mid-eighteenth century, though they could still be heard for another hundred years. 37

An important voice teacher and castrato of the eighteenth century was Pietro

Francesco Tosi (1653-1732). In 1723 he wrote Observations on the Florid Song that detailed bel canto technique with suggestions for teaching. Tosi gives advice for teachers to guide students to the desired result.38 This shows the advancement of pedagogy.

Another factor that contributed to the increasing interest in singing pedagogy was the development of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1450.39 By 1470 it was used for music and eventually method treatises for singers and instrumentalists printed in

35 Philip A. Duey, Bel Canto in its Golden Age ( New York: King’s Crown Press, 1951) 44. 36 John Potter, “Rediscovering Lost Voices,” in Companion to Medieval and Renaissance Music. ed. Tess Knighton and David Fallows (California: University of California Press, 1992) 313. 37 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 199. 38 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 60. 39 Barbara Hanning, Concise History of Western Music, 5th ed. (W. W. Norton & Company, 2014) 118. 16

greater quantities. Musicians would have evaluated their teaching before deciding which suggestions they thought were worthy to pass on, which were already well known, and possibly which were secrets too important to share.

The Invention of the Clarinet

The second half of the seventeenth century was an exciting time for instrumentalists. Instruments such as the organ, the harpsichord, the violin,40 the transverse flute, and the Baroque oboe were improved,41 and new instrumental musical forms were composed. Both the toccata and early sonata grew in popularity as well as works for larger ensembles. By 1670 court orchestras could be heard from France to

Rome. Then in 1690 a German instrument maker named Johann Christoph Denner (1655-

1707) constructed the first clarinet, by improving a simpler, single-reed instrument known as the chalumeau. The clarinet had two keys, a cylindrical bore, and a flared bell.42 It was an improvement over the chalumeau because the clarinet had a more projecting, resonant tone.

Due to its improved sonority, the new instrument showed promise as a soloistic instrument. Unlike other woodwinds, the clarinet overblew the interval of the twelfth, giving it unique harmonic characteristics.43 It was immediately praised for its trumpet- like projection, as well as its sweetness.44 Soon after its invention, improvements were

40 Barbara Hanning, Concise History of Western Music, 5th ed. (W. W. Norton & Company, 2014) 213. 41 Barbara Hanning, Concise History of Western Music, 5th ed. (W. W. Norton & Company, 2014) 251. 42 Eric Hoeprich, The Clarinet (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008) 20. 43 When a clarinet plays a chalumeau F and adds the register key, the C a twelfth higher sounds. Most woodwinds overblow the interval of an octave. 44 Eric Hoeprich, The Clarinet (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008) 23. 17

made to adjust the tone and stability of notes. The bore was reduced in size and a third key was added. The clarinet spread fairly rapidly across Europe as Denner’s sons travelled and sold instruments for their father.45 Gradually, well-known composers wrote for the clarinet, including Telemann and Vivaldi, as early as the 1720s.46 The clarinet was initially used in supportive roles, but soon became a solo instrument. By 1760, the clarinet had five keys, resulting in a full three-octave range and great improvement to the overall tone.47 These developments inspired composers to write more complex compositions for the clarinet. The first great clarinet concerto was written in the mid- eighteenth century by Johann Stamitz (1717-1757), the Mannheim conductor.48 His son,

Carl Stamitz, would go on to compose ten more concerti for the clarinet.

The clarinet found real prominence in the music of Mozart (1756-1791). He composed exquisite chamber works for the clarinet in the ‘Kegelstatt’ Trio, K498 and

Clarinet Quintet, K581, as well as in the wind serenades and ‘Gran Partita.’ His colleague, Anton Stadler, inspired many of these works and premiered many as well.

Stadler had a basset clarinet made with a rich low register which he played with great dexterity and beauty. After one performance, a columnist wrote, “Never should I have thought that the clarinet could be capable of imitating the human voice so deceptively as it was imitated by you. Verily, your instrument has so soft and so lovely a tone that nobody can resist it who has a heart...”49 Mozart used the clarinet in the orchestra and

45 Pamela Weston, Clarinet Virtuosi of the Past (Great Britain: Pamela Weston, 1971) 19. 46 Eric Hoeprich, The Clarinet (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008) 33-34. 47 Eric Hoeprich, The Clarinet (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008) 63. 48 Eric Hoeprich, The Clarinet (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008) 78. 49 Pamela Weston, Clarinet Virtuosi of the Past (Great Britain: Pamela Weston, 1971) 48. 18

provided prominent solos in his operas. Notably, ‘Parto, Parto’ from La Clemenza di

Tito features the clarinet (technically basset clarinet) as a soloist alongside the singer. The clarinet echoes, sympathizes, coaxes, convinces, and excites the singer. Mozart allowed the clarinet to be closely compared to the voice in this solo, as at times they converse back and forth, phrase for phrase. No doubt this work provided inspiration for other important voice and clarinet pieces like Der Hirt Auf dem Felsen by Schubert in 1828 and helped perpetuate the comparisons between clarinet playing and singing. In 1791, not long after the premier of La Clemenza di Tito, Mozart completed the most important work in the history of the clarinet,50 the Clarinet Concerto, K. 622. The concerto was premiered by Stadler on the basset clarinet. This piece used the instrument to its full capacity, showing off the agility of the clarinet, the many colors of the registers, as well as the singing qualities. The second movement is especially vocal in nature, resembling a sweet soprano aria. Through many excellent works he composed for the clarinet Mozart not only secured a future for the instrument but gave the clarinet a prominent place as a soloist going into the nineteenth century.

19th Century Advancements

The start of the nineteenth century marks a significant time for the clarinet.

Advancements were made that allowed for better fingerings and consequently improved intonation and tone. Clarinet method books were written by prominent players. Based on an image taken from Jean Xavier Lefèvre’s Méthode de clarinette from 1802, we can see

50 The work was written for the basset clarinet, though is performed on A clarinet frequently today. 19

that the finger position was quite like that of the modern player. The fingers are curved, and the fleshy tips of the fingers can be seen to make contact with the tone holes. While there is no thumb rest, the right hand does hold from the bottom and the left thumb is responsible for the register key. The reed is facing up, held on by a string. In his method,

Lefèvre describes the registers of the clarinet, provides extensive fingering charts for the chromatic and diatonic scales, and offers advice on embouchure, articulation, and breathing. Exercises lead the player through a methodical practice of seconds, thirds, fourths, fifths, sixths, sevenths, octaves and even tenths. Some exercises are provided with an accompanimental line, that is reminiscent of vocal exercises.

Figure 1. Sketch of Jean Xavier Lefèvre from Méthode de clarinette (1802)

By 1811, ten and eleven keys were common on clarinets and harder wood was used to help with the additional weight of the keys. Louis Spohr (1784-1859) famously requested an eleven-keyed clarinet be used for his First Clarinet Concerto, op. 26. Some clarinetists continued upgrading their instrument as changes were made, but many found an instrument they loved and played on for the duration of their careers. For example, the virtuoso Heinrich Baermann played on a ten-keyed boxwood all his life.

New repertoire was composed for the improved clarinet. Several important works were written in a short time by the opera composer Carl Maria von Weber (1786-1826) for the virtuoso Heinrich Baermann (1784-1847). Weber and Baermann had a great friendship that resulted in many performances and compositions. Baermann’s beautiful playing inspired Weber to compose a concertino which was so successful that he also wrote two concerti, and a clarinet quintet in less than a year. These are masterworks in the clarinet repertoire and highlight Weber’s operatic style. Like the Mozart concerto, they exhibit the agility, nuance, colors, and especially singing qualities of the clarinet.

The second movement of the second concerto is titled “Romanze.” It sounds like an aria and even has a recitative section that intensifies the dramatic playing capable by the clarinet.

Extensive improvements were made by Ivan Müller (1786-1854), resulting in performers and makers considering the B-flat clarinet as the sole clarinet. Ultimately it was decided that other pitch centers for clarinets would still be used, but the need for a one in each key (as in the tradition of a consort), became obsolete.51 Müller also promoted having the reed down on the mouthpiece rather than up. This was an important pedagogical advancement that affected tone, articulation, and stamina. However, the reed down method of playing was not universally adopted across Europe. Italian clarinetists played with the reed up into the twentieth century.

Pedagogically, new strides continued to be made. Klosé (1808-1880) and Carl

Baermann (1810-1885), son of Heinrich Baermann, wrote method treatises demonstrating

51 Eric Hoeprich, The Clarinet (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008) 136. 22

even more thoroughness in preparation for the player (particularly finger combinations), as well as inventive exercises and insight on embouchure, breathing, tone and style.

These methods are still used extensively today. In the 1840s, Klosé worked with Louis-

Auguste Buffet to create yet another improved clarinet based on Theobald Boehm’s flute design. Similarly, in Germany Carl Baermann and Georg Ottensteiner improved a clarinet that was later adjusted by Oehler to make the modern Oehler-system clarinet.

Today both clarinet types are used; the Boehm is still made by Buffet in France and the

Oehler is used in German orchestras. Both provide benefits and differences in playing, but both systems are used for all manner of repertoire and are considered standard.

19th Century Italy

Music in Italy during the nineteenth century was marked by a national obsession with opera. Opera was the main employer for orchestras, which resulted in composers writing great operas and instrumentalists developing the playing style to match.52 Ernesto

Cavallini (1807-1874) was a remarkable player for whom Rossini and Verdi both wrote large opera solos, including Verdi’s exquisite solo in La Forza del Destino (1862).

Players were celebrated for their ability to imitate the singing voice, despite using clarinets that were less developed than in other parts of Europe.

Alfredo Vena makes the point that the clarinet organology in Italy is difficult to trace due to the many wars in the region.53 He suggests that initially clarinets were

52 Alfredo Vena, “The Nineteenth-Century Italian Clarinet Tradition and its Revaluation;”(Rome: Aracne, 2007) 26. 53 Alfredo Vena, “The Nineteenth-Century Italian Clarinet Tradition and its Revaluation;”(Rome: Aracne, 2007) 36. 23

imported, but then makers had traditions based in three performance schools: Neopolitan,

Bolognese, and Milanese. Liverani in the Neopolitan school was more interested in organological innovation and adopted the Boehm-system clarinet, while Cavallini, from the Milanese school, famously played a six-keyed clarinet his whole career.54 Sebastiani worked with the instrument maker Gennaro Bosa to create key work that differed from other parts of Europe as it utilized thumb keys for the right hand. (Players elsewhere would have used the left-hand pinky for those keys.) It is a bit curious that the Italian school used clarinets with so few keys, but as keys were added in France and Germany, the reed up position changed to reed down. Perhaps this made the Italian players hesitant to adopt keywork changes. Several accounts suggest that the reed up method of playing resulted in more varied articulation, a sweeter more vocal tone, and allowed for greater flexibility.55 It was a distinguishing trait of the Italian school.

The Italian body of solo clarinet repertoire from the nineteenth century is primarily comprised of concerti, fantasias, and theme and variations. Clarinetists recycled popular opera melodies to entertain audiences. The clarinet was ideal for this practice because it could play in more than three octaves, allowing for variety in color and more natural imitation of the arias sung by both women and men. Repertoire from other countries from the same period is a bit more diverse. Due in large part to Cavallini’s expert musical playing, the clarinet was most prominently celebrated as an important

54 Alfredo Vena, The Nineteenth-Century Italian Clarinet Tradition and its Revaluation (Rome: Aracne, 2007) 37-38. 55 Pearson, 208-209, Alfredo Vena, The Nineteenth-Century Italian Clarinet Tradition and its Revaluation (Rome: Aracne, 2007) 30. 24

member of the opera orchestra. 56

Singers experienced changes in the mid-nineteenth century, due in part to the rapid evolution of instruments. As organological developments occurred, instruments became louder, more reliable, and more in tune. Players developed advanced skills, allowing them to fly through virtuosic passages, thrilling composers and audiences alike.

Orchestras were larger, inspiring composers to write more complex orchestration, making it difficult to sing over. These changes required vocalists to use greater projection, sacrificing floridity and delicacy in interpretation.57 The eighteenth-century flutist,

Johann Joachim Quantz (1697-1773), observed that singers believed they had greater ability to move audiences and that instrumentalists sought to prove them wrong. As a result, singers and instrumentalists would add too many embellishments to outshine each other and grab the attention of the listeners.58

By the last half of the nineteenth century, instrumentalist had become remarkable soloists and revered performers with their own traditions. The bel canto era was coming to a close with much heavier singing now in style.59 Giovanni Battista Lamperti (1839-

1910) suggested that by learning excellent technique a singer could master any style, including that required in Wagner or Verdi. 60 This is important pedagogically in that

Lamperti acknowledged the difference between a singer’s technique and the style prescribed by a piece. Singers were now required to perform in more than one style,

56 Alfredo Vena, The Nineteenth-Century Italian Clarinet Tradition and its Revaluation (Rome: Aracne, 2007) 22. 57 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 219. 58 The embellishments hindered projection and may have been taxing for the singers. 59 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 219. 60 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 222. 25

resulting in a pedagogical shift towards the development of voice technique separately from the development of style. Arguably, this is still the case today as many musicians are taught in the ‘classical’ tradition before venturing to jazz, pop, or other genres.

Another advancement that altered singing forever was the invention of the laryngoscope by Manuel Garcia II in 1855. This device allowed Garcia to view the vocal folds during singing and resulted in a new approach to pedagogy: the scientific approach.

The scientific approach was the first to include true explanations of biomechanics with the art of music making. This changed the course of voice pedagogy and influenced music pedagogy as a whole. From this time onward, teachers have sought to find a balance in what John Potter calls ‘pragmatic’ versus ‘scientific,’ pedagogy. 61 The addition of anatomy and physiology took much longer to develop in the clarinet tradition.

Brief references to anatomy can be seen in literature from the mid-twentieth century, and only recently have some pedagogues begun to teach with reference to physiology.62

Summary

The history of voice and clarinet pedagogy demonstrates that singing was extremely important to the development of the modern techniques, styles, and pedagogy of the clarinet. Qualities of the human voice were so valued that as instruments developed, the players were encouraged to emulate singers. The clarinet was praised for this early on in its history. Bel canto style and techniques were adopted by early

61 John Potter, “Rediscovering Lost Voices,” in Companion to Medieval and Renaissance Music. ed. Tess Knighton and David Fallows (California: University of California Press, 1992) 311. 62 The pragmatic style of teaching is still overwhelming more common for clarinet pedagogues than the scientific approach. 26

clarinetists and are demonstrated in the clarinet repertoire. Solo works by Mozart, Weber,

Schubert, and Rossini (as well as many others) resemble the aria in form and use the clarinet vocally in terms of range, color, and phrasing. The clarinet was also used extensively in opera as well as in many chamber works alongside the voice. 63 This repertoire developed in conjunction with advancements of the instrument; the organology of the clarinet shows that players worked with instrument makers to improve upon bel canto ideals in new models.

The trajectory of voice pedagogy led from great performers sharing insight in method treatises, to developing intricate figurative language to teach students, to the separation of bel canto style from singing technique, and to the application of anatomy to further explore pedagogy. These events are all mirrored in the clarinet pedagogy.

The next chapters will explore breathing, use of tone, and phrase nuance to determine how modern voice techniques may provide new ideas for clarinetists.

63 Clarinet historian Albert Rice notes as many as 28 works for clarinet and voice in his article ‘The Repertoire for Voice, Clarinet, and Orchestra or Piano ca. 1780-1888’ from The Clarinet in September 2018. 27

Chapter 3. Breathing for Clarinet; Breathing for Voice

“A lifetime may well be devoted to learning and applying the principles of breath culture, doubtlessly the most important item in successful clarinet playing.” Keith Stein (1908-1980)64

Clarinet playing and singing require good control of the breath. The way a performer uses breath affects the reliability, quality, loudness of sound, as well as the health and longevity of the performer/instrument. Modern breathing methods are highly controversial and vary greatly from teacher to teacher. Singers and clarinetists seek to cultivate breathing methods that are comfortable, efficient, consistent, and effective in producing the many expressive qualities demanded by the repertoire. Although breathing for singing and clarinet playing differ, there are many similarities in how the body is used as well as in how breathing methods are taught. For example, specific breathing methods for singing (like the appoggio method from bel canto) can be compared to the clarinet breathing method described by Keith Stein. One vast difference is that several modern voice pedagogy resources explain in scientific detail how the human body is used in singing, while clarinet resources tend to be figurative in explanation. Much of this research appears to be applicable to clarinetists, though voice-specific terms make the literature difficult to comprehend for non-singers.65 Appreciating the physiological

64 David Pino. “The Clarinet Teaching of Keith Stein: Part Five: More on Breathing and Breath Control.” The Clarinet, December 2003, 41. 65 In “The Structure and Movement of Clarinet Playing,” doctoral dissertation by Dr. Sherri Rolf, she uses anatomy and physiology proposed by vocal research to better understand breathing for clarinet. 28

nuances of breathing may help clarify and refine clarinet methods.

This chapter will demonstrate that research conducted in the anatomy and physiology for singing can likely be applied to clarinet playing. In order to explore this transfer of knowledge one must consider first, how clarinetists currently breathe to play the clarinet, as well as how they teach breathing. The breathing techniques and suggestions from nine pedagogues will be described. Their opinions are not exhaustive but are representative of the instruction clarinet students are likely to encounter in lessons and study.

Breathing for Clarinet Playing: Pedagogic Trends

Breathing in music is taught in several ways: through demonstrations, figurative descriptions of breathing processes, explanations of anatomy and physiology, and through exercises designed to promote feeling sensations of the breath or strengthening the breathing muscles. Most clarinet pedagogy sources that address breathing use figurative descriptions, sensation-based breath suggestions, and explanations of anatomy.

The following examples demonstrate a wide variety of opinions from the 1950s to the present, provided by a wide variety of important clarinet pedagogues.

The first example is from Daniel Bonade, who in his Clarinetist’s Compendium from 1957 provides suggestions for ‘blowing’ and ‘breathing.’66 He uses visualizations to

66 Daniel Bonade (1896-1977) was a French clarinetist and pedagogue who studied at the Paris Conservatory, then made his career in the U.S.A. as the principal clarinet of the Philadelphia Orchestra under Stokowski. Bonade is immortalized through the chapter in his compendium on articulation. His breathing suggestions are vague compared to the articulation portion. Rather than explaining his whole method, these are more like ‘tips’ or quick reminders. This may also demonstrate the French trend of 29

explain that on the exhalation, “The tone should be produced in the same manner as one would use to blow out a candle from a distance—that is, with a small stream of wind, as intense as possible, projecting the tone out of the instrument as a singer uses his voice.”

He goes on to say for the inhalation that “Breathing should come from the diaphragm,” and that the breath should not only fill the upper lungs but that the player should “fill his lungs all the way to the bottom, thus expanding the diaphragm.”67 Bonade’s comments are concise. While he spends pages on articulation and reed adjustment, only two small paragraphs comprise his advice for breathing. The terms support and control are not included in his advice.

Another brief example comes from William Stubbins in his book, The Study of the

Clarinet from 1970. He provides a sketch that is meant to demonstrate how the lungs and diaphragm move during inhalation and exhalation.68 Stubbins advises the player that

“The exhalation of the breath must be steady and even with muscular support at all times.”69 Like Bonade, Stubbins provides only a few suggestions about how to breathe for clarinet playing. He does not explain which muscles should be supporting, and if they should pull in or push out. The drawing is a two-dimensional depiction of a three- dimensional process, making it difficult to understand his exact recommendations. It is interesting that the stomach stays in the same position for all three phases of the breath

developing (comparatively) simplistic breathing methods, where other schools of playing used more complex breathing methods. 67 Daniel Bonade, The Clarinetist’s Compendium (Wisconsin: Leblanc Publications, Inc., 1962) 3. 68 William Stubbins was the professor of clarinet at the University of Michigan for many years. He was a renowned pedagogue and player. 69 William Stubbins, The Study of the Clarinet: An Introduction to the Problems of Clarinet Playing, (Michigan: Piansano Press, 1991) 7. 30

cycle (at rest, inhalation, exhalation). It appears that he is advocating upper rib expansion during both the inhalation and exhalation, (the upper lungs appear to remain expanded at all times) though this could be induced due to the prescribed muscular posture.

Presumably some abdominal expansion takes place as he advises the player that “not only the upper chest cavity but also that the lower chest cavity is expanded.”

Figure 2. Sketch of lungs while breathing for clarinet playing, drawn by Stubbins.

Jack Brymer, offers a completely different visualization in his book Clarinet, from 1976. 70 He suggests that the player should avoid thinking of the clarinet as a tube to blow down, but rather as “one continuous air-column starting at the diaphragm, passing through the thoracic cavities, and resonated in the chamber of the mouth as it sets the reed in motion, after which it continues inside the clarinet and ends slightly beyond the bell-end…”71 He describes the air as a piston with the start of the motion occurring in the diaphragm, and with the “one point of resistance in this system of movement- the

70 Jack Brymer was a British clarinetist who had an illustrious solo career and played principal clarinet with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. 71 Jack Brymer, Clarinet (London: Macdonald and Jane’s, 1976) 157. 31

aperture between the reed and mouthpiece, varied by the pressure of the embouchure.”

Brymer’s explanation seems to be centered on addressing intra-oral pressure, or back pressure. By asking the player to maintain both columns of air, he implies that there is no collapse of the musculature during the exhalation in regulating breath flow, though does not explicitly advise that. He says that the only change in air should occur at the reed and that, “the rest must remain smooth and continuous.”72 This means that throat should not constrict to assist with air support.

David Pino, author of The Clarinet and Clarinet Playing (1980),73 proposes that the airflow of the clarinetist must “travel” like that of a violinist’s bow.74 He explains that he prefers to teach breathing subjectively, because “It is not so much what the muscles are actually doing to support the airflow that matters to the player, but, rather, what it all feels like.”75 He continues by describing the two parts of the airflow as “(1) pressure, which is a “constant,” and (2) speed, which is a “variable.”76 He advocates a constant pressure in the “waistline” and refers to this as breath support. Pino then describes air speed as either a motorized road-roller or a huge semitruck. The heavy road-roller represents the pressure required for “low, soft tones on the clarinet: The air does not have to move rapidly, but it still must move with great force.” The powerful semitruck

72 Jack Brymer, Clarinet (London: Macdonald and Jane’s, 1976) 157. 73 David Pino was a student of Keith Stein. He taught at Texas State University for many years. 74 David Pino, The Clarinet and Clarinet Playing (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1980) 46. 75 David Pino, The Clarinet and Clarinet Playing (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1980) 46. 76 David Pino, The Clarinet and Clarinet Playing (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1980) 46. It seems that Pino encourages the student to always engage muscles of the abdomen for a steady breath support while allowing the speed of the air flow of the exhalation to vary with the music. His wording suggests that the air flow is not reliant on the pressure in the lungs. This would contradict Bernoulli’s Principle which states that a fluid or gas flowing through a tube will experience an increase in velocity and a decrease in pressure at the point where the tube narrows. (Titze, 70-73). 32

speeding down a freeway represents the speed and power needed to produce “loud, high notes on the clarinet.”77 Pino clarifies that this analogy has been useful in teaching, and that he is not certain if the air pressure actually increases as the speed decreases, but has had good results with students when they envision constant air pressure. Pino discusses teaching breathing by first having the student imagine a balloon inside them at their waistline that fills completely and expands the belt with it. Pino mentions the violin bow again, and that all the “subtleties of “strokes” should be remembered when controlling the air. He mentions musculature briefly to say that many teachers stress the importance of the diaphragm, which is not directly in the control of the player. He recommends that “it is very helpful to know that if it feels as if your stomach is the muscle doing all the work, you are taking the correct approach to supporting your airflow. The entire abdominal area, in fact, should feel as if it is putting forth a great amount of effort… Chest expansion will take care of itself.”78 It is unclear which way Pino advocates the abdominals should move or hold, and if low abdominal muscles or those of the solar plexus area are being described.

In a handout from the lecture, “A ‘SOUND’ Approach to Stellar Clarinet

Technique,” presented at the Midwest Clinic in 2005, Caroline Hartig recommends the player take a double breath, filling the abdomen and then the chest cavity, as well as suggests expanding sideways like an accordion.79 She addresses the importance of using the correct syllable on the inhale, ‘whee,’ which “helps to get the tongue high/back and

77 David Pino, The Clarinet and Clarinet Playing (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1980) 47. 78 David Pino, The Clarinet and Clarinet Playing (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1980) 48. 79 Dr. Caroline Hartig is the current professor of clarinet at The Ohio State University. She is an internationally known performer and was the president of the International Clarinet Association. 33

allows the air to travel fast, creating a natural venturi.”80 Many pedagogues talk about the

‘ee’ vowel needed to produce a quality tone on the clarinet, but few mention its importance during the inhalation. Using the ‘whee’ syllable helps the player get a fast, full breath and maintains the desired throat and tongue position during both the inhalation and exhalation. Hartig recommends preventing the air from increasing too much while ascending to the higher register. She also makes the important observation that the way the player uses wind affects what instrument and mouthpiece the player will be drawn to as well as the strength and cut of the reeds they ultimately choose.

Michèle Gingras 81 talks about the human body serving as an extension of the resonance chamber of the clarinet in her book, Clarinet Secrets (2004).82 She suggests that “if the lungs (resonance box) are filled with air before playing a note, the tone will sound much richer than if the note is started with empty lungs.” Gingras encourages the student to set a relaxed, expanded posture (especially in the spine) as well as opening the throat as if to yawn. Then she says, “Now that your throat and back muscles are in the proper position, you can work with your diaphragm, which is a strong muscle that allows the lungs to expand and contract.” She insists that students use the diaphragm rather than the abdomen muscles. She also encourages an expanded rib cage with the expanded abdominal muscles outward. For the exhalation, Gingras suggests feeling back pressure

80 Caroline Hartig, “A “SOUND” Approach to Stellar Clarinet Technique,” Vandoren Paris, Dansr, accessed April 26, 2020, https://www.dansr.com/vandoren/resources/a-sound-approach-to-stellar-clarinet- technique-and-how-to-improve-the-technical-command-of-your-band-and-orchestra-clarinet-section. 81 Gingras is currently teaches at Butler University. She previously held the position of Distinguished Professor of Clarinet at Miami University in Ohio. 82 Michèle Gingras, Clarinet Secrets: 52 Performance Strategies for the Advanced Clarinetist (Maryland: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2004.) 70. 34

by preparing to say ‘p’ in the moment after expanding. 83 She encourages the student to maintain this outward push on the exhale, so the abdomen does not move inward.

“Concentrate on exhaling with the diaphragm instead of the abdominal muscles.” Gingras encourages this outward expansion until the very end of the exhalation when “it is necessary to push the abdomen muscle in to let the remaining air out. The important aspect of this exercise is to gain control of the diaphragm.” Gingras provides one other insight, that the “good use of air can also enhance mental concentration.”84

Kimberly Cole Luevano presented a lecture called “The Building Blocks of

Sound” at the Montana/Idaho Clarinet Festival in 2011.85 Luevano offered several exercises to feel the breath including demonstrations with a breath builder,86 breathing with a book on one’s belly, and blowing up a balloon while concentrating on blowing from down low rather than with the chest muscles. On the corresponding handout,

Luevano advises the player to “feel that the ribs are expanding and/or “floating” instead of staying fixed into place.” She also recommends that the sternum rises, and that expansion occurs in the abdominal region as well as the back, and chest. 87 Regarding exhalation, she advocates maintaining constant, steady “outward” pressure and with the

“force needed to blow against the resistance of your clarinet.” Additionally, she specifies

83 Michèle Gingras, Clarinet Secrets: 52 Performance Strategies for the Advanced Clarinetist (Maryland: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2004.) 72. 84 Michèle Gingras, Clarinet Secrets: 52 Performance Strategies for the Advanced Clarinetist (Maryland: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2004.), 73. 85 Dr. Kimberly Cole Luevano is Professor of Clarinet at the University of North Texas. 86 The breath builder is a plastic tube with a ping-pong ball inside. It has holes on the top and a thick straw attached through which the player breathes in and out. The resistance provided by the ball helps train the muscle of both inhalation and exhalation. 87Luevano, Kim Cole. “Building Blocks of Sound.” (lecture presented at the Montana/Idaho Clarinet Festival, Music Recital Hall, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, October 8, 2011). 35

that the volume of air is “the amount of air pushed out of the clarinet,” but that “velocity and/or density should most often remain constant.”88

The Art of Clarinet Playing, by Keith Stein, written in 1958,89 offers many important suggestions and observations about breathing for clarinet playing. The tone of his writing is also calm, knowledgeable, and thorough which contrasts with the abrupt suggestions presented by his contemporaries such as Bonade. In the introduction to the chapter, “Breathing and Support,” he begins by saying, “The embouchure has…been compared in importance to the human heart; breath compares with the life blood flowing through the heart.”90 Then he reminds the reader that the breath is “the impetus which causes vibration (sound).” This artistic introduction inspires the reader to see breathing as an art, not merely a necessary evil of clarinet playing. He continues to explain that breathing is done to keep us alive, that the air we breathe is comprised of 21% oxygen.

Because carbon dioxide is a poison to humans it is important to exhale completely with each breath. When a full exhalation has occurred, it allows our natural impulse to easily and instinctually refill the lungs. “By centering attention upon emptying the lungs there will be no problem of re-filling them.” Stein encourages the clarinetist to think about the

“depth” of air instead of “quantity.” He describes breath control by saying that the breath is “maintained by muscular control (support) and is distributed upward at exactly the rate that it can be received into and through the clarinet.” He describes the air as never getting

88 Luevano, Kim Cole. “Building Blocks of Sound.” (lecture presented at the Montana/Idaho Clarinet Festival, Music Recital Hall, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, October 8, 2011). 89 Keith Stein (1908-1990) is regarded as one of the greatest clarinet pedagogues, especially for American playing. He taught at Michigan State University from 1934-1975. 90 Keith Stein, The Art of Clarinet Playing (Florida: Summy-Birchard Music, 1958) 18. 36

stuck or clogging the channels along the way to the mouthpiece, but rather the air remains

“billowy, fluffy, and light.”91

Regarding the exhalation, Stein offers a unique insight: “The more muscular push applied against the breath, the greater its resistance.” Then he describes the relationship between support and exhaled breath with a chart that shows that the breath quantity is greatest at the fortissimo dynamic while the muscular support is least; and conversely the muscular support is greatest at the pianissimo dynamic while the breath quantity is least.

He considers this concept to be advanced and credits it in part to Marcel Tabuteau. Stein encourages the beginner to use steady muscular support while learning to change the breath quantity. He then provides some exercises to lead a student to feel the correct sensation, particularly for understanding breath control.

Another thorough description of breathing for clarinet playing is offered by

Reiner Wehle in his method book from 2007, Clarinet Fundamentals 1.92 Wehle begins the chapter titled, “Breathing and Posture,” by stating that “Breathing and posture together make up an inseparable unit.” 93 He explains that posture provides the basis for how the body moves and determines how the breath can be used. Mastery of the whole body is required to play the clarinet. Wehle cautions the student that few players reach expert level mastery of breath due to many elements that can be learned or executed incorrectly.94 He makes the novel observation that “the whole point of tone, legato and

91 Keith Stein, The Art of Clarinet Playing (Florida: Summy-Birchard Music, 1958) 18. 92 Reiner Wehle is a German clarinetist. He is an internationally known performer and has taught at the Musikhochschule Lübeck since 1992. 93 Reiner Wehle, Clarinet Fundamentals 1, Germany: Schott Music GmbH & Co. KG, 2007) 9. 94 Reiner Wehle, Clarinet Fundamentals 1, Germany: Schott Music GmbH & Co. KG, 2007) 9. 37

articulation exercises is to get rid of false posture and tensions…” by coordinating the breath, mind, and ear. He also observes that because breathing is a “holistic process,” it is affected by the state of mind of the student. He recommends that the student should be in a “favourable psychological state” when working on breathing.95 For a quality breath,

Wehle advises that “the diaphragm, in combination with the trunk muscles” are responsible for breathing. For “full breathing” the “abdominal cavity” and chest are also engaged. Wehle advises “breathing out” during the rests to allow the poor air to be released before taking a fresh breath.96 He offers breathing advice by addressing common

“breathing errors.” The first error he identifies is breathing with raised shoulders, which he associates with fearful playing. He describes the shoulder muscles as connecting the embouchure with the trunk and thus shoulder tension impedes tone production. He additionally provides advice for the holistic player relating head position to tongue tension, and back tension to head angle, and the importance of the pelvis position in relation to the torso and legs.97

Wehle defines breath support as serving three purposes. The first is acting as a stabilizer for the body through the engagement of the abdominal muscles, the second, “it ensures control and evenness of air release,” and third, it serves “in a finely-tuned interplay of diaphragm, trunk muscles and intercostal muscles on the one hand and embouchure tension and opening of the larynx on the other.”98 Relating the embouchure with the larynx to the larger, more obvious muscles of breathing in a full-body model of

95 Reiner Wehle, Clarinet Fundamentals 1, Germany: Schott Music GmbH & Co. KG, 2007) 9. 96 Reiner Wehle, Clarinet Fundamentals 1, Germany: Schott Music GmbH & Co. KG, 2007) 10. 97 Reiner Wehle, Clarinet Fundamentals 1, Germany: Schott Music GmbH & Co. KG, 2007) 11. 98 Reiner Wehle, Clarinet Fundamentals 1, Germany: Schott Music GmbH & Co. KG, 2007) 10. 38

breath control is unique. Wehle’ advice closely aligns with that suggested by vocal pedagogues, providing support for the notion that some players have found success with strategies that resemble vocal breathing.

Another pedagogue who offers instruction that parallels vocal teaching is Michael

Webster.99 In three articles written for The Clarinet in 2010-2011, 100 Webster provides advice on breathing for advanced clarinetists and teachers. In the first article, Webster describes some yoga-based breath exercises to feel the sensations of breathing.101 Though the application of the techniques to clarinet playing is a bit vague, it is clear that he is advocating an artistic approach to breathing similar to Keith Stein. He advises exhaling completely before inhaling in a phrase, taking breaths that match the phrase length (rather than huge breaths), and taking fewer breaths to avoid excess remaining in the lungs. In the second article, Webster relays some ideas about anatomy, noting a connection between the diaphragm and heart, as well as smaller diaphragms “—pelvic and vocal— that work in conjunction with the main diaphragm.”102 Webster goes on to briefly describe the primary muscles for breathing, then the secondary muscles, noting that these are meant to be used for a short amount of time to support the primary muscles. He concludes the second article by advising that students practice and explore breathing away from the instrument.

In his third article, “No Visible Means of Support,” Webster makes mention of

99 Michael Webster teaches at Shepherd School of Music at Rice University. He wrote a column called “Teaching Clarinet” for The Clarinet for several years. 100 The Clarinet is a scholarly journal, published quarterly by the International Clarinet Association. 101 Michael Webster, “Breathe Well, Be Well, Part 1,” The Clarinet, December 2010, 6. 102 Michael Webster, “Breathe Well, Be Well, Part 2,”The Clarinet, March 2011, 7.

the difficulties of teaching breathing due to the lack of visibility of the muscles engaged in the process and the need for sensation-based descriptions. He also notes that if a teacher explains things with the incorrect terminology, at times it may still lead to the desired result. His example is “blow from your diaphragm,” which he found effective as a developing student because he had been taught the diaphragm was lower than it actually was.103 (The diaphragm does not actively participate in the exhalation. Therefore, it is not possible to “blow from the diaphragm.” Because Webster had been taught that the term diaphragm referred to the deep part of the abdomen, he may have experienced the viscera ascending and thought he was experiencing the diaphragm contract.) Webster then describes breathing referring to specific muscles and organs from modern anatomy sources. He mentions that after reading about the anatomy of breath and yoga breathing, he sought additional sources that would specifically address “controlled exhalation against resistance” which led him to seek out vocal sources. Webster provides descriptions of breathing by Francesco Lamperti and relays brief descriptions of appoggio breathing as well as Lutta vocale.104 Webster is very enthusiastic about the opposing forces used in appoggio and lutta vocale,105 and said, “now I understand what

103 Michael Webster, “No Visible Means of Support,” The Clarinet, June 2011, 6. 104 Lutta vocale, or lutte vocale mean ‘vocal struggle’ in French. The term was used first by Dr. Louis Mandl in Hygiene de la Voix of 1876. Lutte vocale refers to the struggle between the muscles of inspiration and expiration as well as the larynx to create breath support. (James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 99-100.) 105 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 118. Lamperti describes Lutte vocale well: “To sustain a given note the air should be expelled slowly’ to attain this end, the respiratory muscles, by continuing their action, strive to retain the air in the lungs, and oppose their action to that of the expiratory muscles, which, at the same time, drive it out for the production of the note.” James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 100. 40

I’ve been doing all these years.”106 Although Webster excitedly introduces the idea of appoggio, the reality of applying this technique to clarinet playing is not fully explained.

Webster equates appoggio to breath support, when in reality it is a larger system of breath control that involves the posture, muscles of inhalation and exhalation, as well as the glottis in the larynx. Nevertheless, this supports the notion that vocal breathing may help clarinetists.

After reviewing this wide range of sources from well-known clarinet teachers, some trends stand out. Most teachers advocate maintaining some level of expansion (or at least resisting collapse) on the exhalation. Many agree that breathing is highly dependent on good posture. Several teachers advocate ‘letting out’ after a phrase to complete the exhalation before inhaling for the next phrase. Some of these sources offer advice that address more than methodology providing suggestions for more advanced teaching and use. (e.g., Wehle’s observation that the state of mind is important to learning to breathe, and Hartig’s observation that the breath should not continue up with the pitch.) Figurative descriptions of breathing processes, and exercises designed to promote feeling sensations of the breath are frequently used to teach breathing for clarinet playing. There is a clear interest in anatomy as a source to understand and teach breathing, although clarinet teachers often describe only one muscle or group of muscles, lacking a holistic application. Some teachers recommend seeking vocal lessons or consulting voice research to better understand breathing. Clarinet pedagogues also discuss breath as if

106 Michael Webster, “No Visible Means of Support,” The Clarinet, June 2011, 7.

there is only one correct method. They rarely mention the variation in anatomy from person to person that has resulted in the development of multiple functional breathing methods.

Modern voice pedagogues have researched the anatomy of the human body, physiology, and physics related to breathing as well as tone production. Some have also identified precise breathing methods and provide explanations about their distinguishable traits. To understand these separate methods, a basic explanation of the human anatomy related to breathing will be provided. Following that, several key breathing methods for singing will be explained to demonstrate perspectives that may be easily adopted by clarinetists.

Breathing Anatomy and Physiology in Singing

As it is mentioned above, breathing for singing and clarinet playing is taught through demonstrations, figurative descriptions, explanations of anatomy and physiology, and through exercises designed to feel or strengthen breathing muscles. The primary difference seems to be in the acquisition and use of research pertaining to anatomy and physiology. Over the past seventy years, voice pedagogues have been conducting research to determine the physiological basis to explain how singers breathe. A brief summary of the breathing process follows. No doubt many of these processes and considerations made for singing are directly comparable to breathing for clarinet playing, and likely other wind instruments as well.

The lungs are used by the body to transfer oxygen to the blood stream or remove

carbon dioxide from the body. They are not muscles, but organs comprised of millions of alveoli air sacs. This means they cannot move on their own, but rather are set in motion by the contraction of muscles in the torso. The lungs are protected by the ribcage

(thorax), which has ribs that move and flex as well as the breastbone (sternum) which also has some flexibility. Many different muscles contract to create the motion in the thorax required for respiration. The primary muscles of respiration are the diaphragm

(which separates the lungs from other organs like the stomach and liver), external intercostals, internal intercostal (muscles between and connecting the ribs), external obliques, internal obliques, rectus abdominus, transverse abdominis, (all pairs of muscles in the abdomen), and quadratus lumborum (also muscles of the abdomen but in the lower back).

The diaphragm is mentioned often in literature about breathing. It is a large muscle that divides the thorax from the abdomen. It is bowl shaped and connects to the tip of the sternum as well as the lower ribs. When it contracts, the diaphragm becomes flatter, increasing the volume capacity of the thorax, and pressing against the abdominal viscera (organs such as stomach and liver). Vennard explains that the contraction of the diaphragm is coordinated with the contraction of the external intercostal muscles that expand the ribcage.107 Stark points out that there is a great deal of debate among pedagogues about whether one can feel the diaphragm and whether one can directly control it.108 The diaphragm is passive during the exhalation, and cannot extend lower

107 William Vennard, Singing: The Mechanism and the Technic, Revised Ed. (New York: Carl Fischer, 1967) 24. 108 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 113-114. 43

that the last rib.109 This means it cannot push air out during the exhalation.110 The sensation that many musicians describe of the diaphragm’s involvement in breathing

(especially in literature from the mid-twentieth century) is the shifting of the abdominal viscera in response to the contracting diaphragm, rather than feeling the diaphragm itself contracting.111

The lungs are connected to the interior wall of the ribcage with the pleural membrane. This membrane ensures that as dimensional changes occur in the thorax, the same changes occur in the lungs. McCoy explains this process clearly in the chapter,

“Respiration” in Your Voice: An Inside View. He states that “if the thorax gets bigger or smaller, the lungs do the same.”112 The way the thorax moves is dependent (primarily) on the various muscle groups listed above. In order “to inhale, the volume capacity of the thorax and lungs must be increased.” This means that muscles of inspiration (external intercostals and diaphragm) contract to draw the lungs open. Then, because the air pressure in the expanded lungs is less than the atmospheric pressure, a vacuum is created which leads to air pouring into the lungs. To exhale, “the thorax and lungs are made smaller, decreasing their volume and thereby increasing air pressure.”113 The exhalation is largely accomplished by the internal intercostal muscles (that draw the ribcage in) and abdominal muscles (that contract to push the abdominal viscera back up). 114

109 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed., (Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 122. 110 Donald R. Mathis, Melodic Sculpturing: The Art and Science of Singing, (Indiana: Donald R. Mathis, 2009) 56. 111 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed.,( Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 122. 112 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed., (Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 120. 113 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed., (Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 120. 114 Ingo R. Titze, Principles of Voice Production (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1994) 65. 44

When thinking of the ‘big picture’ of the breathing process, one must remember that a valve is required for air to enter and leave the lungs. When one breathes in, the air enters the nose or mouth, travels through the pharynx, then through the larynx to the windpipe (trachea), then to the bronchial tubes, to the lungs. The muscles of the larynx control the glottis (opening between the vocal folds), which acts as the valve for air entering and leaving the lungs. The vocal folds are located on the edge of the glottis.

When the vocal folds are adducted,115 the glottis is closed; when the vocal folds are abducted, the glottis is open. When the vocal folds oscillate, phonation occurs. Singing is a type of phonation.

Another part of the breathing process, tracheal pull, is relevant to this study. The larynx (voice box) is comprised of cartilages, ligaments, membranes, and small muscles suspended from the hyoid bone.116 The many parts and flexibility of the anatomy allow for many subtle movements, including swallowing and a wide variety of articulations, as well as phonation via the vocal folds. The trachea (windpipe) is connected to the larynx

(voice box) by membrane and cartilage. As the diaphragm muscle and external intercostal muscles contract during inhalation, they cause the lungs to expand downward. The bronchial tubes, trachea, and larynx are all pulled slightly downward with the force drawing the lungs open. This is known as tracheal pull.117 This is important to singing, because as the larynx moves up or down, it affects the length and shape of the vocal tract, thereby affecting the pitch and resonance of a phonated note. McCoy points out that it is

115 One can feel the adduction of the vocal folds when lifting a heavy object. 116 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed., (Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 157-158. 117 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed.,( Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 180. 45

not ideal to firmly use laryngeal muscles to hold the larynx down, but rather to allow “the gentle anchoring of the depressor muscles,” to “maintain a stable laryngeal posture.”118

This means muscles of respiration may be used to influence the vertical position of the larynx. The larynx residing in this slightly lowered position is likely linked to the idea of singing with ‘an open throat.’

Breathing for singing is different than breathing for everyday life because the singer needs to control the exhalation. The exhaled stream of air must be fast enough to maintain a full, steady sound, and the duration must be long enough to sing a full phrase.

In ordinary breathing, the thorax and abdomen are allowed to collapse with the exhalation. In singing, the air in the lungs is very often regulated by the muscle of the thorax and abdomen. Singers have developed many systems of breath management to control the air pressure of the lungs, and thereby control the speed and volume of the exhaled air stream.

In Sundberg’s book, The Science of the Singing Voice, his chapter on breathing begins with a description of pressure in the lungs. He states, “The only thing the vocal folds require from the respiratory mechanism is that it provide an overpressure of air in the lungs.” He explains that this means the pressure in the lungs is greater than the atmospheric pressure and identifies it as ‘subglottal pressure.’ Sundberg goes on to say that “subglottic pressure is significant for the amplitude and also… the frequency of phonation.”119 In other words, the over-pressurization of the lungs allows the singer to

118 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed.,( Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 180. 119 Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice (Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987) 25. 46

control (in part) the dynamic range (loudness) and pitch of the voice. The way the singer adjusts the subglottic pressure is ideally accomplished “through the use of muscular antagonism,” according to McCoy.120 The singer contracts opposing muscles of respiration so that an equilibrium of force is achieved.121 Then the singer regulates the exhaled air stream with the glottis (breath control), while regulating lung pressure through muscular antagonism (breath support).122

Below are several figures to identify the anatomy required in breathing for singing.

120 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed., (Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 132. 121 Ingo R. Titze, Principles of Voice Production (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1994) 245. 122 McKinney, 54. Used as an example by Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed., (Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 131. 47

Breathing for Singing

An excellent source to gauge the scope of breathing methods for singing is

English, French, German, and Italian Techniques of Singing from 1977 by, Miller. In the chapter titled, “Mechanics of Breath Management,” Miller describes the muscles and processes used during breathing in detail. He explains that the lungs perform their breathing function with the assistance of surrounding muscles, notably the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm. Miller observes that use of the abdominal muscles as well as other secondary breathing muscles differs significantly based on technique. In the subsequent chapters, Miller describes in detail many different breathing methods and their nationality of origin. A list of these methods can be seen in Figure 11. Miller’s book is an important source because it demonstrates that breathing methods are highly varied.

There is not one successful method, but rather many that all provide different benefits and challenges. However, some are better suited to singing that others. One can surmise the viability of the method is based in part on the means of producing subglottal pressure.

In assessing any breathing method, one might seek to determine which muscles of antagonism are used to create reliable pressure for singing.

Figure 11. Chart of Miller’s Breathing Methods.

Two methods that are used today and do not meet the criteria for muscular- antagonism-induced breath pressure are clavicular breathing and natural breathing.

Clavicular breathing is a common method among beginners of voice and clarinet.

This method is easy to identify as the practitioner raises the collarbones during the inhalation and allows them to drop during the exhalation.123 McCoy describes the pitfalls of clavicular breathing in Your Voice: An Inside View. He explains that clavicular breathing allows for a large volume of air in the lungs, actually more than is needed for musical phrasing, which can result in tension-inducing overfilling or excessive pressurizing of the air in the lungs.124 To combat this problem, the singer must regulate the additional pressure with the larynx. McCoy points out that this results in either a

123 Richard Miller English, French, German and Italian Techniques of Singing (New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1977) 18. 124 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed., (Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 132. 57

breathy sound (as the extra air is released with the tone) or a ‘pressed’ sound, as the glottis is used to hold back the air. Miller notes that the inhalation of a clavicular breath is often marked by a gasping sound, the result of glottal resistance.125 There is not an obvious use of muscular antagonism helping regulate the subglottal pressure. The lack of muscular antagonism, along with excess tension generated in the neck and upper chest, is why this method is not advisable for singing.126 Beginning clarinetists often use clavicular breathing. Wehle advises against lifting the shoulders and is referring to this ill-advised method. As it does for singers, clavicular breathing causes the clarinetist to seek another means of muscular antagonism due to the poor control of the exhalation.

Students who breathe clavicularily may tighten the throat, chest, and arms in an effort to create breath support.

Another breathing method described by Miller is the Natural Breath.127 This may be considered not so much as a method but as an attitude prevalent in the French school of singing. Miller explains that the natural breath is meant to closely resemble that of breathing to speak. In other words, the singer should avoid over-thinking or over-training specific muscles and just breathe as they ordinarily would. In this method, most suggestions are offered in the form of imagery, rather than describing the exact muscles needed to expand and contract in the breathing process. Miller observes that many singers

125 Richard Miller English, French, German and Italian Techniques of Singing (New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1977) 18. 126 Historically this method was used by singers. McCoy points out this was likely due in part to restrictive clothing--especially corsets for women—that only allowed the lungs to expand in the upper chest, preventing the complete contraction of the diaphragm. 127 Richard Miller English, French, German and Italian Techniques of Singing (New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1977) 39. 58

who practice natural breathing “demonstrate a shallow breath which brings the clavicles and shoulder muscles into play.”128 Specific muscles used in antagonism to control subglottal pressure are not described or identified by Miller. Presumably, without specific instruction, muscle use varies a great deal for each singer.129 Natural breathing tendencies can be observed in French clarinetist, Bonade’s description of breathing. As previously described, he provides conceptual instruction without advising specific muscle use.

McCoy describes three other breathing methods for singing that may be useful to clarinetists. In thoracic breathing the expansion on the inhalation occurs via the external intercostal muscles in the lowest six ribs and via the diaphragm in the epigastric region.

McCoy explains that “intercostal contraction is used to increase the circumference of the thorax.”130 He goes on to describe the muscular antagonism: “The thorax is stabilized through simultaneous contraction of the external and internal intercostal muscles during exhalation, resulting in a high degree of control over pulmonary pressure.”131 This type of breath may be alluded to by clarinetist, William Stubbins, but may result in extra tension in the arms while playing. The clarinetist relies on the intercostal muscles to hold the clarinet in addition to breathing. Breathing methods that utilize other parts of the torso to counter the intercostals may be better suited to clarinet playing.

128 Richard Miller English, French, German and Italian Techniques of Singing (New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1977) 40. 129 As a side note, historically, French singing was considered less virtuosic and was considerably less admired than Italian singing. In his treatise, On Playing the Flute, flutist Johann Joachim Quantz (1697- 1773) observed that French singers did not “exhaust the capacities of the human voice,” and suggested that they “require the facility of the tongue, for pronouncing words, more than dexterity of the throat.”129 In short, the complexity in vowel sounds and consonants-- which help make the French language so beautiful—probably allowed French singers to find musical satisfaction in their singing without developing advanced vocal or breathing techniques. 130 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed., (Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 132. 131 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed., (Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 132. 59

When a singer uses abdominal breathing, the diaphragm contracts while the muscles of the abdomen relax during the inhalation. McCoy explains that “As the diaphragm descends, it must displace the incompressible abdominal viscera; relaxation of the abdominal muscles allows this displacement to occur.”132 In other words, if the singer allows the abdominal muscles to relax during the inhalation, the diaphragm muscle will descend and push the organs of the singer down or out, creating space for the lungs to expand. The variation of this technique depends on which muscles of the abdominal region the singer chooses to relax. For example, if “the obliques and transverse muscles are relaxed, expansion will be directed more to the sides.”133 Similarly, if the lower back is relaxed, that is where the expansion will occur. McCoy explains, that if the all five muscle pairs of the abdominal area are relaxed, then “expansion is evenly distributed around the entire torso.” This type of breathing is alluded to by Pino, Hartig, and Gingras.

Some of the variation in their methods may be explained by the choice of abdominal muscles. Gingras advocates forward expansion, while Hartig advocates sideways expansion.

The final type of breathing is called appoggio. This style of breath was developed in conjunction with bel canto singing and is recommended by Miller, McCoy, and Titze.

Appoggio stems from the Italian verb appoggiare, which means “to lean on.”134 Miller describes appoggio as a ‘sterno-costal-diaphragmatic-epigastric breathing method.’135 He

132 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed.,( Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 133. 133 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed.,( Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 133. 134 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed., (Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 134. 135 Richard Miller English, French, German and Italian Techniques of Singing (New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1977) 41. 60

advises the practitioner to view appoggio as beginning first as a “postural attitude: the sternum must remain at a moderately high, poised position throughout the breath cycle.”

The ribcage should also remain gently expanded and the shoulders remain down. Posture actually affects the movement of the diaphragm, and so is very important in singing.

McCoy describes the inhalation of appoggio breathing, which “occurs through contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostals, accompanied by relaxation in the abdominal musculature. The result is an expansion that extends around the base of the thorax and through the middle to lower abdomen.” McCoy continues by stating that

“Exhalation is controlled by the coordinated efforts of the abdominal muscles and the external intercostals—and possibly the diaphragm—which work in gentle antagonism to control pressure in the air supply.”136 As the abdominal muscles pull in, the external intercostals push out allowing for the needed muscular antagonism. An important distinction in appoggio is that “there is no pressing outward against the viscera upon inhalation,” and the inhalation is markedly quiet for this breathing method.137 The muscle use is so balanced that there should not be great changes in sensation from the inhalation to the exhalation.138

Appoggio is a unique breathing method in that it does not separate the breath technique from the tone placement of the voice.139 Stark makes the point that appoggio

136 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed., (Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 134. 137 Richard Miller English, French, German and Italian Techniques of Singing (New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1977) 44. 138 Richard Miller English, French, German and Italian Techniques of Singing (New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1977) 80. 139 Richard Miller English, French, German and Italian Techniques of Singing (New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1977) 80. 61

incorporates the larynx and the balance of glottal pressure during phonation on the exhalation.140 As was explained before, the glottis regulates airflow between the lungs and mouth through the larynx. The larynx structure is also involved in breathing through the tracheal pull, as the vertical position of the larynx is influenced by the muscles of inspiration. This means that appoggio can be considered a complete method, combining posture, breath, and even tone onset. Connecting the larynx with the breathing process was also described by clarinetist Wehle. His holistic breathing approach strongly resembles appoggio. Brymer and Stein also offer suggestions that emphasize the balancing of muscles of the inhalation and exhalation in a way that resembles appoggio.

Michael Webster strongly advocates some elements of appoggio. What considerations need to be made to apply appoggio to clarinet playing?

Application of Appoggio to Clarinet Playing

The breathing types described by McCoy as commonly used by singers today are thoracic, abdominal, and appoggio. Facets of abdominal breathing and appoggio were described by important clarinet pedagogues earlier in the chapter. These may be preferable to thoracic breathing because they place the expansion portion of the breathing lower in the torso than in thoracic breathing. This may have benefits to clarinet players who must hold a four-pound clarinet with muscles of the hands, arms, back, and shoulders. Directing the expansion and muscular antagonism lower in the torso may help distribute the demands on the body of regulating air while holding an instrument.

140 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 93. 62

Appoggio is unique in that, when performed correctly, it perfectly balances the muscles of inhalation with the muscles of exhalation, requiring minimal effort to ‘switch’ from inhalation to exhalation or vice versa.141 This balance additionally helps maintain the ideal laryngeal position (lower than when at rest), which aids in resonance. This also may be what is referred to by some clarinet pedagogues who emphasize playing with an

‘open throat,’ (an instruction that can lead to significant confusion for students.)

Subglottal pressure is achieved through the use of strong muscles, thereby allowing for great stamina and minimal tension in the smaller surrounding muscles (such as neck, throat, chest, and jaw).

An important modern realization is that appoggio is used in two ways. The first is what McCoy calls “chest up/belly in,” and “chest down/belly out.”142 These can be compared to Ingo Titze’s descriptions of the “pear-shape-up approach,” and the “pear- shape-down approach.”143 Similar principles are engaged in each of these two off-shoots of appoggio. They both suggest concentrating on maintaining expansion (either in the rib cage: pear up, or in the abdomen: pear down) during the exhalation to regulate the airflow and subglottal pressure while singing. Titze suggests that the pear-shape down approach may additionally prevent “the rib cage and trachea from crowding the larynx...” This could be beneficial for clarinet players who not only have to hold the clarinet but must also regulate the musculature of the embouchure. For the clarinetist, directing the primary breathing focus lower may help reduce extra tension in the neck, throat, and jaw muscles.

141 This seems to be what Jack Brymer described in his metaphorical piston. 142 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed., (Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 134. 143 Ingo R. Titze, Principles of Voice Production (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1994) 76. 63

The strong resemblance of clarinet techniques to the breath techniques described above supports the notion that breathing for singing and breathing for playing clarinet are extremely similar. Many aspects of the extensive research conducted by voice pedagogues may be applied to clarinet pedagogy.

Chapter 4. Tone

“The clarionet approaches the tone of the female voice, nearer than any other instrument.” –William Gardiner (1769-1853)144

The tone and timbre nuance used by master clarinetists are expressive tools that allow emulation of the singing voice. Expressive phrasing is largely influenced by tone, and the many similarities between the clarinet tone and the singing voice mean that vocal concepts are likely applicable to clarinet. The vocal techniques of onset, registration, and use of vowels may be highly beneficial in understanding how clarinetists can achieve a

‘singing’ tone. This chapter will address these techniques as well as explore the bel canto tone concept, chiaroscuro.

Chiaroscuro

A useful conceptualization of a unified, balanced tone can be borrowed from the bel canto singing tradition and applied to clarinet playing. Singers and clarinetists both face the challenge of creating a homogenous, even tone throughout their full range despite variation in qualities and production differences of the registers. Chiaroscuro translates to ‘bright-dark’ tone.145 Through chiaroscuro a singer can achieve a

144 William Gardiner, The Music of Nature, (London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, & Longman, 1832) 531, Googlebooks.com, 2008. 145 Richard Miller English, French, German and Italian Techniques of Singing (New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1977) 78. 65

homogenous tone across the full range of the voice by identifying different timbre qualities and highlighting them in each register. For example, the singer can listen for the dark, rich resonance that naturally occurs in the chest register and bring out some of that same quality in the head register. The brilliance of the head register can similarly be subtly enhanced in the chest register. By ensuring that the resonance characteristics of each register are applied to the other, tones are balanced with the brilliance of the head voice and richness of the chest voice. On any given note, the singer can match the timbre with the next note as they all share chiaroscuro qualities. Artistically this is important because an even tone through the whole range of the voice, provides a baseline color over which subtle timbre changes and dynamics can be heard. A lack in evenness makes it difficult for the audience to perceive variance, and these subtle changes provide expressive nuance.

The concept of chiaroscuro guides the singer to listen for a balance of both brilliance and richness in their tone, avoiding the common errors of shrillness (too much chiaro) or dullness (too much oscuro). Figure 12. demonstrates how one might conceptualize chiaroscuro. In theory, the singer’s highest note will have only a hint of oscuro but notes in the middle register require more of a balance between the bright and dark.146 Many singers refer to this as ‘blending’ or ‘mixing’ the registers.

From a technique standpoint, chiaroscuro is important because it encourages the use of efficient, healthy tone production through the balanced development of the chest

146 Some singers use quite a lot of the chiaro quality in the chest voice to aid in projection. In clarinet playing this may equate to the ‘reedy’ quality called for in the music of Percy Grainger, for example. 66

voice and head voice. The healthy use of the voice is additionally important to the development of a beautiful, even vibrato, an essential tone element for classical singers.

(See Appendix A for a discussion about vocal and clarinet vibrato.)

Figure 12. Chiaroscuro visualization. 147

Much of the chiaroscuro tone concept can be applied to clarinet playing.

Clarinetists aim to produce a warm, clear, projecting tone that is even across all registers.148 The term “chest voice” can be replaced by the term “chalumeau register” in a clarinet setting and the label “head voice,” by “clarion register.”149

Clarinetists can hear both qualities clearly when a note is well played in the chalumeau register and the third partial rings softly in the tone. (See Figure 13.) If the player pushes the notes of the chalumeau too hard, they may get a sound that resembles a foghorn (too much oscuro), and that masks the third partial overtone. Similarly, it is easy to pinch the

147 This is similar to a chart drawn by my former voice teacher, Kimberly Gratland James in 2009. 148 Caroline Hartig, “A “SOUND” Approach to Stellar Clarinet Technique,” Vandoren Paris, Dansr, accessed April 26, 2020, https://www.dansr.com/vandoren/resources/a-sound-approach-to-stellar-clarinet- technique-and-how-to-improve-the-technical-command-of-your-band-and-orchestra-clarinet-section. 149 Bruce Foster also compares chalumeau with chest voice. Bruce Foster, “A Bel Canto Approach to Performance Practice for the Clarinet Player” (master’s thesis, University of Santa Cruz, 1998) 17. 67

embouchure or unnecessarily change the voicing when producing a clarion register note, resulting in a lack of richness in the tone. Advanced players allow the ‘feel’ of the clarion range to influence the chalumeau range, 150 resulting in a balanced, chiaroscuro sound and technique in both registers.151

Figure 13. Fundamental pitches in the chalumeau register of the

clarinet, and the 3rd partial overtones above.

Three unique benefits are apparent to teaching chiaroscuro to developing clarinet students. One is rethinking the registers with an emphasis on the timbre qualities rather than focusing on fingerings. The other is the identification and development of the beautiful, balanced tone that is required for much of the standard clarinet repertoire like

Mozart, Weber, Brahms. The third is developing finite control of the tone through chiaroscuro, allowing for greater tonal variety in modern pieces that do not always utilize beautiful tone.

Tone Onset, Beginning

Every note has a beginning, middle, and end; or in acoustical terms, onset,

150 Reiner Wehle, Clarinet Fundamentals 1, Germany: Schott Music GmbH & Co. KG, 2007) 43. 151 This can also be applied to some extent the altissimo register which functions a bit like an extension of the clarion register. 68

duration, and offset. In the following section, the characteristics of onset and offset production for voice and clarinet will be described from a physiological and pedagogical perspective. Voice research defines the onset and offset more specifically than clarinet research.

The onset of a note greatly affects the way a note is perceived by the listener. The first moment of sound introduces the listener to the characteristic spectrum of harmonics of the instrument or voice.152 Onset has had different names in the past which demonstrate a change in the conceptualization of the start of tone. In the vocal literature it is has also been called the ‘attack,’ or ‘coup de la glotte.’153 In vocal music onset refers to the moment the vocal folds engage in phonation. This means that for certain words, the onset might not occur until after the starting consonant. (For example, in the word ‘cat,’ the onset does not actually occur until the [æ] vowel.) This is significant because ‘attack’ may be interpreted as including both the onset of the tone and the starting articulation. In actuality they are heard as one moment, although the two things occur at once.

In the voice pedagogy literature, there are three types of onsets: aspirate (breathy), hard (glottal), and balanced (simultaneous).154 The balanced method is typically recommended by teachers. Miller describes balanced onset as a balance of the “breath pressure and muscular tension,” required to adduct the vocal folds together. In aspirate

152 Johan Sundberg, The Science of Musical Sounds, (California: Academic Press, Inc. 1991)75. 153 ‘Coup de de glotte’ was a term used by Manuel Garcia II (inventor of the laryngoscope) to describe the preparation for the start of the tone. It translates to ‘stroke of the glottis,’ and is controversial among singers because historical accounts make it difficult to tell what level of glottal firmness (glottal closure) Garcia was advocating. Some sources suggest he was describing a hard onset, and some maintain he was describing a balanced onset. (Stark, 12-13). 154 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed., (Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 167. 69

onset, the vocal folds are not fully adducted, resulting in a breathy tone. In glottal onset, the vocal folds are firmly brought together before the onset which requires slightly more air pressure to engage the vocal folds, creating a glottal pop.155 Of the three types, balanced onset is considered the healthiest, least taxing means of onset, though hard and aspirate are used on occasion for expressive purposes.156 The type of onset determines the quality of the duration portion of the note resulting in pressed phonation (hard onset), breathy phonation (aspirate onset), or flow phonation (balanced onset.)157

Clarinetists often refer to the onset of a note as the ‘attack,’ although Reiner

Wehle does use the word ‘onset.’158 While ‘attack’ lends itself to inspiring energy and concentration to the note start, it does not separate the tone onset from the articulation.

The way the note-start is described by some pedagogues makes it seem that the tip of the tongue is always a part of the start of the tone.159 This is problematic because it mixes the action of the embouchure and the action of the tongue. It also limits the ways a teacher

155 Richard Miller English, French, German and Italian Techniques of Singing (New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1977) 4. 156 Richard Miller describes onset for English, German, French, and Italian singers in “Chapter 1: Attack.” (Richard Miller English, French, German and Italian Techniques of Singing (New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1977) 2-6.) This demonstrates slight variation in interpretation and use across different nationalities. We can think of the three types of onset on a spectrum on one side aspirate, simultaneous in the middle, and hard on the other side. Miller observes that typical German onset falls between simultaneous and aspirate; and that Italian falls between simultaneous and hard, very close to simultaneous. There is gradation and subtlety of use by nationality, likely related to the characteristics of each language. This implies that the language of origin greatly affects production of onset and artistic sensibility about onset. This is also likely to affect articulation in instrumental playing. 157 Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice (Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987) 80. 158 Reiner Wehle, Clarinet Fundamentals 1, Germany: Schott Music GmbH & Co. KG, 2007) 27. 159 Keith Stein notes this confusion in his book. (Keith Stein, The Art of Clarinet Playing (Florida: Summy- Birchard Music, 1958) 23.) Reiner Wehle observes that some players use the larynx to help with onset and advises against this. The exercises he proposes do not separate the tongue from the embouchure. He makes it known that every note should be tongued in the exercises related to developing onset. Reiner Wehle, Clarinet Fundamentals 1, Germany: Schott Music GmbH & Co. KG, 2007) 27. 70

might describe starting the tone. The importance in addressing these problems is clear when one considers that master players can be heard to use all manners of articulation and onset expressively in performance. How can students learn to listen for and reproduce variations in articulation and the start of the tone if they are discussed as the same process?

If the three vocal onset concepts were transferred to clarinet playing, the balanced onset would be the appropriate engagement (muscle flex) of the embouchure, simultaneously met with the ideal amount of air pressure in the mouth (back pressure).

Aspirate onset would mean the embouchure is too loose, resulting in what clarinetists refer to as unfocused, fuzzy tone. A hard onset would occur if the embouchure is too tight, resulting in a pressed or edgy sound. (These types might be authentically used in

Klezmer music or jazz.) A fourth type might be described for clarinet occurring in the larynx when the player uses a glottal pop to produce a sound. This is less common but could possibly be used in extended techniques and is observable as an error by young students.

Beyond precisely executing the intended note starts, clarinetists may also become more aware of how the duration of a note is affected by the onset. An aspirate or hard onset will likely result in an unfocussed or pressed tone. Producing a balanced tone (akin to flow phonation in singing) after using an aspirate or hard onset would require additional adjustments to the embouchure. Ideally this would be avoided unless intended for artistic purposes.

Tone Offset, Release

In singing, the tone offset is described quite the same as onset. Aspirate, glottal, and balanced are the terms used to describe the releases of the tone. In an aspirate offset, the final sound heard would be an ‘h,’ in hard offset the singer uses the muscles of the larynx to stop phonation abruptly with a slight grunt. In simultaneous offset the breath flow and vibration of the vocal folds end at the same moment.

In clarinet playing, there seem to be five methods of approach for the offset of a tone. Aspirate offset occurs when the embouchure relaxes at the end of a note. Hard offset occurs when the embouchure clamps down on the note, suppressing the reed. (Both of these types often occur unintentionally when a note ends with a diminuendo.)

Simultaneous offset would require maintaining a steady embouchure just past the point of the air releasing. A fourth type would be using muscles of the throat to restrict the air to the reed. (This would not be ideal in terms of sound or stamina.) The fifth method is stopping the reed’s vibration with the tongue. The hard offset of voice, used for dramatic effect, would be best compared with the tongue stopping the reed on the clarinet.

The application of the concepts of onset and offset may provide the clarinetist with greater understanding of their artistic choices. By naming the start of the tone and release of the tone separately from articulation, the clarinetists can better identify and select their onsets and offsets, as well as produce the desired tone duration.

Registers

The range of notes a singer can produce from the lowest to the highest is known

as the physiological range. Within the physiological range lies notes that are standardly used in the music repertoire, or the musical range.160 This range is divided into registers based on how the vocal folds are used during phonation.161 McKinney states, “A register in the human voice is a particular series of tones, produced in the same manner (by the same vibratory pattern of the vocal folds), and having the same basic quality.”162 Recent research has revealed that resonance and “acoustic adjustments” additionally impact registration.163 Sundberg adds that the notes in a register share the same “phonation frequency range,” meaning they are near each other in pitch.164 Many vocal pedagogues believe there are two main registers that are known by many names including chest voice and head voice.165 The chest voice refers to lower notes in the voice when the vocal folds are “relaxed, thick, and short.”166 The sound is often darker or richer. The head voice

160 John Large, Vocal Registers in Singing: Proceedings of a Symposium, (Netherlands: Mouton & Co., The Hague, 1973) 13. 161 During phonation, the vocal folds are manipulated by the muscles of the larynx to stretch and recoil (a bit like rubber bands), as well as stiffen and relax (Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice (Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987) 53). McKinney describes the changes in the vocal folds during singing as follows: “The frequency of vibration of the vocal folds is determined by their length, tension, and mass. As pitch rises, the vocal folds are lengthened, tension increases, and their edges become thinner.” (James McKinney, The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults, rev. ed. (Tennessee: Genevox Music Group, 1994) 97.) 162 James McKinney, The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults, rev. ed. (Tennessee: Genevox Music Group, 1994) 93. 163 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed., (Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 230. 164 Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice (Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987) 49. 165 The registers have been named and renamed through the centuries, leading to confusion among pedagogues and researchers. (For example, falsetto, is often used to describe a higher register in males, but sometimes head voice and falsetto are confused in older sources.) The way registers were named was often based on sensation. The chest voice seemed to emanate from the chest. Miller describes a “vibratory rumble” that is felt in the chest voice but not the head voice. (Richard Miller English, French, German and Italian Techniques of Singing (New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1977) 104.) As science has aided in the understanding of the phonatory differences between registers, the term ‘modal’ register was adopted and refers to a specific phonation mode. 166 This is a generalization that is affected by the gender and voice type of the singer. Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice (Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987) 51. 73

refers to the higher notes in the voice when the vocal folds are “tense, thin, and long.”167

The head voice is often sweeter, and more projecting. Singers often learn to control one register of the voice well, then work to control the other register equally well.

Transitional notes that lie between the registers determine the moment the mechanism of the vocal folds change from the short and thick mechanism to the long and thin mechanism or vice versa. These transition notes are called passaggio notes. They involve changes in physiology and/or resonance.168 Many pedagogues acknowledge two passaggi: the primo and secondo passaggi. 169 Passaggio notes or those close to them are by nature less reliable and are more difficult to control. They are standard notes in the repertoire and must be managed. (This will be discussed further after demonstrating the comparisons in clarinet registers.)

Figure 14. Soprano range with open vowels. The clarinet also has register timbres that closely resembles the soprano voice.170

The chalumeau register is rich, dark, warm, but can be brash, edgy, or angry sounding as

167 Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice (Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987) 51. 168 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed., (Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 236. 169 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 83. 170 The author recognizes that as a soprano, this comparison may be unique to her own perception of performance of the clarinet. 74

well. The clarion register is sweet, clear, full, and projects easily. Solo clarinet repertoire tends to use this register more, reserving the lowest chalumeau notes for effect or contrast. (When considering the Mozart Concerto and the Weber Concerti, the clarion register is primarily used while the low chalumeau register is reserved for contrast.) This is comparable to the soprano singing primarily in the head voice and using notes of the chest voice for emphasis or dramatic effect. The color variation between the chalumeau and clarion registers and use in the solo literature were likely important factors early on that led people to compare the clarinet with the voice.

The clarinet also has register breaks. They are more rigidly defined because the clarinet uses fingerings, rather than producing tone with elastic muscles. The clarinet has a small range of notes that function as a sort of passaggio zone. These notes are called the throat tones and are also difficult to control.

Figure 15. Clarinet Range.

Singers incorporate the tones of the passaggio into the repertoire through register blending. Notes of the passaggio pose laryngeal problems, acoustical problems, or

both.171 Essentially the singer seeks to help the notes of one register blend or match in quality with the notes of the next register, often through manipulation of resonances. One way to cope with register change is through vowel modification. Vowels that are narrower--roughly meaning the mouth is not so open⎯ such as [i] and [u], may help a soprano maintain resonance while singing on transitional notes. Breath support is also extremely important in this area. The singer must be careful to find the right amount of subglottal pressure without over-pressurizing.172 The way a singer works to blend these notes with the register above and below is both a combination of technique and artistic preference. The singer must consider the level of projection required of that note, the desired color, the notes preceding and following, as well as stamina. For example, sustaining a pitch at the top of the chest register may be very taxing. If that is the last, dramatic note of a work, it may okay to exert that energy, but might not be wise if it is the second phrase of a long piece. If the note is intended to be sung softly, the soprano must decide if a chest-head blend is strong enough to be heard and soft enough to convey the emotion. If a note in the break (passaggio) comes before a section that resides lower, it may be advisable to use more chest voice in the blend to settle into the chest voice for that passage.

Clarinetists must connect the temperamental throat tones with either the chalumeau register or the clarion register. The throat tone notes of the clarinet (‘the break’) can be compared to the passaggio in the soprano voice that begins around F4

171 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 58. 172 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed., (Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 237. 76

(349 Hz.)173 which is the written, ‘open G’ on the clarinet.174 The throat tones connect the notes of the chalumeau register and the clarion register and like the voice, pose acoustical difficulties as well as fingering difficulties.175

To blend the throat tones with the chalumeau or clarion, the clarinetist increases breath pressure, and adds a bit of resistance to the notes by putting down fingers not in the standard fingering, also called ‘shading.’ Adding fingers to the throat tones improves resonance and aids in blending with the chalumeau and clarion registers. While singers have a change in laryngeal function, clarinetists have a distinct change in fingering.

Clarinetists must play with very few fingers down for the throat tones, then cover all the tone holes when transitioning from throat-tone B-flat to long B-natural.

Alternate fingerings can be used to smooth out the transition to throat tones but cannot be used in all circumstances. Each fingering has a different timbre, pitch tendency, ideal dynamic, and ease of production. For clarinetists, coordinating the fingers is usually the primary concern. To negotiate changes in the second break from the clarion to the altissimo register, some teachers advise partially covering the unused, top tone-hole with a stroking ‘half-hole technique.’ In this case as well, the timbre can guide the clarinetist to the best choice of fingering and subtle motion of the finger.

Singers are tone-oriented when changing registers. They listen and feel for the

173 John Large, Vocal Registers in Singing: Proceedings of a Symposium, (Netherlands: Mouton & Co., The Hague, 1973) 15. 174 Other sources describe the passaggio as beginning on different notes. Miller describes the passaggio beginning at F# or G (Richard Miller English, French, German and Italian Techniques of Singing (New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1977) 121.), and McCoy “occurring somewhere between C4 and A4,” (Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed., (Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 236.). 175 Unlike the voice, these notes are easy to produce, meaning stamina is not usually a consideration. 77

moment of the switch and control resonance to mask the transitions. Clarinetists are largely focused on fingerings for register changes. Rather than categorizing the throat tones as their own sub-set of fingerings, practicing clarinetists can think about the throat tones as an extension of the register they are playing in, seeking to blend them as singers do.

Vowel Modification

A wide array of tone colors heard in singing are produced via the vowels of sung words. Examining how vocalists approach vowels can help clarinetists understand timbre nuance, voicing, and perhaps even finger technique. Vowels are produced through the alteration of the vocal tract (for example, jaw opening and tongue position). Such shifts fine-tune and shape the sound produced in the glottis. This premise is described by the source-filter theory.176

The source-filter theory suggests that a mechanism is engaged to oscillate, thereby resulting in a stream of pulsing air called the sound source.177 The source has a fundamental pitch and a spectrum of overtones. This vibrating air travels through a filter which alters the vibrations, so that the resultant output of sound is one in which certain frequencies are enhanced and others are reduced by the filter. Changes in the combination of enhanced and reduced frequencies in the spectrum are perceived as vowel modifications.

176 Ingo R. Titze, Principles of Voice Production (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1994) 136. 177 Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice (Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987) 18. 78

In singing (phonation), the vocal folds adduct, and are nudged into oscillation by pressurized subglottal air. The vocal folds oscillate and produce a fundamental pitch and spectrum of overtones.178 These vibrations flow through the vocal tract (filter), are influenced by the position and shape of the resonators in the throat and oral cavity, then exit through the mouth. (See Figure 16.) The individual sound of a voice is largely determined by the shape and use of the vocal tract. 179

178 Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice (Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987) 19. 179 Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 3rd ed., (Ohio: Inside View Press, 2019) 21. 79

Figure 16. Vocal Tract.

In clarinet playing, the narrow space between the tip of the reed and mouthpiece can be compared with the glottis. Air pushed through this slit is set into vibration and becomes the sound source. The fundamental and overtones flow through the filter (the body of the clarinet), are influenced by parameters of the instrument, and then exit the bell.180

180 Sound also exits through the tone holes of the clarinet. 80

Singers manipulate the length and shape of the filter (vocal tract) to produce specific vowel-sounds.181 The vocal tract length is measured from the glottis to the lips, and can therefore be altered if the larynx is moved up or down, and if the lips are drawn forward, as in a pout, or apart, as in a broad smile.182 The shape of the vocal tract can be largely affected by the degree of openness in the jaw and the position of the tongue.

Vowels have not only a distinct shape and color of sound, but also a rough pitch center.

Because of the basic pitch tendency, the voice is better able to produce vowels of certain types in specific ranges of the voice. This is why singers modify a vowel, to adopt characteristics of a different vowel that is more resonant for the note they are singing.

Vowel modification helps singers negotiate the passaggi and ranges of the voice, and also results in many tone colors.

What can clarinetists learn from the vocal tract use during singing? Singers have studied how each component of the vocal tract affects the resonance and timbre of the vowels. Clarinetists manipulate the vocal tract for voicing notes and adjusting intonation.

Many clarinet teachers discuss the inner mouth shape, and often assign an ideal vowel shape for playing. Clarinetists can use voice research to identify specifically which parts of the vocal tract they should move for the desired result. Sundberg identifies the articulators, jaw opening, tongue, velum (soft palate), and larynx as means of manipulating the resonance of the vocal tract.183 These are likely to be important in

181 Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice (Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987) 20. 182 Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice (Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987) 22. 183 Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice (Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987) 22. 81

clarinet playing as well. The jaw opening is particularly important to clarinet playing and it is largely fixed in one position while playing. One could reason that the shape of the vocal tract used for clarinet playing should be that of a closed vowel to match the opening of the jaw. This might explain why the ‘ee’ or ‘eh’ shapes are described by some pedagogues as ideal for playing.

If clarinetists think about the clarinet as a filter like singers do in regard to the vocal tract, they may conceive of embouchure and fingering technique differently. There are clear pedagogic implications for this revised view of the instrument as a filter. In such a scenario, the mouthpiece would serve as an extension of the hard palate where it makes contact with the teeth and the embouchure of the player would become the point of connection between the vocal tract and clarinet. When the lips are extended forward, as in

“ooh,” the vocal tract length and resonance is altered. Realizing this may help shape a student’s understanding of the external embouchure’s relationship with the oral shape

(‘ee’.) Additionally, the clarinetist can consider how one’s tone is impacted by the vocal tract as the reed produces vibrations that also travel into the oral cavity. The clarinet filter is also subtly altered by the fingers and pads interacting with the vibrating air column in the instrument. This demonstrates the importance of expressive finger variation to provide additional nuance to clarinet tone. The tonal variety of the clarinet and its use in the repertoire is important for the comparison to the human voice. These ideas will be explored in a more artistic sense in the next chapter.

Chapter 5. Phrase Nuance

“When music fails to agree to the ear, to soothe the ear and the heart and the senses, then it has missed the point.” Maria Callas184

The previous chapters explored the techniques of breathing and tone in singing and their possible application to clarinet playing. These elements are important factors that contribute to the artistic ability of a performer. This chapter will examine some of the expressive features of phrase nuance, and three expressive techniques from the bel canto tradition that have become a part of standard technique for voice and clarinet. An excerpt from La Bohème will be examined to highlight some interpretive features of Maria

Callas’s performance of ‘Donde lieta.’ This same excerpt is presented and explained a second time, with markings to guide a clarinetist to the same interpretation.

Interpretive Tools

Many interpretive techniques are shared by clarinetists and singers. Melody, harmony, and rhythm all provide structure around which the performer shapes their interpretation. Within these traits is a “hierarchical organization” that makes some harmonic, melodic, and rhythmic components more important for conveying the musical

184 Stephen Byce, “Maria Callas: Best Quotes,” Legacy.com, last modified December 3, 2013, https://www.legacy.com/news/maria-callas-best-quotes/. 83

intent than others.185 Mature performers consider these elements when developing their interpretation and use other means of expression prescribed by the composer such as dynamics, articulation, the overall mood of the work, and tempo markings to add layers of meaning. Tone nuance, a highly expressive element, is largely dependent on the performer. For singers, text is also a significant structural element.

The text prescribes how the vocal tract, articulators, and glottis will interact to produce characteristic vowels, consonants, syllables, and words. The natural emphasis of the text often aligns with important musical structures, further clarifying the phrase shape. (Very often the accented syllable of an important word aligns with a structural peak in the music.) The text provides the singer a spectrum of meanings including the literal meaning, a poetic meaning, jokes, references to historical periods and figures, and stories. Additionally, it provides audible qualities, including, onomatopoeia, rhyme, and alliteration. Each language has unique pronunciation features that are prescribed by the text, and even a dialect.186 The text often provides an atmosphere or location, and in opera, the singer typically knows the country, town, building, and room of the scene. This information can guide the singer to great specificity in understanding the meaning and emotion that motivates the piece.

Clarinetists primarily rely on musical structures to determine phrase shape. Keith

Stein identifies “momentum” and “dynamic fluctuation” as important interpretive devices.187 He advises the player to make a careful distinction between notes that are

185 William Forde Thompson, Music, Thought, and Feeling: Understanding the Psychology of Music (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009) 190. 186 For example, “Wouldn’t It be Loverly” from My Fair Lady uses the Cockney dialect. 187 Keith Stein, The Art of Clarinet Playing (Florida: Summy-Birchard Music, 1958) 54. 84

important rhythmically versus melodically, to clarify which notes to stress. He also describes the movement of the notes or implied momentum felt between notes, such as in the case of a pick-up note leading to a strong beat. Regarding dynamics, Stein identifies many specific examples from pieces, and both notates and describe how one should use dynamics in each case.

Without text, it can be difficult to create a meaningful interpretation. To help students connect to a work, many teachers suggest that they use their imagination and create a scene, conversation, story, weather event, or use other creative means to clarify their interpretation.188 Some teachers recommend inventing a text to go with a piece while others insist that because there is no text provided by the composer, superimposing one is artificial.189 Many standard works are best performed with a singing quality, though the clarinet has many other expressive characters. Because the clarinet is known for its ability to emulate the human voice, that is an important skill to develop. A way to improve vocality is through the study of singing. Analyzing opera arias may be an especially fulfilling means of honing ‘singing’ qualities. The storyline, melodic themes, and characters provide context and clarity to be used in interpretation.

Additionally, understanding the technique behind vocal style may be beneficial.

Three stylistic elements from the bel canto tradition have become a part of the technique even for later periods and modern works. These elements are legato, portamento, and messa di voce.

188 Michèle Gingras, Clarinet Secrets: 52 Performance Strategies for the Advanced Clarinetist (Maryland: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2004.), 85. 189 Michèle Gingras, Clarinet Secrets: 52 Performance Strategies for the Advanced Clarinetist (Maryland: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2004.), 86. 85

Legato is the smooth, unbroken connection of consecutive notes in a musical passage. It allows the performer to have continuous tone, through the careful coordination of muscles of respiration, subglottal pressure, the larynx, and the vocal tract.190 This is important for technique as it encourages efficiency in tone production. For style and expression legato creates a single line, helping the audience hear notes move from one point in the phrase to another. A steady breath stream is important to a fluid legato. As

Lamperti notes, “The breathing must not be interrupted between the tones, but flow evenly as if a single tone were sung.”191 The continuous, legato tone is reliant on uniformity in timbre color and dynamics. A legato line allows expressive shifts in timbre, subtle articulations, and changes in dynamics to be easily heard.

Legato clarinet playing is largely reliant on the finger-breath connection while changing notes. Bonade advises that the, “motion of fingers, playing from one note to another, must be so smooth as to avoid any interruption of tone…” He mentions to “not forget that it is the space in between the notes that has to be filled in, so as to sustain the tone consistently.”192 Bonade advocates using two types of finger motion, slow for slower legato playing, and fast for virtuosic playing.193 The slow finger motion requires gently removing the finger from the tone hole or key to produce a nearly-inaudible quarter-tone fingering. Stein additionally recommends that in some circumstances the player should use a tiny glissando between notes.194 This technique combined with supple, relaxed

190 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 165. 191 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 165. 192 Daniel Bonade, The Clarinetist’s Compendium, (Wisconsin: Leblanc Publications, Inc., 1962) 2. 193 Daniel Bonade, The Clarinetist’s Compendium, (Wisconsin: Leblanc Publications, Inc., 1962) 6. 194 Keith Stein, The Art of Clarinet Playing (Florida: Summy-Birchard Music, 1958) 52. 86

fingers, steady air, proper reed thickness, and proper voicing allow the clarinet to play with a very vocal legato quality. Legato is important to expression and has become a standard feature of technique.

Portamento is another bel canto trait used to connect pitches. In portamento, a tasteful slide is used between two notes in which the microtones and colors of the notes in between are heard. It is typically used in large leaps to continue the legato line with some rubato. It is also used near cadences to add emphasis or poignancy and may also provide a brief anticipation for the next note.195 Portamento is more commonly used by vocalists than clarinetists. It is a difficult technique on the clarinet and is also referred to by some teachers as a ‘glissando.’ The clarinetist must use the muscles of the throat to change the resonance between notes. This is especially difficult for fingerings that have many fingers covering tone holes and keys. The fingers must move in careful coordination with the vocal tract to create a smooth portamento.

Messa di voce is an expressive technique that uses timbre and amplitude to grow in intensity, before decaying. According to Garcia, messa di voce was a combination of soft-loud-soft as well as veiled-bright-veiled. 196 By this Garcia means that not only does the singer get louder then softer, but also changes their resonance to move from dark to brighter, then darker again. A similar description is given by Klosé in Celebrated Method for Clarinet, but he refers to the changing “intensity.”197 Messa di voce is highly expressive and technically beneficial. In Diane Pulte’s dissertation, she outlines the

195 Robert Toft, Bel canto: a performer’s guide (New York: Oxford Press, 2013) 60. 196 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) 159. 197 Hyacinthe Klosé, Celebrated Method for the Clarinet, Edited by Simeon Bellison, (New York: Carl Fischer, 1946) 5. 87

benefits of using it as a teaching tool. She suggests that messa di voce can lead to,

“improved breath management, smooth register blending, subtle negotiation of the passaggio, dynamic flexibility, and improved vibrato rate and pitch stability.”198 Messa di voce as a technique ensures that the proper breath-to-tone ratio is reached along with the subtle coordination of the laryngeal muscles and vocal tract for singers; and the vocal tract and embouchure for the clarinet. Artistically, messa di voce is highly expressive as the performer intensifies the tone and dynamic of the music, featuring the power of the voice, and then through a dimuendo returns to a soft, sweet color for the release. It is used in both voice and clarinet performance.

Interpretive Observations of Puccini’s ‘Donde Lieta’

The following is a demonstration of the vocal techniques: onset, register blending, vowel modification, portamento, and dynamics used to all build a stirring interpretation.

Below is an excerpt from the aria “Donde lieta” from La Bohème by Giacomo Puccini and sung by renowned soprano, Maria Callas. This example conveys some of the considerations a singer might make when developing and interpretation.199

The aria takes place during the third act of the opera and is sung by the character

Mimi. She encounters her former lover, Rodolfo, at a tavern and sings about the end of their relationship and says a final ‘goodbye.’ This aria from Act III, begins at rehearsal

198 Diana M. Pulte, “The Messa Di Voce and Its Effectiveness as a Training Exercise for the Young Singer,”doctoral thesis, The Ohio State University, 2005. 199 Onset, registration and vowel modification become second nature for singers, just as voicing and fingerings become habit for clarinetists. 88

mark 26: Lento molto ♪=66. This excerpt begins with the pick-up to the eighth measure.

The libretto and translation of this passage are as follows:200

Ritorna un’altra volta She goes back once again a intesser finti fior! To make unreal flowers! Addio, senza rancor. Farewell, without remorse. Ascolta, ascolta. Wait… Le poche robe aduna Gather together the few things che lasciai sparse. that I left scattered around.

The recording analyzed is from the 1954 recording: Maria Meneghini Callas

Sings Operatic Arias by Puccini. The vocal line is included for the phrase analysis and the numbers below indicate features of interpretive as well as technical choices Callas made in her exquisite performance.

200 Robert L. Larsen, G. Schirmer Opera Anthology: Arias for Soprano, (New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 1991) 20. Translation by Martha Gerhart.

6. 7. 8.

Figure 17. Excerpt from ‘Donde lieta’ by Puccini. Demonstrations of registration, vowel modification, and portamento.

Callas portrays the character Mimi, a seamstress, who becomes agitated as she sings about returning alone to the once happy dwelling and life she shared with Rodolfo.

She will return to her work of embroidering flowers by herself. Number 1. in the example above demonstrates that she sings the word “Ritorna” with a dental ‘t,’ suitable for the

Italian pronunciation of that consonant.201 This has the added benefit of maintaining resonance and avoiding disturbing the vowel on the high A♭. The result is fluid connection through the word “ritorna.” At 2., Callas continues with “un’altra” and holds the ‘l’ a bit longer, building breath energy that is released on the next ‘t’ consonant. A hint of bitterness is portrayed through the brief stopping on the ‘l’ as she sings about returning home alone. The energy lends itself to a soaring high G on ‘volta.’ As she sings of returning alone, a hint of bitterness is portrayed through the brief stopping of the line on the ‘l’ before throwing her sound to the high G of ‘volta.’ At 3., the ‘o’ of ‘volta’ is modified to more of an ‘ah’ sound closer to the phonetic [ɑ]202. This allows for more continuous resonance resulting in [a] [ɑ] [a] versus [a] [o] [a]. The passionate phrase begins to calm with a rallentando and diminuendo. Conveying realization, disbelief, and sadness, Callas sings “finti fior” with slowing deliberation and three consecutive [i] vowels (the third is actually [io]) are sung very closed. This is appropriate for the Italian pronunciation and also brings a softer color to her voice and one that floats on the word flower, rather than projecting. At 4., Callas demonstrates subtle text painting in the use of

[i], [i], [io] as the vowel sounds themselves blossom during the word ‘flower.’ Using the closed [i] may also help with a slight register transition down to the C, then back up to the D and E♭ as these notes can be less stable than others in the soprano voice. (These

201 The Italian language uses a less aspirate “t” than English. It is often referred to as the “dental t.” It is produced in between a “t” and a “d” sound. Joan Wall, Robert Caldwell, Tracy Gavilanes, Sheila Allen, Diction for Singers, (Washington: Robert Caldwell, 2005) 90. 202 [ɑ] is the phonetic representation of the sound “ah” as in the English word “father.” It is typical for sopranos to modify vowels in the upper range more toward “ah”, rather than maintaining pure vowel pronunciation because of the harmonics specific to the soprano voice. 91

notes lie near the secondo passaggio.) By writing the C, D, and E♭ with a diminuendo,

Puccini incorporated a vulnerable, sweet sound into the line. At 5. a small portamento is used to connect the D♭ to the E♭ of ‘finti fior.’ Callas begins the ‘fi’ of ‘fior’ on the D♭, then glides up to the E♭.

Callas continues with the word, ‘addio,’ goodbye. On this word the soprano must make a choice about how much chest voice and how much head voice to use. E♭ is generally a weak note in the soprano head voice as it is near the primo passaggio for most sopranos, so it requires some amount of blending with the chest voice. Here the soprano decides how sad versus how bitter Mimi is in her interaction with Rodolfo. Some of that artistic decision is made through the choice of the darker chest voice, or loftier head voice on the word ‘addio.’ Puccini cleverly provides the orchestra with rests, so that

Mimi sings ‘addio’ alone, meaning that extreme projection is not needed. This also provides a poignant moment of text painting; she sings the word ‘alone’ by herself. The soprano must also consider the notes that follow and how much the ‘addio’ will stop the musical flow or match the next phrase. At 6. Callas uses head voice blended with only a bit of chest voice in her interpretation, which matches the next phrase beautifully and adds simplicity to the goodbye. At 7., to aid in projection and convey sadness, Callas uses a clear balanced onset to start the word, avoiding any breathiness. At 8. the double “d” in

“addio” results in a brief stop in the tone, which is appropriate in the Italian language for double consonants. In this instance the stop in the sound is a bit like the voice with a lump in the throat just before crying.

Callas continues with the text “senza rancor.” At 9. she allows her voice to grow 92

to the syllable ‘ran-’ during a slight rallentando, then uses a very closed [o] to maintain tone connection to the less stable pitch of A on ‘-cor.’ In the following phrase (10.),

Callas sings ‘Ascolta, ascolta’ (‘listen, listen’) with only a bit of chest voice blended with the head voice. This aids the legato of the line, projection during the descent of the notes, and also makes the second iteration of ‘ascolta’ more emphatic than the first.203 Again,

Puccini provides the singer with meaning based on vocal registration in conjunction with the text. Callas’s use of slight chest voice allows her to transition easily to full head voice for ‘Le.’ (If a soprano were to sing ‘ascolta, ascolta’ in chest voice, a substantial adjustment in the glottis, like a small yodel, would be felt when connecting to the word

‘Le.’)

Callas continues by linking the ‘-ta’ of ascolta with the higher note on ‘Le.’ At

11. she uses a portamento to glide up to the D♭, arrives at the D♭ prior to the downbeat in a slight anticipation. This parallels Mimi building up the courage to ask Rodolfo to return some of her things. At 12. Callas uses closed vowels to negotiate the primo passaggio for the lyrics, ‘robe aduna che.’ (To sing a full [a] vowel on ‘aduna’ would likely cause a breathy tone and would be tiring to sing for most sopranos.) At 13., to connect the head voice used in ‘robe aduna che’ to the chest voice mix at the end of the phrase, the [i] sound at the end of ‘laschiai’ is very closed. This helps Callas produce a full, tone on ‘sparse.’ At 14., ‘sparse’ is a stronger chest mix, which contrasts with her registration use earlier in the phrase on, ‘ascolta’. On ‘ascolta,’ she is hesitant, but as the phrase progresses, she gains confidence to ask Rodolfo to send her the things.

203 John Ardoin, Callas at Juilliard: The Masterclasses (New York: Alfred A Knopf, 1987) 278. 93

In this short forty-five seconds of music, the singer must make many decisions to accommodate registers, text meaning and sub meaning, projection, and timbre. The singer must also pace the aria so that it remains a beautiful, brief, poignant moment, rather than being overly dramatic or sentimental. Some of the artistic genius of “Donde lieta” lies in how Puccini uses the weak notes of the soprano voice (writing for notes close to the passaggi) to provide a vulnerable, quiet timbre that contrasts to the powerful high register.

In addition to the aria itself, any soprano playing Mimi has a myriad of other clues as to what this aria is expressing. The singer learns the story of the opera as well as the text and musical themes relating to Mimi. The story is enhanced by a physical set, costumes, and props. The singer learns the character of Mimi, including how to move, and express as Mimi. Then she becomes her onstage for the performance. The singer/actress is provided a multitude of ideas, allowing her to sculpt a highly nuanced and emotionally specific interpretation, leading to a relatable portrayal.

While this aria was not composed for the clarinet, it may be played and used as an exercise for clarinetists to understand how singers think about articulation, vowel modification, registration and timbre while building an expressive interpretation. It may also guide the clarinetist to a more concrete means of emulating singing and portraying specific emotions. What does a clarinet interpretation of the same excerpt look like? A key is shown below to explain the markings used to notate subtleties of articulation, timbre, and dynamics to reimagine Callas’s interpretation for the clarinet.

Figure 18. Key of expressive markings for clarinet interpretation.

Callas sings with beautiful legato, so it is important that the articulation serves to group notes together and announce new timbres, but not break the line. Variation in articulation is particularly important to convey the textual emphasis. This is accomplished through a spectrum of articulations with varying degrees of percussiveness. The ‘T’ articulation is meant to be more of a tongue strike with the additional release of air as well (an accent). The ‘D’ articulations called ‘dental,’ signify the player should nudge the reed with the tip of the tongue, but not fully stop the vibration of the reed. The ‘D’ signifies the strongest of the dental articulations, ‘d’ is less strong, and ‘(d)’ represents the lightest tongued articulation. The ‘A’ indicates an un-tongued, or aspirate note. The tenuto functions as a ‘press’ in this instance, rather than emphasizing note duration. 95

Tenutos occur where the textual syllable is emphasized, but not strongly articulated.

There are some instances where emphasizing the color or timbre change should be the focus, rather than a dynamic change to convey the colors of the different vowels. The dotted-line crescendo and diminuendo express a change in timbre. The open side represents subtly brightening the tone and the closed side represents a relatively darker tone. The timbre variation Callas achieves is influenced by the changing vowels, which requires careful listening to replicate on the clarinet.

Figure 19. ‘Donde lieta’ with markings for clarinet. 96

This excerpt is provided in the same key for ease of comparison. A transcription of the entire aria for B♭ clarinet is provided in Appendix B. A gracenote was added at the end of the first line to convey Callas’s interpretation of beginning the first syllable of

‘fior’ on the previous note (D♭), using a tiny portamento to connect to the second vowel sound, on the E♭. The breath mark in this instance denotes a ‘passionate breath.’ Callas practically gasps at this moment to demonstrate heightened emotion. On what would be the word ‘addio’ in the aria, it sounds most authentic to use an aspirate articulation ‘A’.

This helps convey the emphasis on the second syllable and second eighth note in the measure. Using a tongued articulation on the first note (‘a-’ of ‘addio’) detracts from the textual emphasis on the second syllable (‘di’). Callas also uses a portamento from the B♭ to the to the C in the third line before 9. This can be done beautifully on the clarinet. A portamento connects beat 2 to beat 3 at 11. Here it is difficult to produce a true portamento, but with a gentle press of the fingers on the lower note just before moving to the higher pitch, and connecting the tone of the chalumeau to clarion, a similar effect is produced. The slurs in the last line emphasize that those notes belong together.

Modeling an interpretation of an aria after a great opera singer reveals new challenges and inspiration for phrasing. This may enhance a clarinetists ability to portray specific emotion, develop subtle tone, use precise articulation, and emulate the voice.

Chapter 6. Discussion and Conclusion

“Yet the very highest perfection in art cannot be taught; it can only emerge from within the creative soul of the singer, and it will do so in the course of an intensive career, if the perfectly trained “born artist” cherishes his art more than success.” Ida Franca204

The chapters prior to this have compared clarinet and voice from several angles.

In Chapter 2 the history of voice and clarinet pedagogy demonstrated that early clarinetists relied on singers as a model for developing clarinet artistry and pedagogy. Bel canto remains the roots of clarinetist’s modern expressive palette and technique today.

Chapters 3 and 4 explored similarities of breathing and tone in singing and clarinet playing, revealing that some aspects of technique may be more comparable than was previously believed. They also revealed that vocal pedagogy is more thorough in research and explanation; offering an example for clarinetists to follow in the future. Chapter 5 demonstrated specific similarities and differences in phrasing. While many interpretive elements are shared, the text of a song greatly impacts phrasing for singers. Clarinetists rely on other musical structures to establish phrasing nuance but may adopt voice- inspired interpretive skills. Together, these chapters support the notion that clarinet artistry can be improved by understanding voice pedagogy. This final chapter will address the development of artistry and aspects of pedagogy inspired by the literature and will offer suggestions for future research on this topic.

204 Ida Franca, Manual of Bel Canto (New York: Coward-McCann, Inc.) 1959, xviii.

Artistry

Artistry is the hallmark of great performing. This is what developing clarinetists strive to learn. Artistry has two important components: technical proficiency and expressive proficiency. The clarinetist develops these skills over many years, learning to communicate with the audience while maintaining superb technique. This is a difficult concept for developing students to understand. Beginners are often most concerned with producing the right fingering but forget that the fingering is only a means of creating the desired tone. Similarly, students focus on dynamics, but forget to use timbre and articulation for expression. Through participation, study, and exposure overtime students develop artistic sensibility. What strategies can be borrowed from vocal pedagogy to aid in the artistic development of clarinetists?

Technical mastery and a baseline for artistic expression can be cultivated through bel canto. As the styles of the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic eras shifted, bel canto technique served the singers well. It still serves as a foundation for singers and clarinetists today. Efficient use of breath, a tone-centric approach, legato connection of notes, subtlety of timbre, dynamic nuance, authentic performance, and artistic balance are still desirable techniques that originated with bel canto. These principles are encouraged in methods by Klosé, Baermann, Langenus, Stein, Cavallini, and Bonade.

Techniques of bel canto, such as chiaroscuro and legato connection are used even in modern repertoire. They teach the clarinetist self-awareness and help relate the sound with the physical process. Chiaroscuro reveals parts of the tone, helping clarinetists produce a wider variety of timbres by emphasizing low or high overtones. This awareness

may also help with extended techniques such as multi-phonics, where the player needs excellent control of the vocal tract and breath. Bel canto is rarely mentioned in clarinet literature but is talked about explicitly in vocal literature. Using the complete bel canto method, rather than parts of it may help students better relate to and apply its principles to their own technique.

Bel canto is also well-suited to serve as an artistic guide for developing players.

The lines between technique and artistry are blurred in bel canto. The beauty and success of phrasing is often dependent on the compatibility between the instrument and player.

This results in what Charles Neidich refers to as the “physicality of emotion.”205 This takes time and patience to develop. Stein notes that, “Too often the amateur tries to emulate the artist in expressiveness without first acquiring the measuring stick of disciplinary exactness with which the artist guides his playing.”206 Bel canto provides an ideal method to learn the interdependence of technique and expression.

A large difference between the artistic demands for clarinetists and singers is that singers learn to act. By dissecting the characters of an opera, singers learn the physical attributes needed to express specific emotions. Expressive music relies on portrayal. The performer must represent the emotion to the audience in a way that elicits them to feel it.

Acting lessons for instrumentalists would be beneficial to developing expressivity in playing.207 By understanding the physicality of emotions, players may develop a stronger

205 Charles Neidich (Charles Neidich @cneidich), “Charles Neidich Livestream,” Facebook, masterclass video, April 10, 2020, https://www.facebook.com/search/top/?q=charles%20neidich&epa=SEARCH_BOX. 206 Keith Stein, The Art of Clarinet Playing (Florida: Summy-Birchard Music, 1958) 53. 207 Geoffrey Tiller, “Sounding the Inner Voice: Emotion and Vocal Emulation in Trumpet Performance and Pedagogy” (doctoral thesis, University of Toronto, 2015) 85. 100

connection to the music, produce more detailed interpretations, and reach the audience in a more meaningful way.

Modern Pedagogy

Four trends in the clarinet and voice pedagogy emerged during the research of this paper that may benefit clarinetists. The first is that singers develop great physical sensitivity while singing and are acutely aware of resonance in the body. The second trend is that vocal pedagogy incorporates accurate anatomy and physiology into their teaching. Both singers and clarinetists may significantly benefit from the third trend, which is the need for pedagogues to clarify terms used during lessons. The final pedagogic observation is that clarinetists (and other instrumentalists) who are told to

‘sing’ on their instrument are likely uncertain about how to implement that in their playing.

Singers quickly develop sensitivity to the physical sensations in the throat and body while singing. Without this, the small vocal-fold muscles would be vulnerable to overuse and injury. This sensitivity guides the singer to develop intuition that aids in the healthy use of the vocal folds. Many singers are hyperaware of resonance in the body, especially from the chest up. This guides their use of resonators and intonation. Housing their instrument (the vocal mechanism) within the body no doubt enhances awareness.

Use of the voice in daily speech and singing music by memory may also lead to greater awareness and sensitivity.

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Expert clarinetists also develop physical sensitivity, but it takes more time.

Sundberg points out that teachers may be more prone to fixing what they can see.208 For singers that is the mouth opening and respiration, for clarinetists it is fingers, embouchure, and respiration. Clarinetists tend to be more focused on correcting habits visually than through feel. Many players practice in front of the mirror to ensure they are using their body well. While highly beneficial for form, this may not promote the development of sensitivity. Clarinetists also typically play longer works than singers, and most perform from memory infrequently. Due to the technical demands of the music, clarinetists must rely on their sense of sight to read music. Refocusing on the physicality of playing may guide clarinetists to more sensitive performance.

The importance of anatomy and physiology was emphasized in Chapter 3. This type of research is applicable to clarinet playing beyond breathing. Many voice pedagogy sources include information regarding anatomy, physiology, and physics to fully explain the concept of singing in scientific terms. Many also offer suggestions for avoiding damaging vocal practices. Additionally, some include information from studies conducted with the implications for developing singers. Anatomical discussions, injury prevention, and the inclusion of studies related to clarinet playing are not typically included in clarinet pedagogy resources. The depth of understanding of clarinet posture, embouchure, breathing, voicing, intonation, and tonguing are areas that could be favorably improved with the addition of these types of research.

208 Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice (Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987) 25. 102

One area of pedagogy that desperately needs to be addressed by clarinet and voice pedagogues alike is their use of language and terms during teaching. While researching breathing, more than sixty terms came up to explain the application of breathing for clarinet playing or singing! Terms such as ‘air flow,’ ‘diaphragm,’ ‘breathing,’ and

‘support’ are used by different pedagogues in a variety of ways. The vast quantity of terms is beneficial in that it allows flexibility in discussion, but unfortunately also causes confusion for students. Cornelius Reed suggests that inconsistent use of nomenclature was a primary reason for the decline in bel canto.209 Many students today study with more than one teacher. (This is condemned by Lamperti, who claimed that a student should learn their craft from one great pedagogue.)210 At least in the U.S.A., it is common for students to learn from their band director, choir director, private teacher, and as they advance, the number of teachers increases. Teachers may present information more clearly and accurately to students if they define their own terms and use them consistently.

What does it mean to ‘sing’ when playing the clarinet?211 One teacher may be asking the student to infuse more specific expression in their playing. Another may be referring to the seeming ease and freeness that singers have, meaning a better balance and connection of the body with the instrument. Robert Samuels briefly addresses this notion in an article called, “Schubert’s Instrumental Voice: Vocality in Melodic Construction in

209 Cornelius L. Reid, Bel canto: principles and practices (New York: J. Pattelson House, 1978) 156. 210William Earl Brown, Vocal Wisdom: Maxims of Giovanni Battista Lamperti, trans. and ed. by Lillian Strongin (New York: Taplinger Publishing Company, 1957) 22. 211 Foster asks, “What is meant by vocal style?” but does not elaborate on that question and addresses broader implications of style instead. Bruce Foster, “A Bel Canto Approach to Performance Practice for the Clarinet Player” (master’s thesis, University of Santa Cruz, 1998) 4. 103

the Late Works.” He offers the example given by violinist Naomi Cummings, whose teacher wanted her to project emotion into her playing, using the instrument as “an extension of the performer’s body…”212 Additionally, her teacher sought to have her perform with expression, but also be slightly distanced emotionally, allowing for the best sound production from the instrument. In other words, feeling pure emotion may not result in the optimal tone on the instrument or conveying the intended emotion. This makes sense vocally too, as one considers the tightening of the throat just before crying.

One can portray crying without actually crying. Samuels also mentions that the communicative powers of the speaking voice are greater than the explicit meaning of the words used, and even extend beyond the ‘tone of voice’ used with the words.213 This implies great importance for the timbre nuance used by musicians and provides support for the expressive capabilities of textless music.

Future Research

A great deal more research will be required to confirm some of the proposed similarities between the voice and clarinet. This study has effectively revealed the lack of anatomical research used in clarinet pedagogy. Studies examining the movement and shape of the vocal tract in clarinet playing could be highly beneficial for understanding resonance, voicing, and intonation. This may also have a great affect on the mouthpiece shape used by players. Similarly, the involvement of the larynx and glottis in clarinet

212 Robert Samuels, “Schubert’s Instrumental Voice : Vocality in Melodic Construction in the Late Works,” from On Voice, ed. Walter Bernhart and Lawrence Kramer, (New York: Rodopi, 2014) 164. 213 Robert Samuels, “Schubert’s Instrumental Voice : Vocality in Melodic Construction in the Late Works,” from On Voice, ed. Walter Bernhart and Lawrence Kramer, (New York: Rodopi, 2014) 164. 104

playing is presently unclear. Students commonly control or restrict the air in their throats.

Knowing more about the role of the larynx in playing may provide answers to help students overcome this tendency. The width of the clarinet reed appears to be remarkably close to the length of the vocal folds. Is this one of the reasons the clarinet can emulate the voice? How does the vibration of the reed change depending on the register and dynamic? To what extent are the reed and vocal folds comparable?

Specifically, a study addressing the complete adoption of bel canto principles by clarinetist participants for a longitudinal study would be fascinating. Players could be schooled in bel canto techniques for six months, then introduced to other styles to see how effective bel canto is for general technique development.

Another worthy study would be to teach skilled clarinetists the appoggio breathing technique and observe the effectiveness of the method based on musical examples judged by other expert clarinetists, and on the experience of the participants themselves.

Conclusion

The purpose of this document is to demonstrate that certain techniques and pedagogic strategies used by classically trained singers can be beneficial to clarinetists.

Explanations of vocal technique for breathing, tone, and phrasing offer a comparison to the current practices used by clarinetists and shed light on new possibilities for expressive playing. Perhaps a deeper connection to the clarinet can be reached because of its similarities to the voice. This research has an additional benefit of providing a foundation

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for vocal terms that may be overheard in opera rehearsals or in a coaching of Shepherd on the Rock, or ‘Parto, Parto.’

The human singing voice is a fascinating artistic tool. The number of dissertations about applying bel canto and additionally relating singing to playing reflects the desire of instrumentalists to continue to emulate singing. The historical sources consulted for this paper revealed that ‘singing’ does not only refer to making music with the vocal folds.

There is an element of honesty or trueness that connects the singer’s nature with the intention of the song. There is also a deep-seated societal admiration for discovering and cultivating one’s voice as a means of enhanced communication. Instrumentalists may seek to know how to emulate the voice in order to better convey emotion and even clarify their own identity. Through the knowledge of voice techniques and pedagogy, clarinetists can better learn to ‘sing.’

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Glossary appoggiare: (Italian, “to lean on”) Refers to the verb from which appoggio is derived. appoggio: (from “appoggiare”) Refers to a breathing method from bel canto technique. Also referred to as “balanced breathing.” (McCoy, 134) articulators: Refers to the lips, jaw opening, velum, tongue, and larynx. These affect the shape or length of the vocal tract. (Sundberg, 22) back pressure: Refers to the air pressure in the mouth and vocal tract above the glottis for clarinetists. bel canto: (Italian, “beautiful singing”) Refers to a genre of music that was known for lyricism, expressivity, legato lines, subtle use of dynamics, textual emphasis, tasteful ornaments, and earnest emotional portrayal of the themes. Bel canto also refers to a style of singing and resultant technique. breath control: Refers to the “dynamic relationship between the breath and the vocal cords which determines how long a person can sing on one breath.” (McKinney, 54) In the case of the clarinet, it is the relationship between the breath and the reed and mouthpiece. breath support: Refers to the dynamic relationship between muscles of inspiration and expiration that together supply adequate breath pressure to the larynx in the case of singing or to the reed and mouthpiece of the clarinet. (McKinney, 53; McCoy, 131) castrato: (pl. castrati) Refers to a male singer who was castrated at a young age to preserve his high voice. Castrati were prevalent in Italian opera during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. chest voice: Refers to the lowest register of the musical range of the singing voice. “The vocal folds are at their thickest, closing firmly and opening decisively, beginning at the bottom.” (Miller, 103) chiaroscuro: (Italian, ‘bright-dark’) Refers to the bel canto tone concept that enables the singer to produce a balanced tone that is sweet, rich, full, and projecting all at once. embouchure: Refers to the position and engagement of the muscles of the lips and face that interact with the reed and mouthpiece of the clarinet.

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formant: Refers to a resonance of the vocal tract. (Titze, 332) glottal stop: Refers to “a transient sound caused by the sudden onset or offset of phonation.” (Titze, 333) head voice: Refers to the primary register of the soprano. When singing in head voice, “the vocal folds become long and thinner; vibration occurs in the anterior part of the folds.” (Miller, 118) larynx: Refers to the bone, cartilage, muscles, ligaments, and membranes of the structure that houses the vocal folds. It is also referred to as the voice box or Adam’s apple. legato: (Italian, ‘bound’) Refers to “a smooth and unbroken passage from one tone to the other.” (Stark, 165) lutte vocale: (Italian, ‘vocal struggle’) Refers to the term introduced by Mandl in 1876 to describe the balancing of the muscles of inhalation and exhalation during singing. (Stark, 99-100) messa di voce: (Italian, ‘placing the voice’) Refers to the bel canto practice of beginning a note softly, gradually getting louder, then returning to the soft dynamic while at the same time changing the timbre from covered to brighter and returning to covered. offset: Refers to the end of a phonated tone through the coordination of muscles of respiration and the larynx. onset: Refers to the start of the phonated tone through the coordination of the muscle of respiration and the larynx. Also used as a term to refer to the start of the tone by clarinetists. passaggio: (Italian, ‘passage’) Refers to the notes in the vocal range when the laryngeal function and resonance change as the voice moves from one register to the next. phonation: Refers to the production of vocal sounds from the oscillation of the vocal folds. portamento: (Italian, ‘carriage of the voice’) Refers to the smooth connection of two notes with a slide, in which the microtones between notes can be heard. register: Refers to the “particular series of tones produced in the same manner (by the same vibratory pattern of the vocal folds) and having the same basic quality. (McKinney, 93) 108

resonator: Refers to the vocal tract for singers and the body of the clarinet for clarinetists. The resonator highlights and dampens overtones produced by the oscillator. solar plexus: Refers to a collection of nerves that intertwine in the middle abdomen. sternum: Refers to the bone on the front of the rib cage that connect the ribs. It is also known as the breastbone. subglottal pressure: Refers to the air pressure below the glottis and ideally regulated through the muscular antagonism of respiratory muscles. trachea: Refers to rings of cartilage connected by membrane that extends from the bronchial tubes in the lungs to the larynx. It is also known as the windpipe. thorax: Refers to “the part of the body between the neck and the abdomen. It contains the ribcage and lungs. (Titze, 56) torso: Refers to the trunk or core of the body from which the neck and limbs extend. velum: Refers to the soft palate at the back of the roof of the mouth. viscera: Refers to the organs in the middle of the abdomen. vocal folds: Refers to the bands of muscle and membrane that reside on the edge of glottis and when stimulated by air pressure oscillate to produce phonation. They are formerly known as vocal cords. vocal tract: Refers to “the airway between the glottis and the mouth; also called the upper respiratory tract.” (Titze, 338) voicing: Refers to the adjustment of the tongue and throat to adjust timbre and pitch of a note on the clarinet.

Vowel modification: Refers to altering a vowel to take on properties of a more resonant vowel for the pitch being sung. It is also known as formant tuning.

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Appendix A. On Vibrato

This discussion about vibrato is included in the Appendix because vibrato is an important element in a fully developed vocal tone but is controversial in the clarinet pedagogy.

Vibrato is described as some vocal pedagogues to be, “a pulsation of pitch, usually accompanied by synchronous pulsations of loudness and timbre, of such extent and rate as to give a pleasing flexibility, tenderness, and richness to the tone.”214

Sundberg stresses that vibrato has two important traits: rate (number of pulsations per second), and extent (range of pitch change per pulsation). McKinney identifies pitch vibrato and intensity vibrato.215 In pitch vibrato, the pulsation occurs five to seven times per second, the range of pitch change is approximately one half-step. In intensity vibrato, the rate is about five to seven pulsations per second, and the intensity changes by two to three decibels.216 (Depending on the type of vibrato used, one may be altering the pitch or loudness of a note (or both) with a fluctuation of five to seven times per second.) Titze emphasizes that the reason for vibrato occurring in the voice is that it acts as a stabilizer

214 According to McKinney (196), this quote comes from Carl Seashore, Psychology of Music (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1938). 215 James McKinney, The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults, rev. ed. (Tennessee: Genevox Music Group, 1994) 197. 216 James McKinney, The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults, rev. ed. (Tennessee: Genevox Music Group, 1994) 197. 114

for the muscles of the larynx. He makes the comparison to a pole used by a high-wire performer. The tiny muscular adjustments made to stabilize the pole help to balance the other muscle movements required to cross the wire.217 Stabilizing the laryngeal muscles through vibrato may reduce fatigue to those muscles.218Although western classical vocalists disagree about elements of vibrato, especially the rate (some prefer slower or faster), they do agree that vibrato is a naturally occurring phenomenon when the voice is used well. It is useful for clarinetists to know that vocal vibrato is not ‘put on’ the tone as it is for instrumentalists. One article about clarinet vibrato suggests that singers manipulate the throat and oral cavity to produce vibrato like a string player moves their hand and finger.219 For some styles this may be true (jazz and pop music come to mind), but vibrato in classical music is most often a bi-product or concurrent trait of a healthily produced tone.

Vibrato on the clarinet is highly controversial. Brymer suggests that with the straight tone of the clarinet, one can “depict the sort of cool, flawless beauty of a marble statue or a piece of perfectly polished wood.”220 He says this purity of sound is unique to the clarinet and desirable. He also claims that vibrato can be done beautifully (as in the case with Richard Mühlfeld) but was used poorly for much of the twentieth century, which resulted in it being ineffectual. He elaborates that some players did not fully

217 Ingo R. Titze, Principles of Voice Production (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1994) 289. 218 James McKinney, The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults, rev. ed. (Tennessee: Genevox Music Group, 1994) 197. 219 Mitchell Estrin, “Clarinet Vibrato,” Vandoren Paris, Dansr, accessed April 26, 2020, https://www.dansr.com/vandoren/resources/clarinet-vibrato. 220 Jack Brymer, Clarinet (London: Macdonald and Jane’s, 1976) 204. 115

produce vibrato with the tone, but that it was almost a separate element.

Pino argues that the reason clarinetists do not use vibrato is due to the prevalence of the odd-number partials of the instrument. He suggests that disrupting the partials is detrimental to the tone.221 He also claims that vibrato causes the sound “to fall flat in quality, and sometimes in pitch.”222 Pino further argues that using vibrato decreases the player’s likelihood to use all dynamics and timbres available.223 He concedes that vibrato can be used in certain cases like the Copland Concerto because it was written for Benny

Goodman, who used vibrato, and also in woodwind quintet at certain times to blend with other vibrato-users.

Bellison wrote about vibrato adding the perspective that vibrato was an American tradition, and not used in Europe.224 He disliked vibrato, saying that students used vibrato because they were “disappointed with their sound.”225 He said that he did note times when it felt as though he was vibrating while playing, though that was unintentional and naturally produced rather than put on. It should be noted that other players mention feeling this mild vibrato, or shimmer, as well.

It is difficult to know what to do with all these conflicting opinions. A couple of observations come to mind. One is that historic accounts demonstrate that vibrato was used by some clarinetists prior to the twentieth century. Vibrato on the clarinet seems to

221 This seems unlikely since altering the pitch through vibrato would alter the full spectrum of harmonics, not merely the odd partials in contrast with the others. 222 David Pino, The Clarinet and Clarinet Playing (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1980) 113. 223 I disagree with this statement. It may be true for students or less-experienced players, but master players who employ vibrato still use a large range of dynamics and colors. 224 Vibrato is used by some European clarinetists. It seems prevalent in the Italian tradition. 225 Bellison ICA article the Clarinet 1950 116

have been popularized in the early twentieth century possibly because of jazz and therefore, perhaps, became more of an American tradition. The use of vibrato was overtly obvious in jazz and may have been an easy, superficial identifier of jazz music. Then in the mid-twentieth century, there was a budding obsession with historically accurate interpretations. With these interpretations came the claim that early vocal music and choral music should not use vibrato. This has been a source of controversy for singers of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Perhaps banning clarinet vibrato in classical music reflects this idea. Additionally, the career path of the clarinetist dictates the use of vibrato to some extent. Orchestral players are not often encouraged to use vibrato (some exceptions apply such as in Gershwin’s music), but certain soloists use it regularly. Some players also use a slight vibrato that is referred to as a shimmer. This is very subtle and naturally produced fluctuation in the sound and is likely not related to the acoustic parameter also called ‘shimmer.’ For clarinetists today, the decision to use vibrato is a matter of artistic preference. It might be of interest to note that when singing, I always have vibrato. I have found that much of the same free-ness can be achieved without vibrato in my clarinet playing, though the shimmer is a part of my sound at times.

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Appendix B. ‘Donde lieta’ Transposed for Clarinet

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This part can be played with the piano reduction from G. Shirmer Opera Anthology: Arias for Soprano, Compiled by Robert L. Larsen.

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