ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION OF SWAMP DEER IN TERAI GRASSLANDS OF UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA
DISSERTATION
SUBMITTED/OR THEAWARO OF THE I^REE OF
WILDLIFE SCIENCE
KALEEM AHMED
DEPARTMENT OF WILDLIFE SCIENCES ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA) 2007
GfD(3 (o]©g]r ©Dfi] Ministry of ]amal A. K^an p{>. D. Environment & Forests Government of India Member, National Tiger Conservation Authority s Member, Tiger Protection Society Govt of Uttar Pradesh Member, lUCN Cat Specialist Group Chairman, Department of Wildlife Sciences
Secretary, Wildlife Society of India f AT SPECIALrST GROl P Phones: 0571- 2701052, 2901234, 2701205 Department of Wildlife Sciences 2700920 Ext.: 1700(O), 1701(D) Contervjtkxi Monl[orln| Centre i e-mail: [email protected] Alliarh Muildn Univenky \^ CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the dissertation entitled "Ecology and conservation of swamp deer in Terai grasslands of Uttar Pradesh, India" submitted for the award of Master of Philosophy in Wildlife Science, of the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh is the original work of Mr. Kaleem Ahmed. This work has been done by the candidate under my supervision. Jamal A Khan Date: 21"' May 2007 CONTENTS Acknowledgement ni Executive Summary v Lists of Tables vin Lists of Figures x Chapter 1: Introduction Introduction 1 Distribution 4 Status 4 Description 5 Literature Review 6 Objective of Study 8 Chapter 2: Study Area Terai A Diverse but Fragile Ecosystem 10 Histoncal Background 11 Location 13 Climate 13 Topography 15 Soil 15 Flora 16 Fauna 16 Chapter 3: Population Structure Introduction 19 Methodology 19 Analysis 21 Results 21 Population Status Distribution 21 Movement of Swamp Deer in Satiana 22 Grouping Pattern 23 Sex Ratio 23 Discussion And Conclusion 30 Population Status Distribution 30 Reasor For Outside Movement 31 Conclusion 32 Grouping pattern 33 Age and Sex Ratio 37 Chapter 4: Habitat Utilization Introduction 39 Methodology 39 Forage Preferences 42 Data Analysis 42 Results 44 Estimation of Animal Densitj' From Pellet Group Density 44 Comparison Between Animal and Random Plots of Barasingha 45 Factor Governing Habitat Use of Chital 45 Factor Governing Habitat Use of Hog Deer 46 Discussion 56 Chapter 5: Activity Pattern and Time Budget Introduction 59 Methodology 59 Analysis 60 Results 61 Seasonal Vanation in Activity Pattefn 61 Activity Pattern of different age and Sex Categones 61 Adult Male " 61 Adult Female 62 Yearling Male 62 Yearling Female 63 Fawn 63 Time Budget 70 Age and Sex Categories 70 Adult Male 70 Adult Female 71 Yearling Male 71 Yearling Female 72 Fawn 72 Discussion 82 Chapter 6: Ptedation Introduction 85 Scats Collection 86 Sample Size Estimation for Minimum Number of Hairs/scats 87 Results 88 Sample Size Estimation for Minimum Number of Hairs/scats 88 Ptedation in Winter 88 Predation in Summer 88 Predation in Monsoon 89 Annual Predation Rate 89 Leopard Predation on Barasingha 89 Discussion 98 Acknowledgement Thanks to Almighty Allah who gave me the power and strength to complete this document. I am grateful to my Supervisor Dr. Jamal A. Khan for his esteemed guidance and providing all the facilities needed to complete my work. All his suggestions and discussions were of immense value in streamlining my study. My sincere thanks to all of my other teachers Dr. Afifuallah Khan and Dr. Satish Kumar, Prof. H. S. A. Yahya, for their valuable suggestions and support. Financial support for this study came from University Grant Commision (UGC), which provided me the research fellowship that take care of most of my personal expenses. I thank this agency for their support. In Dudhwa the hospitality and affection of Mr Billy Arjun Singh provided good change from monotony of field work. Passionate discussion with Billy and his knowledge of Dudhwa were of immense help in getting a better insight into the Park. This study would not have been possible without the help of the Forest department of Uttor Pradesh and I thank Mr. Mohd Ahsan, A.C.C.F, UP for permitting me to work in Dudhwa. Thanks are due to Mr M. P. Singh, Director Dudhwa Tiger Reserve, for his valuable support. I wish to place sincere thanks to Mr. P. P. Singh, Deputy Director Dudhwa Tiger Reserve, who was highly co-operative and supportive during the study and for showing keen interest in the progress of work. This work would not have been successfully completed without the sincere support of the Wildlife wardens, Rangers, Foresters, Forest guards and the Field staff of Dudhwa Tcger Reserve. I am thankful to a whole staff at Sonaripur, Sathianc, Dudhwa, Solukapur as it is beyond the scope to mention them all. At solukapur, mahouts Lallan, Idris and Arshad were of great help and were ever ready to take me into the Rhino enclosure, I thank them all. I offer my sincere thanks to Mr Naseem{Park guide) and his son Bablu who showed great affection and treated me as his family member throughout my study. Special thanks to Bilal Habib and Tanweer Ahmed for their help in data analyses and for their very constructive comments on the draft of this manuscript. Both of them were constant source of my inspiration whenever I lost my temper. Their critical comments not only helped in the preparation of this draft but also helpful in my personal life to get me out in difficult situation. Dear Dr Bill and Dr Nill really you are great. Ill I am particularly thankful to Dr P.K Mathur, Dr S.P Sinha, Dr Uniyd for their encouragement during their visit in the field. I have great appreciation for Dr Ravi Sankaran for his discussion and suggestions. I have a great appreciation for Dr S.P.S Kushwaha of IIRS for his valuable discussion during his visit in the field and sending me study material. I am also thankful to Dr Ashfaq Zarri for his continuous support throughout my study. I appreciate the help of Dr Athar Ali for identifying the grasses collected during the study. I am also thankful to my classmates Nasir, Kamlesh, Rohit, Zaiben, Vyom for their advice and support. Many thanks to my friends Javed, Upimanyu Hore, Neha Midha, Shipra Verma, Iftikar, Irfan, Tahir. Special thanks to Dr Harish Gutaria project co-ordinator WWF India for his encouragement and help during my interaction with him in the field. I am also thankful to my seniors Usham, Sharad and my juniors Athar, shamshad, Ashwaria, AAcraj, Shilpi, Andleeb, Tanusheri. Thanks are also due to Msc final and previous batch for their support. Thanks are due to my field assistant Ram Kumar, Radhay Sham, Ram Niwas, Leia Dhar, and Vijay Kumar for their help in conducting the field work. At the Wildlife department I thank Dr Iqbal Imam, Mustafa Kamal, Anjum, Moonis, Chotey Khan, Syed, Tanveer, Azeem, Shoffar, Arshad and Nadeem. Last but not the least this work would not have been possible without the blessings and support of my parents, sisters, brothers and dear ones. They have been a constant source of inspiration for me, and they did not mind my long absence from home and also for the problems faced because of me. Today what I am is all due to their great care and concern, through enormous patience. I dedicate them everything of mine. Special thanks to my mamu Sulzar Ahmed Mir for his continuous encouragement and support from my childhood for shaping my career in right direction I want to put my heartest thanks to Saima for her affection and care. Thanks for accepting me the way I am with all my faults and weakness. Thanks for being with me in my ups and downs. Your presence around gives me reasons to smile. Acknowledging contributions is an important exercise as research involves help and assistance from numerous individuals and agencies. To list them all is an enormous task. I, to the best of my memory, tried to mention all those who contributed in one way or another towards the completion of this document. In doing so I might have missed some names, more because of lapse of memory than anything else and wish to thank al those who are victim of such human memory. IV Executive Summary The barasingha {Cervus duvauceli) is an endangered deer species in India Three subspecies of baTasmgha are known to occur m India Of these the subapecies Ctrvus duvauceli duvaucdi ih known to occur in the terai grassland of Uttar Pradesh, India Compansion to past distribution show that the population of Cervus duvauceli diivauceli has drastically declined in number and size and has becomes locally extinct from many areas and in the remaining areas it faces major conservation problems The present study was carried out m Dudhwa National Park and Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary with an objective to study the ecology of barasingha and to suggest mitigation measures for threats to its conservaaon The two Protected Areas constituting Dudhwa Tiger Reserve. Though separated physically, are by themselves compact and consist of continuous forest tracts These units, 88373 90 ha in area represent one of the few remaining example of a highly diverse and productive ecosystem of terai grassland, supporting a large number of endangered species, obligate species of tall wet grassland and species of restricted distribution. Information on group size composmon and structure of barasingha was collected dirough direct observation. The individual were classified into different age and sex categories based on morphological characters. A total of 322 groups of barasingha were encountered during the study period. Mean group size in Dudhwa National Park was 21.40 + 1.71 S.E with a range of 1-210 and Mean group size in Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary was 11.89 ±1 72 S.E with a range of 1-120 . Overall mean group size in DKCU was 18.37 ±1.71 S.E animals/group. Adult females formed major share of population (49.79%) followed by Adult males (30.99%). The adult male to female ratio in DNP & KWS was 1:1.8 and 1:1.6 respectively. In all die sites, barasmgha population showed biased sex ratio m favors of females while male to female and fawn to females ratios were same m Dudhwa National Park, but relatively higher in Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary A total of five transect were laid each 1km in length to collect data on habitat utilization The pellet group density of barasingha was higher in tall wet grassland as compared to short grassland. Pellet group density of barasingha showed positive correlation with grass diversity and distance from water and showed negative correlation with tree density and distance from un-metalled road. The pellet group density of barasingha was maximum in burnt plots 222.57 pellet group/ha and 89.79 pellet group/ha in unburnt plots. The Pellet group density of barasingha, chital and hog deer was converted into animal density (individualsAm^) by dividing the total no of pellet groups recorded on a transact with the mean defecation rate and number of days over which pellet groups were accumulated. The density of barasingha was found to Tie 1.07 individuals/km^. While the density of chital and hog deer was found to be 7.20 and 3.09 individuals/km^ respectively. To understand habitat use of swamp deer, data was subjected to Principal Component Analyses (PCA). In Dudhwa a total of 19 species of grass and aquatic vegetation were consumed by barasingha during the entire study period. In terrestrial vegetation species like Impereta cylendrica, Cynodon dactyhn, bothniochloi odorata and in aquatic vegetation Potamogaton pectinatus and Hydrilla verticillata form major portions of their diet. The data on activity pattern and time budget was collected through instantaneous scan sampling. Activities were classified into different major categories. Activity pattern of barasingha was of polyphase where resting was interspersed with grazing and walking. Barasingha showed a bimodal diurnal pattern in feeding with peaks in the morning and evening hours. Barasingha mostly rested throughout the day. Walking v/as more or less uniform. There was seasonal difference in activity pattern. Resting dominated the activity budget followed by grazing and walking. Grazing was considerably low in winter where as percentage time on resting was higher. The difference in the budget between age-sex categories and seasonal difference within age and sex categories was significant. A total of 116 and 69 scats of tiger and leopard were analyzed to investigate predation rates on barasingha in Dudhwa National Park. The dietary spectrum of tiger was composed of 15 species while that of leopard was 16 species. Chital (30.47%) and barasingha (23.99%) were dominant prey species of tiger's diet followed by cow (6.90%). In terms of biomass, barasingha, chital and cow contributed (31.5%), (20.7%) and (10.9%) respectively. The remaining prey species contributed less than 10%. Remains of rodents, chital, patridge and hare were found in (29.5%), (18.1%), (8.2%) and (7.7%) of scats of leopard. In terms of biomass rodents contributed 18.81% to the diet of leopard followed by chital 18.03% and cow 13.64%. Total prey biomass consumed by tiger and leopard was 606.19 kg and 221.34 kg respectively. The dietary niche overlap between two sympatric felid species was 0.76 which ranges from 0 (no overlap) to 1.0 (complete overlap). Tiger predation was an important, although not necessarily the main, limiting factor of population growth in barasingha. But a combination of factor such as outside movement into agriculture field, where they are more vulnerable to poaching by villagers, siltation in some grassland patches may be the factors responsible for population decline. Satiana area of Dudhwa National Park is the only area, where population declined drastically. In other areas population either remained constant or increased. The decline of VI Satiana population is due to their traditional movement outside the Park boundary into the agriculture field where they are more vulnerable to poaching by wealthier farmers. In order to conserve this north Indian swamp following step should be taken. Intensive patrolling of Ghola and Ghajrola taal which are outside the Park during monsoon and early winter is the immediate step to protect this endangered species. Steps should also be taken to relocate the Ghola and Ghajrola village. So that swamp deer of Satiana moves freely to its seasonal ranges. Steps should also be taken to create some artificial taals inside the Satiana grassland as an alternate so that swamp deer find some suitable habitat inside the Park for their breeding and aquatic vegetation during monsoon. Intensive patrolling is also needed in Madraiya grassland of Satiana where the large herd of swamp deer were seen in order to restrict the regular movement of villagers for cutting grass, in order to save this north Indian swamp deer from the verge of extinction. In Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary (Jadi taal) where the largest population of swamp deer was reported, immediate step would be to construct die bandh on Sarda river which is hardly 10m away from Jadi taal to save the area from monsoon flooding. Protectioft of location with aquatic vegetation Like Badi taal, Jadhi taal, Kakraha taal, Bankey taal will be essential for the long term conservation of the barasingha and also for other endangered species like the greater one homed rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis which also feed on aquatic vegetation. A more comprehensive study would be needed to know the effect of siltation and grass management practice on grassland composition, nutrient quality before and after these practices for long term conservation of barasingha in Dudhwa National Park. vn List of Tables Table 3 1 Population status and distribution of barasinglia in Dudhwa Kishanpur ( onscrvanon 24 Units Iiblc 3 2 bncountcr rate of barasinglia in different sites and seasons m Dudhwa National Park 24 I'ablc 3 3 Population of barasingha m Dudhwa National Park as reported by Holloway (1972), 24 Schaaf & Singh (1977), V V Singh (1984), Sankaran (1988 89), Ahmed & Kh-\n(2005) and this study 2006 fable 3 4 Mean group si/e of barasingha acrosb different sites of Dudhwa-Kishanpur 25 Conservation units Table 3 5 Comparative data on herd si7c 1988 & 2006 25 Table 3 6 Monthly group s> Table 3 7 Proportion of different age and sex categones in five different bltei of Dudhwa- 29 Kishanpur Conservation Units Table 3 8 Number of Adult Males (AM) and Fawn (FN) per 100 females in five different sites, of 29 Dudhwa-Kishanpur Conservation Units Table 4 1 Overall mean Pellet group density (pellet group/ha) of species found in five different 47 transects in Dudhwa National Park Table 4 2 Mean pellet group density (pellet group/ha) of species found in summer in five different 47 transects in Dudhwa National Park Table 4 3 47 Mean density (individuals/km2) of different deer species in Dudhwa National Park Table 44 Correlation between pellet group densities of three major ungulates species with habitat 48 variables in Dudhwa National Park Table 4 5 Pnnapal Component Analyses of animal and random plots of 49 barasingha m Dudhwa m 2006 Table 4 6 Pnnapal Component Analyses of pteicnce and absence plots of chital m Dudhwa m 51 2006 Table 4 7 Pnnapal Component Analyses of animal and random plots of hog deer in 53 Dudhwa in 2006 Table 4 8 Grasses or grass like plant speaes consumed by barasingha m Dudhwa 55 National Park Table 6 1 Composition of different prey species in Tiger scats (n=69) dunng winter 2005-2006 92 in Dudhwa National Park. Table 6 2 Composition of different prey speaes in Tiger scats (n=31) dunng summer 2006 in 92 Dudhwa National Park Table 6 3 Composition of different prey species in Tiger scats (n=16) dunng monsoon 2006 in 93 Dudhwa National Park Table 6 4 96 Prey represented in 116 scats of tigtr in Dudhwa National Park Uttar Pradesh, India from 2005 - 2006, together with estimated biomass and numbers of prey consumed VUl Tabic: 6.5 Prey represented in 69 scats of leopard in Dudhwa National Park Uttar Pradesh, India 97 from 2005 — 2006, together with estimated biomass and numbers of prey consumed IX List of Figures Figure: 1.1 Past and present distribution of Ccrvus duvauccli 9 Figure. 2.1 Map of I'erai Arc Landscape under different vegetation types. 14 Figure: 2.2 Mean monthly temperature in Dudhwa National Park during 2005 17 Figure: 2.3 Mean monthly temperature in Dudhwa National Park dnnng 2006 17 Figure: 2.4 Mean monthly rainfall in Dudhwa National Park during 2006 18 Figure: 2.5 Mean monthly Rainfall in Dudhwa National Park in 2006 18 Figure: 3.1 Monthly segregation of barasingha into monoscxual groups in Dudhwa- 27 Kishanpur Conservation Units. Figure: 3.2 Percentage distribution of groups of barasingha in different group 28 size in Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuarj' Figure: 3.3 Percentage distribution of groups of barasingha in different group size in 28 Dudhwa National Park Figure: 4.1 Distribution of animal and random of barasingha plots in Dudhwa National Park. 50 Figure: 4.2 Ordination of animal and random plots of barasingha in Dudhwa National Park 50 Figure: 4.3 Ordination of animal and random plots of chital in Dudhwa National Park 52 Figure: 4.4 Distribution of animal and random plots of chital in Dudhwa National Park. 52 Figure: 4.5 Ordination of presence and absence plots of hog deer in Dudhwa National Park 54 Figure: 4.6 Distribution of presence and absence plots of hog deer in Dudhwa National Park. 54 Figure: 5.1 Diurnal activity pattern ofbarasinghain winter in Dudhwa National Park, 64 Figure: 5.2 Diurnal activity pattern of barasingha in summer in Dudhwa National Park. 64 Figure: 5.3 Diurnalactivity pattern of adult male winter in Dudhwa National Park 65 Figure: 5.4 Diurnal activity pattern of adult male in summer in Dudhwa National Park 65 Figure: 5.5 Diurnal Activity pattern of adult female in winter in Dudhwa National Park 66 Figure: 5.6 Diurnal Activity pattern of adult female in summer in Dudhwa National Park 66 Figure: 5.7 Diurnal Activity pattern of yearling male in winter in Dudhwa National Park 67 Figure: 5.8 Diurnal Activity pattern of yearling male in summer in Dudhwa National Park 67 Figure: 5.9 Diurnal Activity pattern of yearling female in winter in Dudhwa National Park 68 Figure: 5.10 Diurnal Activity pattern of yearling female in summer in Dudhwa National Park 68 Figure: 5.11 Diurnal Activity pattern of fawn in winter in Dudhwa National Park 69 Figure: 5.12 Diurnal Activity pattern of fawn in summer in Dudhwa National Park 69 Figure: 5.13 Annual activity budget of barasingha in Dudhwa National Park. 73 Figure: 5.14 Activity budget of barasingha in winter in Dudhwa National Park. 73 I'lgurc 5 15 Activity budget of baraMiigha iii sumiTiLr iii Dudhwa National Park 74 Figure 5 16 Annual activity budget of .\dult malt baraMngha in Dudhwa Nadoml Park 74 I'lgurc 5 17 Activit\' budget of adult milt biraMnglia m winter in Dudhwa National Park 75 I'lgurt 5 18 \ctiviu budget of adult milt barasinghi in summer in Dudhwa National Park 75 lMi>urt 5 19 Annual activity budget ot adult ftmalt baraMiigha in Dudhwa National Park 76 I'lgure 5 20 Activit) budget of adult female baraslngha in winter m Dudhwa National Park 76 I'lgure 5 21 Activity budget of adult female barasingha in summer in Dudhwa National Park 77 Figure 5 22 Annual activity budget of \earling male in Dudhwa National Park 77 Figure 5 23 Activity budget of yearling male in winter in barasingha m Dudhwa National Park 78 Figure 5 24 Activity budget of yearling male barasingha in bummcr in Dudhwa National Park 78 Figure 5 25 Annual activity budget of veading female barasingha in Dudhwa National Park 79 Figure 5 26 Acnvity budget yearhng female barasingha m winter in Dudhwa National Park 79 Figure 5 27 Activity budget of yrarhng female barasingha in summer in Dudhwa National Park 80 figure 5 28 Annual .\cuvity Budget of fawn barasingha in Dudhwa National Park 80 Figure 5 29 Activity Budget of fawn in winter m Dudhwa National Park 81 Figure 5 30 Activity budget of fawn in summer in Dudhwa National Park 81 Figure 6 1 Standardisation of minimum number of hairs per scat to analyse the food habit 90 habitb of tiger in Dudhwa Nauonal Park Figure 6 2 Number of prey items detected in tiger scats (n=116) between November 2005 to 91 June 2006 in Dudhwa National Park Figure 6 3 Number of prey items detected in leopard scats (n=69) between November 2005 to 91 June 2006 in Dudhwa National Park Figure 6 4 Annual Predaaon of Tiger on different prey species in Dudhwa National Park (n=116) 94 Figure 6 5 Leopard predation on different prey species in Dudhwa National Park (n=69) 95 XI CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Most threatened species of deer occur in isolated rural areas of developing countries where wildlife poaching and pressure on wildlife habitats, like grazing, cutting of grass and collection of fuel wood is frequently intense (Holloway 1975). This is unfortunate; that many of these species are on the verge of extinction and a detailed knowledge of their ecology is required for long-term conservation measures (Martin 1977). The rapid decline of swamp deer Cervus duvauceli duvauceli in the terai area of Uttar Pradesh (U.P) over recent years is a case in point. The barasingha or Indian swamp deer- {Cervus duvauceli Cuvier 1823) belongs to a species group together with the brow-antlered deer (Cervus eldi) and the extinct Schomburgk's deer {Cervus schombirki). These deer species evolved in the indo-chinese and Malayan subregions (Mani 1974). The evolutionary history of the cervids indeed goes back to the Miocene of Eurasia, about 20 million years ago and resulted in forms resembling modem musk deer (Clutton-Brock et al. 1982). Forest dwelling muntijak- Hke deer occurred widely in Eurasia by the middle of Miocene (Viret 1961). Towards the end of Miocene cervines invaded open habitat and started feeding extensively from grassy plants, and in the late Pliocene a progressive complexity of antler forms appeared (Clutton- Brock et al. 1982) pointing to progressive radiation of modem deer species. In the wake of this evolutionary process, the speciation of the three closely related deer, which are all adapted to swampy grassland conditions, must have taken place in the riparian flats and alluvial flood plains (Mani 1974). Descriptions on barasingha Cervus duvauceli appeared sporadically in hunting literature of the last century. Blanford (1888-91) was however, the first to give an account of the Chapter 1: Introduction \ distribution of the species. Brander (1923) presented more information on the barasingha and made a distinction between the barasingha in northern hidia and those in central India. Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) subsequently distinguished two subspecies: Cey-vus duvauceli duvauceli Cuvier 1823 and Cei-vus duvauceli branderi Pocock 1943. Later, Groves (1982) distinguished the northeast race as new sub-species and named as C. d. ranjitsinhi. Now three subspecies of swamp deer are known to occur in the Indian subcontinent namely Cei-vus. d. duvauceli distributed in northern India, Cervus. d. brandreri distributed in Kanha National Park in central India and Cervus. d. ranjitsinhi distributed in Assam. (i) Cervus duvauceli duvauceli: This sub-species inhabits the soft swampy grounds of Northern India. It has lighter coat and whitish horns. This terai animal has a larger hoof, which helps them to move on swampy grounds. In term of skull and antlers, they have short nasal comparing to snout length, nose not deep or swallow, antlers long, slender not compressed or palmated. The ears are large and rounded with thick white hairs internally. Tail is longer then C.d. ranjitsinhi. (ii) Cervus duvauceli branderi: This central Indian sub-specie prefers hard ground and has a darker coat with dark antlers having white tips. The hoof is hard and well knit with normally haired pastern. Its name is derived firom A.A Dunbar Brander who had first studied and described it as a distinct fi-om the terai variety. Skull of these animals are small and body size is also small; nasal long, snout is short but nose is not deep, maxilla is rather broad as nominate race. Antlers are Chapter 1: Introduction extremely long and many branched with long brow tine, branching high up the beam, and anterior branch especially long. (iii) Cen'us duvauceli ranjitsinhi This race is heavily built, but linearly of the same height as C.d. brander i.e. smaller than the nominate race. The ears are smaller, less rounded and distinctly pointed and have very little white hair on the inside unlike the other two races. The tail is shorter. It can be distinguished by its- elongated nasals and short deep snout, short thick antlers, branching low down, with especially shortened anterior branch, antlers somewhat compressed and tends to be palmated. The feet are splayed with bare heel as in C.d duvauceli. Preferred habitats of the swamp deer are marshes and grassland (Sankaran 1990). The ruthless destruction of terai ecosystem for agriculture and human settlements has led to large-scale fragmentation, shrinkage and degradation of these unique vegetation t>pes. Simultaneously, the population of mammalian and avian species such as one homed rhino Rhinoceros unicornis, tiger Panthera tigris, swamp deer Cervus duvauceli, hispid hare Caprolagus hispidus and Bengal florican Eupodotis bengalensis witnessed serious decline in their abundance and distribution. Due to repatriation of settlers through out the terai of UP, most of the grasslands have been converted into agriculture in the past (Sankaran 1990) Forestry policies have often considered grasslands as "wasteland". The resulting plantation of exotics and indigenous tree species in grassland has converted several good grassland habitats into woodland (Rahmani et al. 1988). Chapter 1: Introduction Distribution ^ The barasingha is indigenous to India. It is believed tliat barasingha in the historic past ranged over a large tract along the foot hills of the Himalayas in the alluvial and flood plains between the Indus in the west to the Brahmputra in the east extending to the Sundarbans, and to the south as far as the Godavri. The distribution range of swamp deer was reduced considerably due to habitat destruction and over hunting and at the turn of the 20th century, the species survived in swampy areas from upper Assam extending to the Sundarbans in the east to the Indo-Gangetic plains in the west and south wards up to eastern Maharashtra (Jerdon 1874, Bhadian 1934, Prater 1980, Brander 1982). The trend in range reduction continued and Schaller (1967) reported swamp deer from 28 localities only, of which five were in southern Nepal and the rest were in the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh (U.P.), Assam, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. At the beginning of the 2 list century barasingha could only be found in three relatively small areas: firstly the Kheri, Pilibhit and the adjacent division in south westeren Nepal including Sukla Phanta Sanctuary and a small population was recently reported in JilMil taal of Haridiwar district, Uttaranchal; Secondly the Manas and Kaziranga National Parks in Assam with a few animals have been recorded in Laokhowa Sanctuary. Thirdly, the Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh. Although it cannot be entirely excluded that a few straddlers may be foimd outside these isolated areas, they would certainly not amount to viable population. Status The barasingha is highly endangered species listed in schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 and Appendix-I of the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES). The establishment of Dudhwa National Park in 1977, was Chapter I: Introduction 4 therefore, hailed as great event, because it meant strict legal protection to the habitat of largest surviving herd of this species. The status of subspecies of barasingha Cervus. d. duvauceli was first assessed by Schaller (1967), who reported the presence of this subspecies from 11 localities in northern hidia. Holloway later reviewed the status in 1973 that found barasingha surviving in four localities out of 11 localities surveyed by Schaller in 1967. The four localities were in Pilibhit, north Kheri, south Kheri, and Bahraich. Exact population numbers were difficult to obtain. The latest esfimate of 1,270 -1,450 was reported by Qureshi (1995). Sankaran (1990) estimated the barasingha population to be 765 in whole of the Dudhwa National Park. Description The barasingha {Cervus duvaucelli) is a large deer about the size of a North American wapiti or Indian sarabar. Morphologically it is closely related to several species (red deer, wapiti, sika, maral, sambar) in the genus Cervus in the New and Old Worlds and Asia. It is a large, graceful deer, standing 44 to 46 inches high at the shoulder (Blandford 1888-91). A full grovioi stag weighs about 138 kg (Brander 1923). Barasingha shows marked seasonal change in its coat color. Animals in their sununer coat are a rich chestnut brown on the back and somewhat lighter brown on the sides and belly and creamy white on the inside of legs, rump and underside of tail. The winter coat, which is acquired by hinds in November is dull to grayish brown. Adult stags have a long, coarse, dark brown, almost black coat, considerably darker than that of hinds and young stags. The hair on the neck especially in males is up to five inches long, giving the animal a prominent ruff. The chin and throat are whitish and so are inside the ears. The fawn has brovra coat without spots. The first indication of the antlers is small bumps on the frontal bones, which appear at about seven Chapter 1: Introduction 5 months of the age in the fawn. Yearling stags have simple spike antlers. The first set of adult antlers usually consists of brow tine and a main beam with one or two forks. (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977). Barasingha in hindi means twelve -pointer" indicating antler pattern in adult stags with an antler crown of 5 tines about halfway up to the antler beam in addition to the brow tine, which branches off at a right angle. This result in a total number for both antlers of 12 tines. Very old stag may carry antlers with sometimes as many as 7 tines on each beam. The number of antler tines and the weight varies considerably according to age, food condition and other factors. The barasingha cast their antler in May in Central India. The barasingha in Northern India and Nepal as well as Easteren India have generally advanced antler growth with stags cast their antlers in January in Assam and February in northern India and Nepal (Schaller 1967). However under the present study it was found that stags shed their antlers in ending March in Dudhwa KJshanpur Conservation Units (DKCU). The first stag which cast its antler was seen on 22 March. Record antler length of barasingha was reported Ward (1922) which measured 104cm round the curve. Burke (1928) collected three sample fi-om Central India, all with 104 cm. In 1977 Martin collect a pair of antlers in Kanha National Park its length round the curve was 92 cm. In 2006 a pairs of antlers was collected in Dudhwa National Park whose length round the curve was 82 cm having 14 tines. Literature Review In India research on different ungulate species has not made significant progress unlike in Afinca where long-term studies have been carried out on majority of ungulate species. (Schaller 1967) did pioneering studies in the Kanha National Park on species such as chital, Chapter 1: Introduction (, sambar and swamp deen This was followed by detailed study in Gir Forest Ecosystem by Berwick in 1974, Khan 1993 also studied ecology of Gir ungulate. Green (1985) studied ecology of muck deer in Kedematli Wildlife Sanctuary and Green (1987) analyzed the ecological separation in Himalayan ungulate. Pendharkar and Goyal (1995) carried out a study on social organization of Goral in Simbalbara Sanctuary and Darpur Reserved Forests. Mishra and Johnsingh (1996) studied habitat selection of Goral in Himachal Pradesh. Ilyas, Khan & Khan (2003) have studied status, abundance and factors governing distribution of ungulate in Kumaon Himalayas. Barasingha, the second largest deer in DKCU has been one of least studied in all respects throughout its ranges. Most of the information on the species is limited to the observation published as short notes (Bhadian 1934, HoUoway 1973 Qureshi 1991, Schaaf & Singh (1977) & Qureshi et. al. 1995). However Martin (1977) studied the ecology of hard ground barasingha in Kanha National Park. Primarily the information on the DKCU comes in the form of various official documents of the Forest Department. These include Forest Working Plans (North Kheri Forest Division- Kakkar 1964, Chandra 1973, Gaur 1982, Srivastava 1993 and South Kheri Forest Divison - Chandra 1972, Rizvi 1980, Pant 1990, Srivastava 2000) and Wildlife Management Plan for Dudhwa National Park and Dudhwa Tiger Reserve (De 2001). Singh (1997) has listed 821 species of angiosperms in the flora of Dudhwa National Park. It was only during 1980s that the DKCU attracted attention of researchers and since then several researches on selected featured faunal species have been undertaken. Prominent among them are: the ecology of swamp deer (Singh 1984), rhino habitat and monitoring of reintroduced rhinos (Hajra and Shukla, 1983, Sale and Singhl987, Sinha and Sawarkar 1991), ecology of Bengal florican (Rahmani et al. 1990, Sankaran and Rahmani 1991), study on bird diversity (Javed 1996), ecology of Black necked stork (Maheshwaran 1998) Chapter 1: Introduction 7 and management of forest in India for biological diversity and forest productivity (Kumar et ^l. 2002). Singh (1985) provided area statistics under different vegetation types based on Landsat - 3 satellite data of November, 1981. Although Singh 1984 studied ecology of swamp deer, but after this no study has been done on this species. Once the Satiana area of Dudhwa National Park was famous for its swamp deer, but now population in this area is drastically declined. Present study, focus on the factors responsible for decline of Satiana population. Objectives of the study • To estimate the population status, distribution, abundance and structure of barasingha C. d. duvauceli. • To investigate the habitat utilization pattern of barasingha C d. duvauceli. • To study food habits of barasingha C. d. duvauceli. • To study the basic diurnal activity pattern of barasingha C. d. duvauceli. • To know the predation pressure on barasingha population C. d. duvauceli • To suggest mitigation measures for threats to its conservation. Chapter 1: Introduction Figure: 1.1. Past and present distribution of Cervus duvauceli |;:':;| Distribution In Nstoric past H] Distribution during 19th Century i » I Distribution in 1967 I O I Present distribution Chapter t: Introduction CHAPTER 2 STUDY AREA Terai ~ A diverse but fragile landscape The terai ecosystem, which the DKCU represents, is one of the most threatened ecosystems of India. The region is a vast flat alluvial plain lying between the Himalayan foothills and the Gangetic Plains. It extends through Uttaranchal, Northern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, Northwestern Bengal, Assam, and Southern Nepal. It forms an integral part of the terai- Bhabhar biogeographic sub-division of the Upper Gangetic biotic province and the Gangetic Plains biogeographic zone (Rodgers and Panwar 1988). Once, the terai forests constituted a lush belt of green vegetation in the extensive tract of alluvial Gangetic flood plains. The forest is mainly moist deciduous, dominated by the most valuable Sal {Shorea robustd) forests of India. A significant attribute of the Sal forest ecosystem is the interspersed swamps, wet tall grasslands, and dry grasslands or 'phanta' variously dominated by Saccharum spontaneum, Saccharum narenga, Sclerostachya fusca, Imperata cylindrical and Vetiveria zizaniodes. The high water table, annual flooding and the synergistic influence of traditionally practiced annual burning of grasslands are primary factors defining the characteristics of this tract. The resulting complex woodland - grassland - wetland ecosystem harbours a variety of floral and faunal life, including several charismatic, and obligate species viz.,tiger {Panthera tigris tigris), great one-homed rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli duvauceli), Bengal florican {Hubaropsis bengalensis) and hispid hare {Caprolagus hispidus). The diversity and biomass of large herbivores intact in terai ecosystem alone equals or exceeds many of the famous wildUfe areas of East Africa (Lehmkuhl 1994). The DKCU is the only place in the country to hold a potentially viable population of sub-species of swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli duvauceli). Out of nine species of deer in the India, five occur in DKCU. Unfortunately, very little of this productive ecosystem remains intact. The DKCU is the last Chapter 2: Study Area \Q and best remnant of the terai ecosystem remaining in north India outside Nepal and Assam. De (2001) has described the global to local significance of the protected areas within the terai ecosystem. Global and National values include the conservation of representative biodiversity and endangered species such as the tiger, one-homed rhinoceros, swamp deer, Bengal florican, hispid hare, and swamp partridge. Regional and state significance includes the conservation of the terai forest and grassland ecosystems, watershed and water conservation, endemic tribal peoples ('Tharu'), and ecotourism. Local values include wildlife conservation, ecotourism and related economic activities, non-wood and small timber products for local use, and socio- cultural religious values. Historical Background The history of the terai forests dates back to 1861 when this area was taken over from khairigarh pargana and preserved as forestland. Prior to 1861 very little information is known, except that they were under the control of the Raja of Khairigarh for hunting reserves and commercial uses. Most forests came under government control in 1861 and a Superintendent of Forests, subsequently known as the Conservator of Forests, was appointed for their management. Some forests remained under the private control of local 'Zamindars'. The reserved forests were divided into the North Kheri Forest Division (NKFD) and the South Kheri Forest Division (SKFD) on respective sides of the Sharda River. Scientific management started in 1886 with the development of the first Forest Working Plan. A succession of Working Plans has guided forest management up to the present time (Srivastava 1993 & 2000, De 2001). Until 1968, all reserved forests in the region were managed for the commercial production of wood products and for the subsistence needs of the local people. The Wildlife conservation did not received much attention in the working plans of the area, but it remained preserved due to remoteness and good shelter provided by tall grasses. These forests were Chapter 2: Study Area \\ known throughout the country for tiger shooting. However the most important wildUfe of the area i.e., swamp deer (Cenms duvauceli duvauceli) remained ignored for all these years. Shootings against rules, coupled with heavy grazing and frequent fires ultim.ately started telling on the status of the wildlife of area. The balance of forest and agricultural lands largely remained stable until the post-independence period after 1947 when large numbers of people were resettled fi-om Pakistan and provided with private forest, grasslands and wetlands to clear or drain. Remaining private forests in the area were reserved after the abolition of the zamindari system in 1952, and agricultural land held by the zamindars was distributed to landless people. Since that time population has increased steadily, 32% during the 1991-2001 period alone (Banthia 2001), as has the associated subsistence pressures on forest and grassland resources. Increasing human pressure on natural systems and increased national conservation emphasis on the precious wildlife resources of the area resulted in steps to preserve important wildlife and their habitats. In 1958, relatively small (16 sq km) Sonaripur Wildlife Sanctuary was established with the aim of protecting a relict population of the swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli duvauceli). The area was increased in 1968 and named Dudhwa Wildlife Sanctuary. In 1977 more areas of the NKFD were added to the Sanctuary and the enlarged area was declared Dudhwa National Park (DNP) with both core and buffer zones designated. Additional managed forests of the NKFD were added to the buffer zone of DNP in 1991. To fiirther protect swamp deer, part of the SBCFD was declared as the Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary (KWLS) in 1981. In 1987, DNP and KWLS were brought together under the 'Project Tiger' as Dudhwa Tiger Reserve (DTR) under the management of a Field Director. Management of KWLS was transferred to the Field Director of DTR in 1989. The remaining managed forest areas of NKFD and the SKFD are managed separately as regular reserved forests. The land between Suheli river, about 20 kms in length, which was only three decades ago an excellent wilderness area is now a jungle of sugarcane, with only small patches Chapter 2: Study Area i 9 of forests and undrained swamps left in between. The wildlife of the Park seasonally migrates to these sugarcane fields and this aspect makes the management of cropland by farmers, of direct relevance to Park management. Location The Dudhwa Tiger reserve comprises of Dudhwa National Park and Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary. The Park is located on the hido-Nepal border in the Nighasen Tehsil of district Lakhimpur-Kheri and lies between 28° 18'N and 28° 42'N latitudes and 80° 28' E and 80° 57'E longitudes. The total area of the Park is 49029.19 ha. Reserved forests area of 12401.39 ha serves as its northern buffer and an area of 6602.32 ha serves as its southern buffer. The Kishanpur sanctuary straddles Gola Tehsil of Lekhimpur district and the Powayan Tehsil of Shahjenanpur district. It Hes between the latitudes 28° 14' to 28° 30' N and longitudes 80° 18' to 80° 30' E and covers an area of 20341.00 ha .The two Protected Areas constituting the Tiger Reserve, though separated physically , are by themselves compact and consist of continuous forest tracts. These areas totalling 88373,90ha represents one of the few remaining examples of a highly diverse and productive terai ecosystem, supporting a large number of endangered species, obligate species of tall wet grassland and species of restricted distribution. Cliinate The armual climate cycle of Dudhwa Kishanpur Protected Areas includes three seasons: Summer (mid March to mid June) monsoon (mid June to mid October) and winter (mid October to mid March). In winter the days are bright, cool and the nights are cold and foggy. The month of January is the coldest and dewfall is quite severe. Frost is common in the grasslands (phantas). The month of May and June are the hottest. Nights are moderately cool Chapter 2: Study Area -J 3 Figure: 2.1.Map of Terai Arc Landscape under different vegetation types. (Source Kumar at al. (2002) I I > 5 o I I! n 5 ? I 5 ^ . fi 5 i ^<" 'SI SI a- II Chapter 2: Study Araa 14 until beginning of May. The Monsoons generally begins in the middle of June and last upto September. Most of the rain falls between June and September and accounts for about 90% of the total rainfall. The average annual rainfall is about 150cm. The temperature between 2005 to 2006 at the Dudhwa-Kishanpur Protected Areas, varied from 9°C in January (minimum) to 45°C in May (maximum). Figure 2.2, 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5 shows variation of temperature (minimum and maximum) and rainfall. Topography In general the area of the Park is a vast alluvial plain scoured with the channels of numerous water courses large and small there is no prominent eminences, the only irregularities on the surface being formed by the river beds and their high banks. This has resulted in the formation of series of fairly elevated plateaus separated by streams flowing from northwest to southeast and each bordered by low alluvial belts of varying width. The general slope of the area is from northwest to southeast. The altitude above m.s.l ranges from 182 m in the exfreme north to 150 m in the farthest southeast. The tract of Sanctuary is generally alluvial with a very gentle slope to the southeast. Soil The area of the Park is a vast alluvial plain, the doab of the Mohana and Suheli rivers. The underlying soil of the area consists of the alluvial formation the Ganges Plains, showing a succession of beds of sand and loam. These vary in thickness and depth according to the configuration of the ground. The surface soil is sandy in the more elevated portions, loamy in the level uplands and clayey in the depressions. The soil of the Sanctuary consists of the alluvial formations of the Ganges Plains showing a succession of beds of sand and loam and also varying in depth according to the configuration of the ground. Chapter 2: Study Area ic Flora The composition of the flora of the area relates to Northern tropical semi-evergreen forests. North Indian Moist Deciduous Forests, Alluvium Sal Forests, Western Light Alluviual Sal Forests, Moist Sal Savannah Woodland and Tropical Seasonal Swamp Forests (Champion and Seth 1968) Fauna The reserve has a vast and varied heritage of fauna. The area lying outside the hills in the northern part of the Indo-Gangetic Plains and is perhaps the last stronghold of the fauna unique to the area. The innumerable large and small taals, rivers and nalas, vast grasslands, densely forested areas, open woodland and mixed forests provide a unique admixture of shelter, food and habitat condition for wildlife. Besides the tiger, top predator. The most notable feature of the Reserve is the existence of the last surviving major population of northern swamp deer {Cervus duvauceli duvauceli) in association with four other species of deer, namely spotted deer or chital, hog deer, sambar and barking deer. Its is also home to certain critically endangered species such as the rediscovered hispid hare, bengal florican and the reintroduced Great Indian One Homed Rhinoceros. A total of fourty seven species of mammals are found here. Of these thirteen species are listed in Schedule 1 of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972. The Reserves is home to about 450 species of birds of which nine species are endangered and Hsted in Schedule 1 of Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972. Five species of Reptiles, ten species of amphibians and seventy-nine species of fishes are found in the area. Among invertebrate's nineteen species of spiders, thirty-six species of butterflies and moth, nine molluscs have been hsted (De 2001). Chapter 2: Study Area i ^ • Maximum temperature D Minimum temperature Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Figure: 2.2. Mean monthly temperature in Dudhwa National Park during 2005 • Maximum temperature n Minimum temperature Jan Feb Mar Apr May Figure: 2.3. Mean monthly temperature in Dudhwa National Park during 2006 Chapter 2: Study Area 17 Figure: 2.4. Mean monthly rainfall in Dudhwa National Park during 2006 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 n_Iln LExn _n_ Jan Feb Mar Apr May jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Figure: 2.5. Mean monthly Rainfall in Dudhwa National Park in 2006 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 -I Jan Feb Mar Apr May jun Chapter 2: Study Area 18 Chapter 3 Population Size, Structure and Distribution Introduction The methods of estimating size of ungulate population falls into two categories: direct and indirect method. The choice of method depends on a variety of factors such as behaviour of species, terrain, manpower available and the accuracy required in results. There have been rapid advancements in the field of population estimation using direct method such as line transect or more appropriately distance sampling (Bumham et al. 1980). Many studies have utilized distance sampling to produce estimation of population densities for different taxa in a variety of habitats. Under the present study which was carried out in Dudhwa-Kishanpur Conservation Units (DKCU), it was not possible to use the distance sampling for population estimation, because of the behaviour of the species which remain around the ponds (locally called taals) and also the restricted visibility in tall grassland completely ruled out the possibility of use of direct method for population estimation. Population living in a habitat with dense cover and undulating terrain may not be accurately censused to the last individual by any known method. However, the visibility in Dudhwa meadow after control burning is sufficient to give very accurate census results of the animal staying in the meadow at the time of census. Mefhodology Direct observations were made to collect data on population status and distribution of the barasingha or swamp deer. In order to collect data on the current status and distribution of barasingha, field surveys were carried out in Dudhwa-Kishanpur Protected Areas known to harbour barasingha populations. In each protected area, barasingha was counted through Chapter 3: Population Structure 1$ elephant back, machan and vehicles. Apart from this, random searches were also attempted in different^ grassland patches. Swamp deer was counted mostly from vehicle, machan, occasionally on foot in the study area and less frequently from elephant back. The areas occupied by swamp deer were visited more frequently to assess the population. The grassland area of Kakraha and Satiana were surveyed regularly through fixed routes between dawn and dusk. Time spend in different grassland patches were also recorded. The areas not accessible by road network were visited on foot. All encountered barasingha, were aged and sexed whenever possible and location and activity of each group was also recorded during the time of observation. The term "group" applies to all units of animals seen in one sighting. After the annual grass burning, barasingha tend to congregate in large herds on the newly sprouting grass. So, the total count was conducted after control burning of the grassland. On the basis of age and sex five different categories were distinguished. These were a) adult males, b) adult females, c) yearling males, d) yearling females and e) fawn (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977). To know the characteristics of barasingha group's three types of group were distinguished based on 323 records of groups aggregating 5924 observation of individual barasingha that is, Male groups, female groups, and mixed groups. Single animals were considered as group consisting of one animal. The above terms were defined as follows: Male groups: Any combination of adult male groups with Yeariing except Adult female Female groups: Any combination of adult female group with yearling except adult male Chapter 3; Population Structure 20 Mixed groups: Any combination of adult male and female groups including both yearling and fawn. Analysis The sightings of swamp deer in six different sites of Dudhwa-Kishanpur Protected Areas were summarized separately to know the status and distribution in each surveyed site. One way ANOVA was performed to find out differences in mean group size values of swamp deer in six different sites as well as across different months. The encounter rate was also calculated across different season and sites by the formula: Encounter rate= N/L Where N= number of groups L = total time spend Population structure in different sites of DKCU were summarized separately to know the population structure in each Surveyed site. Results Population Status and Distribution A total of 322 groups of swamp deer were encountered during the study period across different sites. The maximum numbers of groups were observed in the Kakraha area, while the minimum number of groups in Nagra taal. Across different sites in both Dudhwa-Kishanpur Protected Areas, the largest herd of barasingha observed in a single day, was in Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary (Jadi Taal), which comprised of 307 individuals and the lowest herd was observed in Nagra taal, comprising 2 individuals. It seems that Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary (Jadi Taal) harbour Chapter 3: Population Structure _ 21 the highest population of barasingha and Nagra taal in Dudhwa National Park, the lowest population of the species. The population status and distribution in other areas of Dudhwa National Park is given in the table 3.1. The encounter rate of barasingha in Dudhwa National Park was 1.08 groups/hour. The encounter rate of species between different sites and season is given in table 3.2. A comparative account of the swamp deer population between 1972 to 2006 is given in table 3.3 Movement of swamp deer in Satiana It was found that swamp deer in Dudhwa National Park had two distinct ranges. The late winter and summer ranges are within the Park boundary and early winter and monsoon range is outside the Park in nearby agriculture field. Both these ranges are adjacent and distance between them is hardly 1.5 to 2 km. During the onset of monsoon barasingha starts emigrating into adjacent agriculture fields (Schaaf and Singh 1977, Singh 1984, Sankaran 1999, Ahmed 2005, Ahmed & Khan 2006) and present study. Barasingha remains outside the Park for about seven month in the Jheel (pond) and sugar cane field of Ghola and Ghajrola, which is also a marshy habitat. In Satiana area the last large herd of 50 animals was seen on 31 March, after that no swamp deer were seen in this area which suggests that it started its outside movement in June for specific habitat requirement during monsoon and their rutting activity. During mid January the grasses become dry up and grassland burning starts for management practice. New shoots of grass attract the swamp deer and they start arriving in small herds and then congregate in Madriaya grassland of Satiana. Chapter 3: Population Structure - 22 Grouping Pattern Mean group size in tiie Dudhwa National Paric, based on observation of 220 groups, was 21.40 ± 1.71 S.E. with a range of 1-210. Mean group size in the Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary, based on observation of 102 groups, was 11.89 ± 1.72 S.E. with a range of 1- 120.The overall mean group size of swamp deer in DKCU for the whole study was 18.37 ± 1.71 S.E animals/ group. Table 3. 4 shows group size of swamp deer in different sites of Dudhwa-Kishanpur Protected Areas. A mean monthly group of swamp deer is shown in table 3.5. Analysis of variance shows that group size varied significantly across different months (F = 4.80, d.f. = 6, P<0.01). Table 3.6 shows the monthly size of three group types and figure 3.1 the segregation of sexes. Percentage distributions of group of barasingha in Dudhwa Kishanpur Protected Areas are shown in figure 3.2 & 3.3. Sex Ratio Out of a total number of 4710 individuals observed in Dudhwa National Park, 1991 (42.27%) were adult females including yearling females, 1137 (24.14%) were adult males including yearling males, 566 (12.02%) were fawns and 1016 (21.57%) were unclassified. Out of a total number of 1223 individuals observed in Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary, 609 (49.79%) were adult and yearling females, 379 (30.99%) were males including yearlings, 121 (17.0%) were fawns and 116 (9.89%) were unclassified. The male to female ratio based on above data in Dudhwa and Kishanpur Protected Areas was 1 male: 1.8 females and 1 male: 1.6 females respectively. The yearling male to female ratio in DNP was 1:1 while in KWS it was 1 male: 6 females. The proportion of various age-sex categories in different sites of DKCU is given in table 3.7. In all the five sites barasingha population showed biased sex ratio in favors of females while male to female and fawn to females ratios were Chapter 3: Population Structure 23 relatively the same in Dudhwa National Park, but relatively higher in Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary (Jadi taal) (table 3.8). Table; 3.1. Population status and distribution of barasingha in Dudhwa-Kishanpur Conservation Units. Area N Minimum Maximum Satiana 48 1 171 Kakraha 76 1 231 Jadi taar 102 1 307 Bankey taal 89 1 34 Bhadi taal 7 1 61 Nagra taal 3 6 6 -Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary Table: 3.2. Encounter Rate of barasingha in different sites and season in Dudhwa National Park. Season Area Winter 2005-06 Summer 2006 Kakraha Satiana Encounter Rate 0.99groups/h 1.23group/h 1.05group/h 0.76group/h Table: 3.3. Population of barasingha in Dudhwa National Park as reported by Holloway (1973), Schaaf & Singh (1977), V.P.Singh (1984), Sankaran (1990), Ahmed & Khan (2005) and this study 2006 Area 1972 1977 1984 1988: 1989 2005 200e Act Est. Act Est., Act. Est.Act . Est. Act Est. Act. Est., Act.Est . Satiana 627 1200 950 - 932 - 262 400 287 300 93 - 171 213 Kakraha 12a 20 276 - 221 - 150 250 302a 325 246 - 231 256 Bankey taal 40a 50 18 - 173 - 64 100 71 100 19 - 34 42 Nagra taal c 20 B 40 - b - 4a - 3 - 6 Bhadi taal 12a 30 B - 35 - 10 35 18 40 20 - 61 67 Jadi taal^ ------293 - 307 438 Total 691 1320 1244- 1401 486 800 682 765 ^Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary, a. reported (not personally seen by author), b. not counted, c. present Act: Actual Est: Estimate Chapter 3: Population Structure 24 Table: 3.4. Mean group size of barasingha across different sites of Dudhwa-Kishanpur Conservation units. Area N Mean ±S.E Minimum Maximum Satiana 48 25.52 5.36 ] 171 Kakraha 76 31.67 5.52 ] 210 Jadi taar 102 11.99 1.73 120 Bankey taal 89 10.52 0.975 ][ 34 Bhadi taal 7 12.00 5.84 ][ 43 Total 322 18.25 1.71 I 210 Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary Table: 3.5. Comparative data on herd size 1988 & 2006 Months Herd size 1988 Herd size 2006 Average N Average N ±S.E. Minimum Maximum Diff.in% Dec. - - 5.33 9 1.22 ][ 12 - Jan. 10.33 6 11.25 122 1.44 ]1 120 8 Feb 19.78 51 18.64 47 2.78 1I 76 5.8 Mar. 28.52 94 20.48 40 5.70 ][ 202 27.9 April 22.16 75 32.57 65 6.19 ] 210 32 May 17.48 96 31.53 15 8.70 ][ 103 45 June 12.21 38 9.04 24 3.41 ] 61 26 N=Number of herds: Chapters: Population Stntcture 25 Table: 3.6. Monthly group size of barasingha group types in Dudhwa-Kishanpur Conservation Units. Total sample All groups Male groups Female groups Mixed groups Month No grps No Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Dec 9 48 5.33 1-12 2.00 2-2 1.00 1-1 7.17 4-12 Jan 122 1373 11.25 1-120 8.76 1-65 5.75 1-28 21.28 2-120 Feb 47 876 18.64 1-76 3.82 1-10 13.36 2-22 28.42 3-76 Mar 40 819 20.48 1-202 4.42 1-9 9.25 3-21 40.94 2-210 Apr 65 2117 32.57 1-210 11.75 3-17 3.69 1-15 57.41 2-210 May 15 473 31.53 1-103 2.00 2-2 5.75 1-20 44.80 10-103 Jun 24 217 9.04 1-61 7.44 1-13 2.79 1-18 50.00 37-61 Total 322 5923 18.39 1-210 7.44 1-65 5.86 1-28 36.55 2-210 Chapters: Population Structure 26 Males 60.0 55.0 50.0 45.0 H ^ 40.0 I In All Male Groups V 35.0 - I Single •2 30.0 § 25.0 £ 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May jun Females • In All Female Groups • Single With Fawn D Single Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May jun Figure: 3.1. Monthly segregation of barasingha into monosexual groups in Dudhwa-Kishanpur Conservation Units. Chapter 3: Population Structure 27 50 45 40 35 5? 30 2 25 g 20 15 10 5 0 1-5 6-10 11-20 >20 Group size Figure: 3.2. Percentage distribution of groups of barasingha in different group size in Kislianpur Wildlife Sanctuary 50 45 40 35 - b 30 - DO S 25 B U S 20 15 10 5 0 1-5 6-10 11-20 >20 Group size Figure: 3.3. Percentage distribution of groups of barasingha in different group size in Dudhwa National Park Chapter 3: Population Structure 28 Table: 3.7. Proportion of different age and sex categories in five different sites of Dudhwa-Kishanpur Conservation Units Sites AM AF YM YF FN Unidentified Kaicraha 14.09 31.22 7.09 7.47 10.88 29.15 Satiana 15.73 31.62 8.23 9.13 12.96 22.33 Jadi taal'^ 44.64 22.65 8.34 5.15 9.89 9.32 Banicey taal 21.69 39.53^ 9.53 12.18 14.32 2.46 Bhadi taal 19.05 54.76 9.52 9.52 5.96 1.19 ^ Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary Table: 3.8. Number of Adult Males (AM) and Fawn (FN) per 100 females in five different sites of Dudhwa-Kishanpur Conservation Units. Sites N AM FN Kakraha 1829 45.13 34.84 Satiana 954 49.75 40.98 Jadi taal^ 1107 50.73 22.15 Bankey taal 920 54.95 36.23 Bhadi taal 83 34.78 10.86 N= number of animals classified, ^= Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary Chapter 3: Population Structure - 29 Discussion and Conclusion Population status and distribution The only area in Dudhwa National Park, where population of swamp deer declined drastically is Satiana. During the last 34 years the population came down from 1200 in 1972 to 171 in 2006. Periodic data on number of swamp deer available, shows a drop of 82% of the population during last 29 years (1977-2006 in both studies actual count was used). Loses have been severe between 1981 and 1989 (57.1%) and comparatively less between 1972 and 1981 (22.3%) between 1988 and 1889 it was 25 percent. There has been undoubtedly increase in population in Satiana from 93 in 2005 to 171 in 2006. The increase of Satiana population from 93 to 171 may be due to the recent management practice, because in 2005 it's not possible to count all the individuals due to the height of grassland Singh (1984) postulated that one reason for decline for swamp deer populations was high fawn mortality rate caused by the flooding of grassland during monsoon. But data on this study and also from previous studies contradict this. Fawning success rate of 27.58% in 1980, 30.14% in 1988, 30% in 1989, and 37.08% in 2006 indicate normal fawning success as compared to other mono-tocous deer (Martin 1977, Schaaf 1978). Moreover, fawning takes place in ending May and early July. The first fawn seen in this study was on 20 May 2006. Therefore fawns are well able to escape from monsoon flooding. It is widely assumed that that loss of habitat is one of the major causes for decline of many species (Sankaran 1999). The major cause for the decline in deer population all over the world has been over exploitation by hunting (Cowan and Holloway 1973). In India two other deer, hangul {Cervus elaphus hanglu) and Manipur brow antlered deer {Cervus eldi eldi) have been seriously affected by hunting (Kurt 1978, Ranjitsinh 1978). Holloway 1973, Chapter 3: Population Structure 30 Singh 1984 and Sankaran 1999 recognized hunting as the case of the decline of swamp deer population in Satiana. Khan and Khan 1999 also recognized hunting a case for decline of swamp deer population in Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary The hunting of the swamp deer in Satiana may not occur inside the Park boundary after establishment of National Park in 1977. It is fairly common outside the Park in the agriculture field. The swamp deer are therefore vulnerable to hunting when they leave the Park and move towards their monsoon and early winter range. Reason for outside movement The outside side movement of swamp deer in Satiana area of Dudhwa National Park is due to adaptation of specific requirement during different seasons of the year. In Kanha National Park lack of water is the main reason for seasonal movement in different parts of its range (Martin 1977). In Dudhwa this is not the case, because water is available in almost all the areas through out the year. Thus outside movement is due to specific habitat requirement (marshland) in Monsoon and for rutting. In all ranges of swamp deer these marshland habitat (Jheels) are inside the Park boundary except Satiana where these habitat are outside the Park boundary. Although there are several ponds and taals, but these all are quite deep for their wallowing and marshlands are an integeral aspect of wallowing during rutting season. (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977, Singh 1984, Sankaran 1999). In 2005 in all marshes visited, several wallowing holes were seen. Furthermore swamp deer have been using Ghola and Ghajrola taals as rutting ground for several years. So, they traditionally move to these rutting grounds every year. Swamp deer are known to be traditional and have a strong tendency to return to their seasonal ranges over the year (Martin 1977, Schaaf 1978, Ahmed & Khan 2005). Martin (1977) in Kanha Chapter 3: Population Structure _ 31 National Park found that one wallow remains same between 1964-65 and 1972-73. This suggests that strong traditional bond of swamp deer for their rutting ground forces them to move outside the Park boundary during monsoon and early winter. In Jadi taal area jsf Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary the situation is quite different. Although, the population in this area too has two distinct ranges. During winter and summer they remain in the Jadi taal but in monsoon population was not seen in this area. It is not clear where this populations goes during monsoon. Only a long term study using radio collaring technique will help to understand the seasonal migration pattern of swamp deer in this area. Conclusion Satiana area of Dudhwa National Park is the only area, where population declined drastically. In other areas population either remained constant or increased. The decline of Satiana population is due to their traditional movement outside the Park boundary into the agriculture field where they are more vulnerable to poaching by farmers. One basic requirement for survival of any species is safe breeding grounds (Sankaran 1999). At Satiana v/here large herds were seen previously, such breeding ground lie outside the Park boundary. Intensive patrolling of Ghola and Ghajrola taal which are outside the Park during monsoon and early winter is the immediate step to protect this endangered species. Steps should also be taken to relocate the Ghola and Ghajrola village. So that swamp deer of Satiana moves freely to its seasonal ranges. Chapter 3: Population Structure . 32 Steps should also be taken to create some artificial taals inside the Satiana grassland as an alternaive so that swamp deer find some suitable habitat inside the Park for their breeding and aquatic vegetation during monsoon. Intensive patrolling is also needed in Madraiya grassland of Satiana where the large herd of swamp deer were seen in order to restrict the regular movement of villagers for grass cutting in order to save this north Indian sw^mp deer from the verge of extinction. In Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary (Jadi taal) where the largest population of swamp deer was reported, immediate step would be to construct the bandh on Sarda river which is hardly 10m away from Jadi taal to save the area from monsoon flooding. Grouping Pattern There are two main hypotheses regarding the herding behavior of the ungulates. The first suggests that when in herds the animals can prevent or avoid the predation better than when alone (Hamilton 1971). This could be done by a variety of methods including improved predator detection, active group defence and predator confusion. The other hypothesis links the animal social organization with the distribution and availability of its food supply (Altman 1952, Lowe 1966, Jarman 1974). The small species, it is suggested, have high nutritional requirements and has to feed in a highly selective way, they therefore cannot live in large groups. Larger species can afford to be less selective and can therefore live in larger groups (Mishra 1982). In species, which exhibit flexible social system, it is suggested that they will form large groups when there is abundance of high quality forage but will be forced into smaller groups when food supply is less abundant and dispersed in distribution. Chapter 3: Population Structure 33 Deer were also generally assumed to have reached firm sociality. This idea apparently originated from the descriptions given by Darling (1937) for Red deer in Scotland. However recent studies revealed that grouping is largely dependent upon environment and changes in physiological functions. Schaller (1967) and Martin (1977) stated that barasingha in Kanha National Park tend to break up and reassemble in different groups. During this study it was observed that barasingha in DKCU occasionally changed their composition several times a day. Group's individual often scattered while grazing, which sometimes led to the breakup of group. Single animal or small grazing parties met with different animals on grazing grounds or shady resting locations to form larger groups. The overall mean group size in DKCU was 18.25 which is similar to that reported by Sankaran in 1990, but slightly lesser than that reported by Singh in 1984 in DNP. The barasingha in DKCU shows monthly variation in-group size. It was highest in the month of April and lowest in December. Barasingha forms larger groups after advancement of summer, when grasslands of DNP were burned for management practices. Monthly variation in group size of barasingha was also reported from other studies (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977, Khan & Khan 1999). Species which exhibit open membership social structure may show temporal variation in-group size not only on seasonal bases but also during different time of the day (Sharatchandra and Gadgil 1975, Khan et a/. 1995). Different group size categories shows that all male groups were constantly larger than female groups. Highest mean group size was attained by mixed groups. After the rutting the group tend to segregate into their own groups. The month thereafter, from December onwards brought a progressive segregation of barasingha into groups of their own sex accordingly with an Chapter 3: Population Structure . S4 increase of the mean group size of the all male and female groups. After the onset of the monsoon barasingha congregate on the large meadow new sprout of which brought the highest mean group size (without regards to composition 39.57). The situation drastically changed by the beginning of fawning period in May - June. Highest percentage of singles were seen in these months. Maximum singles females in these months, indicating separation for parturition. Highly significant difference in-group sizes were reported in habitat types also (tall and short grassland). It forms larger groups in open areas (short grassland) than that in tall grassland. Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain this very pronounced inverse relationship between group sizes and cover density. By far the strongest and most widely accepted is that it is an adaptation among ungulate for predator avoidance (Dasmann and Taber 1956, Eisenberg 1966, McCullough 1969, Hamilton 1971, Estes 1974). The predator avoidance hypotheses holds that an animal relatively large as most ungulates are more likely to avoid detection by a predator in dense cover when it is alone or in small group. In dence cover a single animal can be effectively concealed, where as this concealing effect is lost with a large group or herd. In open habitat reverse is true. Most ungulate are too large to be able to feed in the open and be concealed from potential predators at the same time. For that reason, species which normally utilize open grassland habitat typically occur in large groups or herds (Hirth 1977). In a large group, the collective senses of many animals can be used to detect approaching predators, and the probability that a given animal will be selected by a predator is reduced by a factor roughly equal to the number of animals in the group. Observation of barasingha in this study conformed to the group size pattern predicted in this hypothesis. In dense cover (tall grassland) animals accurred in small groups and in large Chapter 3: Population Structure - 35 open areas (short grassland especially after control burning) with no cover were predominantly in large groups. Two other explanations that might link with ungulate group size with habitat type are: The availability of food. The density of food resources alone may well explain the prevalence of small groups of ungulate in woodland habitat. Because of restricted sunlight at the forest floor, vegetation may be too sparsely distributed to support large feeding groups. In open fields or grasslands, all incoming solar energy strikes at the ground level and food resource may be dense enough to support large feeding groups of ungulate, However greater density of available food alone does not explain larger group size among openland ungulates because large group size means increased feeding competition for members of groups. On the other hand, several authors (Shiflet & Heady 1971, Krebs et al. 1972, Teer 1972, Bell 1973) have suggested some advantage to individual animals of feeding in large groups that may outweigh that competitive disadvantage. Intensive grazing by large groups of ungulates would clearly identify those areas that have been fed upon and those that had not. That would reduce search time spent covering areas that had been grazed earlier. In summary, a definite pattern-relating group size to habitat type exists commonly among ungulates. This relationship appears to have evolved (1) as a means of avoiding predation and (2) perhaps also as a means of optimizing feeding efficiency and forage production. In the absence of experiments designed to test the significance of these factors, it is difficult to assess which factor has been more significant in shaping ungulate social organization. In terms of barasingha specifically I feel that, because they are not migratory, probably feeding repeatedly on the same area and high predator pressure as evident from scat analysis data. Chapter 3: Population Structure 36 predator avoidance has been a far more important influence on group size than interaction with plant growth. Jungius (1971) noted the same effect with reedbuck Redunca arundinum in Kruger National Park, South Africa. That species normally occupies tall grass savanna areas with dense cover and accurs solitarily or in small mother young groups. During dry season the tall grass cover frequently burns, and reedbuck are forced to feed in the open in large groups. Age and Sex Ratio Age composition although often difficult to determine accurately in field is generally a reflection of the status of species in terms of its reproductive potential. A high percentage of young as compared to adults generally indicate a growing and thriving population. In contrast a small population of young usually indicates a low reproductive or senile group. The sex ratio in Dudhwa-Kishanpur Conservation Units was 45 adult males to 100 females in DNP and 50 Adult males to 100 females in KWS. In both study areas adult sex ratio biased in favors of females. Other studies have also reported sex ratio in favors of female for this species. Schaller 1967, Singh 1984 and Sankaran 1990 in Dudhwa, Schaller 1967 and Martin 1977 in Kanha National Park and Khan and Khan 1999 in Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary. However the sex ratio is 1:1 among yearlings in DNP, which points parity among sexes at birth. But sex ratio is biased in favors of females in KWS. Martin (1977) also found equal sex ratio among yearlings in Kanha National Park. The biased sex ratio of females were also reported from other species of ungulate. Khan et a/. 1995 found biased sex ratio for chital, sambar and Nilgai in Gir. There are several factors, which attributes disparity in adult sex ratio such as misclassification of individuals (Sharatchandra and Gadgil 1975 for chital) unequal probability of observation of adults in different season (Martin 1977 for barasingha) higher mortality of male fawns (Schaller 1967) and selective Chapter 3: Population Sttvcture 3 7 predation on males (Schaller 1967, Berwick 1974, Johnsingh 1983). In South Asian ungulates solitary habits, proneness to injuries from intra-specific aggression, lack of alertness during rut and dispersal behavior have also been considered some of the factors which make males more vulnerable to predation (Karanth and Sunquist 1992, Khan et al. 1995). However under the present study considering the month of March, April and May, when large herd forming occurred after rut and control burning of grassland the entire population congregate at one place, a sex ratio of 45 adult male to 100 female in DNP and 50 adult male to 100 female in KWS, results which give approximate real sex ratio. Chapter 3: Population Structure _ 38 CHAPTER 4 HABITAT UTILIZATION Introduction Management strategies in protected areas must be based on an understanding of the functional relationship between habitat conditions, animal populations and dynamics of those populations. The importance of determining preferences or avoidance of given habitat or plant species in terms of its availability has long been recognized (Glading et al. 1940, Bellrose and Anderson 1943, Neu et al. 1974). Herbivores are known to favor habitat types or vegetation communities where nutrient intake could be maximized (Westoby 1974). Seasonal movements of large herbivores between different habitat types have also been well established (Bell 1971, McNaughton 1987). Mammals especially the gregarious ones often respond to climatic changes and the resultant changes in the habitat. Present study on habitat use of swamp deer in Dudwa National Park was carried by direct and indirect methods. Both techniques have been used extensively by various workers (e.g. Eberhardt and Vanetten 1956, Rogers et al. 1958, Martinka 1968, Short etal. 1977, Green 1985, Khan 1993) to investigate the habitat use of different ungulate species in India and outside. The studies carried out so far provide substantial evidence that both approaches are equally useful in exploring ungulate -habitat relationship provided a good sampling design is used and observer's errors are reduced. Methodology Two approaches have so for been used for quantification of habitat utilization. The first approach was based on the direct sighting, while the second was based on indirect evidences e.g. pellet groups. Data on habitat utilization of swamp deer were collected Chapter 4: Habitat Utilization j^ by both direct and indirect methods. Since the data based on direct sighting reflect the habitat use only at the time of observation and thus a possible source of error may occur due to chance events, past disturbance or immediate presence of the observer. Therefore, in order to minimize this bias, data on habitat utilization of the swamp deer was also collected by indirect method. Whenever a group of barasingha was encountered, we used to go to the exact location and 10m circular plots were laid at the location of sighting. Tree species and their individuals were counted in 10m radius circular plot for tree density. Shrub species and their individual were counted in 5 m radius circular plots. Shrub height was measured using a measuring tape and shrub cover was estimated by ocular estimation. The grass and herb composition was quantified by laying four quadrates of 0.50 x 0.50m dimension at four different locations around the plot and all grass and herb species and their individual were counted. To know the grass and herb composition on each plot, all herbs and grasses or grass like plant species were counted in each plot to know the grass frequency, density, richness and diversity in each plot. Grass cover was estimated visually and ranked them in an ascending order. Nil = 0, Low = 1, Medium = 2, High = 3 The ground cover was estimated by point intercept method (Canfield 1941). A meter tape was laid on the ground in four directions and intercepting materials (grass, herb, litter, bare ground, sand) was recorded at 5 cm interval. Chapter 4: Habitat Utilization 4Q Data on disturbance factors such as grass cutting by local people distance from metalled and unmetalled road and distance from habitation and number of cattfe dung piles were counted in 10 m radius circular plot. Fire data was recorded in terms of presence/absence of fire at each sampling plot. To determine habitat utilization pattern, direct animal sighting plots (10 m radius) were compared with random circular plots of same radius (10 m) laid in different grassland patches of the study area after completion of each seasons. The pellet group method, reviewed by Neff (1968), Overton (1971), Putman (1984) has been used extensively for finding out habitat use, abundance and population size estimation of a number of ungulates species. Five permanent transects of one km each were established in different grassland patches based on grassland type (tall and small). To sample the pellet groups, permanent circular plots of 10 m radius were established at 50 m distance interval on all transects. These plots were cleared before onset of each season. Pellet groups were counted at the end of each season. A total of 100 plots were established along the transects. Data on habitat parameters as well as various disturbance attributes such as grass cutting by local people, distance from metalled and unmetalled, cattle dung piles were also recorded at each sampling plot following the same strategy used for direct sightings. Pellet group count method was used as an indirect method for assessing habitat use of barasingha. The pellet groups of barasingha can be distinguished from that of other ungulate species such as hog deer (Axis porcinus) and chital {Axis axis) on the basis of size and shape. The pellet groups were counted on each plot to know whether the animals used the plot or not. Only fresh droppings were recorded. The pellets, which Chapter 4: Habitat Utilization ^-f were either partially disintegrated or completely disintegrated, were not included in the sample to avoid error. Mean grass height was also measured randomly in each plot. Data on various disturbance factors such as fire, cattle dung and grass cutting by local people were also collected at each plot. Forage Preference Forage preference was determined by a careful examination of feeding sites (Martin 1977). After a barasingha or group of barasingha left the feeding site and moved out, feeding site was inspected and grasses consumed by group were recorded Data Analysis The number of pellet groups of swamp deer in each sampled plot was used to calculate pellet group density (pellet group/ha) in each plot using following formula: Noof pellet groups Pellet group density = X 10,000 Area of each plot These values were pooled together to calculate mean pellet group density for swamp ddiet group density was converted into animal density (individuals/km^^ by dividing the total no of pellet groups recorded on a transact with the mean defecation rate and number of days over which pellet groups were accumulated following Mayle et al. 1996). Observed pellet group density per time period Animal density = Defecation rate X time period Chapter 4: Habitat Utilization ^2 In absence of data on defecation rates of barasingha, chital and hog deer an average value of 13.5 pellet groups per day was used in density estimation considering the range of defecation rate reported in the literature varies from 12 to 15 pellet groups/day/deer (Neff 1968). To find out the correlation between pellet group densities of swamp deer with the habitat parameters, Pearson's -product movement correlation coefficient was performed. Density of grasses was calculated for each sampling plot, by using the Barnsit^(D) = number of individuals/area Species diversity and richness of grasses for each plot were calculated by using Shannon Weiner Index (H') for species diversity and Margelef s Index (Rl) for species richness by using the formula given below. H') = -Zpi X log pi and (RF) = s-1/ In N. Diversity and richness was calculated using SPECDIVERS; a DOS-based modified module of STATISTICAL ECOLOGY. Where, pi = proportion of ith species in sample and S = number of species in sample fehd= number of individuals. To understand habitat use of swamp deer, data were subjected to Principal Component Analysis (PCA). All the quantitative data in the data matrix were transformed using log and Arcsine transformation function to improve normalcy in the data. Factor analysis was used to reduce the dimensionality of habitat variables. The first two factors which explained maximum variation in the data set were used for interpretation. All the statistical tests were performed using statistical package SPSS (Norusis 1990) and statistical book Zar (1984). chapter 4: Habitat Utilization 4^ RESULTS Table 4.1 shows the pellet group density of different species in different grassland types (tall and short). Table 4.2 shows pellet group density in summer. Estimation of animal density from pellet group density Table 4.3 provides densities of barasingha, Chital and hog deer which are estimated using pellet group data collected in DNP during 2006. The density of barasingha was found (1.07 individuals/km^). While the density of chital and hog deer was found to be (7.20 and 3.09 individuals/km^) respectively. The results of Pearson Correlation Coefficient showed statistically significant positive correlation with pellet group density of barasingha with grass diversity (r = .381, P >0.05) and distance from water (r = 340, P> 0.05). This suggests that barasingha used areas with higher grass diversity and also which are close to water. The pellet group density showed negative correlation with tree density (r = 506, P > 0.01) and distance from unmettaled road (r = 329, P> 0.05) (table 4.4). This suggests that barasingha avoided areas with higher tree density and which are close to unmettaled road. Barasingha pellet groups were present in burnt as well as unburnt areas. The pellet group density of barasingha was maximum in burnt plots (222.57 pellet groups/ha) and minimum in unburnt plots (89.75 pellets groups/ha). There was significant difference between burnt and unburnt plots (F = 4.727, P> 0.05). The pellet group is an indicator of the presence of animal in any vegetation types. The pellet group density of barasingha showed positive correlation with grass diversity and Chapter 4: Habitat Utilization 44 distance from water. Laurie (1978) also found that similar phenomenon in {Rhinoceros unicornis). He foun'd that Rhinoceros unicornis reached highest densities in areas supporting the highest grass diversity. The barasingha pellet group densities were higher in burnt plots as compared to unburnt plots. It is expected that since fire leads to fresh grass growth. The tender shoots of grasses are high in nutrition and barasingha a grazer utilizes these tender shoots Comparison between animal and random plots of barasingha. The principal Component Analysis on the habitat parameters of random and animal plots extracted five components accounting for the cumulative variance of 73.83% table 4.5. The first two factors accounted for 49.46% of variation in the data set. The first component was highly positively correlated with grass diversity, grass richness, herb density, herb cover and fire and negatively correlated with shrub height, shrub cover, shrub richness, shrub diversity, shrub density and grass density. The second component was positively correlated herb density, herb cover, herb height and negatively correlated with fire and bare ground. Figure 4.1 shows the distribution of random and animal plots in relation to first and second component. Factor governing habitat use of chital The principal component analysis on presence and absence plots of chital extracted six components showing the cumulative variance of 69.27% (table 4.6). The first two factors accounted for 40.93% of variance in the data sets. Chapter 4: Habitat Utilization 45 The first component was highly positively correlated with shrub cover, tree cover, shrub height and grass height and negatively correlated with grass density, distance from habitation, "fire and bare ground. The second component was positively correlated with shrub density, shrub cover and shrub richness and negatively correlated with herb, herb diversity, and grass richness. Figure 4.4 shows the distribution of utilized and available plots in relation to first and second component. Factor governing habitat use of hog deer The Principal Component Analysis on the presence and absence plots of hog deer extracted six components showing the cumulative variance of 72.31% (table 4.7). The first two factors accounted for 44.73?'o of variance in the data sets. The first component was highly positively correlated with shrub cover, tree cover, tree height and herb density and negatively correlated with fire, grass density and bare ground. The second component was positively correlated with herb density, grass richness, herb height, herb cover and grass diversity and negatively correlated with shrub richness, Shrub cover, shrub height and shrub diversity. Figure 4.6 shows the distribution of utilized and available plots in relation to first and second component. Chapter 4: Habitat Utilization '^^ Table: 4.1. Overall mean Pellet group density (pellet group/ha) of species found in five different transects in Dudhwa National Park. Species Short Short Tall Short Tall Overall grasslan grassland grassland grassland grassland Barasingha 1150 120 170 100 90 126 ChJtal 230 320 250 90 110 200 Hog deer 210 260 250 20 170 182 Nilgai 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hispid hare 70 110 300 0 50 106 Table: 4.2. Mean pellet group density (pellet group/ha) of species found in summer in five different transects in Dudhwa National Park Species Short Short Tall Short Tall Overall grassland grassland grassland grassland grassland Barasingha 40 30 50 20 50 38 Chital 160 180 140 630 170 256 Hog deer 130 170 70 90 90 110 Nilgai 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hispid 180 120 10 10 120 88 hare Table: 4.3. Mean density (individuals/km^^ of different deer species in Dudhwa National Park. Barasingha Chital Hog deer 1.06 7.16 3.08 Chapter 4: Habitat Utilization 47 Table: 4.4. Correlation between pellet group densities of three major ungulates species with habitat variables in Dudhwa National Park. Habitat variables BARASINGHA CHITAL HOG DEER Grass density -.189 .352 .017 Grass diversity .381* -.209 .184 Grass richness .220 -.027 .115 Herb density .094 -.131 .024 Herb diversity -.037 -.043 .107 Herb richness -.159 -.052 .021 Shrub density -.031 .295* -.308 Shrub diverdity .087 .232 -.247 Shrub richness .115 .231 -.238 Tree density -.506** -.207 0 Mayari density -.198 .310* -.073 Kus density -.059 -.060 -.039 Kans density -.055 .193 -.055 Khus density -.284 .215 -.126 DMR .112 .340* -.146 DUR -.329* .490** -.224 DW .340* .258 .087 DH -.097 .029 -.028 CD piles -.120 .514* -.171 Shrub height -.152 .132 -.138 Grass height -.013 .024 -.397** herb cover .185 -.051 .084 Fire .110 .255 0 bare ground .041 .096 .061 Litter -.106 -.198 .075 Herb -.126 -.107 .118 Grass -.161 .398** -.099 Pellet density bara 1 -.191* .364** DMR: distance from metalled road DUR: distance from unmettaled road DW: distance from water DH: distance from habitation CD PILES: cattle dung piles Significance level. ** = 0.01 *=0.05 Chapter 4: Habitat Utilization 48 Table: 4.5. Principal Component Analysis of animal and random plots of barasingha in Dudhwa in 2006. Variables PCI PCll Grass density -.617 --009 Grass diversity .880 --05 Grass richness .774 .02 Herb density .616 .644 Herb diversity .511 .592 Herb richness .444 .505 Shrub density -.682 .353 Shrub diversity -.717 .404 Shrub richness -.766 .409 Tree density .207 .193 Distance from habitation .277 .131 Tree cover .244 .246 Tree height .240 .240 Shrub cover -.845 .418 Shrub height -.846 .393 Grass cover -.135 .371 Grass height .338 .441 Herb cover .604 .622 Herb height .552 .569 Fire .594 -.441 Bare ground .284 -.337 % of variance 33.61 15.85 Cumulative % 15.85 49.46 Chapter 4: Habitat Utilization 4^ Figure: 4.1. Distribution of animal and random of barasingha plots in Dudhwa National Park. L1 X X D a "o o a >»< , ^ a o a •tl X o a D « Barasihgfta X a X o X ° Random Plots i ii w- '^ Animal plots Figure: 4.2. Ordination of animal and random plots of barasingha in Dudhwa National Park 1,0 h richtran O gh_tran n ~y G dun Iran gctran D a D t dentin ^h_tran a g den (ran g rich tran 0.0 a °fl div fran bg_tran D fire tran -5 • -1.0 0.0 Chapter 4: Habitat Utilization SO Table: 4.6. Principal Component Analysis of presence and absence plots of chital in Dudhwa in 2006. Variables PCI PCll Grass density -.389 215 Grass diversity .348 -.345 Grass richness .324 -.427 Herb density .598 -.596 Herb diversity .567 -.479 Herb richness .552 -.490 Shrub density .499 .220 Shrub diversity .521 .532 Shrub richness .504 .513 Tree density .282 .242 Distance from habitation -.369 .431 Tree cover .699 .237 Tree height .686 .208 Shrub cover .714 .519 Shrub height .697 .498 Grass cover .180 .109 Grass height .642 -.05 Herb cover .563 -.484 Herb height .380 -.405 Fire -.471 -.09 Bare ground -.212 -.259 % of variance 26.08 14.84 Cumulative % 26.08 40.93 Chapter 4: Hab'tat Utilization 5 / Figure: 4.3. Ordination of animal and random plots of chital in Dudhwa National Park shih^m sftc^w^ dh tran a g den Iran tden^tran s den tran \^Kf a ijc_tran ^ ^U trori fire tran a a bg_tran gdivtran a ° hWli h den tran a • Figure: 4.4. Distribution of animal and random plots of chital in Dudhwa National Park. } • a a Q Dtc ° a a a • 0 Q a t» o n 1 • DO O tfa ft o a aa*D° a °° u D • a^^^ a • u au a 0 < a t 'i ^ D Q D cb a D a D D • -1. Q aQ -2 1 a o a -3 1 Chital -4 ' ° Presence D -5 ° Absence • Chapter 4: Habitat Utilization 52 Table: 4.7. Principal Component Analysis of animal and random plots of hog deer in Dudhwa in 2006. Variables PCI PCll Grass density -.344 -.222 Grass diversity .341 .443 Grass richness .305 .506 Herb density .657 .538 Herb diversity .576 .487 Herb richness .567 .452 Shrub density .559 .277 Shrub diversity .591 -.475 Shrub richness .486 -.503 Tree density .604 -.236 Distance from habitation -.381 -.402 Tree cover .739 .240 Tree height .722 .218 Shrub cover .776 -.488 Shrub height .713 -.457 Grass cover .205 .03 Grass height .689 .06 Herb cover .593 .468 Herb height .374 .479 Fire .534 .06 Bare ground -.214 .194 % of variance 30.17 14.55 Cumulative % 30.17 44.73 Chapter 4: Habitat Utilization 53 Figure: 4.5. Ordination of presence and absence plots of hog deer in Dudhwa National Park , h den iran bg_lran d G re (rail gh Iran Q gc_[ran "^ O g den Iran a s acn t[jn ^ n dh_lran a a ° D Figure: 4.6. Distribution of presence and absence plots of hog deer in Dudhwa Park. National X X X <<>< X oO^oa X ° D X D DX '^ X3 • X D X X dff o Hog Deer ° Animals Plots ^ Absence Plots Chapter 4: Habitat Utilization 54 Table: 4.8. Grasses or grass like plant species consumed by barasingha in Dudhwa National Park. Scientific name Local name Intake Cynodon dactylon Doob Car ex spp Badai ++ Desmostachya bipmnata Kus + Dicanlhium arnilatum Basi + Dendrocalamus striclus Bans + Enuochloa Bakas -H- Imperata cylindrical Mayari +++ Phragmiles karka Narkul or nar + Saccharum munja Munj Saccharum spontaneum Kans Saccharum spontaneum Retwa Selerostachya fusca Tawar Saccharum narenga Khus Vitivena zizanioides Apluda mutica Sindhur Bothriochloa odorata Kumeria Heteropogon contortus Potamogeton pectinatus Hydnlla verticillata Intake: high medium ++ low + very low or none - Chapter 4 Habitat Utdizauon 55 Discussion The herbivore diet is influenced by several factors including anatomical and physiological characteristic of animals, community structure of plants, and its structure and chemical constituents (Owen-smith 1982). The Spearman Rank Correlation test revealed that barasingha and hog deer pellets commonly occur together. Correlation coefficient shows a significant positive correlation between the occurrence of barasingha and hog deer pellets (table 4.4). Yet, there is significant negative correlation between the occurrences of barasingha and chital pellets. The fact that the occurrence of barasingha and hog deer pellets is correlated suggests two things. The dispersion of barasingha and hog deer among the intensive study area meadows tends to be proportional. Within meadows the same area are subject to heavy use by both species. Chital though appear to use the meadows of the intensive study area according to a different pattern. These findings are supported by direct observation of deer. Both barasingha and hog deer seems to be regularly congregate in the study area. Common utilization of grassland by hog deer and barasingha does not mean that the hog deer has the same utilization patterns as the barasingha. Barasingha avoid direct competition with other deer species of study area by grazing on some aquatic vegetation, which was high In nutrient quality through out the year. Chital on the other hand has a wider range of food preferences: also browse plays an important role in the ecology of this species (Schaller 1967). The overlap of the utilization patterns of these two species is promoted Chapter 4: Habitat Utihzatton c^ by the lack of interspecific avoidance. Various authors have reported an overlap in food habits of sympatric deer species. Kramer (1973) suspected competitive exploitation to be the only mechanism of competition in sympatric whitetailed deer {Odocoileus virginianus) and mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus) population with densities below the maximum. Martinka (1968), Kamps (1969) and Martin (1977) expected competition to occur between these species in the case of scarcity of certain forage plants in winter, when other forage is short. The situation however is comparable to the food shortage in Dudhwa after extensive burning has taken place. The assumption that competitive exploitation of certain grass species by hog deer and barasingha arise here during dry season after control burning. Although every grass species would be eaten by barasingha on certain occasions, however the dominance of species and its distribution pattern in a certain locality has a great deal to do its preference rating (Martin 1977). In Dudhwa a total of 19 species of grass and aquatic vegetation were consumed by barasingha during the entire study period. In terrestrial vegetation species like Impereta cylendrica, Cynodon dactylon, hothrriochloi odorata (table 4.8) form major portion of their diets after control burning of grassland. In aquatic vegetation Potamogaton pectinatiis and Hydrilla verticillata form major portions. As compared with terrestrial grasses aquatic plants has higher Na as terrestrial grasses (Moe 1993). In the study area natural salt licks containing high levels of Na have been found in Sal forest in the Park. Barasingha was never recorded at these salt licks during the entire study period. The most common ungulate in Dudhwa, the chital Axis axis was frequently observed at these licks, but was never been reported feeding on aquatic vegetation (Dinerstein 1979b, Moe 1994). chapter 4: Habitat Utilization 57 Therefore the protection of areas carrying aquatic vegetation Like Badi taal, jadhi taal, Kakraha taal, Bankey taal will be essential for the long term conservation of the barasingha and also for other endangered species like the greater one horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis which also feed on aquatic vegetation. (Laurie 1982). Further study with a more comprehensive study of aquatic plants needed to be done on the seasonal use of aquatic plants by barasingha. Kumar et al. (2002) did a study on effect of different grassland management practice in Terai Conservation Area. But a more comprehensive study would be needed to know the effect of siltation and grass management practice on grassland composition, nutrient quality before and after these practices for long term conservation of barasingha in Dudhwa National Park. Chapter 4: Habitat Utilization 58 CHAPTER 5 ACTIVITY PATTERN AND TIME BUDGET Introduction The most obvious factors governing activity patterns in deer are determined by the animals response to the environmental factors, however, it depends upon the level of perceptibility or tolerance of species towards these factors (Martin 1977). Deer allocate their time and use available habitats to satisfy basic requirements for food, rumination, movement, social interaction and rest. The resulting time budget and habitat use pattern may vary with age, sex, time of day, season and weather conditions. Estimates of an animal's resource needs through the annual cycle, require an understanding of how these factors affect pattern of activity and habitat use. Single estimates and short term observations of deer behavior fail to convey the dynamic nature of these patterns Information on activity pattern of the animals also helps in understanding foraging and survival strategies in their habitat. These combined with energetic cost of various activities can provide daily, seasonal and annual energy expenditure estimates for each species. Activity pattern and time budget are expected to differ according to the age and sex of the animal. Abiotic factors are also considered to have great influence on these. Methodology The data on activity pattern and time budget were collected through instantaneous scan sampling (Altman 1974). The animals were observed in groups and the observation was taken after every 5 minutes. Thus twelve samples were taken in an hour. Observations was initiated with the sighting of the herd and lasted till sunlight-favored visibility or the animal Chapter 5: Activity Pattern and Time Budget 59 left the location due to some reason. Whenever the animals were found to be disturbed by the observer, the sampling was terminated and was restarted after the animals settled. The animals in the group were classified into different age and sex categories as mentioned in previous chapter. Activity of the animals were classified as follows 1. Feeding: Feeding on different food species 2. Walking: Walking at a steady pace or movements from one location to another while feeding or movements fi-om one place to another after resting 3. Resting: The animal was considered to be resting while standing still or lying v^ith intermittent ruminating. 4. Social behavior: Licking on individual of its group members, nursing of fawn and playing was included in social behavior. 5. Others: Alertness, aggressiveness, urination, defecation, vocalization and rubbing were included. Analysis Analysis has been done for different age and sex categories and for different seasons. The percentage frequency of occurrence of each activity was estimated firom the percentage of samples in which a given activity was recorded. The frequency of an activity refers to the number of occurrence of a particular activity during the observed period. Percentage frequency of activity /= Number of occurrence of ith activity Total occurrence of all activity Chapter 5: Activity Pattern and Time Budget • 60 Chi Square test (x^) was carried out to find the difference in frequency distribution of different activities in the time budget between different age and sex categories and between seasons (2 X 5 contingency table). Time budget for each activity by different age and sex categories was also subject to X^ test. Results The numbers of scan were converted into hours by considering 12-scan hour. The hours of observation were more for adult female and less for other categories. This is due to the higher percentage of adult female and lower percentage of other categories. During winter the period of observation was shorter as compared to summer. This is due to extensive fog in grassland, which restricts the visibility. Seasonal variation in activity pattern Diurnal activity pattern of barasingha in winter and simimer seasons is illustrated in figure 4.1 & 4.2. There was marked reduction in resting of barasingha in winter as compared to simimer. Feeding activity prolonged through out the day without any interruption in both season. The occurrence of feeding in winter was high between 11:00 to 12:00 hours and in summer it was high between 13:00 to 14:00 hours. Walking and social behavior followed almost similar pattern in both the seasons. Activity pattern of different age and sex categories. Adult male Chapter S: Activity Pattern and Time Budget " Results on diurnal activity pattern of adult male is given in figure 4.3 & 4.4. Resting in winter shows polymodal pattern with peaks occurring at different hours of the day and continued throughout without any break. In contrast a clear break up in resting was observed from 12:00 to 14:00 hours during summer season. In winter-feeding was peak in 12:00 to 13:00 hours when about 60% of the animal was active. In summer feeding reached highest in 12:00 to 14:00 when almost all animals were seen to be active. The duration of walking was highest in summer as compared to winter. Social activities in winter continue through out the day, but in summer it was broken down when feeding seemed to be priority. Adult female Results on seasonal analysis on diurnal activity pattern of adult fem.ales are given figure 4.5 & 4.6. Feeding in winter and- summer seasons shows a polymodal pattern with peaks occurring at different hours of the day without break. However feeding in winter season peaks during 11:00 to 12:00 hours and in summer it peaks during 13:00 to 14:00 hours. Resting was higher in winter season as compared to summer. In winter resting continued throughout the day, but a clear breakup was observed in summer during 13:00 to 1400 hours. Walking in summer continued almost throughout the day, considerable decrease in walking was observed in winter season. Social activities were observed both during resting and feeding. Yearling male Seasonal diurnal activity pattern of the yearling male barasingha is given figure 4.7 & 4.8. Feeding and resting was observed to occur through out the day during winter season with peaks of feeding occurring between 11:00 to 12:00 hours. In summer feeding was highest Chapter S: Activity Pattern and Time Budget (52 between 13:00 to 15:00 hours when about 95% of animals were active. Social activities were more in winter and peaked with fall in feeding. Yearling female Seasonal distribution of activity pattern of yearling female are given in figure 4.9 & 4.10. Feeding continues through out the day iu both the seasons with peaks occurring during afternoon in summer and around 13:00 to 15:00 hours in winter. Walking peaks with peak in feeding in both seasons Fawn The seasonal distribution of activity of the fawn is shown in figure 4.11 & 4.12. Feeding activity was observed slightly more in summer as compared to winter. Social behavior was observed more during morning and evening in both seasons Chapter 5: Activity Pattern and Time Budget (53 Figure: 5.1.Diurnal activity pattern of barasingha in winter in Dudhwa National Park. D Others • Social • Walking Grazing • Resting 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-li Figure: 5.2. Diurnal activity pattern of barasingha in summer in Dudhwa National Park. D Others • Social • Walking n Grazing • Resting -9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18 Chapter J: Activity Pattern and Time Budget 64 Figure: 5.3. Diumal activity pattern of adult male winter in Dudhwa National Park n Others • social • Walking • Grazing • Resting 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18 Figure: 5.4. Diumal activity pattern of adult male in summer in Dudhwa National Park D Others • social • Walking S Grazing • Resting 9 9-10 lO-U 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18 Chapter !: Activity Pattern and Time Budget 65 Figure: 5.5. Diurnal Activity pattern of adult female in winter in Dudhwa National Park D Others • social • Walking D Grazing • Resting 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-U Figure: 5.6. Diurnal Activity pattern of adult female in summer in Dudhwa National Park n Others • social • Walking D Grazing • Resting 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18 Chapter J: Activity Pattern and Time Budget 66 Figure: 5.7. Diurnal Activity pattern of yearling male in winter in Dudhwa National Park D Others • social • Walking n Grazing • Resting 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-li Figure: 5.8. Diurnal Activity pattern of yearling male in summer in Dudhwa National Park D Others • social • Walking n Grazing • Resting 9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18 Chapter }; Activity Pattern and Time Budget 67 Figure: 5.9. Diurnal Activity pattern of yearling female in winter in Dudhwa National Park O Others • social • Walking D Grazing • Resting 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-U Figure: 5.10. Diurnal Activity pattern of yearling female in summer in Dudhwa National Park 100 90 ] 80 70 n others 60 • social 50 • Walking 40 H Grazing • Resting 30 20 10 0 C^ 6-7 7-8 -9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-U Chapter J: Actwity Pattern and Time Budget 68 Figure: 5.11. Diurnal Activity pattern of fawn in winter in Dudhwa National Park a Others • social • Walking • Grazing • Resting 9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-li Figure: 5.12. Diurnal Activity pattern of fawn in summer in Dudhwa National Park D Others • social • Walking D Grazing • Resting 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 1 1-12 12-13 13-14 14-1 5 15-16 16-1 7 1 7-1S Chapter}: Activity Pattern and Time Budget 69 Time budget In total number of observation made during the two seasons in Dudhwa National Park (taking all age and sex categories together). Resting accounted for 63.77% feeding 24.70%. Percentage of time spends on movement and social activities were 5.25% and 1.92% respectively. About 3.89% of the time spends for other activities (figure 5.13). Figure 5.14 & 5.15 gives the activity budget of barasingha in winter and summer. In all seasons resting was the major portion of their activity. However slight variations in time spend on feeding was observed between two seasons. The time spends for feeding in summer (27.71%) was higher compared to winter (24.11%)). The difference in the percentage time spend on feeding in different seasons found to be significant (x = 164.94, P<0.001). About 64.4% of the time was spended for resting in venter compared to 62.42% in summer. Time spend for resting in different seasons were also found to be significant (x^=571, P<0.001). Percentage time spend on walking was considerably higher in summer (6.63%) compared to winter (4.45%) however, difference was not foimd to be significant. The combined analysis for all age and sex categories irrespective of seasons indicated that only 1.92% of time was spend for social behavior. Age and sex categories Adult male Analysis irrespective of season show that the time spends for resting (63.38%) was higher compared to all other activities (figure 5.16). Seasonal activity time budget of barasingha are shovra in figure 5.17 & 5.18. Percentage time spend on different activities was found to be Chapter 5: Activity Pattern and Time Budget 70 significantly dependent on season (x^=21.36, df - 4, P<0.01). Time spend for feeding was more in summer (27.98%) as compared to winter (23.64%). The difference was found to be significant (x^ =105.59, P<0.001). Percentage time spend for resting was more in winter (65.04%) as compared to summer (58.45%). Social activity was almost same both in winter (2.4%) and in summer (2.47%). Walking (8.OP/0) in summer is more as compared to winter (4.52%)) and the difference was found to be significant (x^ =9.31, P<0.001). Adult Female Time spend in different activities for the entire study period is given figure 5.19 and shows that resting dominated (63.38%). The analysis of the percentage distribution of time spend in different activities between seasons turned to be significant (x^=30.82, df = 4, P<0.01. Feeding period was significantly higher in summer (30.13%). Seasonal percentage distribution of time spend in different activities is given in figure 5.20 & 5.21. Resting was comparatively higher in winter (67.21%) than summer (57.36%). Yearling Male Time spend in different activities by yearling male is shown in figure 5.22. The combined (irrespective of seasons) analysis indicates that more time was spend in resting (63.33%) compared to all other activities. Seasonal percentage distribution of time spend in different activities is given in figure 5.23 & 5.24. The time spends for feeding, social and others activities were comparatively more in winter (27.36%), (3.14%) and (4.07%) respectively. Chapter 5: Activity Pattern and Time Budget 71 Yearling Female Overall time budget of yearling female is given in figure 5.25. Resting was the dominant activity. The time spend in feeding was significantly higher in summer (26.95%) than winter (22.83%), (x^ =15.05, P<0.001). Time spend in social activity was also higher in summer (6.95%) than winter (5.81%). (figure 5.26 & 5.27). Fawn Analysis of overall time budget of barasingha fawn in different activities showed that more time was spend in resting (61.11%)) (figure 5.28). Seasonal percentage distribution of time spend in different activities is given in figures 5.29 & 5.30. Feeding time was slightly more in winter (28.42%)) than summer (26.95%)). Seasonal variation in feeding time was found to be significant (x^=28.56, P<0.001). Social activities were also more in winter (3.24) than summer (1.05%) and is found to be significant(x^=121.48, P<0.001). Chapter 5: Activity Pattern and Time Budget 72 Figure: 5.13. Annual activity budget of barasingha in Dudhwa National Park. 5.25 1-92 3.89 • Resting 24.70 B Grazing D Walking D Social 63.71 • Others Figure: 5.14. Activity budget of barasingha in winter in Dudhwa National Park. 445 2.06 4.01 • Resting 24.11 • Grazing D Walking D Social • Others 64.42 Chapter h Activity Pattern and Time Budget 73 Figure: 5.15. Activity budget of barasingha in summer in Dudhwa National Park. 6.63 '-67 ^-^ • Resting B Grazing D Walking 27.44 D Social 62.46 • Others Figure: 5.16. Annual activity budget of Adult male barasingha in Dudhwa National Park. 5.40 2.43 4.04 • Resting 24.74 Q Grazing D Walking D Social 63 38 • Others Chapter J: ActioiQ Pattern and Time Budget 74 Figure: 5. 17. Activity budget of adult male barasingha in winter in Dudhwa National park. 4.52 2.40 4.37 • Resting 23.64 • Grazing a Walking Q Social 65.04 • Others Figure: 5.18. Activity budget of adult male barasingha in summer in Dudhwa National Park. 2.48 3.06 8.02 • Resting • Grazing D Walking 27.99 D Social 58.45 • Others Chapter J: Activity Pattern and Time Budget 75 Figure: 5.19. Annual activity budget of adult female barasingha in Dudhwa National Park. 4.88 l-SS 4.27 • Resting 23.92 O Grazing D Walking D Social 65.35 • Others Figure: 5.20. Activity budget of adult female barasingha in winter in Dudhwa National Park. 1.49 • Resting 23.23 B Grazing D Walking a Social 67.21 • Others Chiller J: Activity Pattern and Time budget 76 Figure: 5.21. Activity budget of adult female barasingha in summer in Dudhwa National Park. 1 71 3.98 6 82 • Resting B Grazing D Walking a Social 30.13 57.36 • Others Figure: 5.22. Annual activity budget of yearling male in Dudhwa National Park. 4.95 2.22 3.64 • Resting 25.86 D Grazing D Walking D Social 63.33 • Others Chapter }: Activity Pattern and Time Budget 77 Figure: 5.23. Activity budget of yearling male in winter in barasingha in Dudhwa National Park. 4.62 3.14 4.07 Resting Grazing Walking 27.36 Social Others Figure: 5.24. Activity budget of yearling male barasingha in summer in Dudhwa National Park. 3.12 • Resting 24.05 • Grazing n Walking D Social 66.37 • Others Chapter J: Activity Pattern and Time Budget 78 Figure: 5.25. Annual activity budget of yearling female barasingha in Dudhwa National Park. 6.26 1.15 3 29 • Resting 24.44 • Grazing D Walking D Social 64.86 • Others Figure: 5.26. Activity budget yearling female barasingha in winter in Dudhwa National Park. 5.81 1-21 3.1 • Resting 22.83 • Grazing D Walking D Social 67.02 • Others Chapter J; Activity Pattern and Time Budget 79 Figure: 5.27. Activity budget of yearling female barasingha in summer in Dudhwa National Park. ,95 1 05 3 58 • Resting • Grazing D Walking 26 95 D Social 61 47 • Others Figure: 5.28. Annual Activity Budget of fawn barasingha in Dudhwa National Park. 2 57 3 25 5 70 • Resting • Grazing n Walking 27 37 D Social 61 11 • Others Chapter J: Activity Pattern and Time Budget 80 Figure: 5.29. Activity Budget of fawn in winter in Dudhwa National Park. 3.24 3.45 5.98 • Resting D Grazing D Walking 28.42 D Social • Others Figure: 5.30. Activity budget of fawn in summer in Dudhwa National Park. 1.54 5.25 2 93 • Resting 25 77 • Qrazing a Social D Walking 64.51 • Others Chapter J; Aaivity Pattern and Time Budget 81 Discussion Survivorship of animal depends on the time allocated to behaviors governing either the animal's probability of avoiding predation or its energy acquisition rate (Caraco 1979a). Feeding constitutes the major component of all activities in natural population (Rozin 1976). Bray (1974) and Pankspepp (1974) have described both physical and physiological control of daily and seasonal feeding. An activity profile indicates the time budgeting of animals and suggests species resources utilization in relation to its envirormient. Majority of wild ungulates are with many phases of daily activity rhythm in which feeding bouts are interspersed with other activity (Easa 1998). The present study in Dudhwa National Park indicates that daily activity of barasingha is of polyphase when feeding is interspersed with resting and walking. Feeding and walking occurred almost throughout in between resting. Seasonal differences were evident between winter and summer season. The animals spend two third of its time for resting as evident from activity time budget and feeding and walking was other major component. Significant seasonal differences were also observed in the time spend for feeding. A reduction in feeding time in winter was mostly compensated by an increased resting time. This alternatively suggests that herds may spend more time in feeding during night. Schaller (1967) observed groups of 20 barasingha grazed throughout the night. The summer season had the highest percentage of time spend on feeding and there were marked reduction in resting. The increased summer season feeding time thus could be attributed to the high-energy requirement of pregnant female in the population. The animals in a herd sometimes grazed intermittently throughout the day. A resting herd was Chapter 5: Activity Pattern and Time Budget 82 often loose and scattered. The morning activity during summer ceased during 7:00 to S:0,@ hours. This study confirm with that of Schaller (1967), who also observed the similar observation for hard ground barasingha {Cervus duvauceli branderi) in Kanha National Park, The activities reached their peaks during afternoon (12:00 to 13:00 hours) when about 80% of animals were active in winter. However, during summer, activity reaches peaks at aroun^S 14:00 to 15:00 hours. Herds of barasingha maximize its feeding activity around sunset in botla seasons. Martin (1977) also found that daily activity occur maximum around sunset. Time budget mediate relation between the environment, individual requirement and resulting sociality (Caraco 1979a). Temperature and food density are important environmental factors influencing activity pattern and time budget (Easa 1998). Advantage of group formation of animals has already been discussed. The mean group size of barasingha in Dudhwa was found to vary with season. Group size was observed to be small in winter season with gradual increase was observed in summer season wdth increase in food availability (Khan 1993). Feeding has been observed to increase with group size increments (PuUiam 1973, Powell 1974). Though time budget relations, survivorship becomes a function of the size of the group. An optimal group size maximize an individual's survivorship through increased feeding and avoidance of predators (Caraco 1979b). Animals of the same size may differ in their requirement as activity rates are related to physiological condition of the animals (Crawley 1983). Though there were differences in the age sex categories of barasingha in the study area, a pattern emerges in all categories with the Chapter 5; Activity Pattern and Time Budget 83 highest feeding in summer and lowest in winter season. Synchronization in activity pattern been reported in a number of ungulates (Shult 1972, Gaare 1975, Mitchell 1977, Leuthold and Leuthold 1978). The Observation in Dudhwa indicates synchronization in activity only in the feeding in the morning and evening hours and resting through out the day. Chapter 5: Activity Pattern and Time Budget 84 CHAPTER 6 PREDATION Introduction The barasingha population in Dudhwa is being regulated by number of factors, one such factor, which regulates the population, is predation. Hence the question arises as to what extent predation may influence the abundance of barasingha population. Errington (1946) indicated that under certain conditions predators may cause an effective decimation of ungulate population; and Lack (1966) suspected that cervids in particular may be reduced by predators to a level that is below the maximum density allowed, considering nutritional factors. In general canids have been found to be effective predators of ungulates (Martin 1977). Pimlott et al. (1969) proposed that Wolf may be determinative for the abundance of ungulate populations. The wolf on Isle Royal, Michigan was also found to limit the population of moose {Alces alces) to a level of about 600, which is below the carrying capacity determined by the vegetation on this Island (Mech 1966). Schaller (1967) also reported a massive loss of barasingha due to predation by tiger in Kanha National Park. Little information on predator-prey relationships is available where cats limit ungulate populations. Robinson et al. (2002) also reported the main cause of mortality in mule deer and white tailed deer to Cougar predation. Studies on predation that have been reported make it apparent that many variable factors can influence, moderating or intensifying, the effect of predation. Leopold (1933) classified the factors into five groups (1) the density of the prey population (2) the density of predator population (3) the characteristics of the prey, e.g reactions to predator, (4) the density and quality of alternate food available to predators, (5) the characteristics of the predators, e.g. food preferences, efficiency of attack and other characteristics. Chapter 6: Predation gc Scats collection Roadside, foot trails, resting places, water points, area around the kill etc, are often marked through scats. Scats were thoroughly searched in these areas and collected. Scat analysis is considered advantageous to the relative information derived from kill monitoring. Hairs, feathers, bones remains of smaller prey item were likely to be missed during kill monitoring. The methodology of scat analysis has been reviewed (Putman 1984, Reynolds 8c Aebischer 1991) and applied in earlier food habit studies of carnivores either alone (Norton et al. 1986, Rabinowitz 1989) or in combination with data from predators kills (Schaller 1967, 1972, Kruuk 1972, Sunquist 1981, Johnsingh 1993). Tiger and leopard scats were distinguished using supplementary evidences in the form of tracks, scrapes and size of scat. Scat collection was disadvantageous during monsoon due to the prevailing climatic condition. First, scats were fed upon by insects and secondly, identity of the scats, form, shape, and size are lost after rainfall which makes it difficult to distinguish tiger's scats from that of leopard's. So, fewer scats were used to analyse the predation rate on barasingha by tiger during monsoon. Scats were collected in the airtight polythene bags and labeled. Date, place, predator, habitat, season etc. were noted down. They were sun dried and the samples were crushed and segregated. Bones, hooves, jaws, nails, quills, feathers etc., found inside the scat were taken out. The hair of tiger were standardized from the total sample of 116 scats from all seasons, 40 scats were picked randomly for standardization. A total of 40 hairs from these randomly picked scats were taken from different portions of eath scats and kept into zylene for a day. For leopard 20 hairs (Mukherjee et al. 1994) were taken out with forceps from different portions of the scat and kept into zylene for a day. Each hair sample was picked and mounted with (DPX) on the slide. Then each hair sample was examined under Chapter 6: Predation og binocular microscope. The hair of different prey species was also collected from the study area and kills of tiger and used as reference slides for species identification. Although frequency of occurrence of mammalian prey species in carnivores scats is a^ommonly used parameter in predation studies, if prey sizes are highly variable, frequency of occurrence can considerably distort the relative number of different prey types in the diet (Floyd, Mech & Jordan 1978, Ackerman 1984). The correction factor developed by Ackerman et al. (1984) from feeding trials of cougar Felis concolor concolor L. was used to estimate the relative proportion of different prey species consumed by tigers and leopard in the study area. The equation used is as follows: Y= 1.980 +0.03 5X, Where Y= kg of prey consumed per field collectable scat X= average weight of an individual of particular prey type (Ackerman et al 1984). The average weight (X) of individual of wild prey species was taken from Biswas & Sankar (2002), Sankar & Johnsingh (2002), Karanth & Sunquist (1995) and Khan et al. (1996) and that of domestic livestock from Schaller (1967). Solving the equation for Y gave an estimate of biomass consumed per collectable scat for each prey type. Multiplying each Y by the number of scats found to contain a particular prey species gave the relative weight of each prey type consumed. These values were used to estimate per cent biomass contribution of different prey species to the tiger and leopard diet. Sample size estimation for minimum number of hair/scat A total of 40 hairs from a scat were picked up randomly and the prey species detected by scanning a hair for each additional hair. Then the cumulative proportions of prey species detected from all the hair scanned from a scat were recorded. This procedure was repeated for a total of 40 scats picked up randomly for the analysis. The cumulative proportions of Chapter 6: Predation g7 total prey items in a scat were plotted against number of hair scanned. The purpose of this analysis was to know the minimum number of hairs that need to be scanned per scat for detection of all prey species.. Results Sample size estimation for minimum number of liairs /scat The number of hair needed to be scanned per scat to detect 100 % of the mammalian prey species in a particular scat with 95% certainty was between 18-20 hairs where as 96.099 % of the mammalian prey species were detected by analyzing 10-12 hairs per scat (figure 6.1). Maximum scats (n = 65) were found with only one prey species (56.03 %) where as very few scats (n = 9) were found containing three (6.03 %) and four prey species (1.72%) respectively (figure.6.2). Predation in winter Percent occurrence of different prey items in the tiger scats during winter suggested that it is largely dependent on barasingha and chital, which constituted 27.54 % and 26.09% of its diet respectively where as only 46.37 % of its diet was represented by other prey species. A total of 14 species were found in the diet of which hog deer constitute 8.70 %, wild boar 6.52 % and domestic prey constituted only 7.97 % of the diet of tiger in winter (table.6.1). Predation in summer Percent occurrence of different prey items in the tiger scats suggested that in summer it is largely dependent on chital, which constituted 44.65 % of its diet. A total of 10 species were found in the diet of which barasingha constitutes 15.58 %, wild boar 8.06 %, sambar 6.45 %, nilgai 6.45 % and domestic prey constituted 10.99 % in the diet of tiger (table.6.2) Chapter 6: Predation gg Predation in Monsoon During monsoon a total of eight species were found in the diet of tiger of which barasingha and chitai constituted the bulk of tiger diet 25 % and 21.88 % respectively. Sambar 12.5 %, hog deer 6.25 %, barking deer 6.25 % and domestic prey constituted 15.63 % in the diet of tiger (table.6.3) Annual predation Rate In total, 116 scats that were analyzed to investigate annual predation rate on barasingha in Dudhwa National Park. The analysis revealed that chitai constituted a major portion (30.93%) of their diet, followed by barasingha (24.96%), cow (16.54%), hog deer (8.16%), sambar (7.48%), nilgai (5.99%) and wild boar (4.36%) whereas buffalo,langur, small mammal, hare, porcupine, wild birds, and unidentified material occurred in low percentages less than percent (figure 6.4). Leopard predation on barasingha A total of 69 scats were collected and analyzed to investigate the leopard predation on barasingha in Dudhwa National Park. The analysis revealed that leopard predation on barasingha is very less. Its diet composition constituted only (3.49 %) barasingha. The major portion of their diet is constitutes by rodents (21%) followed by chitai (11.83%), birds (5.83%), hare (5.5%), cow (4.66%), small mammal (3.33%), Nilgai (2.83%), sambar (2%), Langur (1.83%), wild boar (1.49%), buffalo (1%), dog (1%), porcupine (1%), hog deer (0.5%), barking deer (0.5%), and only 0.83% could not be identified (figure 6.5). Chapter 6: Predation 89 100 , 90 L 80 - 70 - 60 50 40 - 30 1- 20 i 96% of prey detected 100% of prey detected 0 L _J 1 1 L_ 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 No of Hairs Figure: 6.1. Standardization of minimum number of hairs required per scat to analyse the food habit of tiger in Dudhwa National Park. Chapter 6: Predation 90 ou 56 03 50 40 3621 =i 30 o ss 20 - ^ 10 • 6 03 1 72 n 1 1 ^ 1 prey 2 prey 3 prey 4 prey Figure: 6.2. Number of prey items detected in tiger scats (n = 116) between November 2005 to June 2006 in Dudhwa National Park. 70 66.2 60 50 40 - 30 26.76 20 - 10 - 7.04 0 1 prey 2 prey 3 prey Figure: 6.3. Number of prey items detected in leopard scats (n = 69) between November 2005 to June 2006 in Dudhwa National Park. Chapter 6: Predatlon 91 Table.6.1. Composition of different prey species in Tiger scats (n=69) during winter 2005- 06 in Dudhwa National Park. Species No of scats* Frequency of Percentage occurrence occurrence Barasingha 27 19 27.54 Chital 29 18 26.9 Sambar 5 3 4.35 Hog deer 9 6 8.70 Barking deer 2 1.5 2.17 Wild boar 8 4.5 6.52 Nilgai 6 3.5 5.07 Cow 6 4 5.80 Buffalo 2 1.5 2.17 Langur 5 2.5 3.62 Porcupine I 0.5 0.72 Small mammal 3 2.5 3.62 Birds 1 0.5 0.72 Unknown 4 2 2.90 •'scats contained hair of different species Table.6.2. Composition of different prey species in Tiger scats (n=31) during summer 2006 in Dudhwa National Park. Species No of scats Frequency of Percentage occurrence occurrence Barasingha 8 4.83 15.58 Chital 17 13.84 44.65 Sambar 2 2 6.45 Hog deer 1 0.5 1.61 Barking deer 1 0.33 1.06 Wild boar 3 2.5 8.06 Nilgai 3 2 6.45 Cow 3 1.5 4.84 Buffalo 3 2 6.45 Porcupine 2 1.5 4.84 Chapter 6: Predation 92 Table.6.3. Composition of different prey species in Tiger scats (n=16) during monsoon 2006 in Dudhwa National Park. Species No of scats* Frequency of Percentage occurrence occurrence Barasingha 4 4 25 Chital 5 3.5 21.88 Sambar 3 2 12.5 Hog deer 1 1 6.25 Barking deer 1 I 6.25 Hare 2 1 6.25 Nilgai 1 , 1 6.25 Cow 3 2.5 15.63 "scats contained hair of different species Chapter 6: Predat'wn 93 ED %• \ ^'«^ a 5[ cu •-%?, C o /*, CO •5>^<>.. . & -% •a \ Q ^\ '"> 'o 3C O \ c 4' c o If o u CO ••^ o o c o '^^ •^ •ua CL, 4" a c 0\ O hi \ 3 h \ '%. SJB3S n? aauBanao % "C I 00 q "cA - -^ [ OS II m c in \ - CO oo "« 'V •^ CO 2 % C3 •9^^o . JC % •a 3 ^^ "^ '•5 % c ^ o •^ c o "*o„ 'U •au G, '^^o T3 cd O. O 2[ U •rj 00 \ 1 1 1 ' 1 in o SJBOS UI 30U3JnOOO % en C3 S O V3 -a u 0 -t-i ,-, "1 ca 0 (U .§ OTj-Tj-rOCOCDCNlCMr- T- T- g 1- C3 CO '•^ t+H ca OOCMtOCNjTj-O-JlOCN 1- -"^ H irt 00 CD tn 0 3 • CM • • • o oS CMOOOOOOOOO CO O •4-* u 00 0 ca, iG •«-* 3 ta ^o" -a 0 c0 » •> — _0 r^cjjcocDoocoOT-t^ mN- O CO CD CON.COOOCOCDrOt---COf-IO r-- en CO 1 C>ioO<0C3OOC)C3C3 O CO O 10 0 0 u 0 on: CO in 00 T- 00 to CM <• T- T- 2 CO T— O C3) 00 O 3 T- T- CM O •<- CM O CO CM "^^f ^ -^ Tt "^ 'P T-OOOOOT-OOO • •«-» CU GO =^1 o •4-» cd ^ o m cn- T3 o cd T3 2.2 r^t^oo' o a, " to —I cd 2 o >. OOT-OOCOOOOOx-OOOOCnCDOOOOOOT- •r* " d o r3 •^tO'^T-N.-r-OOT-CMOJOlOCnTl-T- > j> . en 4) coincNCMcocMCMoocMCNj CM CD CD CM '^ +-* ^ ? CS o cd .S O CN ^—' en a :g II .5 Si CO i§ lO CD C^ est lt> ^ T- o (U -a ir> o CO CM 1 CM CM ^ CO o oor^ooSjcMf^ooT- 00 lO o 4> 5 o ^ d "- C3 ^ a m 0) m T3 !-• a .2 is >- s a CO It> >^ cd O8.D 2>- > -2 c ^ fe p S en > 00 ^ ji < ^ 13 u en h^) P3 o 3 &4 II II -S cd CO H Discussion Effective conservation of large predator as well as their major prey species requires an in- depth knowledge of their ecology and interrelationships between them. The barasingha {Cervus diivauceli duvauceli) for which the Dudhwa Sanctuary and later Dudhwa National Park (DNP) was made faces major conservation problems and continuously threatened by habitat loss, poaching, predation pressure to some extent, resulting into local extinction of this species from many areas. In order to investigate the predation pressure on barasingha in DNP, 116 scats of tiger and 69 scats of leopard were analyzed. Barasingha seems tabe a major diet component of tiger (24.17%) next to chital (30.93%). Together they contribute (55.1%) in tigers diets. Due to low abundance of sambar in the study area (Forest Deptt. Census) it contributes only (4.59%), leading tiger to prey upon either barasingha or chital because it preys upon largest ungulates in all ecosystem in which it occurs (Seidensticker 1997). Seasonal variation was also observed in the diet of tiger. In winter its diets shows higher percentage of barasingha (27.54%) than chital (26.09%) and in summer the percentage of chital reaches high (44.65%) than barasingha (15.58%) and in monsoon again the diet shows higher percentage of barasingha (25%) than chital (21.88%). The reason may be that in summer barasingha forms large groups after control burning of grasslands, thus collective senses of many animals can be used to detect approaching predators, and the probability that a given animal will be selected by a predator is reduced by a factor roughly equal to the number of animals in the group (Hirth 1977). In winter the large groups tends to break making barasingha more vulnerable to predation. Moreover rutting which takes place during late monsoon and early winter is also the factor responsible for higher predation on barasingha in these seasons. Because in these seasons male may roam Chapter 6: Predation 98 widely increasing its cliances of encountering predators (Karanth and Sunquist 1995). Social organization of the species is also considered as the factor responsible for variation in group size in some ungulates species. Seasonal change in group size for species having open structure, food availability, predation risk and rutting activity is considered as main responsible factor (Hamilton 1971, Jarman 1974, Sharatchandra and Gadgil 1975, Khan & Vohra 1992). Tiger predation was an important, although not necessarily the main, limiting factor of population growth in barasingha. But a combination of factor such as outside movement into agriculture field, where they are more vulnerable to poaching by villagers, siltation in some grassland patches may be the factors responsible for population decline. In case of leopard, barasingha constitutes only (3.49%) of its diet and chital forms (11.83%). The bulk of its diet is contributed by rodents (21%). Low percentage of barasingha in leopard's diet may be due to preference for smaller prey species and also avoiding direct competition with tigers for its diet, which prefer large prey species. Higher percentage of rodents in leopard diet may be attributed to high rodent availability in the study area particularly Indian Gerbille {Tetera indica). Moreover nocturnal habit of rodents makes them more vulnerable to leopard predation. Grobler and Wilson (1972) in South Africa and Sankar and Johnsingh (2002) in Sariska also reported a very high percentage of rodents remains in leopard scats and attributing it to the high abundance and nocturnal habits of rodents. The dietary niche overlap between two sympatric felid species was 0.76 which ranges from 0 (no overlap) to 1.0 (complete overlap). The species avoided direct competition by segregating prey species in terms of their size. Study showed that the decline of barasingha population will affect tigers more than leopard. Chapter 6: Predation 99 References Ackerman, B.B, Lindzey, F.G. & T.P. Hernker. (1984). Cougar food habits in Southern Utah.y. Wildl. Manage. 48: 147-155 Ahmed, K. (2005). Ecological studies on barasingha (Cervus d. duvauceli) in Dudhwa Kishanpur Protected Areas, Uttar Pradesh, India. M.Sc dissertation, Deptt. of Wildlife Sciences, AMU, Aligarh. 69pp. Ahmed, K «& J.A. Khan. (2005). 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