THE JOHNSTONE CENTRE REPORT Nº 100 Nathan Cobb's Laboratory Conservation & Interpretation Project The spread of Olives (Olea sp.) on Wagga Wagga Campus I. Biology and History by Dirk H.R. Spennemann Albury Australia 1998 © The author and the Johnstone Centre of Parks, Recreation and Heritage, 1998. All rights reserved. The contents of this study are copyright in all countries subscribing to the Berne Convention. No parts of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without the written permission of the author, except where permitted by law. CIP Spennemann, Dirk H.R. 1958— Nathan Cobb's Laboratory Conservation & Interpretation Project. The spread of Olives (Olea sp) on Wagga Wagga Campus. volume I. Biology and history - Albury, NSW: Charles Sturt University, The Johnstone Centre, 1998. 1 v., - (Report / Johnstone Centre of Parks, Recreation & Heritage, no. 100) ISBN 1-875758-67-4 DDC 583.87099448 1. Olive--History--Australia--Wagga Wagga (NSW). I. Charles Sturt University. John- stone Centre of Parks, Recreation & Heritage. II. Title. III. Series. PDF Version 2004. Dirk H.R. Spennemann, The spread of Olives (Olea sp.) on Wagga Wagga Campus. I. Biology and history Contents Appendices............................. 79 Contents............................. iii Appendix A — Point data Introduction ............................. 5 for feral olives in Australia ........................ 80 The location......................... 5 Victoria......................................80 Biology of Olives....................... 3 Appendix B — Olive Olive species in Australia ...... 3 varieties currently Olea europaea..............................4 planted at Wagga Wagga . 81 Propagation & growth conditions ........................ 6 Seed propagation.........................6 Vegetative propagation................9 Growth conditions.....................10 Seed availability..................14 Use of olive trees.................15 Current Distribution.................18 New South Wales and the ACT ...............................20 Norfolk Island............................21 Australian Capital Territory ......21 Victoria..............................22 South Australia ...................22 Queensland & Western Australia.........................23 Western Australia......................23 Status.................................23 Olives in Australia ...................26 Introduction of olives to Australia.........................28 Olive oils shown at International Exhibitions ......29 The Protagonists........................31 Olives in Wagga.......................33 Introduction of olives to Wagga Wagga.......................35 Extending the collection............42 Rootstock Trials ........................51 Reducing the collection.............51 Acknowledgments.....................53 Bibliography ...........................54 Personal Communications.........78 iii 1 Introduction Wagga Wagga Agricultural College, the olives (Olea ssp.) be investigated . To en- predecessor institution of Charles Sturt sure that a proposed management action University, Wagga Wagga Campus, cele- was successful, it was important to un- brated its centenary in 1996. As part of derstand the vectors involved in the these celebrations it had been planned to spread of feral olives and the speed of the adequately manage and interpret the ruins spread (Spennemann 1997). This gave of Nathan Cobb’s Laboratory, as well as rise to the present study. This document the associated concrete base of a granary. represents the findings of the research Observation had shown that olive trees w.r.t. the history of olive grove and its were contributing to the decay of the management. It combines both a compi- sites. A draft conservation management lation of data published in the scientific plan of the resource had been developed and horticultural literature, and new data which recommended inter alia that the collected in the field, as well as unpub- extent and nature of an infestation with lished archival data. The location The heritage sites which gave rise to this grounds of the Wagga Wagga Campus of assessment are located within the Rive- Charles Sturt University (Grid reference rina Campus of Charles Sturt University, 5326 61199). Wagga Wagga, located north of the Mur- The study area is bounded by McKe- rumbidgee River, approx. 5km northwest own Drive on the east and north, Nathan of the town centre. The sites are situated Cobb Drive in the west. The southern and at the eastern slope of the eastern hill of southeastern boundary is provided a dirt the Two Sisters, traditionally known as road leading from the roundabout at the “Bald Hill” and now colloquially ad- entrance of Charles Sturt University dressed as “Winery Hill,” within the Campus to the winery (figure 1.1). v The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus Figure 1.1. Aerial Photography showing the study site on Wagga Wagga Campus of Charles Sturt University. Scale approx. 1: 6000. Date: April 1971. (Source: Or- thophotomap 1:4000 Wagga Agricultural College 2717-VIII). 2 Biology 2 Biology of Olives The genus Olea comprises about 35 Table 2.1. compiles some of the species with a distribution throughout known olive species. The domestic olive Africa, India, Malaya, Australasia and (Olea europaea) is a cluster of cultivars western China. It does not occur as a wild that has evolved most likely through hy- species in the Americas (Levison and bridisation from range of wild forms still Levison 1984). occurring on the southern and eastern Cultivated olives are basically only a periphery of the Mediterranean: Olea few generations removed from ‘wild’ chrysophylla, O. excelsa and O. laperrini land races (Rugini and Lavee 1992; Tur- (Turill 1951; Levison and Levison 1984; rill 1952). While up to 2,600 cultivars Zohary 1992). A feral form (O. europaea have been recorded, most of them are ssp. sylvestris) has also developed from heterozygous clones selected from spon- escapees from orchards. O. europaea ssp. taneous, uncontrolled crosses. sylvestris and O. europaea ssp. europaea are fully interfertile. Olive species in Australia Two olive species occur on the Aus- regions, with dry and hot summers and tralian mainland and offshore islands. winter-dominant rainfall. In South Aus- Australia, two introduced varieties of the tralia the 500mm annual rainfall isohyet same species and one native. Introduced seems to be defining the boundary of its are Olea europaea ssp. europaea and distribution (Parsons & Cuthbertson Olea europaea ssp. africana, while Olea 1992, p. 523). Olea can occur on a wide paniculata is deemed native to Australia. range of soils. The European native olive, Olea eu- Olea are evergreen shrubs or trees. ropaea ssp. sylvestris was never trans- The leaves are opposite, simple in form, planted to this continent. with non serrated margins. The lower In their habitat Olea ssp. occur in surface of the leaves usually shows a semi-arid to subhumid warm-temperate dense covering of scale. 3 Table 2.1. Taxonomy of some members of the genus Olea (after various sources –see text) Division SPERMATOPHYTA Subdivision ANGIOSPERMAE Class DICOTYLEDONAE Family OLEACEAE Tribe OLOEOIDAE Subtribe OLEINEAE Genus Olea Olea europaea O.e. africana Miller O.e. cerasiformis (Webb & Berth.). O.e. europaea L. O.e. maderensis O.e. sylvestris L. Olea paniculata R.Br. (O. apetala Vahl.) Olea capensis L. Olea dioica Roxb. Olea exasperata Jacq. Olea excelsa Olea fragrans Olea glandulifera Wall. Olea lancea Lamarck Olea laperrini Batt. et Traut Olea laurifolia Lamarck Olea paniculata R. Br. Olea verrucosa Link. The leaves commonly abscise in the Olea europaea spring at an age of 2-3 years, but older Olea europaea is a much-branched ever- leaves can be present. green tree of variable size, glabrous and Domatia are absent. Venation is obvi- ranging from 2 to 15m in height with a ous on the upper surface, but obscure on dense, round crown; the most common the lower surface. The flowers are borne height is 5-10m, and 15m is rarely on an inflorescence of 15 to 30 small reached. The stems of the tree are green- flowers in the axil of each leaf. The peti- ish-black with a rough bark. The root is ole is up to 100mm long, the racemes 40- well branched and woody. The root sys- 60mm. tem is very wide and generally shallow. The fruit, ripening in summer, is a The leaves are set opposite are narrow drupe, globose to ellipsoid, 10-30mm, oblong (lanceolate) to elliptic, 30-70mm commonly only 15-25mm long and ap- long, 8-25mm wide. The apex is acute prox 6mm in diameter, fleshy and glau- with a small hook or point, the base at- cous. Depending on the tannin content, tenuate to cuneate, margins entire and re- especially in feral olives, the fruit can be curved. The upper leaf surface is grey- very bitter. The fruit have a thin smooth green in colour and glossy, while the hairless skin, green when immature and lower surface is covered with a dense purple-black to black in colour when cluster of silvery, golden or brown scales. ripe. The oil content in the fruit varies 4 Biology between varieties (it can reach up to Olea europaea L. ssp. africana (Miller) 20%) and even on an annual basis in the Common names: African olive, Wild olive, same variety. The fruit contains a bony Golden olive; Olienhout (South Africa), endocarp with 1-2 seeds. The seeds are Smallfruit, Russian Olive (in Hawai’i)*) . 10-15mm long and oily. Synonyms: Olea lancifolia;