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Cover : Panthera tigris Photo : Sean Austin, Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute,
Texas A&M University, Kingsville
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Contents
TIGERPAPER
Tiger Conservation in Bangladesh ...... ...... 1
Conserving Musk Deer Through Captive Farming ...... ..... . 6
Vegetation of Doi Luang National Park, Northern Thailand ...... 14
Wildlife Conservation in Nanguanhe River Nature Reserve ...... 24
Biodiversity in Buxa Tiger Reserve, West Bengal ...... 29
Lincoln Park Zoo Africa/Asia Fund ...... 32
FOREST NEWS
APFC Countries Continue Efforts to Implement Codes of
Practice for Forest Harvesting ...... .... 1
FAO and Cambodia Implement Innovative Forest Crime
Monitoring and Reporting Project ...... ...... 4
FAO and the European Commission Launch New Forestry Statistics Partnership Initiative in Southeast Asia and South Asia...... 5
FAO Initiates Regional Project to Support Model Forests in Four Countries ...... ...... 6
Third Regional Seminar on Teak: Potentials and Opportunities
In Marketing and Trade of Plantation Teak ...... ...... 8
Asia Pacific Experience in Developing and Implementing Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management .....9
New Forestry Publications ..... . ...... 1 5
FAO Asia Pacific Forestry Calendar .... ...... 1 6
TIGER CONSERVATION IN BANGLADESH
by A.H.M. Ali Reza, Md. Mohsinuzzaman Chowdhury and Charles Santiapillai
Introduction
In Bangladesh, the Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris) occurs today only in the Sundarbans mangrove forests and nowhere else, not even in the Dhaka Zoo. As such, the Sundarbans represents the last refuge of the tiger in Bangladesh. While the tiger's plight has received worldwide attention as a consequence of the dramatic increase in the use of tiger parts in traditional Chinese medicine and the lucrative trade in its skin, which still fetches over US$3,000 a piece, little has been Page 3 of 41
done to protect and manage the tiger in the Sundarbans along a sound, scientific basis in order to ensure its long term survival. As the Sundarbans is shared by both India and Bangladesh, any cooperative management of the mangrove forests by these two range states would greatly enhance the survival of the tiger. Furthermore, the Sundarbans Tiger Reserve in India is estimated to have the largest tiger population in India (De, 1999), thereby ensuring the availability of a large gene pool for the population in adjoining Bangladesh to negate the effects of any inbreeding. But as Seidensticker & Hai (1983) point out, the tiger's survival hinges ultimately on the people who live in the periphery of the Sundarbans, and on how they can provide for its needs under ever increasing pressure.
The Sundarbans
The Sundarbans is derived from the two words sundri (Heritierafomes) and ban (forest). Thus, Sundarbans means a forest of sundri trees. In the Mughal times, it was referred to as Bhati. It was formed as the result of the deposition of sediments carried by the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers, and so is geologically recent. The Sundarbans represents one of the largest tracts of productive mangrove forests in the world. Furthermore, the Sundarbans is also the only mangrove tigerland in the world where the tiger occupies the top of both aquatic as well as terrestrial food webs (De, 1999). It is situated in the south west of Bangladesh, and extends from the international boundary along the Harinbhhanga Raimangal Kalindi river system in the west and Baleswar river in the east, in the estuary of the river Ganges, covering an area of about 5,770 km, of which 4,016 kO is land and the remaining 1,761 km 2 are under water, in the form of rivers, canals, and creeks (Hussain & Acharya, 1994). About 150 years ago, the Sundarbans was twice its present size (Kabir, 1999). As only the Baleswar river is at present directly linked to the river Ganges, it is responsible for the flow of. freshwater in the eastern part of the Sundarbans. The Sundarbans constitutes 44% of the forested area in Bangladesh, and contributes about 50% of the revenue from the forestry sector (Tamang, 1993). It has been notoriously famous for its man eating tigers since the 17 th century. It is also biologically both diverse and complex. Of the 425 species of wildlife that have been recorded from the Sundarbans alone in Bangladesh, 49 species are mammals, 315 are birds (this number may have declined considerably today: a more likely figure would be about 186 species), 53 are reptiles and 8 are amphibians (Hussain & Acharya, 1994). In addition, its waterways and canals have been recognized as one of the richest fish nurseries in the region (Kabir, 1999). Therefore, any effort to conserve the tiger in the Sundarbans will directly benefit countless other species of wildlife that are sympatric with it, and thereby ensure the maintenance of biological diversity across a wide geographical area. On the cusp of the 19 th century, the Sundarbans included a much wider area than it does today, and supported a much richer and more diverse fauna. To the north, there were extensive swamp lands inhabited by such megaherbivores as the Great Indian one horned rhino ( Rhinoceros unicornis ), the one horned Javan rhino ( Rhinoceros sondaicus ), and other large herbivores such as the water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), gaur or Indian Bison ( Bos gaurus ), swamp deer ( Cervus duvauceli ), sambar ( Cervus unicolor ), and the hog deer ( Cervus porcinus ) all of which have become extinct in Bangladesh today. By 1908, according to the Bengal District Gazetteer, both Indian rhino and buffalo had become rare, while by 1914 even barking deer and hog deer were listed as uncommon. Today they are all gone. Instead, the Sundarbans, on the Bangladesh side, supports populations of spotted deer ( Axis axis ), wild pig ( Sus scrofa ) and Rhesus macaque ( Macaca mulatta ), which form the principal prey species of the tiger.
There are only three wildlife sanctuaries within the Sundarbans at present, i.e.: East Wildlife Sanctuary (54 km 2), South Wildlife Sanctuary (179 km 2) between the Malancha and Kunga rivers, and West Wildlife Sanctuary in Satkira Range (990 kmk 2), established in 1977 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1973, later amended in 1974. From the point of tiger conservation, the East Wildlife and West Wildlife sanctuaries are not large enough to support viable populations of tiger. These three wildlife sanctuaries are part of the World Heritage Site of the Sundarbans which came into effect in December 1977. The total area of the World Heritage Site is 1,400 km 2, of which 910 km 2 is land, and 490 km 2 is water, and the site is bordered by a 20 km wide buffer zone. On 4 February 1999, Prime Minister Sheik Hasina unveiled the World Heritage plaque at Hiron Point (Nilkamal). To develop a bio diversity conservation system for resources extracted from the Sundarbans on the basis of environmentally sound planning, a US$82,000,000 Sundarbans Biodiversity Conservation Project has been approved, financed by a loan from the Asian Development Bank (ADB), together with grants from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and Nordic Development Fund (Kabir, 1999).
The Sundarbans mangroves are of great economic importance. They provide employment to over 350,000 people working as "Bowalis" or wood cutters, "Mowalis" or honey gatherers, fishermen, golpatta (Nypa palm) and thatching grass collectors (Tamang, 1993). The people living in the vicinity of the forests depend on such renewable natural resources of the Sundarbans as firewood, building materials, honey, fish and shrimp for their survival. But the most important value of the Sundarbans is the protection it affords to millions of people against the ravages of cyclonic storms and tidal waves, which are very frequent in the Bay of Bengal. The Sundarbans acts as a physical buffer between the people in the north and the sea in the south. If not for the Sundarbans, millions of people would face the full fury of these storms, cyclones and tidal waves and perish. In 1970, more than 200,000 people perished in one storm on the reclaimed areas at the mouth of the Meghna river (Seidensticker & Hai, 1983). But it still remains extremely vulnerable to global warming. At the present rate of global warming, by 2050 it is estimated that the sea level will rise by 83 cm (WHO, 1986), sufficient to wipe out much of the mangrove forests. A more immediate threat to the biological integrity of the Sundarbans may arise from the planned explorations for oil and natural gas in the area. Although the oil companies concerned have pledged not to drill for oil and gas within the Sundarbans, even the so called "lateral drilling" may lead to environmental damage that would be detrimental to wildlife.
Royal Bengal Tiger ( Panthera tigris tigris ) Page 4 of 41
The Sundarbans is known to support a healthy population of the Royal Bengal tiger. Estimates vary. While Hussain & Acharya (1994) put the number to be anything between 300 450 individuals, a more recent estimate by Jalil (1998) puts the number at 362. It is, however, not clear as to how these estimates were arrived at. They remain largely "guesstimates". As Seidensticker (1987) points out, there has never been any census with reasonable confidence limits to tell us how many tigers actually live in the Sundarbans. Nevertheless, using Sunquists's (1981) crude density estimate of I adult tiger per 40 km' in the case of the Royal Chitwan National Park, Seidensticker (1987) believes that there is indeed room for. about 250 adults to live there. The Sundarbans represents one of the toughest habitats in which to study any wildlife, let alone the tiger. The dense and tangled nature of the vegetation in much of the area makes it almost impossible to study the tiger on foot. Therefore, it is not surprising that so far no precise estimates have been made. But this is not a serious problem, as Caughley (1977) argues, "Estimates of abundance have no intrinsic value and they should never be considered ends in themselves. Many biological problems, (e.g. various questions on genetics, zoogeography, behavior, and population management) require no estimate of abundance". Many biological problems can be tackled with the help of indices of density, absolute estimates of density being unnecessary luxuries (Caughley, 1977).
The tiger is traditionally associated with large mammalian herbivorous prey species such as buffalo, gaur, sambar, nilgai, swamp deer, barking deer, spotted deer, and wild pig. Where these key prey species have been exterminated, the tiger does not survive (Seidensticker et al., 1999). In the Sundarbans, with the conversion of the swamp grasslands at the turn of the century to rice fields, the large herbivorous prey of the tiger such as water buffalo, gaur, sambar, and swamp deer became extinct. More recently, even moderately large herbivores such as hog deer and barking deer have become extinct. A preliminary study of tiger predation in the Sundarbans indicates that the spotted deer is the principal prey of the tiger and accounts for 67% of the prey remains in the tiger scats, while wild boar makes up 12%, followed by the Rhesus macaque at 6%. Given this evidence, it is indeed remarkable that the tiger still survives, subsisting on the spotted deer, wild pig and Rhesus macaque as its principal prey supplemented by monitor lizard, fish, crab, birds, and in a few cases, even man. Thus, in the absence of large herbivorous mammalian prey species, the tiger finds itself literally with its back against the wall in the Sundarbans. But the tiger is also an exceptionally adaptable carnivore, and will respond well to a sanctuary strategy. Its reproductive potential is high and so, the tiger under protection from poaching can bounce back, provided adequate populations of its prey survive. In the Nagarhole National Park in India, according to Karanth et al. (1999),. tiger numbers increased from 15 in 1970 to 52 in 1986 a dramatic increase of 347%, or at the rate of 8.3% per annum! This shows that not all small populations are ipso facto "doomed" and so should be conserved and not abandoned on the hypothesis that inbreeding will automatically eliminate them. In the Sundarbans, the tiger's survival depends on the availability of adequate prey of the right size, and the reduction or eradication of poaching. Tiger numbers would increase if poaching were to stop, and provided prey populations remain healthy and adequate. On the other hand, even with healthy prey populations, the tiger will continue to decline if poaching gets out of control. As Schaller (1995) points out, we know how to protect tigers, but not how to manage them. Of the twin evils of loss of prey species and poaching, the former is more serious, since most carnivore populations can withstand a certain amount of loss. Cougar populations are known to sustain the removal of 10 20% of all animals over one year of age (Lindzey et al., 1992). But none of them survive in the absence of prey.
This is the reason why across much of the tiger's present range, there are many potentially good tiger habitats without any tigers in them because most of the prey species have disappeared. Thus, the message is clear: as far as the Sundarbans is concerned, protection of the forest alone will not ensure the long term survival of the tiger. Much attention must be given to the maintenance of healthy populations of suitable prey species. Even in the presence of low level poaching, tigers can survive provided their prey base is maintained at adequate levels (Karanth & Stith, 1999). Thus, prey depletion remains the most potent threat to tiger survival in the Sundarbans. The forest has already lost its swamp deer, hog deer, and barking deer, and wild cervids are the principal prey species of the tiger. It is therefore of enormous importance that habitat conditions are managed and manipulated in such a way to ensure that the spotted deer and wild pig population remain in abundance. The Forestry Department, as the custodians of the Sundarbans, must ',ensure that the tiger's principal prey species are enhanced and regularly monitored.
Conflict Between Tiger and People
The Sundarbans has become famous for its man eating tigers. Although the population of prey species is fairly abundant, the tigers of the Sundarbans have been known to attack human beings (Hussain & Acharya, 199r). Between 1860 and 1866, some 4,218 people were killed by tigers in the Sundarbans (Blanford, 1891), while 452 were killed by tigers between 1912 and 1921 (Curtis, 1933). It has been estimated that more than 535 people (an average of 19.8 people per year) were killed by tigers in the Bangladesh part of the Sundarbans during the period 1956 1983 (Hussain & Acharya, 1994). In the subsequent nine years, the number of people killed by tigers increased to 301 an average of 34.4 people per year (Ali Reza, 1999). Although no one lives within the Sundarbans itself, each year some 45,000 people obtain permits to enter the forest to collect firewood, honey, and nypa palm leaves for thatch. According to official figures, it appears that about 24 people succumb to man eaters each year. But unofficially, the figure can be as high as 100 (Ali Reza, 1999). Only about 25% of the tigers are man eaters, of which only a few are obligate man eaters.
Dr. Hubert Hendrichs, who carried out a detailed study in 1971 of the man eaters in the Sundarbans, was convinced that the number of human casualties from tiger was not correlated with utilization of the forest by men or with the density of spotted deer and wild boar, the main tiger prey. According to Hendrichs (1975), it appears that the human casualties are positively correlated with the salinity of water and high water level, and negatively correlated with a variety of vegetation and variety of mammal fauna. Current studies in the Sundarbans confirm the fact that more man eaters occur in the west where the salinity is very high, while in the east Page 5 of 41
where salinity is very low, hardly any man eaters have so far been recognized.
Conservation of Tiger
The Sundarbans represents a major conservation area of appreciating assets, which are exploited by the people in the neighborhood. People enter Sundarbans mainly to earn a living. They are among the poorest people in Bangladesh. In the absence of any compensation, they remain helpless in the face of tiger attacks. How does one manage tigers in a man dominated environment? How do you deal with tigers that enter villages and attack livestock? There are, therefore, limits to the coexistence of man and tiger in the Sundarbans. The future of the tiger depends on answers to such questions. In the end, the number of tigers that the Sundarbans could support will depend not only on the productivity of the forest itself, but also on the neighboring community's tolerance of the species. It is indeed remarkable that Bangladesh, with its 120 million mostly poor people, has managed to save the tiger. The Sundarbans offers the last hope for the species in Bangladesh. The people are poor and undernourished. As long as these problems remain unmitigated, the immediate survival of people will always take precedence over the long term survival of the tiger and its habitat. These problems will not be solved by better management of the Sundarbans ecosystem, no matter how beneficial in economic terms such management may be. Although we often talk about "ecosystem management", we still know very little about the dynamics of an ecosystem as complex as that of the Sundarbans. All we can do is manage human intervention into the ecosystem. An understanding of the economics and behavior associated with the interaction between the rural people and the Sundarbans is also essential in promoting the conservation of the tiger. The Royal Bengal tiger is an excellent indicator species for the health of the Sundarbans. Its survival would therefore ensure the economic prosperity of thousands of families whose livelihood depends on the biological diversity and richness of the Sundarbans mangroves the last refuge of the tiger in Bangladesh.
References
Ali Reza, A.H.M. 1999. Sundarbans: The Island of No Return . Star Weekend Magazine (3)168:24 25.
Blanford, W.T. 1891. Fauna of British India: Mammalia.
Caughley, G. 1977. Analysis of Vertebrate Populations . John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Chaffey, DR. Miller, F.R. and J.H. Sandom. 1985. A forest inventory of the Sundarbans, Bangladesh. Main Report. Overseas Development Administration, England. 196 pp.
Curtis, S.J. 1933. Working Plan for the Forests of the Sundarbans Division for the period from 1933 to 1951 . Bengal Government Press, Calcutta.
De, R. 1999. The Sundarbans . Oxford University Press, Calcutta.
Hendrichs, H. 1975. The status of the tiger Panthera tigris (Linne, 1758) in the Sundarbans Mangrove Forest (Bay of Bengal). Saugetierkundliche Mitteilungen , 3: 161 198.
Hussain, Z. and G. Acharaya. 1994. Mangroves of the Sundarbans. Vol.2- Bangladesh. IUCN, Gland.
Jalil, S.M. 1998. Bengal tiger in Bangladesh. Unpublished report to Year of the Tiger Conference, Dallas, USA.
Kabir, K. 1999. Protecting the Sundarbans . The Daily Star, 30 August 1999, p.5.
Karanth, K.U. and B. Stith. 1999. Prey depletion as a critical determinant of tiger population viability . In: Seidensticker, J, Christie, S. & Jackson, P. (Eds.) Riding the Tiger: Tiger conservation in human dominated landscapes. 100 1 13. Cambridge University Press, London.
Karanth, K.U., Sunquist, M. and K.M. Chinnappa. 1999. Long-term monitoring of tigers: lessons from Nagarhole. In: Seidensticker, J., Christie, S. & Jackson, P. (Eds.) Riding the Tiger: Tiger conservation in human dominated landscapes. 1 14 122. Cambridge University Press, London.
Lindzey, F.G., van Sickle, W.D., Laing, S.P. and C.S. Mecham. 1992. Cougar population response to manipulation in southern Utah. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 20:224 7.
Schaller, G. 1995. The Plight of the Tiger. Cat News, 22:9. Page 6 of 41
Seidensticker, J. and A. Md. Hai. 1983. The Sundarbans Wildlife Management Plan: Conservation in the Bangladesh Coastal Zone. IUCN, Gland.
Seidensticker, J. 1987. Managing Tigers in the Sundarbans: Experience and Opportunity. In: Tilson, R.L. & Seal, U.S. (Eds.) Tigers of the World. The Biology, Biopolitics, Management, and Conservation of an Endangered Species. 416 426. Noyes Publications, New Jersey, USA.
Seidensticker, J., Christie, S. and P. Jackson. 1999. Introducing the tiger. In: Seidensticker, J., Christie, S. & Jackson, P. (Eds.) Riding the Tiger: Tiger conservation in human dominated landscapes. 1 3. Cambridge University Press, London.
Sunquist, M.E. 1981. The Social Organization of Tigers (Panthera tigris) in Royal Chitawan National Park, Nepal. Smithson. Contrib. Zool., 336, Wash., D.C.
Tamang, K.M. 1993. Integrated Resource Development of the Sundarbans Reserves Forest. FAO, Rome.
WHO. 1986. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Sea Level Rise and River Deltas. Vol. 18, No.2. IPCC 1990 Strategies for adaptation to sea level rise. Report of the coastal zone management sub group (Response strategy sub group) to the International Panal on Climate Change.
Authors' addresses: A.H.M. Ali Reza and Md. Mohsinuzzanwn Chowdhury, Department ofzoology, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka -1342, Bangladesh; Charles Santiapillai, Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
CONSERVING THE ENDANGERED, BUT ECONOMICALLY POTENTIAL, MUSK DEER IN THE HIMALAYAS THROUGH CAPTIVE FARMING
by Ira Tewari and R. P. Singh
Introduction
The musk deer ( Moschus moschiferous Linnaeus) (Tsalkin, 1947) (class Mammalia, order Artiodactyla, sub order Suiformes, and family Cervidae) has been serving mankind for various economic, aesthetic and socio religious purposes since time immemorial. It is listed as endangered in IUCN's Red Data Book and is also included in Appendix I of CITES.
According to India's 1972 Wild Life Protection Act and the 1991 Wild Life Protection Amendment Act, the musk deer comes under schedule one of the 'endangered and rare species' and hunters and poachers are liable to be severely prosecuted with imprisonment for long periods. Page 7 of 41
In fact, concern for wildlife is concern for human beings themselves. All forms of life human, animal and plant, are so closely interlinked that disturbances in one gives rise to imbalance in the others. If species of plants' and animals become endangered, they signify degradation in the environment, which may threaten man's own existence. One of the principal causes of the decline of wildlife throughout the world, next to habitat destruction, is unregulated commercial exploitation, triggered by substantial financial incentives. This is also true in the case of musk
Economics
At the end of the last century, the gelatinous brown musk secreted by the deer's musk gland was sold at Rs2O per ounce at that time equivalent to half its weight in gold (Rockhill, 189 1). By 1974, the export value of musk from Nepal rose to US$17,000 per kg, or four times it weight in gold. The current trend indicates that the international price of musk in the black market is US$40,000 70,000 per kg. (Green and Singh, 1982). In Indian currency, the price of pure musk is about 1.5 million rupees per kg. Normally about 150 deer are killed to obtain one kg of musk (Doval, 1989). A pair of musk deer can fetch hundreds of thousands of rupees in the international market. With the present global tendency toward natural products, the consumption of musk is likely to increase significantly.
Distribution
The global distribution of musk deer extends across the Himalayas from northwestern Pakistan to Arunachal Pradesh in India, including the Nepal Himalayas, southwest China, Tibet, Mongolia and up to northeastern Siberia in the Ussurin region of Russia. Musk deer have also been reported from certain parts of Myanmar and the Korean peninsula (Prof. I. Prakash, pers. comm.). In the southeastern Himalayan region, the habitat of this species is usually at an attitude of about 3,000 m. The specific musk deer habitats in Pakistan are Chitral, Hazara, Indus Kohistan, the east bank of the Astor River, and the Hushe valley in Baltistan.
In Nepal, musk deer are found in the Lake Rara (Bolton, 1976) and Langtang (Borradaile et at., 1977) regions. The species is found in Bajang, Doti, Narfflang Valley, Tibrikot and Markhov Lake in west,Nepal, Dhorpatan and Manang in central Nepal, and Jatapokhbari, Chipua, Thaplejung and Arun Valley in eastern Nepal (Jamwal, 1972).
In India, the deer's natural habitat is found in Jammu and Kashmir province, covering the forest divisions of Kanuraj, Langet, Jhelum, Pir Panjal, Sindh, Kishtwar, Ramban, Resi, Udhampur and Poonch, Billawar, Rajouri, and Gilgit. In Himachal Pradesh, the species is present in Kinnaur and Rajgarh. In the Uttar Pradesh hills, it is found in Badrinath and Tons, Darma and Byans and Johar and Munsyar forest divisions. It is also found in Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, but the specific distribution is not known (CCRAS, Annual Reports 1972 to 1985).
Farming of Musk Deer
This rare and endangered species is in serious need of protection. In fact, the countries of the erstwhile USSR (mainly Russia) and China already recognized this fact during the 1950s and established musk deer farms for their rearing and breeding. In these farms, techniques were also standardized to collect musk from the abdomens (musk glands) of mate deer without killing them, and also generated information on various aspects of the animal's life cycle (Ustinov, 1969; Salmin and Obraz Zhizui, 1972; Zheng and Nanwin, 1984). The musk deer habitat is associated with the alpine, sub alpine and scrub zones (above coniferous forests). The animal particularly favors steep slopes and narrow gullies near the mountain crust where winter provides sufficient moisture for growth of bushes and (in spring) trees such as Ribena sp., Femula sp., Rhododendrons, Junipers, Betula sp., Quercus semecarpifolia , Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodare, Berberis , etc. In severe winters, nothing is available as food in the abode of musk deer except tree bark, lichens, mosses, and a few plants, grasses, seeds and forbs. During spring, summer and the rainy season, the deer browses on leaves, the tender parts of plants, mushrooms, lichens and certain epiphytes (Anonymous, 1990). The captive farming operation should preferably be located near the animal's natural habitat zone so that it can acclimatize itself easily. In India, however, ,,Ome of the captive centers and farms have been established at lower altitudes of around 2,200 2,500 m.
Before setting up a musk deer farm, it is of the utmost importance that the operators be aware of the fundamental basic facts about musk deer and their life cycle. In India, three musk deer farms, viz Kufri musk deer farm, the H.P. Kanchula Kharak musk deer farm in Chamoli, Garwhal, U.P., and Mehruri musk deer farm near Almora, Kumaun, U.P., are the centers where the breeding and rearing of this animal has been attempted. Information and data have also been obtained on different aspects of the life cycle of this animal.
Specific Requirements of Musk Deer Farms
Some of the essential requirements of musk deer farms are given below:
The elevation of the farm should be around 3,000 m.
The farm should be at least 2 3 km away, from human habitations. 2 The space required for each animal is 50 m . A wooden cabin with an asbestos roof should be placed within the stockades, as the high altitude animals Page 8 of 41
prefer to sit on raised areas. The farms should be enclosed with a 12 foot high barrier of netted wire embedded in a 2 foot high cement wall, to protect the animals from leopards and also prevent their escape.
To protect the animals from soil borne diseases, the soil should be examined to make sure it is not too moist. There should be proper arrangement for clean drinking water. Some saltlicks should also be located in the captivity zone.
The area where the farm is to be set up should have ample fodder vegetation preferred by the deer.
Proper veterinary and animal husbandry facilities should be available.
There should be 2 3 guard quarters in the farm structure.
Behavior in the Farms
Musk deer begin their days in the early hours of the morning, frolicking for 10 20 minutes. The females are faster than the males. Sometimes they nibble on leftover vegetative material. The animals enjoy each other's company and show affection to the young animals, which is a natural herd instinct.
The captive animals are comfortable at temperatures around 15'C. If the temperature rises above 20'C, the deer become restless and start searching for moist places. In the cloudy summer days, the animal seems quietly rejuvenated. During heavy rainfalls or hailstorms, the animals take shelter in the cabins constructed inside the stockades. With the advent of snowfall, the animals prefer to rest in dry places.
Food Preferences
The young and adult animals in the stockades prefer the leaves of Persecaria nepalensis , especially during the monsoon season. They relish Jasminium officinalils, Launea nudicalulis, Bergenia sp., Holloboelia talifolia, Viola serpens, Chrysanthemum sp., and Polygonium sp. (Satya Kumar and Prasad, 1990). Other preferred plants include flowers of Rhododendron arboreum , leaves of Strobilanthes dalhousianus, Pyrus pashia, Prunus domestics, Rubus nutans, Smilax sp., Quercus leucotrichophora, Q. glauca, Arundinaria falcata, Usnea lichens, Agaricus mushrooms, etc. Although musk deer rely on wild plants, the farm food consists of both wild plants and agricultural feed. Musk deer are reported to consume 60 70 different varieties of food species in the farms. Apart from the plants listed above, musk deer also like juicy fruits such as wild apples, pears, white melons, etc. In captivity, it is found to relish milk of any form, soaked gram, and wheat. On an average, an adult musk deer consumes 2 2.5 kg of fodder per day (3 kg in summer and 3.5 kg during the monsoon). It drinks 50 60 ml of water per intake, 2 6 times daily depending on the season.
Reproductive Phase
By nature, the musk deer is a timid and solitary animal. The average body weight of the Himalayan musk deer is 9.6 11.2 kg (Green and Singh, 1982). It is like a medium sized goat without horns. The deer has a gall bladder and the males have long canine teeth. The rut takes place during the winter season and continues until spring. Males attain maturity at 2 years of age (McNeely, 1973) and females at 18 19 months (Shapisnikov, 1956). Soon after the first snowfall in November, the females start to exhibit the signs of oestrus. This continues until March. On an average, oestrus extends up to 48 hours. At the age of approximately 2.5 years, the male is capable of performing more then three copulations a day of 10 15 minutes apiece.
The gestation period ranges from 198 to 204 days. Pregnant deer have a greater preference for salt than other individuals. Frequent urination occurs just before the onset of labor.
As soon as the fawn is born, the mother licks it clean. Within a half an hour, the placenta is also expelled. As soon as the young one can stand up, it searches for the mother's milk. The young are usually weaned after three and a half months. Page 9 of 41
Ailments and Diseases
The first and foremost symptom of ill health is that the nose appears dry and there is excessive secretion from the eyes.
Diarrhea is one of the common diseases encountered in the farms. It can be cured by giving Angetica glauca powder dissolved in cold water. Constipation is also common, and is treated by giving the animal a tea like preparation of Angelica glauca powder. A disease called 'pasteurellosis' is reported to be highly fatal for musk deer being reared in captivity in the Himalayan region (Ashraf, 1991). Lung worm infection has been particularly considered as a predisposing factor in outbreaks of pasteurellosis (Roshan, 1981). Eight of the 21 musk deer in Kanchula Kharak musk deer farm in Chamoli, U.P., died in the short period of three months. The autopsy of one deer showed that death was due to Veminous pneumonia (due to heavy lung worm infection),' while the death of another was attributed 'to pasteurellosis. The lung worm infection is thus predicted to be an inciting factor for the flare up of pasteurellosis.
Alopecia (hair loss) is a rarely encountered disease. It occurs especially in the winter and is due to a deficiency of vitamins and minerals.
Field rats have been found to attack the hooves of the deer during the night. Painting the hooves with tincture iodine or tincture benzoin and bandaging them helps the recovery and wards off the rats. A plaster made of raw turmeric and Orchis mascula makes an excellent bandage for wounds. For bleeding wounds, cleaning the affected part with boric acid powder dissolved in lukewarm water, followed by the application of tincture of benzoin is very effective.
The Musk Pod and Musk
The musk pod is present in the male musk deer. The musk gland is slightly visible in the fawns, just below the umbilicus, when they reach 3 4 months of age. At this age, it is the size of a raspberry and very soft. When the deer is about two and a half years old, the musk pod attains its full development.
The weight of the musk pod (including hair) varies from 40 70 gm and contains 10 40 gm of fresh musk in a semi solid state. The musk contains an alkaloid muscone which is the main constituent responsible for its quality. Steroids, esters, proteins, waxes, and urogeni salts are important constituents of musk. Androsterone is also reported to be present in musk (Waki and Kimura, 1984). The musk is produced from the age of 2 years up to 14 years. A single male after four years of age produces 30 40 gm of musk. According to personal information from musk deer farms, this quantity is reproduced annually six months after the extraction (Zeng and Nanwin; loshi et al, 1993). Thus, throughout its lifespan of about 16 years, a musk deer can provide a minimum of 360 gm of musk, valued at Rs.450,000.
Musk Extraction
In captivity, musk can easily be extracted without killing or harming the animal. This is done by immobilizing the animal either with tranquilizers or by physical restraint. The sticky musk is then scooped out through the opening in the pouch or pod on the abdomen (Joshi et al., 1993); Venugopal Rao et al., 1993). In fact, the deer can be milked for musk twice a year after temporarily anaesthetizing the animal. This clearly contradicts the traditional misconception that musk can be procured only after killing the deer. If proper musk deer farms are established in the Himalayan region above 2,500 m elevations with due facilities for animal care, the killing of musk deer for the precious musk will stop completely.
Uses of Musk
Musk is a highly priced commodity. The unique flavoring quality of musk is one of the important factors for its high value in the international market. Besides being used in flavoring delicacies, it is also used in costly wines and perfumes. The perfume of musk extracted from musk deer has no parallel and it is futile to make comparisons with other types of musk (Hallis, 1974). Musk is highly revered for its medicinal value in Ayurvedic, Unani, Tibetain (Amchi) and Chinese systems of medicines. References about the curative properties of musk are found in the writings of 11th century Arab physicians (Joshi et al, 1993). Musk is reputed to be a cardiac and general stimulant and is used to support the active functioning of the heart (Mukhopadhyay et al., 1973). It increases the blood circulation and raises the arterial tension. The practitioners of Indian systems of medicines use musk as a cardiac and general stimulant, aphrodisiac, antispasmodic, and for chronic coughs. The urine and dung of the musk deer are also used in folk medicine treatments. While the application of urine externally was found to give much relief in gout and rheumatism, dung is reported to control and cure tuberculosis when taken orally for a prescribed time. Used in 150 Ayurvedic systems of medicine, it is described as a life saving medicine (Uniyal, 1988).
Conservation Strategies
Large scale killing of this animal for the musk trade is the most important factor in the decline in the population throughout the range of its occurrence. In the Himalayan region, the poaching of musk deer is highly organized and poachers operate in groups. The most discriminate method of picking the male is by shooting. However, this method is not favored by the hunters because of the risk of detection by forest officials. Besides firearms, poachers also use snares, poisoned spears and tracking dogs to hunt the animals. Page 10 of 41
The second most important factor in the decline of the species is habitat destruction. In the Himalayan region, sub alpine forests and scrub are being used at an accelerating rate for fuel, fodder and timber. Instead of selective thinning, large stands of trees are felled completely.
The future conservation of musk deer throughout their entire habitat in general, and particularly in the Himalayas, requires the following strategies:
All poaching practices must be controlled more effectively.
The natural habitats of the musk deer should be protected with stricter legislation and the central and concerned state governments should take all necessary steps that will help to conserve the species, even if the cost is high.
Musk deer areas should be earmarked and local people who have rights over the forest should be trained in techniques of extracting musk without killing the animal. The male deer can be caught once or twice a year and after musk extraction should be released back into the forests. This practice is well followed in China (Joshi et al., 1993).
The musk deer farms and sanctuaries are good propositions for conservation of the species. However, these farms and sanctuaries are located in different attitudes than the animal's natural one and they have to be fed on the native vegetation or whatever is in the vicinity. In the musk deer center at Almora, it has been found that a change in food habits did not have any direct bearing on the size of the pod or quality of musk (Joshi et at., 1993). Therefore, a vegetable diet can easily be substituted with cereals and pulses, especially in musk deer rearing farms.
In the farms, timely treatment and medication by trained veterinarians should be provided so that the mortality rate remains at a minimum level.
Musk from India, Nepal and Bhutan is often smuggled to the west and Japan via Hong Kong. In Japan, it is used for its medicinal properties, while in the west it is mainly used in perfumery. Coordinated action at official levels is required to curb this traffic by increasing vigilance at ports.
Human activities and the flow of tourists at and around the musk deer farms and sanctuaries should be minimized as much as possible.
Large scale scientific farming of musk deer should be promoted at and around its natural habitats in the Himalayas.
Discussion and Conclusion
At present, there is a very serious need to save the endangered musk deer in the Himalayan belt, which can prove to be a potential economic resource for the hilly areas. To achieve this objective, musk deer farms should be promoted at elevations of around 3,000 m. Various conservation strategies should be taken for in situ and ex situ preservation of this species. It is astonishing that musk deer are being killed for musk collection when in fact, simple techniques can be used to extract the musk without harming the animal.
References
Anonymous. 1989. Annual Report 1988 89. Unit for studies of possibilities of augmenting production of musk in the country. Amalgamated Units (now IIADR) (C.C.R.A.S.), Tarikhet, Ranikhet, U.P., India. 6p.
Anonymous. 1990. Annual Report 1989 90. Unit for studies of possibilities of augmenting production of musk in the country. Amalgamated Units (now IIADR) (C.C.R.A.S.), Tarikhet, Ranikhet, U.P., India. 7p.
Ashraf, N.V.K. 199 1. Do predisposing factors determine pasteurellosis epidemic? WWI Newsletter 6(2):15 16.
Bolton, M. 1976. Lake Rara National Park Management Plan, 1976 81. HMGAJNDP/ FAO, National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Project, NEP/72/002, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Borradaile, L.J., Green. M.J.B., Moon, L.C., Robinson, P.J. and A. Tali. Langtang National Park Management Plan, 1977 82. Durham University Himalayan Expedition HMG/UNDP/FAO, National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Project, NEP/72/002, Kathmandu, Nepal.
CCRAS. Annual Report 1978 1979, Unit for studies of possibilities of augmenting production of musk in the country. Amalgamated Units (now ITADR), (C.C.R.A.S.), Tarikhet, Ranikhet, U.P., India. 10p.
CCRAS. Annual Report 1982 83, Unit for studies of possibilities of augmenting production of musk in the country. Amalgamated Units (now Page 11 of 41
C.C.R.A.S.), Tarikhet, Ranikhet, U.P., India. 21p.
Doval, N.K. 1989. Saved from the brink. The Hindu, Weekly Edition, 2 August 1989, pp.20.
Green, M.J.B. and A.N. Singh. 1982. The ecology of and conservation of the Himalayan Musk Deer. In: Wildlife in India, (Ed.) V.B. Saharia, Natraj Publishers, Dehradun, pp. 173 190.
Hallis, Jennie E. 1947. His perfume stills the world. Nat. Hist. (New York) 56(2):68 71.
Jamwal, P.S. 1972. Collection of musk deer in Nepal. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 69:647 649.
Joshi, O.C., Tiwari, K.C., Tiwari, R.N. and G. Pandey. 1993. Conservation strategy and some studies on habitat ecology of musk deer (Moschus moschiferous) A vanishing species. Indian Forester 119(10):798 803.
McNeely, J. 1973. Musk deer, Kastori A report. National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Office, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Mukhopadhyay, A. Seth, S.D. and N. Bagchi. 1973. Cardiac and CNS (central nervous system) actions of musk. Indian Journal of Pharmacy 35 (6):169 170.
Rockhill, W.W. 189 1. The Land of the Lamas. The Century Company.
Rosen, M.N. 198 1. Pasteurellosis. In: Eds. J.W. Davies, L.H. Karstad and D.O. Trainer. Infectious diseases of wild animals. 11 Edition, Iowa State University Press, USA.
Salmin, Yu and Obraz, Zhizui. 1972. Life history of Ussurian musk deer in the ,Central part of Sikhote AUn range. Buyll. Moskova ISPYT PAIR Biol 77 (4):30 42.
Sathya Kumar, S. and S.N. Prasad. 1990. Reintroducing Captive Himalayan Musk deer. Zoo's Print VI(7).
Shaposhnikov, F.D. 1956. Material on the ecology of the musk deer in the northeastern Alti. Zool. Zhurnal 35:1084 1093.
Tsalkin VI. 1947. Sistematica kabargi. V. Kn. Oleni, USSR.
Uniyal, M.R. 1988. Pran Rakshyak Ausadhi Kasturi Ka Strot kasturamrig. Sachitra Ayurved, October 1988:195 (in Hindi).
Ustinov, S.K. 1969. Winter feeding of musk deer (Moschus moschiferous) in the east Syane. ZooL Zhurnal 48 (10):1558 1563.
Venugopal Rao, S. Singh, N., Uniyal, M.R. and D. Ghosh. 1993. Some experiences on extraction of musk from live musk deer. Proc. Silver Jubilee, Tarikhet Celebrations of IIADR and Seminar on Medicinal Plant Research, C.C.R.A.S., New Delhi, p.31 (abstract).
Waki, I and M. Kimura. 1884. Effect of muscone, androsterone and other musk compounds on isoproteroanol induced contractile tension in kitten and guinea pig papillary muscle. Wakan lyaku Gakkaishi 1(2):218 221.
Zeng, S. and R.I. Nanwin. 1984. Studies on musk gland, musk numbers and hunting of musk deer (Moschus sifanicus)..Acta Theriot. Sin. 4(l):35 42.
Author's address: Ira Tewari, 258, Jailat Sah Bazar, Mallital, Nainital - 263001, U.P., India. Page 12 of 41
VEGETATION OF DOI LUANG NATIONAL PARK, NORTHERN THAILAND
J.F.Maxwell
Introduction
Doi Luang National Park, named after doi (mountain) luang (royal) mountain, the highest peak (1700 in) in the national park, was established on 16 April 1990. It has an area of 1170 km' in the provinces of Lampang, Payao, and Chiang Rai. Included are three main watersheds, viz. Wahng, which flows south, eventually to the Chao Phya River; Lao, going north to the Mekong River, and to the SE. providing the water supply of Payao Lake, the second largest inland fresh water lake in Thailand. . The national park is situated at roughly 19 ° 05 45' north latitude and 99 ° 30 45' east longitude. Many villages and settlements are found surrounding and inside the national park.
Geology
Doi Luang National Park has a basic N S alignment, which corresponds to most other mountain ranges in northern Thailand. There are two parallel ridges with a valley between them in the southern part. Doi Mawk (Mok), on the west side in Wieng Bah Bao District; Chiang Rai Province, is the highest point on the western ridge at 1400 in. The summits of Doi Nawk (Nok), 1500 in, and Doi Luang, 1700 in, are the highest points in the national park and are the boundary between Lampang and Payao Provinces.
The rocks in the national park are mostly sedimentary with granite, of plutonic origin, in the Doi Nawk Doi Luang area. The basic extents and ranges of these rocks are from Baum & Hahn (1977).
The oldest rocks in the national park are Upper Devonian to Middle Permian shale, phyllite, sandstone, and limestone, 250 280 million years old, which are found scattered throughout the national park. Jurassic sandstone, shale, and limestone, c. 175 million years old, as well as similar rocks from the Mid Jurassic c. 215 million years old, are also found there. The granite is Mid Triassic. The summit of Doi Mawk is Upper Carboniferous phyllite and shale c. 300 million years old. Tertiary and Quartemary sand, gravel, phyllite, sandstone, shale, and marl up to 2 million years old are in the lowlands there. I have not seen volcanic rocks in the national park.
Climate
The climate of northern Thailand is seasonal (monsoonal) with three distinct seasons. The rainy season is from June October with annual averages of over 1000 mm in the lowlands. A cool, dry period follows from November February with a temperature range of c. 15 35 ° C in lowland areas. Upland temperatures are lower, often reaching c. 5 ° C at night. Frost is rare on the highest peaks. The hot, dry season is from March May when lowland temperatures often rise to over 40 ° C. Average temperatures decrease about 0.6 ° C for each 100 m increase in elevation, thus upland areas are cooler than the lowlands. There is also more rainfall at higher elevations.
Several sets of meteorological data are available for Doi Luang National Park, all from lowland stations except from the Wahng Watershed Research Station on Doi Mawk at 1175 m (Ployjereun, 1998). Data from this station is from April 1983 to March 1997. As in all other areas in northern Thailand, the hottest month is April and the coolest are December and January. The average temperature on Doi Mawk in April is 32.1 ° C while the lowest is in December at 13.2 ° C. The highest temperature recorded was 39.0 ° C in April 1983 and the lowest was 5.5 ° C in December 1987. Rainfall is highest in August with an average of 291.5 mm and Page 13 of 41
lowest in January with an average of 1.9 mm. The total amount of rain ranges from 1242.2 to 1925.9 mm/year with an average of 117.8 rainy days/year. Rainfall and temperature data from five lowland stations (c. 375 550 in) surrounding the national park are similar and depict this seasonal trend, e.g. Payao. Rainfall in the lowlands is, again, highest in August with averages from c. 160 250 mm, i.e. lower than on Doi Mawk.
Fire
Fires are deliberately started during the hot, dry season, sometimes as early as February, when the vegetation is dry. The most common reason for setting fires is to clear fields of dry vegetation. These fires frequently bum out of control and spread to nearby forested areas. Slash and burn (swidden) practices involve cutting the forest, letting the debris dry, and then burning to open new cultivated areas or clear old ones. Burning is also done by hunters to flush animals out of their refuges. I have also seen fires started by careless smokers and campers in the forest. Mushroom collectors start fires with the untenable belief that this will increase mushroom productivity during the rainy season. The only possible benefit of this incorrigible practice is that mushrooms are easier to spot without leaf litter covering them. Pyromania is also a serious and very sinister problem throughout the region. All "official" efforts of forest fire protection in the national park, as in most other forests in northern Thailand, have been ineffective.
Vegetation
According to Hastings & Liengsakul (1984), who investigated fossil pollen in a Sphagnum bog just below the summit of Doi Intanon (e. 2565 in), the highest point in Thailand, there was a climatic change in the region c. 4300 years ago. Using C 14 dating of pollen, it was found that prior to c. 4300 years ago the climate was drier and, as a consequence, Pinus (Pinaceae, pines) was able to exist at higher elevations than at present. According to my own observations the highest level of well developed pine in northern Thailand is c. 1800 in (Maxwell et al., 1997). Above this elevation Pinus kesiya Roy. ex Gord. can still be found, albeit sparse and stunted. All upland, i.e. above, 1000 m, areas where P. merkusii Jungh. & De Vriese and P. kesiya are found are in association with seasonal hardwood forests which are often degraded by fire, viz. deciduous dipterocarp oak + pine (DO/Pine) and primary evergreen hardwood + pine (EG/Pine) forests.
There was less rainfall, perhaps 400 500 mm less per year, before c. 4300 years ago. This situation, as a consequence, lengthened the dry season by periods up to 2 months. Pines were then able to grow above 1800 m and probably dominated the vegetation. After this time increased rainfall and a consequent shortening of the dry season allowed the present vegetational facies found in northern Thailand to develop and perpetuate.
Although people have been living in the region for centuries, their influences on the vegetation were not serious until about a century ago when the extraction of Tectona grandis L.f. (Verbenaceae, teak) became commercialized (De'Ath, 1992). Prior to that time much lowland area was cleared for agriculture and in some places ceramic industries developed which also resulted in the destruction of some lowland forested areas. As far as Doi Luang National Park is concerned, lowland areas (c. 450 600 m) in and around the national park have been settled for hundreds of years. Payao Lake, for example, on the SE. side of the national park, has been settled for centuries. The SE. summit ridge, above Payao Lake, has been disturbed by fire and clearing, mainly due to hunting activities of both lowland and hilltribe villagers, for a long time. The summits of the two highest peaks in the national park, located above Payao Lake, viz. Doi Luang (1700 m) and Doi Nawk (1500 m) have, respectively, remains of a ruined and extant pagoda. This indicates that people have been coming into the area for many generations. There are many Thai and hilltribe villages in the national park ranging from the lowlands to c. 1200 m. Human impact on the vegetation has been profound in all areas of the national park. As a consequence of this, most of the original lowland vegetation has been either degraded or destroyed, while much of the forest cover above 1000 in is patchy. Due to population pressures and ineffective park and watershed management, the situation is rapidly deteriorating. Illegal logging, grazing, hunting, and fires, which have already devastated much of the national park's natural resources, have yet to be effectively controlled. The presence of numerous, new, large, garish wooden houses around the national park testifies to not only the disregard of the villagers to the sanctity of the national park, but also to inept forestry officials who have allowed this to happen.
In general, both the vegetation and flora in Doi Luang National Park are similar to that in other forested areas that I have studied in northern Thailand (Maxwell, 1988, 1992, 1996, 1998a; Maxwell et al. 1995, 1997). There are two basic kinds of forests in the region, viz. deciduous and evergreen. Deciduous forests, most of which are very degraded, occupy the lowlands from c. 450 to usually c. 800, but in some places up to c. II 00 in. Areas with both deciduous and evergreen, i.e. "mixed", species are found from as low as c. 600 in in stream valleys to c. 1000 in. Above c. 1000 in to the summit of Doi Luang (1700 in) is, or used to be, evergreen. There are no distinct boundaries of these forest types since disturbance and regrowth have made the original boundaries both irregular and, in many places, indistinct. Aside from some species found in limestone areas, I have not found significant differences in the species found on soils derived from the various kinds of bedrock at similar elevations in the national park. The vegetation and flora, therefore, are distinguishable because of elevation since lowland areas are typically drier and hotter than the more moist and cooler uplands.
Deciduous Forests (DF)
The original lowland forest cover in northern Thailand was primary, deciduous, and quite seasonal. It was composed of large (30 40 in), commercially valuable, hardwood trees dominated by Tectona grandis L.f. (Verbenaceae, teak), with lesser amounts of Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub. var kerrii (Craib & Hutch.) Niels. Page 14 of 41
(Leguminosae, Mimosoideae), Pterocarpus macrocarpus Kurz (Leguminosae, Papilionoideae), Afzelia xylocarpa (Kurz) Craib (Leguminosac, Caesalpiniodeae); Hymenodictyon orixense , (Roxb.) Mabb., Mitragyna rotundifolia (Roxb.) O.K., and M. hirsuta Hav. (all Rubiaceae). Less valuable canopy species include: Lagerstroemia cochinchinensis Pierre var. ovalifolia Furt. & Mont. and L. toment osa Presi (Lythraceae), Garugafloribunda Decne . (Burseraceae), Spondias pinnata (L.f) Kurz (Anacardiaceae), Terminalia beltirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. (Combretaceae), Tetrameles nudiflora R. Br. ex Benn. (Datiscaccae), Irvingia malayana Oliv. ex Benn. (Irvingiaceae), which is evergreen; and Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss. (Meliaceae). The more commercially valuable timber trees have been extensively exploited, so much so that most of the original canopy species are rare or uncommon and rarely large. Only remnants of this kind of forest remain, the largest and most intact being in Mae Yom National Park, Prae Province. Since I have had an opportunity to study the vegetation there, I have been able to make many comparisons between this place and other lowland forested areas in northern Thailand (Maxwell, 1992). The extent of forest destruction is not only shocking, but also beyond reproach since deforestation in Thailand will continue until all forested areas are destroyed. Although all of these original canopy tree species can still be found in Doi Luang National Park, their numbers and sizes have been drastically reduced and in most places the original DF has been obliterated.
Understorey (up to c. 20 m) trees include: Berrya mollis Wall. ex Kurz and Colona flagrocarpa (CI). Craib (both Tiliaceae ), Cassia fistula L. (Leguminosae, Caesalpinioideae), Millettia brandisiana Kurz and Dalbergia cultrata Grah. ex Bth. var. cultrata (both Leguminosae, Papilionoideac), Anogeissus acuminata (Roxb. ex DC.) Guill. & Perr. and Combretum quadrangulare Kurz (both Combretaceae), Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken (Sapindaceae), and Vitex limoniifolia Wall. ex Kurz (Verbenaceae). Dendrocalamus membranaceus Munro, Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss. ex Vilm., B. tulda Roxb., B. vulgaris Schrad. ex Wendl. var. vulgaris, Cephalostachyum pergracile Munro, and other bamboos (Gramineae, Bambusoideae) are also common. These bamboos, as well as many of the less valuable canopy and understorey trees, have proliferated with the removal of the original canopy species. Since these degraded DF areas are not pristine, but still primary in succession and could, possibly regrow to the original state, I have called these places bamboo + deciduous forest (BB/DF).
Ground Flora
The ground flora is typically deciduous, perennial, and consists of herbs, vines, shrubs, treelets, as well as seedlings. Typical herbs include: Polygala chinensis L. (Polygalaceae), Desmodium heterocarpon (L.) DC. ssp. heterocarpon var. heterocarpon and var. strigosum Mee. (Leguminosae, Papilionoideae), Hedyotis tene Iliflora Bl. var. kerrii (Craib) Fuku. (Rubiaceae), Chloranthus nervosus Coll. & Hemsl. (Chloranthaceae); Globba nuda K. Lar., G. kerrii Craib, and Kaempferia roscoeana Wall. (all Zingiberaceae); Geodorum citrinum Jacks. and Nervilia crociformis (Zoll. & Mor.) Seid. (both Orchidaceae), and Oryza meyeriana (Zoll. & Mor.) Baill. var. granulate (Watt) Duist. (Gramineae, wild rice). Some vines are: Cissampelos pareira L. var. hirsute (B. H. ex DC.) Forman and Stephania oblata Craib (both Menispermaceae), Thunbergia similis Craib (Acanthaceae), Dioscorea hispida Denn. and D. pentaphylla L. (Dioscoreaceae), and Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. (Schizaeaceae). Uvaria cordata (Dun.) Alst. (Annonaceae), Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill. var. oenoplia (Rhamnaceae), Millettia extensa (Bth.) Bth. ex Baker and Spatholobus parviflorus (Roxb.) O.K. (both Leguminosae, Papilioniodeae) are some deciduous woody climbers.
Deciduous shrubs and treelets are common and include: Grewia hirsute Vahl (Tiliaceae), Clausena excavate Burm. f. var. excavate (Rutaceae), Bauhinia viridescens Desv. var. viridescens (Leguminosae, Caesalpinioideae); Desmodium motorium (Houtt.) Merr., D. pulchellum (L.) Bth., and Flemingia sootepensis Craib (all Leguminoseae, Papilionoideae), Canthium parvifolium Roxb. (Rubiaceae), Antidesma acidum Retz. and Glochidion rubrum Bl. (both Euphorbiaceae).
Deciduous Dipterocarp-Oak, Seasonal, Hardwood Forest (DOF)
As noted above, the original DF has disappeared during this century and many of its components have become uncommon or rare. DF areas which have been clear cut have lost soil and proper environmental conditions for the original forest to regrow. The forest which has replaced DF is shorter, less dense, fire dependent, and dominated by deciduous trees belonging to Dipterocarpaceae and Fagaceae (oaks). I have called this kind of secondary forest deciduous dipterocarp oak (Maxwell, 1988, 1992, 1996, 1998a; Maxwell et at. 1995, 1997). The trees in DOF are mostly different from those found in DF and include: Dipterocarpus obtusifolius Teijsm. ex Miq. var. obtusifolius , D. tuberculatus Roxb. var. tuberculatus , Shorea siamensis Miq. var. siamensis, and S. obtusa Wall. ex Bt. (all Dipterocarpaceae). Quercus kerrii Craib var . kerrii (Fagaceae, oak), usually common in DOF, has been extirpated in many places due to the great utilities of its bark and timber. Other, mostly less common, tree species are: Dillenia parviflora Griff. var. kerrii (Craib) Hoogl. (Dilleniaceae), Cratoxylum cochinchinense (Lour.) Bi. (Guttiferae), Annestea fragrans Wall. (Theaceae); Buchanania lanzan Spreng., B. glabra Wall. ex Hk. f., and Gluta usitata (Wall.) Hou (all Anacardiaceae), Morinda tomentosa Hey. ex Roth and Mitragyna hirsuta Hav. (both Rubiaceae), Lagerstroemia macrocarpa Kurz var. macrocarpa (Lythraceae), Canarium subulatum Guill. (Burseraceae), Strychnos nux-vomica L. (Loganiaceae), and Phyllanthus emblica L. (Euphorbiaceae). Due to continuous logging, grazing, and fire most DOF in the national park is degraded as evidenced by numerous tree stumps, variously coppicing or deformed stems, and a lack or absence of tall (over 15 in) individuals.
Dendrocalamus nudus Pilg. (Gramineae, Bambusoideae) is often found in areas with mixed components of MXF (see below) and DOF and is not typical for mature DOF. Phoenix humilis Roy. var. humilis (Palmae), which is usually less than I m tall, is also an indicator of DOF. The ground flora is often quite similar to that found in DF, but some species are more abundant in DOF. Some of these are: Crotalaria acicularis B. H. ex Bth. and C. neriifolia Wall. ex Bth. (Leguminosae, Papilionoideae), Inula cappa (Ham. ex D. Don) DC. forma cappa and I. indica L. (Compositae), Premna nana Coll. & Hemsl. (Verbenaceae), Barleria cristata L. (Acanthaceae), Hypoxis aurea Lour. (Amaryllidaceae); Digitaria siamensis Henr., Heteropogon contortus (L.) P. Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult., and Themeda triandra Page 15 of 41
Forssk. (all Gramineae), Selaginella ostenfeldii Hier. (Selaginellaceae), Adiantum philippense L. and A. zollingeri Mett. ex Kuhn (Parkeriaceae). As in DF, there is also a profusion of tree, etc. seedlings, many of which are difficult to distinguish from trees coppicing at ground level.
Mixed Evergreen + Deciduous, Seasonal Hardwood Forest (MXF)
As the name implies, this kind of forest is a mixture of both evergreen and deciduous species. NIXF is found scattered and in various stages of degradation throughout the national park. Much MXF growth, as with DF, has been replaced with BB/DF or DOF. The most intact MXF areas are found at Bu Gang Falls (c. 575 800 in) and Jahm Bah Tawng Falls (c. 600 850 m on the east side of the national park, and Wahng Gayo Falls (c. 600 1000 m) on the SW side in Wahng Nua District, Lampang Province. These places have more of the largest trees than anywhere else in the national park. Canopy trees up to 40 in tall include: Dipterocarpus costatus Gaertn. f. and D. turbinatus Gaertn. f. (Dipterocarpaceae), Dracontomelon dao (Blanco) Merr. & Rol. (Anacardiaceae), Pometia pinnata Forst. & Forst. (Sapindaceae), Mangifera caloneura Kurz (Anacardiaceae), Duabanga grandiflora (Roxb. ex DC.) Walp. (Sonneratiaceae), and Aquilaria crassna Pierre ex Lee. (Thymelaeaceae) all of which are evergreen. Pterocymbium laoticum Tard. (Sterculiaceae), Protium serratum (Wall. ex Colebr.) Engl. (Burseraceae), Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss. and Toona microcarpa (C. DC.) Harins (both Meliaceae), and Parkia leiophylia Kurz (Leguminosae, Mimosoideae) are deciduous.
Trees of lesser stature, but often forming the canopy, are mostly evergreen with: Alphonsea boniana Fin. & Gagnep. (Annonaceae), Xanthophyllum flavescens Roxb. and X. virens Roxb. (Polygalaceae), Mesua ferrea L. (Outtiferae), Payena lanceolata Ridl. var. annamensis (Lec.) Van Bru. (Sapotaceae), Knema conferta (King) Warb. and K. laurina (Bi.) Warb. (Myristicaceae), Actinodaphine henryi Gamb. and Cinnamomum iners Reinw. ex Bi. (both Lauraceae). Some deciduous representatives are: Michelia ( Paramichelia) baillonii Pierre (Magnotiaceae), Mitrephora vandae flora Kurz (Annonaceae), Garcinia cowa Roxb. (Guttiferae), Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B. Rob. var. glutinasa (Lauraceae), Engelhardia serrata Bl. (Juglandaceae), and Morus macroura Miq. (Moraceae).
Understorey trees (up to c. 10 m) tall are also mostly evergreen with: Garcinia hanburyi Hk. f and G. merguensis Wight (Guttiferae), Atalantia roxburghina Hk. f (Maxwell, 1998) and Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack (both Rutaceae), Ardisia colorata Roxb. (Myrsinaceae); Antidesma sootepense Craib, Baccaurea ramiflora Lour., and Cleidion spiciflorum (Burm. f.) Merr. (all Euphorbiaceae), and Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. (Palmae).
Shrubs and treelets include: Sterculia lanceolata Cav. var. lanceolata (Stercutiaceae), Psychotria siamica (Craib) Hutch. (Rubiaceae), Ardisia crenata Sims var. crenata and Maesa permollis Kurz (Myrsinaceae), and Boehmeria clidemioides Miq. var. clidemioides (Urticaceae), which is deciduous. The ground flora is mostly shaded and evergreen. Some common examples are: Begonia integrifolia Dalz. and B. yunnanensis Lev. (Begoniaceae), Ophiorrhiza hispidula Wall. ex G. Don var. hispidula (Rubiaceac), Torenia violacea (Aza. ex Blanco) Penn. (Scrophulariaceae), Gomphostemma lucidum Wall. ex Bth. (Labiatae), Polygonum chinense L. (Polygonaceae), Commelina difiusa Burrn. f. and Forrestia mollissima (BI.) Kds. fornia marginate (Bi.) Back. (both Commelinaceae and mostly found near streams), Amomum uliginosum Koen. and Etlingera littoralis (Kon,) Gise. (Zingiberaceae), Donax cannaeformis (G. Forst.) K. Sch. (Marantaceae, along streams), Aglaonema simplex (Bi.) Bl. (Araceae), Boibitis virens (Wall. ex Hk. & Grev.) Schott var. virens (Lomariopsidaceae), Tectaria herpelocaulos Hoitt. and T. impressa (Fee) Holtt. (Dryopteridaceae). Common vines are: Jasminum nervosum Lour. (Oleaceae), Piper retrofractum Vahl and P. sarmentosum Roxb. ex Hunt. (Piperaceae).
Primary Evergreen, Seasonal, Hardwood Forest (EGF)
Merging with MXF or in it's absence BB/DF from c. 850 1000 m, is EGF which continues to the summit (1700 m) of Doi Luang. Much of this forest has been either severely disturbed or destroyed by various villagers, while poaching, hunting, grazing, and fire continue unabated in other areas. Misguided and ecologically disruptive planting of monocultures of Pinus kesiya Roy. ex Gord. (Pinaceae, pine) by the Royal Forest Department in some deforested upper water catchment valleys is also reducing biodiversity in the area. The canopy is often 20 30 m high and is not dominated by any particular group of trees. Typical evergreen canopy trees include: Michelia champaca L. var. champaca (Magnoliaceae), Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth. (Theaceae), Pterospermum grandiflorum Craib (Sterculiaceae), Dysoxylum excelsum Bi. (Meliaceae); Dimocarpus longan Lour. ssp. longan var. longan , Harpullia arborea (Blanco) Radik., and Mischocarpus pentapetalus (Roxb.) Radlk. (all Sapindaceae); Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Maxim. ssp. amottiana (Wight) Beus. var. arnottiana (Sabiaceae), Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. (Rhizophoraceae), Eugenia albiflora Duth. ex Kurz (Myrtaceae), Tarennoidea wallichii (Hk. f.) Tirv. & Sastre (Rubiaceae), Rapanea yunnanensis Mez (Myrsinaceae), Sarcosperma arboreum Bth. (Sapotaceae), Diospyros glandulosa Lace and D. martabanica Cl. (Ebenaceae), Symplocos macrophylla Wall. ex DC. ssp. sulcata (Kurz) Noot. var. suicata (Symplocaceae), Vitex quinata (Lour.) Will. (Verbenaceae), Phoebe cathia (D. Don) Kosterm. and P. lanceola ta (Nees) Nees (Lauraceae), Sapium baccatum Roxb. (Euphorbiaceae), Carpinus londoniana Wink. (Betulaceae); Castanopsis argyrophylla King ex Hk. f., C. diversifolia King ex Hk. E, C. tribuloides (Sm.) A. DC., Lithocarpus elegans (Bi.) Hatus. ex Soep., and Quercus semiserrata Roxb. (all Fagaceae). Scattered throughout the EGF is the emergent Livistona speciosa Kurz (Paimae) which has been exploited extensively for roof thatching and is now much less common than it was before humans arrived.
Deciduous trees are much less common and include: Michelia (Paramichelia) baillonii Pierre (Mapoliaceae), Elaeocarpus stipularis Bl. (Elaeocarpaceae), Sapindus rarak DC. (Sapindaceae), and Betula atnoides Hain. ex D. Don (Betulaceae). Some smaller evergreen trees are: Pyrenaria garrettiana Craib (Theaceae), Anacolosa ilicoides Mast. and Schoepfia fragrans Wall. (both Olacaceae), Turpinia pomifera (Roxb.) Wall. ex DC. (Staphyleaceae), Chionanthus ramiflorus Roxb. (Oleaceae), Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng. and Ostodes paniculata Bl. (both Euphorbiaceae). Treelets and shrubs include: Euodia triphylla DC. (Rutaceae), Allophyllus cobbe Page 16 of 41
(L.) Raeus. (Sapindaceae), Memecylon plebejum Kurz (Melastomataceae); Duperrea pavettifolia (Kurz) Pit., Lasianthus kurzii Hk. f., and Psychotria ophioxyloides Wall. (all Rubiaceae), Pseuderanthemum latifolium (Vahl) B. Ran. (Acanthaceae), and Ficus subulata Bt. var. subutata (Moraceae). Exploitation has undoubtedly resulted in greatly diminished numbers of Calamus (Paimae, rattans), e.g. C. kerrianus Becc., C. palustris Griff. var. cochinchinensis Becc., C. aff . pseudoscutellaris Con., and perhaps others in the national park.
The ground flora is, typically dense and mostly evergreen. Many of the species found here are also found in MXF,. Upper water catchment valleys are especially diverse and mostly intact. Some of the more common species are : Impatiens violaeflora Hk. f. (Balsaminaceae), which is often epilithic; Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr. (Leeaceae), Solanum barbisetum Nees (Solanaceae), Aeginetia indica Roxb. (Orobanchaceae), a deciduous, leafless, root parasite lacking chlorophyll; Justicia quadrifaria (Nees) T. And. (Ac'anthaceae), Elatostema macintyrei Dunn and Pilea trinervia Wight (both Urticaceae), Musa acuminata Colia (Musaceae), Phrynium capitatum' Wilid. (Marantaceae), Dracaena angustifolia Roxb. (Agavaceae), Areca assess Becc. (Palmae), Angiopteris evecta (Forst.) Hoffm. (Marattiaceae), Cibotium barometz (L.) J. Sm. (Dicksoniaceae), Dryopteris neoassamensis Ching (Dryopteridaceae), Thetypteris parasitica (L.) Fosb. (Thelypteridaceae), and Colysis pothifolia (D. Don) Presl (Potypodiaceae). Bambusa polymorpha Munro (Gramineae, Bambusoideae) is known from c. 1400 1650 m
Epiphytic herbs and shrubs are common in EGF. Some evergreen shrubs, all Loranthaceae, are: Helixanthera parasitica Lour., Scurrula Sea (Jack) Dans., and Viscum ovalifolium Wall. ex DC. Evergreen herbs include: Peperomia tetraphylla (Forst, E) Hk. & Am. (Piperaceae); Eria dasyphylla Par. & Rchb. f., Pholidota articulate Lindi., and P. convallariae (Rchb. f) Hk. f. var. convallariae ( all Orchidaceae); Vittaria elongata Sw. (Vittariaceae), Asplenium yoshinagae Mak. (Aspleniaceae, which is often epilithic), Lepisorus nudus (Hk.) Ching and Pyrrosia eberhardtii (Christ) Ching (both Polypodiaceae). Some deciduous epiphytes and epiliths are: Didymocarpus aureoglandulosus Cl. and D. kerrii Craib (Gesneriaceae); Arthromeris lehmanni (Mett.) Ching and Crypsinus oxylobus (Wall. ex O.K.) Sledge (both Polypodiaceae).
Primary Evergreen, Seasonal Hardwood Forest with Pine (EG/Pine)
There are two species of Pinus (Pinaceae, pine) in Thailand, viz. P. kesiya Rol. ex Gord. and P.merkusii Jungh. & De Vriese, both of which are found in Doi Luang National Park. Pinus mesa is uncommon and is known from c. 900 1100 m in fire prone areas in association with many DOF and not EGF species , i.e. DO/Pine. Pinus kesiya is very common from 925 1600 m in DO/Pine and EG/Pine areas. Relatively undisturbed EG/Pine habitats have up to c. 50% P. kesiya and originally extended to the summit of Doi Luang (1700 m), but are now absent because of human impact. The amount of natural pine in the national park has declined rapidly since humans have been in the area, especially during this century when cutting and fire have become more rampant. EG/Pine areas differ from EGF in that the former are generally more exposed, more subject to fire, and grow on more eroded and well drained soil with an acidic pH. Pines are mostly not found in valleys or on limestone.
As in other parts of northern Thailand, there is no precise distinction between the limits of EGF and EG/Pine since they tend to merge. Some species found in DO/Pine are also found in EG/Pine the salient limiting factors being elevation, topography, and fire. Some trees which tend to be more common in EG/Pine include: Anneslea fragrans Wall. and Terstroemia gymnanthera (Wight & Am.) Bedd. (both Theaceae), Tristaniopsis burmanica (Griff.) Wils. & Wat. var. rufescens (Hance) Pam. & Lug.(Myrtaceae), Wendlandia scabra Kurz and W. tinctoria (Roxb.) DC. ssp. floribunda ( Craib) Cowan (Rubiaceae), Craibiodendron stellatum (Pierre) W.W. Sm. and Vaccinium exaristatum Kurz (both Ericaceae), Helicia nilagirica Bedd. (Proteaceae), Engelhardia spicata Lechen. ex Bi. var. spicata and var. Integra (Kurz) Mann. (Juglandaceae, which are deciduous), and Myrica esculenta B. H. ex D. Don (Myricaceae).
Shrubs, treelets, and small trees are also found, e.g. Rhododendron ludwigianum Hoss. (Ericaceae), especially in open, rocky places; Mahonia nepalensis DC. (Berberidaceae), and scattered, very fire resistant Cycas pectinate Griff. (Cycadaccae). Brainea insignia (Hk.) J. Sm. (Blechnaceae) is a cycad like Pteridophyte found on fire prone slopes in EG/Pine. Deciduous counterparts are: Indigofera dousa B. H. ex G. Don and Tephrosia kerrii Drum. & Craib (both Leguminosae, Papilionoideae), Gochnatia decors (Kurz) Cabr. (Compositae), and Hymenopogon parasiticus Wall. (Rubiaceae), a deciduous, epiphytic or epilithic shrub. Wrightia speciossima (D. Don) Merr. (Scrophulariaceae) is an uncommon, epilithic, deciduous shrub to small tree (7 m) known from 1400 1600 m in the Doi Luang Doi Nawk area on granite bedrock.
There are several ground flora species which are only or mostly found in EG/Pine, e.g. Drosera peltata J.E. Sm. ex Wilid. (Droseraceae), Xyris capensis Thunb. (Xyridaceae), Lilium primulinum Baker and Ophiopogon malcolmsonii Roy. ex Hk. f (both Liliaceae), and Onychium contiguum Hope (Parkeriaceae) all of which are deciduous. Many of the ridges and summits from c. 1500 m to and including the summit of Doi Luang are either sparsely vegetated or have been cleared, especially on the west side of Doi Luang Doi Nawk ridge. These areas, which are periodically burned, have dense populations of Arundinella setosa Trin. var. setosa , Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv. var. major C.E. Hubb. ex Hubb. & Vaugh., Microstegium vagans (Nees ex Steud.) A. Camus , and Themeda triandra Forssk. (all Gramineae) all of which are very combustible. Other persistent weeds there are: Eupatoriurn adenophorum Spreng. (Compositae), Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxb. ex Hom.) Honda (Gramineae), and Pteridium aquilinum ssp. aquilinum var. wightianum (Ag.) Try. (Dennstaedtiaceae).
Disturbed Areas and Secondary Growth (DA/SG) Page 17 of 41
Open, disturbed, cultivated, and village areas generally lack most of the original vegetation and have been colonized by numerous herbaceous weeds and rapidly growing woody secondary growth. Some of the more common herbaceous weeds, many of which are found throughout the national park, are: Sida rhombifolia L. ssp. rhombifolia (Malvaceae), Triumfetta pilosa Roth and T. rhomboidea Jacq. (Tiliaceae), Mitracarpus villosus (Sw.) DC. (Rubiaceae); Artemisia indica Wilid., Bidens pilosa L. var. minor (Bi.) Sherff, Conyza sumatrensis (Retz.) Walk., Eupatorium odoratum L., and Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. var. cinerea (all Compositae); Lindernia crustacea (L.) F. Muell. var.. crustacea and Scoparia dulcis L. (both Scrophulariaceae), Justicia procumbens L. and Rungia parviflora (Retz.) Nees var. ciliata Brem. (both Acanthaceae), Clerodendrum fragrans (Vent.) Willd. (Verbenaceae), Dioscorea bulbifera L. and D. pentaphylia L. (Dioscoreaceae, deciduous vines), Cyperus cyperoides (L.) O.K. and C kyllingia Endi. (Cyperaceae); Digitaria setigera Roth ex Roem. & Schult. var. setigera , Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn., Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin., and Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxb. ex Hom.) Honda (all Gramineae).
Woody, mostly deciduous, species, especially treelets and trees, are especially common in fallow and abandoned cultivated areas. Some common examples are: Cratoxylum formosum (Jack) Dyer ssp. pruniflorum (Kurz) Gog. (Guttiferae), Colona floribunda (Kurz) Craib and Microcos paniculata L. (both Tiliaceae), Rhus chinensis Mill. (Anacardiaceae), Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz (Bignoniaceae), Callicarpa arborea Roxb. var. arborea and Gmelina arborea Roxb. (both Verbenaceae), Trema orientatis (L.) Bi. (Ulmaceae), Ficus fistulosa Reinw. ex Bi. var. fistulosa and F. hispida L. f var. hispida (Moraceae).
Rare Species
Throughout recent years, especially since orchids (Orchidaceae) became popular in flower markets, this family has suffered from continuous exploitation. Most species of geophytic and epiphytic orchids are rare in northern Thailand, including Doi Luang. Species of, for example, Butbophyllum, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Eria, Habenaria, and Malaxis are disappearing, not only because of loss of habitat, but also due to extensive commercial collection. Lycopodium squarrosum Forst. (Lycopodiaceae), an epiphytic herb in EGF and EG/Pine, has also been extensively collected and sold. Podocarpus neriifolius D. Don (Podocarpaceae), an evergreen tree, known from EGF; seems to be rare throughout northern Thailand. Trigonostemon thrysoideus Stapf (Euphorbiaceae), an evergreen treelet or small (8 m) tree, is scarce in this region and in Doi Luang National Park I have only found it in one place in MXF at 650 in on limestone bedrock. Christisonia siamensis Craib (Orobanchaceae), is a leafless, deciduous, root parasite without chlorophyll and is known from small and scattered populations from 550 950 m in BB/DF and EGF. Cautleya gracilis (Sm.) Dandy (Zingiberaceae), a deciduous, epiphytic herb known from EGF at 1500 m and Cornukaempferia aurantifolia Mood & K. Lar. (Zingibefaceae) are also rare species. Cornukaempferia is especially interesting since it is monotypic and was only recently described (Mood & Larsen, 1997). I found one population of this deciduous ground herb at 1275 on Doi Mawk. This is, apparently, the second time that this species has ever been collected.
Limestone Flora
Limestone is found scattered throughout the national park from c. 450 1 100 m and mostly in BB/DF. Some of these areas are very exposed, rugged, fire damaged, and logged. This habitat is interesting since many species found here, especially epiliths, differ from those found on other (i.e. acidic) rocks because of the calcareous ( i.e. basic) nature of the limestone ( i.e. calciphytes). Almost all of the herbaceous epiliths are annual or deciduous and many species are also found on other rocks. Some common epilithic herbs that are found on limestone as well as on other rocks in the national park are: Impatiens violaeflora Hk. f. (Balsaminaceae), Elatostema aff. clarkei Hk. f. and Pilea trinervia Wight (both tjrticaceae), Epipremnum giganteum (Roxb.) Schott (Araceae, an evergreen vine/creeper), Habenaria rhodochelia Hance (Orchidaceae), Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) Presl (Oleandraceae), Adiantum zollingeri Mett. ex Kuhn (Parkeriaceae), and Pyrrosia stigmosa (Sw.) Ching (Polypodiaceae, having fronds which shrivel during the dry season and rehydrate when it rains). Other species are, apparently, restricted to limestone. Some of these are: Musa nana Lour. (Musaceae); Globba garrettii Kerr (Zingiberaceae); Alocasia alba Schott, Colocasiafallax Schott , and Typhonium horsfleldii (Miq.) Steen. (all Araceae); Adiantum capillus-veneris L. (Parkeriaceae, on wet marl), Asplenium integrum Christ (Aspleniaceae), Pleocnemia irregularis (Presl) Holtt. (Dryopteridaceae), and Hypodematum crenatum (Forst.) Kuhn (Athyriaceae). These are all deciduous species which grow in cracks and depressions on limestone in very thin, black soil. Musa glauca Roxb. (Musaceae), Burmannia wallichii (Miers) Hk. f. (Bunnaninceac, a rare, annual, leafless herb lacking chlorophyll), and Habenaria lucida Wall. ex Lindl. (Orchidaceae) are found on the ground in limestone areas. Cissus calcicola Craib (Vitaceae) is a deciduous, mostly epilithic, woody climber which I know only from limestone habitats. From what I can determine, the geophytic flora in limestone areas does not differ significantly from that found on other kinds of bedrock.
Database
The CUM Herbarium and Botanical Database includes references, specimens, and computerized information on 1,145 species from Doi Luang National Park. This database provides accurate data on habit, habitat, abundance, elevation, lithology, and flowering, fruiting, and leafing phenologies for all these species. This information is available on request.
Acknowledgments
Funding for this project was generously provided by the Biodiversity Research and Training Programme (BRT), Bangkok, under research grant # 139029 (I April 1997). Mr. Permboon Juthatayme, Superintendent of Doi Luang National Park, and his staff are thanked for their cooperation and support during my work there. Page 18 of 41
Dr. Vilaiwan Anusarnsunthorn, Director of the CMU Herbarium & Database, is thankedfor her administrative prowess. Sai Jai Ngundtan, Greuk Pakkad, Rungtiwa Punyayod, Pranee Palee, Natti Morci, Paitoon Po-agae, P. Sidisunthorn, and S. Gardner, all members of the project, are thanked for their participation. Miss 0. Petrmitr, a M.Sc. student in the Biology Department, CMU, did excellent research for Tawng Falls. Her work supplemented mine and I would like to thank her for her diligence. Mr. Jet Ployjereun, Head of the Wahng Water Catchment Unit, is thanked for providing accommodation on and weather data from Doi Mawk. Ms. Janice Kirby is thanked for proof reading the manuscript. Finally, my sincere thanks is given to Bella and Nanny: faithm companions, excellent field guides, and conscientious antagonists of all domesticated animals and roaming human exploiters in the forests of northern Thailand.
References
Baum, F. and L. Hahn. 1977. Geological Map of Northern Thailand, 1:2,500,000; sheet 3. Federal Institute For Geoscience And Natural Resources; Hannover, Germany.
De'Ath, C. 19923 A History of Timber Exports From Thailand With Emphasis On the 1870 1937 Period. Nat. Hist. Bull. Siam Soc. 40:1, 49 66.
Hastings, P.J. and M. Liengsakul. 1984. Evidence For Holocene Climatic Change From Doi Intanon, Chiang Mai. Meeting For Environmental Geology and Geologic Techniques; Chiang Mai, Thailand; Feb. 1984; mimeograph, 10 pp.
Maxwell, J.F. 1988. The Vegetation of Doi Sutep Pui National Park, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand. Tiger Paper (FAO) 15:4, 6 14.
1992. Lowland Vegetation (450 c. 800 m) of Doi Chiang Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand. Tiger Paper (FAO) 19:3, 21 25.
1992a. in Rapid Assessment of Forest/Wildlife/River Ecology in Area Affected by Kaeng Sua Ten Dam. Cantre For Conservation Biology, Faculty of Science, Mahidot University; Bangkok, Thailand; 30 69.
1996. Vegetation of the Mae Soi Conservation Area, Chom Tong District, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand. Tiger Paper (FAO) 23:1, 22 27.
1998. Botanical Notes of the Flora of Northern Thafland: 6. Nat. Hist. Bull. Siam Soc. 46, in press.
1998a. Upland Vegetation of Doi Chiang Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand.
Tiger Paper (FAO), in press.
, S. Elliott, P. Palee, and V. Anusarnsunthorn. 1995. The Vegetation of Doi Kuhn Tan National Park, Lamphun Lampang Provinces, Thailand. Nat. Hist. Bull. Siam Soc. 43:2, 185 206.
, , and V. Anusarnsunthom. 1997. The Vegetation of Jae Sawn National Park, Lampang Province, Thailand. Nat. Hist. Bull. Siam Soc. 45:1,71 97.
Mood, J. and K. Larsen. 1997. Cornukaempferia, A New Genus of Zingiberaceae From Thailand. Nat. Hist. Bull. Siam Soc. 45:2, 217 221.
Ployjereun, P. 1998. Fifteen Year Meteorological Characteristics of Upland Area, Wahng Watershed Research Station, Phan District, Chiang Rai Province. Watershed Division, Royal Forest Department, Chiang Mai mimeograph, 52 pp.
Author's address: Curator, Herbarium, Dept. of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai Univesity, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand.
WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN NANGUANHE RIVER NATURE RESERVE: A PRELIMINARY SURVEY
by Daoying Lan and Zhisheng Wang
Introduction Page 19 of 41
Nanguanhe River Nature Reserve is situated in the extreme southwest county of Cangyuan in China's Yunnan Province. It borders Myanmar with coordinates 98° 54' 99 ° 05'E, 23 ° 13' 19'N. The total area of the reserve is 6,982 ha. Established in 1981, it is one of the few valley reserves for the conservation of tropical biodiversity in China. The total area of Cangyuan country is 2,539 km 2, with a recorded population of 117,000 in 1980. Of the total population, 90.6% are minorities including Wa (82.7%), Dai, and others.
The whole area is located in the extension of the Trans Himalayan mountain ranges. The landscape is deep cutting valleys within high mountains. Nanguanhe consists of a river valley of the central parts, surrounded by high hills; the valley is drained by the Nanguanhe River. The altitude ranges from 520 m above sea level (asl) in the river valley, up to about 1,700 m asl on the slope. Parts of the surrounding hills rise to over 2,000 m and some are more than 2,600 m asl. Most of the nature reserve is under 1,700 m. Based on measurements at a climate station at 800 m asl at the edge of the reserve, the annual sunlight is 2,000 hours in total, average
temperature is 21.2 ° C, and annual rainfall about 1,879 mm. As the whole area is influenced by the Indian Ocean monsoon, there is a clear cut dry wet season pattern. The wet season begins in May and lasts until October; the rest are dry season months.
Little is know about the status of wildlife in Nanguanhe. The few published works available are rough accounts of the existence of species there. No detailed wildlife survey has been made in recent years. Only one short survey of Asian elephant was made in 1988, and one intensive survey was conducted in 1992 by the authors. However, these data have not been published in any scientificjoumals. Here, we try to present the situation of the conservation status of the local area, synthesizing all data available from previous surveys.
Forest
Along the slopes of the Nanguanhe valley, there is hardly any primary forest left; the fertile alluvial plain was cleared for cultivation long ago. Two villages had been moved away from the land inside the nature reserve in the 1980s. One bigger village at the northeast side could not be moved because insufficient funds were available. The remaining natural forests are mostly found in patches along steep slopes of some stream valleys and at the tops of some hills. Slash and bum shifting agriculture by local peoples has already destroyed large areas of forest. The main forest types are: tropical seasonal rainforest and monsoon evergreen broadleaf forest and subtropical pine forest. As our study showed, the vegetation is mainly secondary forest. But since the water resources and temperature is favorable, the recovery of vegetation is rapid if left alone with little or no disturbance.
Status of Wildlife
The population status of some species are presented in Tables 1 2 and 5. In order to understand the specific status of each nationally protected species, wediscuss the distribution" population size and dynamics and conservation issues one by one.
Table 1: Population statue of five species and one family of wildlife in Nangun*
Category a Inside Outside Total
Black bear 39 78 117
Sambar deer 129 63 192
Rhesus monkey 816 b 657 1,473
Phayrei's langur 663 941 1,604
Stump tailed macaques ? 313 313
Carnivores c 126 253 379
*Based on interviews with local people in 1992 Page 20 of 41
a inside or outside the nature reserve b possibly including stump tailed macaques owing to difficulties in identifying species
C small to middle size, including all carnivores such as Felis bengalensis
Table 2: Survey results, density estimates and other information for some species in 1992
Species No. of Density Estimate of Population Suitable habitat area
Individuals (ind/ha) (ha)
Black bear 8 0.00929 64 3,000
Sambar 17 0.01974 137 5,680
Elephant 11 0.01277 89 1,610
Rhesus monkey 194 0.22530 1,573 4,000
Phayrei's langur 105 0.12195 851 2,900
Wild pig 54 0.06039 421 3,600
Slow Ioris ( Nycticebus coucang)
Scattered all over the hilly forested area. Local people often catch lorises during daytime, although the reserve officer often releases them after finding them. No population estimate is available, but owing to their nocturnal and cryptic habits and adaptation to primary and secondary recovered forest, it should still be common and survive well, not just within the nature reserve but also outside it.
Phayrei's langur (Trachipithecusphayrei)
Common in the reserve. During the survey, we counted several troops, totaling 105 individuals. All were limited to forest areas. The estimated total population in the reserve is about 851. It is also abundant outside the nature reserve according to interviews with local people in 1992. This species adapted to the secondary forest well, especially the recovered forest with diversified habitat types. Usually the disturbed forest edges are of higher value for feeding and foraging since new leaves are available in higher quantity and evenness all year around. An ecological study was conducted on this population from 1988 to 1989 (Zheng, 1993).
White-handed gibbon (Hylobates Jar)
At present mostly limited to the good quality evergreen seasoned rain forest and monsoon forest, of which there are only small areas. The gibbons have been living in disturbed forest, possibly for more than 40 years. We heard the calls and came across one group along the Nanwei river near Nantung village in 1988 (Lan, 1989), where most of the forest has recovered from the slash and burning done during the 1950s. In 1988, we estimated that there might be less than 10 groups of gibbons in the nature reserve. In 1992 and after, during our surveys we could not confirm the existence of the gibbons in this reserve, but local interview data suggested that they still existed in about five locations. However, recently, our inquiries of the local people, suggest that the final group near Naniang may have disappeared.
Table 3: Tiger deaths since the establishment of the nature reserve
Year Site Number Cause of Death Treatment
1981 Yingpan 1 Hunting
1982 Naniang 1 Hunted for biting human Page 21 of 41
1984 NanBan 1 Fight with an ox
1984 Gongkang 1 Hunting
1985 Upper Banglao 1 Poisoning
1987 Banggao 1 Hunting Hunter sentenced to prison
Tiger (Panthera tigris)
The tiger is a key species for protection in Nanguanhe River Nature Reserve; however the reserve is too small to keep a good population. It is estimated that there were 3 5 individual tigers in 1981 within the reserve (Liu et al, 1989). We saw footprints of two different tigers Oudging from print size) in two patches of forest in 1992. It is impossible to infer how many individuals may still be living in the area. Hunting and other factors has influenced the tiger population in the past 20 years. In the 1980s, the loss of the tiger is clear, but in the 1990s, these kinds of cases have not been recorded. But the tigers now might have disappeared from the reserve. In any case the reserve is too small to sustain a healthy population. It there are any left, they will face heavy pressure if they range outside the nature reserve.
Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
Asian elephants are the main species targeted for protection in this reserve, which is one of two reserves in China still inhabited by Asian elephants (the other is Xishuangbanna). In the past, there was a large elephant population in this area. Our census revealed that from 1918 to 1971, at least 116 elephants were hunted. Among this number, 37 were hunted within only 5 years from 1966 to 1971 (the period of China's Cultural Evolution period). When the reserve was first established in 1981, it was estimated that there were 16 individuals in the area: One group of 10, another of 4, and 2 solitary animals. In 1984, one survey team estimated that there were 24 to 25 individuals in the reserve, but the nature reserve officers thought it may be an overestimate. In 1988, we conducted a short survey of elephants and estimated 38 individuals based on a line transect density estimation method. However, based on direct observation, we concluded that there were only 14 individuals. In the survey in 1992, we saw I I individuals three times in total, although the line transact methods estimated as many as 89 individuals. The reason for the overestimate is possibly because the frequency of coming across the elephants was too high. In any case, the recorded distribution of the elephants has clearly declined to a much smaller area and is now limited to four forest patches in the southwestern part of the reserve. Based on direct observations, we thought that there were two groups of 5 individuals each, and one solitary male elephant in 1992. After the establishment of the nature reserve, four elephant deaths were recorded, all in 1988: 2 by hunting (1 male, 1 female), 1 killed by electricity (male), and 1 young death, possibly from disease. The situation in recent years is not very clear but is presumed to be the same as in 1992.
Table 4: Population size and distribution of Asian elephants in Nanguanhe River Nature Reserve
Year Population Size Structure Reference
1981 16 10+4+1+1 Liu et al (1989)
1984 24 25 12+? Guo,(1989)
1988 12 5+2+1+1 Guo (1989) 1992 11 5+5+1 Field Survey
Giant squirrel (Ratufa bicolor)
Also a common species in Nanguanhe, it is easily spotted in the forest during daylight hours. Based on a line census count, the population size is about 41 individuals, which might be an underestimate.
Green peacock (Pavo muticus)
In the past, peacocks were common in the valley. They are found in low altitude hills as well as in cultivated land near villages. But since the 1960s, the peacock Page 22 of 41
population has declined rapidly, and in most a reas has disappeared. In 1992, we estimated that there were about 49 individuals in the reserve, based on line transect counts. Our observations showed that the green peacock is limited to three forest patches in the southwestern part of the reserve.
In Yunnan, since most nature reserves are located at the top, or at least above the middle height of the mountains, most populations of green peacock are not included in the protected area (see Liu et al., 1989). Among the lowland and valley nature reserves, Nanguanhe reserve is one of the best reserves for green peacock conservation.
Jungle fowl (Gallus gallus)
Jungle fowl is common in the Nanguanhe area and can be found in most areas in the nature reserve. We found that there were about 170 individuals in the nature reserve, based on line transect c(junts. It is still common and abundant both inside and outside the reserve.
Table 5: Some national protected sp cies of mammal in Nanguanhe River Nature Reserve
Order/Family/Species Protected grade Status
PRIMATES
Lorisidae
Nycticebus coucang I Common
Cercopithecidae
Macaca aretoides II Common
M. mulatta II Common
M. nemestrina II Rare/vanished?
M. assamensis II Rare
Trachipithecus phayrei I Common
Pongidae
Hylobates lar I Rare/vanished?
PHOLIDOTA
Mustelidae
Martes foina II Common
M. flavigula II Connnon
Lutra lutra II Rare
Aonys cinerea II Rare
Viverridae
Prionodon pardicolor II Rare
Viverra zibetha II Rare Page 23 of 41
Viverricula indica II Common
Arctictis binturong I Rare
Felidae
Felis chaus II Rare
F. gemmincki II Rare
Neofelis nebulosa I Rare
Panthera pardus I Rare
Panthera tigris I Rare/vanished?
PROBOSCIDEA
Elephaiitidae
Elephas maximus I Rare
ARTIODACTYLA
Moschidae
Moschus spp. II Rare
Cervidae
Cervus porcinus I Rare/vanished?
C. unicolor II Common
Bovidae
Capricomis sumatraensis II Common
Bos gaurus I Rare/vanished?
Naemorhedus goral II Rare
RODENTIA
Sciuridae
Ratufa bicolor II Common
Castoridae
Castor fiber II Common
Page 24 of 41
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. Robin Dunbar for his critical revision of our English manuscript. Many staff of the Nanguanhe Nature Reserve had attended the surveys in 1989 and 1992. We are very grateful for their help and logistical support.
References
Guo, B.Y. 1989. The wildlife survey in Nanguanhe Nature Reserve. Yunnan Forestry, 8:24.
Lan, D.Y. 1989. Preliminary study on the group composition, behavior and ecology of the black gibbons (Hylobates concolor) in southwest Yunnan. Zoological Research, 10 (suppi.): 1 19 126.
Liu, D.Y. et aL 1989. Nature Reserves of Yunnan. Chinese Forestry Publishing House, Beijing.
Zheng, X.J. 1993. Study on the ecology and behavior of wild Phayre's leaf monkey (Presbytis phayrei). In: Ye, Z.Z. et al. eds. Biology on Leaf Monkeys. p.52 69. Yunnan Sciences and Technology Press, Kunn ting, China.
Authors' addresses: Daoying Lan, School of Biological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, U.K. and Kunming Institute'of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China; Zhisheng Wang, Management Bureau of Nanguanhe River Nature Reserve, Banghong, Cangyuan, Yunnan,China.
BIODIVERSITY IN BUXA TIGER RESERVE, WEST BENGAL, INDIA: AN OVERVIEW
by S.C. Das
Introduction
Buxa Tiger Reserve is situated in Jaipaiguri District of the eastern Indian state of West Bengal. The reserve lies between latitudes 26 ° 30'and 26 ° 55'N and longitudes 89 ° 20'and 89 ° 55 E. It stretches over a length of 50 km from west to east, and 35 km from north to south. The total area of the reserve is 760.87 km 2 which includes the national park (I 17.20 km 2) and the wildlife sanctuary (267.92 km 2) that constitute the core zone of the reserve, and the balance is the reserve forest (375.85 km 2) that constitutes the buffer zone. Buxa Tiger Reserve (BTR) was brought under Project Tiger in 1983 and became India's fifteenth tiger reserve.
Buxa Tiger Reserve is located at the confluence of three major biogeographic zones, viz. The lower Gangetic plains (7B), central Himalayas (2C) and the Brahammaputra valley (8A) as recognized by Rodgers & Panwar (1988). The reserve has immense ecological and geo morphological significance. It consists of Himalayan formation of Darjeeling gneiss at an altitude of 1800 in., the Great Boundary Fault (Gondwans) lies just to the south of it, followed by the Shiwalik Hills. The highly drained bhabar track and ill drained terai track lies to the south.
Floral Diversity
Buxa Tiger Reserve is biologically very rich. It represents several elements of biodiversity of northeast India, one of the most biodiverse Indian regions. More than 50% of the plant species of India are represented in northeast India; of these, 60% are endemic. Most of the floral endeniie species of northeast India are encountered in Buxa Tiger Reserve. The present checklist identified 283 species of trees, 31 species of shrubs and herbs, 33 species of climbers, 150 species of orchids, 36 species of grasses and reeds, and 7 species each of cane and bamboo. The forests of the reserve can broadly be classified into 8 types as per Champion and Seth's recent classification.
The most common species found within the forest and most important from economic and an ecological point of view is Sal ( Shorea robusta ). The lofty Sal trees occur with their usual associates, viz. Champ ( Michelia champaca ), Chilaune ( Schima wallichii ), Chikrashi ( Chukrasia tabularis ), Bahera ( Terminalia beterica ), Sidha (Lagerstroemia parviflora ), Toon ( Cedrella toona ), Laii ( Amoora wallichii ), Lausuni ( Amoora rohituka ), Lampati ( Duabanga sonneratioides ), Simul ( Bombax ceiba ), etc. In areas adjoining the rivers Simul, Sirish ( Albizzia sp.), Sissoo ( Dalbergia sissoo ) and Khair ( Acacia catechu ) are the most common species. Page 25 of 41
The commonly found hill forest species are Katus ( Castenopsis indica ), Mandane ( Acrocarpus fraxinifolius ), Bhalukath ( Talauma hodgsoni ), Phalame ( Walsura tubulata ) associated with Kimbu ( Morus laevigata ), Panisaj ( Terminalia myriocarpa ), Gokul ( Ailanthus grandis ), etc.
The savannah woodlands are also characterized by tropical trees of Kumbhi ( Careya arborea ), Tantari ( Dillenia pentagyna ), Jamun ( Syzygium cumini ), Palash (Butea monosperma ) and Kul ( Zizyphus sp.).
Faunal Diversity
The faunal diversity of Buxa Tiger Reserve inetades 230 species of birds, 73 species of ,mammals, 37 species of reptiles, 32 species of fishes, 4 species of amphibians and 353 species of identified entomofauna.
The main carnivores of Buxa Tiger Reserve are Indian Tiger ( Panthera tigris ), Leopard ( Panthera pardus ), Clouded Leopard ( Neofelis nebulosa ), Hog Badger (Arctonyx collaris ), Jungle Cat ( Felis chaus ), Leopard Cat ( Felis benghalensis ), Sloth Bear ( Melursus ursinus ), Fishing Cat ( Felis viverrina ), Civet Cat ( Viverricula indica ), Hyaena ( Hyaena hyaena ), Jackal ( Canis aureus), Wolf ( Canis lupus ), Mongoose ( Herpestes edwardsi ), Fox ( Vulpes benghalensis ), etc.
The predominant herbivores of the reserve are Elephant ( Elephas maximus ), Gaur ( Bos gaurus ), Sambar ( Cervus unicolor ), Chital ( Axis axis ), Barking Deer (Muntiacus muntjak ), Hog Deer ( Axis porcinus ), Wild Pig ( Sus scrofa cristatus ), Hispid Hare ( Caprolagus hispidus ), Giant Squirrels ( Ratufa indica, R. bicolor ), and Pangolins ( Manis crassicaudata , M. pentadactyla ).
Endemic Indo Malayan species such as Clouded Leopard, Chinese Pangolin, Reticulated Python ( Python reticulatus ), and Black necked Crane ( Grus nigriocollis ) have been reported in BTR.
Biodiversity Values
The biodiversity values of Buxa Tiger Reserve are listed in the following table. The values are scaled as per their importance in global, national, regional, state and local levels.
Biodiversity Pressures
Thirty seven forest villages and four fixed demand (F.D.) holding hamlets are located within the tiger reserve, having a human population of about 20,000 and cattle populationofl8,000.The project area is fringed by 34 tea gardens and 46 revenue villages on the western and southern sides within 2 km from the reserve's boundary (as its northern boundary runs along the international boundary with Bhutan and the eastern boundary merges with the state boundary of Assam, those two sides are beyond its jurisdiction) having a human population of 255,000 and a cattle population of 120,000.
Forest villagers and F.D. holders are largely dependent on the reserve for grazing and fuelwood collection. Tea garden laborers and revenue villagers are also dependent on the reserve for grazing, fuelwood and timber collection. Villagers and urban residents place an intense demand on the natural resources of the reserve. Twelve Forest villages and 2 F.D. holding hamlets are located within the sanctuary. They graze cattle inside the sanctuary, collect fuelwood, small timber and non wood forest produce (NWFP) from the sanctuary.
Nearly 120,000 cattle are seasonally dependent on resources in the reserve, degrading large areas. Wildlife and livestock are in direct competition and as a result of heavy grazing, the native vegetation takes time to regenerate and weedsinvade.
Timber mafias and smugglers are very active in the region. They are involved in timber theft from the reserve. They entice poor villagers into the act. This practice affects the wild animals through destruction of habitat. The reserve lies in close proximity to prominent routes of illicit traffic in wildlife articles. This makes the reserve very susceptible to poaching. Poachers and illicit fellers easily operate from across the international and state boundaries. This gives them great impunity from local laws.
The reserve is not free from man animal conflicts. Annually 47 80 cattle (plus sheep and goats) are involved in lifting incidences; 1 9 human deaths and 1 8 human injuries are reported each year. Incidences of crop damage and hut damage mostly occur in forest villages located inside the reserve.
No. Value Categories Illustrative Constituents Scaling of Values
1 Real/Econoniie A part of it is a timber reserve that produces timber, fuelwood and non timber forest Significant at local level produce for local people
Page 26 of 41
It provides fodder for domestic local people "
It generates mandays for local people
It is located at the confluence of 3 major biogeographic zones, viz. Iower Gangetic " Plains (7B), Central Himalayas (2C) and Brahmaputra Valley (8A).
It provides shelter to many endangered, threatened & rare species of animals like Indian tiger, Asian elephant , leopard, gaur, bear, hispid hare, pangolin, python, 2 Biological monitor lizard, blacknecked crane, Bengal florican, great Indian pied hombill, etc. Significant at regional level.
It harbors enderffic species like clouded leopard, Chinese pangolin, reticulated
python, marble cat, etc. It has vast connnunity diversity from east Himalayan sub tropical wet hill forests (8B/C,), east Himalayan moist deciduous forests (3C/C3b), eastern Bhabar & Terai Global and national levels Sal (3C/C1b, & 3C/C1c), eastern sub montane semi evergreen forests (2B/C1b), northern dry deciduous scral Sal, Khair, Sissoo, Simul association (5B/iS2) & moist Sal savannah (3C/DS1) to low alluvium savannah woodland (3C/3/IS1).
It is a significant habitat for long ranging species (elephant, tiger, gaur) and
provides habitat connectivity. National level Catchment conservation of several major rivers (Sankosh, Rydak, Jainti, Bala, Dima,
Pana & Basra) for downstream habitations & irrigation which sustain the economic well being of the region. Ecological security and environmental amelioration (pollution absorption) for the region. It acts as a carbon sink of the region "
It represents several elements of biodiversity of northeast India. About 60% of floral endeniic species of northeast India are encountered in BTRI
No other Tiger Reserve of India (except Namdapha) matches Buxa in richness and diversity of species
Significant scope of wildlife research & education
It has socioeconomic issues, ethnic diversity, captive elephants, many endangered
& endeniic species. Thus it provides an excellent opportunity Significant scope of wildlife research & education It has socioeconomic issues, ethnic diversity, captive elephants, many endangered & endeiffic species. Thus it provides an excellent opportunity to scientists for Regional level improving understanding of the biological world
It represents the fragile Shiwalik & Himalayan landscape and rock features.
It represents physical attributes of bhabu & terai ecosystems
Potential for ecotourism, aesthetic value, wilderness experience, closed canopy and dense old forest, bird watching. Scenic beauty of Rydak river near Bhutanghat. Significant at regional level Significant scope for nature interpretation and conservation awareness
Pilgrimage to ancient Mahakal (Lord Shiva) temple; Historical Bluxa Fort; Rava & other tribal 3 Ecological processes & functions culture "
"
Significant at regional level
National level Conceptual
4 National level
National & local level
Scientific National level 5 Page 27 of 41
State level
Physical attributes
6
National level
Recreational State level
7
State level
Educational
8 State & local level
Local, national and state levels Assorted religious, historical, cultural 9
Conclusion
To overcome the above pressures, the Forest Department of West Bengal has started a. participatory forest management system involving peopie iiving in ana arouna tne forests within the last few'years over its traditional Forests Resource Management Policy. Twenty five Eco development Committees (E.D.C) and 37 Forest Protection Comnu'ttees (F.P.C.) have been formed involving 9,899 families living in and around Buxa Tiger Reserve to conserve its biodiversity. A World Bank supported eco developrnent project has been started in the reserve to reduce the dependency of local people on the natural resources of the reserve. If they actively participate and become convinced of, the need for natural resource conservation, the biodiversity of the area will be conserved effectively.
References
Champion, H.G. and S.K. Seth. 1968. A Revised Survey of the Forest Types in India. Govt. of India.
Rodgers, W.A. and H.S. Panwar. 1988. Planning a Wildlife Protected Area Network in India. V(I.l & If. Wildlife Institute of Dehra Dun.
Wildlife Protection Society of India, New Delhi. 1977. Collaborative Research Project on Control of Illegal Trade in Wildlife and Wildlife Products under West Bengal Forestry Project. Final Report submitted to the Govt. of West Bengal.
FOREST NEWS
Vol.XIV:No.1
APFC COUNTRIES CONTINUE EFFORTS TO IMPLEMENT CODES OF PRACTICE FOR FOREST HARVESTING Page 28 of 41
Following endorsement of the Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting in Asia Pacific by the 17 th Session of the Asia Pacific Forestry Commission (APFC) in 1998, APFC countries have pursued a number of efforts to implement the Code (see previous articles in Forest News XI: 1,4; XIII:2). Recent activities include a sub regional consultation on implementation of codes of logging practice and directions for the future in the South Pacific, finalization of a regional strategy for implementing the Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting in Asia Pacific, development of a training strategy in support of the regional Code, further development of national codes of practice, and expansion of the Reduced Impact Logging Network (RILNET).
Sub-regional Consultation on Implementation of Codes of Logging Practice and Directions for the Future
The Heads of Forestry of Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, and representatives of 29 government agencies, NGOS, international organizations, and the private sector met in Port Vila, Vanuatu, 12 17 July 1999, for a sub regional consultation on the implementation of codes of logging practice and directions for the future. The meeting was organized by the SPCIUNDP/AusAID/FAO Pacific Islands Forests and Trees Support Program, in collaboration with the Vanuatu Department of Forests and the Vanuatu
Sustainable Forest Utilization Project.
Presentations and discussion during the consultation focused on the following themes:
Implementation of Codes of Logging Practice (COLPS) and Directions for the Future;
Reduced Impact Logging;
• Forest Certification;
Clean Development Mechanism; and
• CSD, IPF, EFF, and NFP Processes.
Participants acknowledged the substantial progress of South Pacific countries in implementing COLPS, but noted a number of aspects that require more attention. Numerous questions were raised regarding the cost effectiveness and competitiveness of reduced impact logging relative to conventional logging. Participants also highlighted the importance of additional training of managers and field workers to achieve significant improvement in harvesting practices.
The need for development of detailed silvicultural prescriptions and reduced impact logging guidelines as a complement to COLPs was recognized, as was the need to identify effective incentives to encourage broader implementation of reduced impact logging.
The importance of monitoring of implementation and enforcement of codes was discussed extensively. It was concluded that a balance between incentives and penalties was needed for effective implementation, and that "self regulation" by the logging industry can play an important role where industry is genuinely concerned about its image and long term, viability.
Consultation participants acknowledged the value of regional processes to facilitate the development of COLPs and related guidelines, and for supporting implementation. Increased involvement of NGOS, private sector, and local organizations in the processes for developing and implementing COLPs was encouraged.
South Pacific countries have been at the forefront in Asia and the Pacific with regard to developing and implementing COLPS. Of particular note, is the high level political support that has been given to COLPs by the Prime Ministers of South Pacific countries. Still, consultation participants noted the need for increased support and commitment from high level political and administrative leaders. To motivate leaders toward such support, participants urged international and local organizations to organize additional awareness building activities.
Regional Strategy for Implementing the Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting in Asia-,Pacific Page 29 of 41
With financial and technical support from the Government of Australia, the Asia Pacific Forestry Commission has drafted a regional strategy for implementing the Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting in Asia Pacific. Initial inputs for the strategy were provided by members of the APFC Working Group on Sustainable Forest Management at a workshop in September 1998. Subsequent drafts of the strategy were reviewed by national focal points and interested individuals in all APFC member countries. The strategy was further reviewed at a February 2000 workshop in Bogor, Indonesia.
The strategy outlines eight strategic objectives, each with secondary objectives, proposed actions, and outcomes. The eight strategic objectives include:
Encouraging appropriate public and political support for implementation of the Code.
Developing awareness and support for the Code at the regional and national policy making levels by stakeholders.
Developing a forest sector that is educated and trained in Code implementation.
Encouraging the development and implementation of national codes based on the Asia Pacific Code.
Establishing demonstration and training forests.
Implementing monitoring and auditing systems.
Collating past and present research results allowing development of appropriate research activities and directions in support of sustainable forest management.
Further development and implementation of sustainable forest management practices in Asia Pacific.
The regional strategy for implementing the Code will be presented to the 18 th Session of the Asia Pacific Forestry Commission for endorsement in May 2000.
Training Strategy
As implementation of the Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting in Asia Pacific and respective national codes has advanced, it has become apparent that effective implementation depends heavily on intensive training and awareness raising efforts at various levels. Additional training and awareness building is needed for policy makers, managers, supervisors, field workers, planners, and opinion shapers (e.g., NGOS, journalists, religious leaders, community leaders, etc.).
Although FAO and ppaner organizations have conducted various training and awareness raising activities, including study tours and training of trainer workshops, many of the activities were less effective than desired. This was due to inappropriate selection of participants, weak training content, poor timing and scheduling, inappropriate venues, and other constraints.
In an effort to improve the effectiveness of training in support of the regional Code and national codes, APFC is developing a regional training strategy. The strategy will provide guidance on training priorities and serve as a framework for more detailed national training strategies.
With support from JIFPRO AND USDA Forest Service, FAO and the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops recently organized a workshop to advance the development of the training strategy. More than 50 participants from 15 countries and more than a dozen international organizations, and the private sector participated in the three day workshop, convened 22 24 February 2000, in Bogor, Indonesia. Workshop sessions focused on identifying groups that require training for code implementation, assessment of training needs, training objectives, training content and materials, preparation of training activities, venues, and costs.
The training strategy will be drafted by the end of March 2000, and disseminated for review and comment. It is anticipated that the strategy will be finalized by mid year.
Development of National Codes
At least 13 countries in Asia and the Pacific have developed, or are in the process of developing, national codes of practice for forest harvesting. Codes have been formulated in Australia, Bhutan, Cambodia, Fiji, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu. China, Sri Lanka, and Samoa are in the process of drafting national codes. Mongolia and Pakistan are in the initial planning phases of code development.
RILNET
In an effort to promote awareness of the potential of reduced impact logging and effective implementation of the Code of Practice for Forest Ifarvesting in Asia Pacific, FAO launched the Reduced Impact Logging Network ("RILNET") in September 1999. RELNET is an e mail based network of individuals, now exceeding 300 in number. RELNET is supported by FAO and the USDA Forest Service.
RILNET disseminates information and synopses of research results and activities on reduced impact logging, and serve 's as a node for discussing "hot" topics. Page 30 of 41
RELNET sends out brief messages (usually one page or less) and indicates where and how additional information on a particular topic can be obtained.
The topics that RELNET covers include, among others:
biophysical issues (including on site and off site and biodiversity impacts);
economic issues (including financial and economic aspects);
the role of incentives in encouraging improved harvesting;
occupational health, safety, and ergonomics issues;
relevant technologies; and
link between the Code and the application of criteria and indicators and certification.
Individuals wishing to join RILNET and receive information through the network should contact the network managers at:
RELNET
16 Jalan Tan Jit Seng
11200 Penang, Malaysia Tel: (60 4) 8999261 e mail: [email protected]
FAO AND CAMBODIA IMPLEMENT INNOVATIVE FOREST CRIME MONITORING AND REPORTING PROJECT
Cambodia and FAO recently initiated a unique, innovative new project to fight corruption and uncontrolled illegal logging in the forest rich country. The "Forest Crime Monitoring and Reporting Project" will establish independent monitoring systems to keep tabs on illegal logging and trade of forest products. The project is funded by the Governments of the United Kingdom and Australia, through UNDP. FAO will provide technical training and advice to Cambodia's Forestry Department and the Ministry of Environment in their efforts to establish inspection teams to monitor logging and trade activities.
The most innovative aspect of the project is the involvement of an independent watchdog organization the British based environmental and human rights group Global Witness. Under a separate project agreement, Global Witness will oversee and verify monitoring of forestry activities and subsequent enforcement by police and the military. The arrangement is particularly extraordinary in view of the fact that Global Witness has long been a sharp critic of the Government's forestry policies. International organizations have heralded the partnership as a strong indication of Cambodia's new commitment to reversing the country's past record of out of control logging. Global Witness will have full access to records and monitoring facilities and will report directly to the Cabinet and Cambodia's aid donors.
FAO will help train the Forestry Department's 1,800 rangers to effectively monitor forestry activities, including logging and transport and trade of forest products. Assistance will also be provided to the Forestry Department in establishing a Forest Crime Monitoring Unit, with supporting inspection teams.
For several years, international donors have pressed Cambodia to improve its performance in the forestry sector. About half of Cambodia's US$400 million national budget currently comes from foreign donors. Donors have threatened to halt aid unless Cambodia reined in off the books logging, which deprives the Government of nearly US$100 million in lost fees and royalties every year. In 1996, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) suspended a US$120 million loan to Cambodia because of its mismanagement of its forests.
Starting early last year, however, the Government began a serious crack down on illegal logging. Unlicensed cutting much of which was being conducted by rogue army units has been substantially reduced. In late 1999, the IMF resumed its program by extending a loan of US$81.6 million over a 3 year period, affirming its view that the Government is making significant progress in its drive to improve forest management.
In a report to donors in October of last year, Cambodian officials indicated that in the first 9 months of 1999, 822 illegal sawmills were destroyed, 13,988 cubic meters of logs and 2,059 cubic meters of lumber were confiscated, and 48 trucks and tractors were destroyed. Page 31 of 41
FAO AND THE,EUROPEAN COMMISSION LAUNCH NEW FORESTRY STATISTICS PARTNERSHIP INITIATIVE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA AND SOUTH ASIA
The Asia Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study, completed in 1998, assessed the state of forest utilization and conservation in the Asia Pacific region and provided insights into likely developments in the forestry sector through to 2010. In reviewing the study, the Asia Pacific Forestry Conunission emphasized the need for improving the quality of information used by policy makers to take decisions and to prepare the sector for the changes foreseen by the study. The Commission's responses to the Study's findings included the establishment of a Working Group on Forestry Statistics and Information and a request that FAO provide support to strengthen forestry data collection and analysis capability. In pursuit of this, FAO and the European Commission have recently launched a new initiative entitled "Information and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management: Linking National and International Efforts in South Asia and Southeast Asia. "
Operating under the guidance of the APFC Working Group on Forestry Statistics and Information, the initiative will be implemented by FAO in close partnership with experts from participating countries, relying on their expertise and experience. The initiative aims to take full advantage of ongoing national and regional efforts related to forestry information gathering and analysis. It will also draw on experience gained from similar EC FAO efforts in Africa, the Caribbean, and Latin America.
The overall objective of the partnership initiative is to promote sustainable management of trees and forests in the tropics. The initiative recognises that development of robust policies for sustainability needs the support of a sound and extensive array of information and data. Within this context, the initiative aims to achieve specific objectives of strengthening national capacity to collect, compile and disseminate reliable and up to date information on forestry, to improve forestry sector analysis, and to make that information more readily available to policy makers.
The programme will be implemented in 13 countries in South Asia and Southeast Asia (Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam). It is focused on three inter related themes, namely:
(i) problem oriented data gathering and updating of information;
(ii) pilot studies specifically focusing on methodological approaches and issues relating to topics not traditionally dealt with while collecting forestry statistics; and
(iii) forest policy review.
The first major activity for the initiative will be a "Process and Planning Workshop," to be held in Bangkok, 10 12 July. This Workshop will examine national processes and strategies for collection and collation of forestry statistics, and project activities in the participating countries.
Apart from improving the mechanism to collect and analyze policy relevant data in support of sustainable forest management, the initiative aims to facilitate the establishment of a network of forestry statistical correspondents and provide support to the APFC Working Group on Forestry Statistics and Information. At the end of the initiative (December 2002), it is anticipated that forestry information systems in the participating countries will have improved significantly. This will enable policy analysis and planning to be more efficiently implemented, and countries will have more reliable information to help them act upon the conclusions drawn from the Asia Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study.
Contacts:
Mr. Patrick Durst, FAO, Bangkok; tel: +66 2 281 7844 Ext 139; fax: 280.0758; E mail: [email protected]
Ms. Qiang Ma, FAO, Rome; tel: +39 06 570 5501 ;fax: 570 55514; E mail: [email protected]
FAO INITIATES REGIONAL PROJECT TO SUPPORT MODEL FORESTS IN FOUR COUNTRIES
In cooperation with the Government of Japan, FAO recently launched a new regional project in support of model forests. The two and a half year project will support model forest management in China, Myanmar, Philippines, and Thailand. Page 32 of 41
The project will assist countries in strengthening national and community level capacities for the development and implementation of field level model forests, and thus contribute to their efforts to manage forest resources sustainably. The field level model forests will incorporate partnerships among all stakeholders and "best practices" for sustainable forest management. They will take into account the multiple uses and functions of forests, the many diverse demands placed on the forests and forest lands by various stakeholders, the need to balance economic, social and environmental considerations, and the special needs and priorities of each country. Particular emphasis will be given to the development of mechanisms for the effective participation of all stakeholders (including local and forest dependent communities) in the planning and implementation of the model forests. The development of local, national and regional networks to facilitate collaboration and cooperation among agencies and persons involved or interested in sustainable forest management will also be encouraged. The International Model Forests Secretariat (RAFS) is actively collaborating with the new regional project.
The project reflects an extension of support and collaboration established between FAO and the Forestry Agency of Japan in support of model forests. The two agencies, and the IMFS, are jointly organizing a series of four international workshops to promote demonstrations of sustainable forest management at the field level through the model forest approach. The final workshop in the series is tentatively planned for September 2000.
The project coordination office will be located in FAO/RAP. For more information, please contact:
Mr. Tang Hon Tat
Chief Technical Officer, GCP/RAS/177/JPN
FAO/RAP, 39 Phra Atit Road
Bangkok, 10200 THAILAND
Tel: (66 2) 281 7844 Fax: (66 2) 280 0445
E mail: [email protected]
What is a model forest?
A model forest can be described both as a physical entity and as an organization.
Physically, a model forest comprises a relatively large area in which forestry is the main land use. The boundaries of the area should form a well-defined eco- geographic unit (e.g., a watershed).
One of the core attributes of a model forest is that the land base be at a scale that fully reflects the key environmental, social, and economic values and concerns of the region. At the same time, it should be small enough for all stakeholders to feel a sense of belonging. In Canada, model forests are at least 100,000 hectares in size, but countries with smaller land bases and/or higher population density may not be able, or in fact need, to establish model forests quite so large.
From an organizational perspective, a model forest is a voluntary partnership between all who have a stake in the sustainable management of theforest resources within the area selected, be it individuals, organizations, orprivate companies.
If the partnership is to succeed, the main landowners, tenure holders, and others with responsibilities over the land must have an interest in participating. It is important to note that the rights of participating landowners and land managers are not superseded by the model forest. The model forest concept does not imply transfer of ownership or decision making powers. Rather, it aims to open up and influence the decision making process by providing a forum where the partners can gain a greater understanding of conflicting views, share their knowledge, and combine their expertise and resources. The idea is to identify, develop, apply, and monitor the effects of innovative, locally specific approaches to sustainable forest management. In so doing, model forests should incorporate research and development and promote the application of appropriate practices through demonstration. Model forests must function as a center for human resource development and capacity building through information sharing and transfer of technology.
The primary activity of model forests is sustainable forest management for a range of different benefits in accordance with the "Forest Principles."
A model forest is not a short term development project, focusing on community forestry, watershed management or reduced impact logging., It is an open ended, Page 33 of 41
long term process, which brings together people to sustainably manage a relatively large area for a variety of purposes. It aims to stimulate innovation and synergy through the pooling of human and financial resources.
THIRD REGIONAL SEMINAR ON TEAK: POTENTIALS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN MARKETING AND TRADE OF PLANTATION TEAK
"Challenges for the New Millennium"
31 July 5 August 2000, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Background
The sustainability of forest plantations is becoming of great concern among foresters. It is particularly true when local and global demands for wood will more and more depend on plantations in a declining trend of wood production from natural forests. A call for the certification of forest products, which requires that every forest product for the foreign market must come from sustainably managed forests, adds additional pressure.
Teak ( Tectona grandis ) is one of the most important hardwood species with a considerably high economic value in many parts of the world. Tthe size of teak plantations has been steadily increasing and the research work on this species has been actively conducted.
Teaknet Asia Pacific Region was established at the Second Regional Seminar on Teak, held in Yangon, Myanmar, in 1995 under the technical and financial support of FAO. Since then, the Teaknet Secretariat, located at the Forest Department of Myanrnar, has been promoting technical information exchange, collecting trade and market information, and establishing a teak related reference database. Organizing a regional seminar on teak is another important task. The Third Regional Seminar on Teak will be hosted by Perum Perhutani, the Indonesian Government State Enterprise on Forestry, and the Faculty of Forestry, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, which holds the world's largest teak plantations (about I million hectares).
Objectives
The Seminar aims to offer an excellent opportunity for participants to discuss and learn about the current issues concerning the marketing and trade of teakwood from teak plantations, silviculturat technology development, the history of teak forestry, and forest certification. These subjects are all linked with the main subject of how to achieve sustainable management and utilization of teak plantations. The main themes of the Seminar are as follows:
Theme 1: Marketing and trade of plantation teakwood
Theme 2: Silviculture on site productivity and management
Theme 3: Genetic improvement and application of biotechnology
Theme 4: Historical review of teak forestry in the region
Theme 5: Forest certification.
For further information, please contact:
Sasharjo Siswamartana
Pusbanghut Perum Pehutani
Cepu, Central Java, Indonesia
Tel: 62 21883, 21233; Fax: 62 29622439
E mail: [email protected] Page 34 of 41
or
Eko B. Hardiyanto
Faculty of Forestry
Gadjah Mada University
Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
Tel: 62 274 901400; Fax: 62 274 902220
E mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
ASIA -PACIFIC EXPERIENCE IN DE VELOPING AND IMPLEMENTING CRITERIA AND INDICATORS FOR SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT
by Patrick B. Durst and Qiang Ma
This article is adaptedfrom papers presented by Mr. Patrick B. Durst, Senior Forestry Officer (FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific), and Ms. Qiang Ma, Forestry Officer (Forestry Policy and Planning Division, Fao, Rome) at the China Forestry Policy Forum, 7-9 December 1999, in Beijing, China.
Introduction
More than 150 countries are currently involved in developing and implementing criteria and indicators (C&I) for sustainable forest management. In many countries, however, there is still poor understanding of C&I and their potential value for supporting sustainable forest management. Nonetheless, there is a growing acceptance of C&I by many Asian countries often influenced by donors and consumers in developed countries. For some countries, this acceptance is largely motivated by concerns over market positions for forest products and conditionalities imposed by donors for continued assistance. Other countries are recognizing the potential value of C&I for monitoring and influencing improved forest management.
Criteria and indicators are tools for assessing national and local trends in forest conditions and forest management. They recognize forests as complex and dynamic ecosystems that provide a wide array of environmental and socioeconomic benefits to society. As such, they provide a common framework.for describing, monitoring and evaluating over time progress toward sustainable forest management and provide an implicit definition of what sustainable forest management is, conceptually and on the ground.
"Criteria " are features defining sustainable forest management, against which progress can be judged. These include vital forest functions such as biological diversity and forest health, the multiple socioeconomic benefits of forests such as wood production and cultural values, and, in most cases, the legal and institutional framework needed to facilitate sustainable forest management.
"Indicators " provide ways to measure or describe a criterion. The indicators associated with a given criterion serve to define what that criterion is and what it means. For example, "ecosystem diversity" and "species diversity" are indicators of biological diversity; "area of forest land available for timber production" and "total growing stock" are indicators of forest productivity.
Many indicators are quantitative, such as the percent of a country's forest cover. Others are qualitative or descriptive, such as indicators related to forest planning, public participation and investment and taxation policies. Both are important for assessing sustainable forest management at the national level.
It is important to note that no single criterion or indicator alone constitutes a measure of sustainability. An individual criterion or indicator needs to be considered in the context of other criteria and indicators: it is the array of criteria and indicators that together, when measured over time, provides the full picture of the state of a country's forests and trends toward sustainable forest management.
Asia -Paciric participation in international initiatives for the development and implementation of criteria and indicators
Asia Pacific countries are involved in the following international initiatives for the development and implementation of criteria and indicators: Page 35 of 41
International Tropical Timber Organization Criteria and Indicators for the Measurement of Sustainable Management of Natural Tropical Forests (Asia Pacific member countries: Australia, Cambodia, China, Fiji, India, Indonesia" Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and the Philippines). ITTO pioneered the development of C&I in the early 1990s, and continues to be the dominant influence for the development and application of criteria and indicators among Asian tropical countries. In 1998, after extensive review, ITTO published revised criteria and indicators, covering both national and forest management unit levels (ITTO, 1998). A manual for the application of ITTO's criteria and indicators was published in 1999.
Montreal Process on Criteria and Indicators for the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests (Asia Pacific member countries: Australia, China, Japan, Republic of Korea and New Zealand). Montreal Process members meet on a regular basis and continue to refine and develop procedures for collecting and reporting data at the national level. Recent discussions have focussed on possible elements for criteria and indicators at the forest management unit level.
ASEAN Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management (Asia Pacific member countries: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, . Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam). In 1999, ASEAN senior forestry officials recommended the adoption of common criteria and indicators by member countries, based largely on the new ITTO criteria and indicators.
Regional Initiative for the Development and Implementation of National-Level Criteria and Indicators for the Sustainable Management of Dry Forests in Asia . In December 1999, representatives from nine Asian countries (i.e. Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand) launched an initiative to develop and implement C&I for the dry forests of Asia at a workshop convened in Bhopal, India. The workshop was co organized by FAO, UNEP, ITTO, USDA Forest Service, and the Indian Institute of Forest Management. The workshop tentatively identified 8 criteria and 49 indicators with particular relevance for the dry forests of the region. This new initiative includes several Asian countries not previously involved in other international C&I processes, but it draws heavily from the experience gained through other initiatives.
The existing international initiatives are similar in objectives and approach. They all seek to characterize sustainable forest management for an array of forest benefits, primarily at the national or country level. They all approach forests as complex ecosystems rather than simply as sources of timber. They all provide neutral assessment tools for describing trends over time, as opposed to measuring performance. And they all incorporate, in some fashion, the following seven fundamental elements: 1) extent of forest resources; 2) biological diversity; 3) forest health and vitality; 4) productive functions of forests; 5) protective functions of forests (e.g. soil and water conservation); 6) socioeconomic benefits and needs; and 7) legal, policy and institutional framework.
Given the diversity of countries participating in the development of criteria and indicators, the degree of similarity or comparability among initiatives is striking.
However, there are also differences in structure and content among the existing initiatives, such as in the number of national level criteria, and the level of assessment considered. While the majority of initiatives are designed solely for national level application, the ITTO initiative includes criteria and indicators for use at the forest management unit level. Others also include criteria that could be applied at the regional or global levels.
The number and array of indicators also' differs somewhat. A few processes have coknprehensive and sophisticated sets of indicators, some of which will require new monitoring systems or research. Others have fewer and/or simpler indicators that can be relati vely easily measured with existing data gathering and monitoring systems. Also, the .wide differences among countries in terms of forest area, quality and types of forests, land ownership patterns, and socioeconomic conditions, suggest that some indicators may be country or region specific.
There are also variations in the overall scope among initiatives. Many international initiatives have been developed by contiguous countries with strong regional ties and generally similar forest types (e.g. Europe, Amazon, Dry Zone Africa, Near East). ITTO's efforts apply to all tropical timber producing forests on three continents, although the countries involved tend to be contiguous and eco regionally similar within each continent (e.g. Amazon, Central West Africa, Southeast Asia).
By contrast, the Montreal Process countries span five continents, differ greatly in terms of the nature and extent of their forests, and include both developed and developing countries, and countries with economies in transition. The common thread is that all 12 countries lie within the temperate and boreal forest zone. Even so, several countries, like Mexico, China, Australia and the United States, also have significant areas of tropical forest, to which the Montreal Process criteria and indicators may well apply.
Country-level efforts to develop criteria and indicators in Asia and the Pacific
Most countries around the world collect data on forest indicators of various sorts (e.g., forest area, deforestation, volume of log production, volume and value of products, etc.). But not all countries systematically collect and use these data in a manner consistent with recent C&I processes. In particular, it is only recently that countries started to collect and analyze data on such indicators as species diversity, soil and water conservation, carbon storage, community participation, and equity. Page 36 of 41
Some of the Asian countries that are moving forward with such comprehensive C&I data collection include China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Malaysia, and Thailand.
China is currently developing national and sub national criteria and indicators consistent with ITTO, the Montreal Process, and the new Regional Initiative for the Development and Implementation of National Level Criteria and Indicators for the Sustainable Management of Dry Forests in Asia. UNDP and FAO are providing support for this effort through the "Capacity Building, Research and Extension for Sustainable Forest Management Project." Currently, testing of criteria and indicators is being carried out in three eco zones of the country.
India launched the "Bhopal India Process" in early 1999. The initiative has thus far identified a "base set" of principles, criteria, and indicators for use throughout the country. Current efforts are focused on building awareness of the potential of criteria and indicators for contributing to sustainable forest management, and generating political support. At the same time, field testing of the application of the criteria and indicators has started with pre project support from ITTO.
Malaysia is currently developing Malaysian Criteria, Indicators, Activities and Standards of Performance (MC&I) for Forest Management Certification. As the name implies, the process is closely linked with efforts to develop a national forest certification program in Malaysia under the guidance of the National Timber Certification Council.
Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia, and Laos previously initiated efforts to develop sets of national C&I, but have largely agreed to pursue the development and implementation of a common set of C&I based on the revised ITTO C&I.
Enhancing comparability of results
One of the overall goals of the ongoing work on national level criteria and indicators should be to Produce data results that are reasonably comparable among countries in terms of the terminology and basic measurement units used. This would allow the data and reporting outputs across, initiatives and countries to be easily compared without creating a confusing melange. For example, all initiatives include a national level indicator on the "extent of forest cover." In collecting data on this indicator, it will be important for countries to use the same definition of "forest" and the same units of calculation. If one country reports "extent of forest cover" as a percent of total area and another country reports it as numbers of hectares, the results are not readily comparable and cannot be easily aggregated into a global assessment.
While existing initiatives are conceptually similar and reflect a close interaction and exchange among processes, each is still in a developmental stage and seeking to define basic terms and concepts. The Intergovemmental Panel on Forests called for establishing an international consensus on essential terms, definitions and technical concepts. This would be very helpful not only in setting the foundation for comparable analyses, data outputs and reporting among countries, but also in implementing C&I.
Today there is endless talk about "sustainable forest management." A serious problem, however, is that sustainable forest management often means very different things to different people; there is no universally accepted definition of sustainable forest management.
One contribution of criteria and indicators is that they help establish a basis for public discussion of what sustainability is and how it might be achieved. C&I are tools for assessing national (or in some cases sub national) trends in forest conditions and forest management. They provide a common framework for describing, monitoring, and evaluating, over time, progress toward sustainable forest management. Interpretation of the data collected on indicators should help broadly define whether management interventions are, collectively, taking a country toward, or away from, sustainable management.
Criteria and indicators and the market place
Whether or not they are intended as such, criteria and indicators can potentially serve to influence market activity at both national and international levels. By providing the tools for monitoring progress toward sustainable forest management, C&I also potentially provide the justification for rewarding good forest management or discriminating against bad forest management.
At a minimum, there is considerable public relations value for a country or a particular corporate entity in being perceived as making progress toward sustainable forest management. Note, for example, ITTO's Year 2000 Objective, which calls for all internationally traded tropical timber to be sourced from sustainably managed forests by the year 2000. ITTO members are periodically requested to report on progress toward Year 2000 Objective and sustainable forest management. Such reports would theoretically be based in large part on data collected on ITTO's criteria and indicators.
Donor organizations are also increasingly linking development assistance (not only in the forestry sector) to progress toward sustainable forest management. Failure to live up to such conditionality was a major reason for withdrawal of International Monetary Fund (UVIF) support to Cambodia in 1996, just as subsequent progress Page 37 of 41
toward sustainable management of the country's forests facilitated the recent return of the UAF to Cambodia. 1
At the forest management unit level, a combination of criteria and indicators and standards have been used as the basis for extending or canceling logging concessions in Indonesia. Companies are expected to demonstrate progress toward sustainable forest management, over time, as a condition for concession extensions. Failure to demonstrate such progress potentially results in cancellation of the concession.
Certification
To some people, a logical extension of the above practices is forest product certification. Certification, and the associated issue of forest products labeling, is one of the most controversial subjects in forestry today. Certification seeks to link trade in forest products to the sustainable management of forests, and to enable those who so wish to purchase products coming from "sustainably managed forests" (Castaneda, 1998).
1 Strictly speaking, IMF conditions are based on sequential "performance indicators" rather than formal criteria and indicators, but the concepts and principles are similar.
The basis for forest product certification is "standards," through which agreed upon, minimum levels of performance in forest management are defined. The purpose of such standards is to assist users and consumers in identifying those products that come from a forest considered to be well managed. The idea is that, by providing better access to markets for products from well managed forests, incentives are created for forest managers to improve management practices.
Much confusion exists between criteria and indicators and certification. They are not the same thing, nor are they necessarily even linked. Criteria and indicators provide a means to measure, assess, and demonstrate progress toward sustainability of forest management activities in a given country or in a specified forest area, over time. Certification, on the other hand, is a means to certify the achievement of certain pre defined standards of forest management in a given forest area, at a given point in time, agreed upon by producers and consumers (Castaneda, 1999).
Direct linkages do not exist between national level criteria and indicators and certification. While there are clear linkages between national and forest management unit level C&I (many forest management unit criteria and indicators were initially developed to provide aggregated data for national level C&I), there may or may not be linkages between forest management unit C&I and forest products certification standards.
Policy implications
As national trend data on the state of a country's forests becomes available through the application of criteria and indicators, the challenge will be for national policy makers to "interpret" the trends as positive or negative (moving toward or away from sustainable management) and make course corrections as needed. For example, if the extent of a country's forest cover is found to be declining, a judgement should be made as to why this is happening (e.g., due to unsustainable wood harvesting or expanding farmland) and whether or not the trend is acceptable. One expects that many countries would find an appreciable downward trend in forest cover undesirable. However, a country with vast forests and a growing population may find some forest loss not inconsistent with its overall sustainable development goals. Other countries may wish to establish "thresholds" for forest cover, below which they do not want to drop or, alternatively, "targets" for forest cover which they will seek to achieve.
The point is that criteria and indicators should have policy implications. The trends in the state of forests identified by C&I need to be analyzed at the policy level by each country on an ongoing basis. In turn, this analysis should point to the changes in policy needed, including in cross sectoral policies, to promote sustainable forest management at the national level.
Future opportunities for criteria and indicators in Asia and the Pacific
A number of opportunities exist for advancing the development and implementation of criteria and indicators in Asia and the Pacific.
First, is, to expose countries not yet involved with iittemational processes to the potential of criteria and indicators as tools for monitoring forest management. The recent workshop in India is a good example of how FAO, UNEP, ITTO and others are attempting to do this.
Second, is to' improve and elaborate criteria and indicators in areas that are particularly important for Asia and the Pacific. These might include better refinement of social and cultural indicators (including indicators of participation and equity), indicators for planted forests and trees outside forests, and for important non wood Page 38 of 41
forest products.
Third, is the need to recognize and develop complementary tools for achieving sustainable forest management. Criteria and indicators are only tools for monitoring progress toward sustainable forest management; they do not tell a forest manager how to achieve this goal. In this respect, there are numerous opportunities in Asia and the Pacific to develop and improve these complementary tools (e.g., enabling policies, sound technical guidelines, and management prescriptions).
One example is FAO's support under the auspices of the Asia Pacific Forestry Commission, for the development and implementation of codes of practice for forest harvesting. There are currently at least 12 countries that have developed or are in the process of formulating national codes of practice for forest harvesting. There is also the need and opportunity to enhance country capacity, not just for the immediate task of collecting data on criteria and indicators, but even more importantly for the full range of work needed to implement sustainable forest management.
Finally, opportunities for greater involvement of stakeholders in the C&I process specifically, and forest management more generally, should be recognized. Some very encouraging results are emerging from field tests involving local people in the identification and measurement of simple indicators for sustainable forest management in India and elsewhere. It is only by involving all stakeholders, including the direct users of the forests, that truly effective criteria and indicators will be developed and applied.
Literature cited
Castaneda, Froylan. 1998. Linkages between national and forest management unit levels criteria atid indicators for sustainable forest management. Paper presented at the Fifth International Froject Advisory Panel (IPAP) Meeting for C]OFOR's Testing Criteria and Indicators for the Sustainable Management of Forests, 25 27 March 1998. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Castaneda, Froylan. 1999. Why national and forest management unit levels criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management of dry forests in Asia? Paper presented at the Workshop on National Level Criteria and Indicators for the Sustainable Management of Dry Forests in Asia. Bhopal, India, 30 November 3 December 1999. (publication forthcorning).
ITTO. 1998. Criteria and indicators for sustainable management of, natural tropical forests. ITTO Policy Development Series No. 7. International Tropical Timber Organization. Yokohama, Japan. 22 p.
NEW FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS
POVERTY ALLEVIATION AND FOOD SECURITY IN ASIA Enhancing Forestry and Agroforestry Contributions
RAP Publication 1999/5
In the Asia Pacific region, as elsewhere in the developing regions of the world, poverty is mainly a rural phenomenon; nearly three fourths Of the poor live in rural areas, with the large majority of them dependent on agriculture for employment and income. Agricultural growth thus offers a potentially enormous source of poverty reduction, particularly when the growth is broadly based.
This report on forestry and agroforestry is part of a series of supporting documents that accompany the main volume, Poverty Alleviation and Food Security in Asia: Lessons and Challenges , which was published earlier and which assessed recent experiences, policies, and select issues on poverty alleviation in Asian developing countries. The present report aims to inform interested readers, particularly high level policy makers, that forests indeed yield substantial quantities of food products Page 39 of 41
and contribute significantly towards alleviating poverty and improving food security, especially in upland communities. Its contributory roles can be direct as in providing forest products for supplemental food, medicine and fuel, or indirect such as in yielding irrigation water from forest watersheds to sustain and improve food production in the lowlands. Moveover, under a favorable policy environment, rural communities can assist to an enormous extent, particularly through conservation of natural resources, to perpetuate and maxiniize forest based food yields. Country experiences related to the above can provide some concrete bases for crafting appropriate policies, strategies and programmes to achieve goals in poverty alleviation and food security.
Second printings of the following publications are now available:
Teak in Asia (issued by FORSPA in 1993)
Teak: Some Aspects of Research and Development (RAPA Publication 1991/17)
Domestication and Breeding of Teak (Tectona grandis Linn. F) (RAS/91/004 Tech. Doc. No.4 1996)
For copies, please write to: USaw Eh Dah, Teaknet Coordinator, Teaknet Secretariat, Forest Department, Ministry of Forest, Bayintnaung Road, West Gyogone, Yangon 11011, Myanmar; Fax: (95) 1 664 336; E-mail: [email protected]
FAO ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY CALENDAR
6 8 June 2000. FORSPA Advisory Group Meeting and the Expert Consultation on "The Involvement of Private Sector in Forestry Research." Beijing, China. Contact: Senior Programme Advispr, FORSPA, FAO Regional Office, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel: 66 2 281 7844; Fax: 66 2 280 4565.
27 30 June 2000. Training Workshop on NFP Strategic Planning . Ulan Bator, Mongolia. Contact: Darmo Suparmo, Regional NFP Adviser, FAO Regional Office, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200,
Thailand; Tell: 66 2 281 7844; Fax: 66 2 280 4565; E mail: [email protected]
10 12 July 2000. Bangkok, Thailand. Information and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in South and Southeast Asia: Information processes and planning . Contact: Chris Brown, Consultant, Information and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management: Linking National and International Efforts in South Asia and Southeast Asia, FAO Regional Office, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel: 66 2 281 7844; Fax: 66 2 280 4565; E rnail: [email protected]
31 July 5 August 2000. Third Regional Seminar on Teak: Potentials and Opportunities in Marketing and Trade of Plantation Teak "Challenges for the New Millennium". Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Contact: Sadharjo Siswarnartana, Pusbanghut Perum Pehutani, Cepu, Central Java, Indonesia; Tel: 62 21883, 21233; Fax: 62 29622439; E mail: [email protected] late September 2000. NFAP Donor Conference . Delhi, India. Contact: Mr. C.P. Oberai, Inspector General of Forests & Spl. Secretary to the Government of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests, B Block, CGO Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi 110003, India; Tel: (9111) 436 1509; Fax: (9111) 426 3957 or Mr. Peter Rosenegger, FAO Representative in India, P.O. Box 3088, New Delhi 110003, India; Tel: 462 8877; Fax: (0091) 11 4620115; E mail: FAO [email protected]
23 27 October 2000. International Workshop on Model Forest for Field-Level Application of Sustainable Forest Management. Yamanashi Workshop: Model Forest: Feedback to Land Use Policy. Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan. (Organized by the Japan Forestry Agency in technical cooperation with FAO.) Contact: Mr. Tanimoto or Ms. Makiko Uemoto, International Forestry Cooperation Office, Forestry Agency, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Government of Japan; Tel: +81 3 3591 8449; Fax: +81 3 3593 9565; E mails: tetsuo [email protected] or [email protected]
LINCOLN PARK ZOO AFRICA/ASIA FUND
The Lincoln Park Zoo Africa/Asia Fund Supports field research in conservation biology throughout Africa, Asia and the Pacific. The fund emphasizes Support of graduate students and other young researchers, particularly those from Africa and Asia. The fund, launched in 1997, supports between five and 15 projects each year. Awards are seldom greater than US$7,500, and most awards fall in the range of US$3,000 6000. Initial support is for up to 12 months from the date of award. Page 40 of 41
Maximum duration of support is two years. Deadline for receipt of Africa/Asia proposals is 1September.
For additional information and application procedures, please write to:
Lincoln Park Zoo Africa/Asia Fund
Department of Conservation and Science
Lincoln Park Zoo
Chicago, 11 60614, U.S.A.
E-mail: [email protected] http: www.lpzoo.com/conservation
FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS: FAO REGIONAL OFFICE ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (RAP)
Readers who are interested in obtaining any of the following publications can order up to three titles
For copies, please write to: Forestry Section, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand
1. Proceedings of the IUFRO Workshop on Pests and Diseases of Forest Plantations (RAPA Publication 1990/9)
2. Challenges in Upland Conservation: Asia and the Pacific (RAPA Publication 1993/5)
3 . Report of Regional Expert Consultation on Forestry Policy Developments and Research Implications in Asia and the Pacific (RAPA Publication 1993/16)
4. Leucaena Psyllid in the Asia Pacific Region: Implications for its Management in Africa (RAPA Publication 1994/13)
5. Asia Pacific Tropical Forestry: Ecological Disaster or Sustainable Growth? (RAPA Publication 1994/18)
6. Non Wood Forest Products in Asia (RAPA Publication 1994/28)
7. Workshop Report: Reform of the Forestry Sector: Towards a Market Orientation in China, Laos, Mongolia, Myanmar, and Vietnam (RAPA Publication 1995/4)
8. Beyond Timber: Social, Economic and Cultural Dimensions of Non Wood Forest Products in Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 1995/13)
9. A Guide to the Identification of Diseases and Pests of Neem (Azadirachta indica) (RAP Publication 1995/41)
10. Asia Pacific Forestry Commission: Report on the In Session Seminar on Forestry Investment in Asia and the Pacific (MISC/93/14)
11. Non Wood Forest Products in Bhutan (RAP Publication 1996/6)
12. Asia Pacific Agroforestry Profiles: Second Edition (APAN Field Doc. No.4/RAP Publication 1996/20)
13. The Khao Kho Story: Reclaiming the Barren Hills of Thailand!s Central Highlands (RAP Publication 1996/27)
14. Reports Submitted to the Regional Expert Consultation on Eucalyptus Vol.11 (RAP Publication 1996/44)
15. Forests and Forest Management in Mongolia (RAP Publication 1997/4)
16. Non wood forest products: tropical palms (RAP Publication 1997/10) Page 41 of 41
17. Implementing Sustainable Forest Management in Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 1997/7)
18. Gone Astray: The Care and Management of the Asian Elephant in Domesticity (RAP Publication 1997/16)
19. Directory of Selected Tropical Forestry Journals and Newsletters (2nd Edition) RAP Publication 1997/17 FORSPA Publication No. 19/1997.
20. Forest Dependent Survival Strategies of Tribal Women: Implications for Joint Forest Management in Andhra Pradesh, India (RAP Publication 1997/24)
21. Labor Intensive Harvesting of Tree Plantations in the Southern Philippines (RAP Publication 1997/41
22. Ecotourism for Forest Conservation and Community Development (RAP Publication 1997/42
23. Leasing Degraded Forest Land: An Innovative Way to Integrate Forest and Livestock Development in Nepal (RAP Publication 1998/4)
24. Carbon Dioxide Offset Investment in the Asia Pacific Forestry Sector: Opportunities and Constraints (RAP Publication 1998/9)
25. Report of the Asia Pacific Forestry Commission Seventeenth Session (FO:APFC/998/REP)
26 APANews Newsletter of the Asia Pacific Agroforestry Network (ISSN: 0859 9742)
27. Asia Pacific Forestry Towards 2010 Executive Summary: The Asia Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study (RAP Publication 1998/22)
28. Asia Pacific Forestry Towards 2010 Report of the Asia Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study
29. Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting in Asia Pacific (RAP Publication 1999/12)
30. Trees Commonly Cultivated in Southeast Asia An Illustrated Field Guide 2nd Edition. (RAP Publication 1999/13) (Price:US$20.00 incl. postage)
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