The Spread of Olives (Olea Sp.) on Wagga Wagga Campus I

THE JOHNSTONE CENTRE REPORT Nº 100

Nathan Cobb's Laboratory Conservation & Interpretation Project The spread of Olives (Olea sp.) on Wagga Wagga Campus I. Biology and History

by Dirk H.R. Spennemann

Albury Australia 1998 © The author and the Johnstone Centre of Parks, Recreation and Heritage, 1998. All rights reserved. The contents of this study are copyright in all countries subscribing to the Berne Convention. No parts of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without the written permission of the author, except where permitted by law.

CIP

Spennemann, Dirk H.R. 1958— Nathan Cobb's Laboratory Conservation & Interpretation Project. The spread of Olives (Olea sp) on Wagga Wagga Campus. volume I. Biology and history - Albury, NSW: Charles Sturt University, The Johnstone Centre, 1998. 1 v., - (Report / Johnstone Centre of Parks, Recreation & Heritage, no. 100) ISBN 1-875758-67-4 DDC 583.87099448 1. Olive--History--Australia--Wagga Wagga (NSW). I. Charles Sturt University. John- stone Centre of Parks, Recreation & Heritage. II. Title. III. Series.

PDF Version 2004. Dirk H.R. Spennemann, The spread of Olives (Olea sp.) on Wagga Wagga Campus. I. Biology and history

Contents Appendices...... 79 Contents...... iii Appendix A — Point data Introduction ...... 5 for feral olives in Australia ...... 80 The location...... 5 Victoria...... 80 Biology of Olives...... 3 Appendix B — Olive Olive species in Australia ...... 3 varieties currently Olea europaea...... 4 planted at Wagga Wagga . 81 Propagation & growth conditions ...... 6 Seed propagation...... 6 Vegetative propagation...... 9 Growth conditions...... 10 Seed availability...... 14 Use of olive trees...... 15 Current Distribution...... 18 New South Wales and the ACT ...... 20 Norfolk Island...... 21 Australian Capital Territory ...... 21 Victoria...... 22 South Australia ...... 22 Queensland & Western Australia...... 23 Western Australia...... 23 Status...... 23 Olives in Australia ...... 26 Introduction of olives to Australia...... 28 Olive oils shown at International Exhibitions ...... 29 The Protagonists...... 31 Olives in Wagga...... 33 Introduction of olives to Wagga Wagga...... 35 Extending the collection...... 42 Rootstock Trials ...... 51 Reducing the collection...... 51 Acknowledgments...... 53 Bibliography ...... 54 Personal Communications...... 78

iii

1 Introduction

Wagga Wagga Agricultural College, the olives (Olea ssp.) be investigated . To en- predecessor institution of Charles Sturt sure that a proposed management action University, Wagga Wagga Campus, cele- was successful, it was important to un- brated its centenary in 1996. As part of derstand the vectors involved in the these celebrations it had been planned to spread of feral olives and the speed of the adequately manage and interpret the ruins spread (Spennemann 1997). This gave of Nathan Cobb’s Laboratory, as well as rise to the present study. This document the associated concrete base of a granary. represents the findings of the research Observation had shown that olive trees w.r.t. the history of olive grove and its were contributing to the decay of the management. It combines both a compi- sites. A draft conservation management lation of data published in the scientific plan of the resource had been developed and horticultural literature, and new data which recommended inter alia that the collected in the field, as well as unpub- extent and nature of an infestation with lished archival data.

The location The heritage sites which gave rise to this grounds of the Wagga Wagga Campus of assessment are located within the Rive- Charles Sturt University (Grid reference rina Campus of Charles Sturt University, 5326 61199). Wagga Wagga, located north of the Mur- The study area is bounded by McKe- rumbidgee River, approx. 5km northwest own Drive on the east and north, Nathan of the town centre. The sites are situated Cobb Drive in the west. The southern and at the eastern slope of the eastern hill of southeastern boundary is provided a dirt the Two Sisters, traditionally known as road leading from the roundabout at the “Bald Hill” and now colloquially ad- entrance of Charles Sturt University dressed as “Winery Hill,” within the Campus to the winery (figure 1.1).

v The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

Figure 1.1. Aerial Photography showing the study site on Wagga Wagga Campus of Charles Sturt University. Scale approx. 1: 6000. Date: April 1971. (Source: Or- thophotomap 1:4000 Wagga Agricultural College 2717-VIII).

2 Biology

2 Biology of Olives

The genus Olea comprises about 35 Table 2.1. compiles some of the species with a distribution throughout known olive species. The domestic olive Africa, India, Malaya, Australasia and (Olea europaea) is a cluster of cultivars western China. It does not occur as a wild that has evolved most likely through hy- species in the Americas (Levison and bridisation from range of wild forms still Levison 1984). occurring on the southern and eastern Cultivated olives are basically only a periphery of the Mediterranean: Olea few generations removed from ‘wild’ chrysophylla, O. excelsa and O. laperrini land races (Rugini and Lavee 1992; Tur- (Turill 1951; Levison and Levison 1984; rill 1952). While up to 2,600 cultivars Zohary 1992). A feral form (O. europaea have been recorded, most of them are ssp. sylvestris) has also developed from heterozygous clones selected from spon- escapees from orchards. O. europaea ssp. taneous, uncontrolled crosses. sylvestris and O. europaea ssp. europaea are fully interfertile.

Olive species in Australia Two olive species occur on the Aus- regions, with dry and hot summers and tralian mainland and offshore islands. winter-dominant rainfall. In South Aus- Australia, two introduced varieties of the tralia the 500mm annual rainfall isohyet same species and one native. Introduced seems to be defining the boundary of its are Olea europaea ssp. europaea and distribution (Parsons & Cuthbertson Olea europaea ssp. africana, while Olea 1992, p. 523). Olea can occur on a wide paniculata is deemed native to Australia. range of soils. The European native olive, Olea eu- Olea are evergreen shrubs or trees. ropaea ssp. sylvestris was never trans- The leaves are opposite, simple in form, planted to this continent. with non serrated margins. The lower In their habitat Olea ssp. occur in surface of the leaves usually shows a semi-arid to subhumid warm-temperate dense covering of scale.

3 Table 2.1. Taxonomy of some members of the genus Olea (after various sources –see text)

Division SPERMATOPHYTA Subdivision ANGIOSPERMAE Class DICOTYLEDONAE Family OLEACEAE Tribe OLOEOIDAE Subtribe OLEINEAE Genus Olea Olea europaea O.e. africana Miller O.e. cerasiformis (Webb & Berth.). O.e. europaea L. O.e. maderensis O.e. sylvestris L. Olea paniculata R.Br. (O. apetala Vahl.) Olea capensis L. Olea dioica Roxb. Olea exasperata Jacq. Olea excelsa Olea fragrans Olea glandulifera Wall. Olea lancea Lamarck Olea laperrini Batt. et Traut Olea laurifolia Lamarck Olea paniculata R. Br. Olea verrucosa Link.

The leaves commonly abscise in the Olea europaea spring at an age of 2-3 years, but older Olea europaea is a much-branched ever- leaves can be present. green tree of variable size, glabrous and Domatia are absent. Venation is obvi- ranging from 2 to 15m in height with a ous on the upper surface, but obscure on dense, round crown; the most common the lower surface. The flowers are borne height is 5-10m, and 15m is rarely on an inflorescence of 15 to 30 small reached. The stems of the tree are green- flowers in the axil of each leaf. The peti- ish-black with a rough bark. The root is ole is up to 100mm long, the racemes 40- well branched and woody. The root sys- 60mm. tem is very wide and generally shallow. The fruit, ripening in summer, is a The leaves are set opposite are narrow drupe, globose to ellipsoid, 10-30mm, oblong (lanceolate) to elliptic, 30-70mm commonly only 15-25mm long and ap- long, 8-25mm wide. The apex is acute prox 6mm in diameter, fleshy and glau- with a small hook or point, the base at- cous. Depending on the tannin content, tenuate to cuneate, margins entire and re- especially in feral olives, the fruit can be curved. The upper leaf surface is grey- very bitter. The fruit have a thin smooth green in colour and glossy, while the hairless skin, green when immature and lower surface is covered with a dense purple-black to black in colour when cluster of silvery, golden or brown scales. ripe. The oil content in the fruit varies

4 Biology between varieties (it can reach up to Olea europaea L. ssp. africana (Miller) 20%) and even on an annual basis in the Common names: African olive, Wild olive, same variety. The fruit contains a bony Golden olive; Olienhout (South Africa), endocarp with 1-2 seeds. The seeds are Smallfruit, Russian Olive (in Hawai’i)*) . 10-15mm long and oily. Synonyms: Olea lancifolia; Olea cuspidata Link.; Olea europaea L. ssp. cuspidata. Description: Leaves mainly 60-100mm length, 10-25mm wide, apex often with hooked tip, upper surface often dark green and glossy, lower surface green or yellowish brown. (Hardin 1992, p. 472; Beadle 1984, p. 700; Hartley 1979, p. 168; Turrill 1951).

Olea europaea ssp. sylvestris (Mill.) Hegi Common names: Wild olive, Olivastro, Oleaster Synonyms: Olea oleaster, Olea europaea ssp. oleaster (Hoffmanns et Link.); Olea africana; Olea ferruginea; Olea chrysphylla Lam.; O.c. somalensis. Description: The wild olive (not introduced to Australia) has often a more bushy appearance, a ‘tortuous growth’ and thorny branches. Its leaves are much smaller and the fruit is Figure 2.1 Olea europaea (Drawing: overall drier. The tannin content of wild Dirk H.R. Spennemann 1997). olives is reported to be higher than in cultivated varieties (Maiden 1887). Wild olives In addition to the Australian native (feral? olives: Turill 1951) tend to grow alone olive, the following three subspecies of or in small clusters (Espais Naturales 1996). the European olive are worth noting: Olea paniculata (R. Br.) Olea europaea ssp. europaea L. Common names: Native olive; Marble wood, Iron wood, Maire (NZ) Common names: European olive, Edible olive, Table olive. Synonyms: Olea apetala Synonyms: Olea gallica, Olea sativa, Olea Description: O. paniculata is an up to 30m tall europaea ssp. sativa. tree, with trunk up to 0.9m diameter. The leaves are ovate to elliptic, usually 50-100mm Description: Leaves mainly 30-70mm length, 8- long and 15-60mm wide, with an acuminate 10mm wide, apex without hooked tip, lower apex, a rounded to cuneate base, margins surface whitish or silvery. In Australia the entire. The leaves have a green and glossy tree flowers from October to November. upper surface and a pale underside with small Among the domesticated/cultivated olive hollow domatia along the mid-vein. The varieties the leaf size varies, with Spanish panicles are many flowered and from 40 to varieties having larger leaves and Italian and 100mm long. The drupe are ovoid, 8-12mm French varieties possessing long and narrow long, scarcely succulent and of bluish black leaves (Allen 1902a; Hardin 1992, p. 472; colour. The tree flowers from October to Robertson 1965, p. 685; Jessop & Toelken December and grows in or near riverine, dry 1986, p. 1037; Martin 1994; Parsons & or littoral rainforest north from the Hunter Cuthbertson 1992, p. 522-524; Beadle 1984, Valley as well as in New Zealand (Hardin p. 700; Cooke 1989). 1992, p. 472; Kirk 1881; Macdonald 1911).

*) Not to be confused with the Russian olive on the American mainland (Eleagnus angustifolia).

5 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus r e t

Endocarp e m a (hard) Epicarp 3' i Polar d

(thin) r diameter

Seed a l o

Mesocarp P (soft)

. Transversal 2' diameter Transversal a) diameter b) c)

Figure 2.2. Nomenclature of the parts of the olive drupe (a) and the measurements taken on the drupe (b) and the endocarp (c).

Propagation & growth conditions Propagation occurs via seeds or vegeta- ages the growth of suckers (Emerson tively via cuttings. A 19th century source 1997; Thomas 1995). lists the following methods of propagation: “seeds, cuttings, layers, suckers, truncheons or estacas and old stumps, the Seed propagation latter split” (Anonymous 1873). Seeds In California seed propagation is claimed generally germinate in autumn and to be slow and unreliable for horticultural seedlings grow at a moderate rate during purposes (Thomas 1995). This has been winter. As moisture is reduced during reported elsewhere as well , such as summer the growth slows down. Growth Queensland (Benson 1899), South Aus- continues over several years until flower- tralia (Fowler 1940) and Victoria (1911), ing begins. Under normal circumstances and appears to be a by-product of the olives will bear their first fruit after 10-12 domestication process (Zohary and years, but in irrigated areas trees have Spiegel-Roy 1975). O.e. ssp. africana on been known to produce after 4-5 years the other hand appears to be a good and (Anonymous 1952). successful seed disperser, if the South In established trees flowers develop on African (Manders and Richardson 1992) the previous year’s growth in the pres- and Norfolk Island experiences are any ence of sunlight. The development of guide (Stevenson 1997). flowers depends on sufficient chilling, Olives grown from seed do not come yet not too much frost, in the preceding true to variety (Fowler 1940) and revert winter (Hartmann 1962). A life expec- “to more or less wild and worthless tancy of 40-50 years for wild (feral) types” (Macdonald 1911). Because of olives is assumed. Domesticated and this tendency they are usually only used tended, ie. unpruned, olives appear to as root stock (Marvin 1888, p. 60). The have a life expectancy of up to 1,000 oil yield of trees grown from seedlings years. Heavy pruning of the tree encour- was found to be smaller than that of the original cultivated stock (Barnard 1882).

6 Biology

Figure 2.3. Olea europaea spp. sylvestris (Marvin 1888).

7 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

Figure 2.4. Olea europaea spp. europaea var. Frantoio (Marvin 1888).

8 However, the potential that seedlings the seed, freed of the flesh and the oily could produce new varieties with desir- film (Boothby 1878, p. 11). able traits was recognised early and some Germination is affected by both inter- attempts were made at Wagga, Pera Bore nal dormancy requirements (inhibitors in and Hawkesbury in NSW (see chapter 5) the embryo or seed coat) and mechanical as well as in South Australia. The most inhibitors (inability of the embryo to successful selection was Hardy’s Mam- penetrate the hard endocarp; Sutter moth (Hardy 1901; 1902). 1994). The sclerous endocarp also in- According to Martin (1994) the seed is hibits the hydration and oxygenation of (horticulturally) mature some five the embryo (Leon & Altisent 1992). To months after flowering. If harvested at obtain ideal germination conditions, the that time, the seed will achieve maximum seed should be cracked or clipped with- germination. If the drupe is allowed to out injuring the embryo (Macdonald fully ripen (eight months after flowering) 1912a; Wickson 1900; Dal Pero Bertini then seed germination is greatly reduced. 1960a, p. 92, Rallo et al. 1992; Sutter A similar observation was made by 1994). Fowler (1940) recommended to Rinaldi et al. (1992) who also found that soak the endocarps for a day in a caustic the speed of germination increases with soda solution to soften them up. Regard- increased ripening. less of pretreatment, however, the germination of olives is poor in the year fol- The germination of seeds from mature lowing harvesting, good in the year fruit is uncertain (ranging from 5% to thereafter, and then declines rapidly in 90%) and slow (from one to six months, subsequent years (Wickson 1900; Dal or even longer), mainly due to the oily Pero Bertini 1960a, p. 92). nature of the flesh of the drupe which prevents the access of moisture to the Variaty in germination ability was re- seed (Browne 1883; Anonymous 1899d). peatedly observed between cultivars Olives with flesh attached rarely (Leon & Altisent 1992). Seed germina- germinate in natural conditions (Wickson tion trials in Wagga showed that the va- 1900). According to Mort (1949) the rieties Sevillano, Palermo and Lucques ideal time for seed propagation in had comparatively poor germination ca- Australia (at Wagga Wagga) is in June pabilities (Mort 1949). and early July. While seed germination is slow and In order to facilitate germination, it is unreliable, rootstock grown from seed necessary to remove the oily film cover- rather than truncheons were found to be ing the endocarp. If fresh olives are to be more desirable (Cole 1911). Further, not used, the endocarp, once freed of flesh, all varieties produce the same quality needs to be washed in a solution of soda root stocks. In the Wagga Wagga setting (Dal Pero Bertini 1960a, p. 92); strong the best stocks were obtained from lime or caustic soda (Fowler 1940; Mac- seedlings of the Verdale variety (Dal donald 1912a), or dipped in hot water Pero Bertini 1960a, p. 92). (Anonymous 1899d). At the turn of the century experiments were carried out showing that warm water (40°-70°C) Vegetative propagation would enhance germination, while near Olives are known to be capable of vege- boiling water (90°C) would be detrimen- tative propagation; accordingly, the use tal (Anonymous 1900b). In the south of of layers and truncheons has been the France, seed olives were traditionally fed primary means of reliable propagation to chicken, which eventually would pass (Benson 1899; Fowler 1940; Macdonald

9 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

1912a; Marvin 1888; Mort 1950). Trials 1873). They prefer well-drained neutral at Wagga in 1948 and 1949 showed or alkaline soils with a pH in the range of differences between varieties (table 2.2). 6.5 to 8.2 (Hobham 1995c). Table 2.2. Ease of vegetative propagation of various varieties at Wagga Growth conditions Wagga in 1948-49 (Mort 1950) Olives prefer a Mediterranean climate comprising of a relatively cool, but not too frosty winter, and a long, hot growing Degree Variety seasons (Connell 1994). While they pre- Very difficult Sevillano, Macrocarpa, fer a sandy loam of moderate depth, Lucca olives are very hardy plant and will grow Difficult Hardy’s Mammoth, on sandy and calcareous soils. Olives tol- Manzanillo Nº 14 erate limey and slightly saline soils Less difficult Corregiola, Manzanillo (Connell and Catlin 1994; Hall 1972, p. Nº 2, Large Spanish, 397) as well as moderate salinity in the Bouquettier air (cf. Davey 1873). A 19th century Fairly easy Verdale, Boutillan, source claims that proximity to the sea is Nevadillo Blanco in fact a beneficial location (Anonymous

Figure 2.5. Grove of Olea europaea ssp. europaea with some old-growth Eucalypts at CSU-Wagga Wagga (Photo: © Dirk H.R. Spennemann 1997).

10 Biology

Figure 2.6. Grove of Olea europaea ssp. europaea at CSU-Wagga Wagga (Photo: © Dirk H.R. Spennemann March 1997).

Figure 2.7. Grove of Olea europaea ssp. europaea at CSU-Wagga Wagga after substantial pruning (Photo: © Dirk H.R. Spennemann September 1997).

A tree grown from seed will have a 1888, p. 60). They are reported to be less long and strong taproot and, commonly, a susceptible to wind fall (Chaffey quoted straight stem (Thompson 1891; Marvin in Allen 1901b). The plant is overall

11 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus shallow rooting, however, with a depth of damaging to the bloom and the seed de- 0.5 to 1.2m (Martin 1994). velopment (Hartman 1962). Madonald Once established, olives are very (1911) drawing on a variety of sources drought resistant, even to prolonged maintains that a temperature of -4.5°C droughts. It is reported to be limited by (24°F) or less is injurious to fruit and a the 500mm annual isohyet in South Aus- temperature of -8 to -10°C (14-18°F) or tralia (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992, p. less causes severe damage to trees, espe- 523), but if planted, or seeded under ideal cially in late winter and early spring, conditions and established it can survive when the tree has grown new wood. even lower annual rainfall. Growth and Temperatures of -12°C (10°F) and below propagation experiments carried out by are reported as lethal (se also Antognozzi NSW Agriculture at the turn of the cen- et al. 1992). Apparently many olive tury have shown that olives can be groves in France were killed during ab- planted in marginal areas (too hot, too normal frosts in January 1820 dry, too cold, too wet), but that the plant (Macdonald 1911). Some severely frost would not fruit well (Allen 1901a). damaged trees can be saved if they are cut back to the ground, allowing the roots In Broken Hill it exists without water- to push up new shoots. ing in an area of 23 mm of rain per an- num (Hall 1972, p. 393). Olives grow Some olive varieties are very poor best, however, in an area of 500-800mm self-pollinators. Thus the presence of annual rainfall. Growth experiments and other varieties is required to successfully cultivation tests have shown that over- produce harvestable crops (California: watering will lead to the death of olive UCCE 1997; Italy: Climato et al. 1993). trees. Bryden (1939) conducted an assess- The plant requires winter chilling for ment of the fruiting of olive trees at the successful floral development(Rallo et al. Wagga Wagga orchard and found that 3.3 1992; Voyiatzis and Pritsa 1992). Olives to 3.9% of all flowers were self pollinat- can withstand frosts for a short time ing and had set. Mort (1952) in a similar “provided the thawing takes place under study found that the varieties Sevillano fogs or mild rain” (Anonymous 1873), and Verdale are particularly poor setters. but not below -8°C. Spring frosts are

Figure 2.8. Example of the root distribution of a mature plant at the olive grove (after Connell and Catlin 1994)

12 Biology

Table 2.3 Documented alternate bearing of unpruned olive trees at Wagga Wagga (Source: Mort 1953b).

Variety Alternate bearing Use of olive Crop Drupe size Ascalona pronounced Atro Rubens pronounced oil heavy Attica tendency oil Big Spanish alternate light Blanquette pronounced light small Blanquette (early) pronounced medium Blanquette (late) pronounced light small Bouquettier pronounced oil very heavy Boutillon pronounced oil Bucchine tendency small Corregiola limited oil Cucco limited oil Dr. Fiaschi tendency oil Fantago pronounced light small Gros Redondou pronounced very light HAC pronounced very light Large Fruited limited oil Lucca limited oil Macrocarpa pronounced oil heavy Manzanillo Nº 2 limited pickling Manzanillo Nº 14 limited pickling Mission pronounced pickling Nevadillo Blanco pronounced oil very heavy O de Gras pronounced medium small Oblonga pronounced very light Pera Bore 1 pronounced heavy small Pera Bore 2 pronounced heavy medium Piccholine pronounced very light small Picholine St. Chamais pronounced medium small Pigali pronounced light small Regalis pronounced light Sevilliano very pronounced pickling Tarasacoa tendency oil Verdale tendency oil

13 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

Seed availability The availability of seeds depends on the out the amount of fruit and thus the season and life cycle of a plant. Com- amount of nutrients used. Mort (1953) monly large olive crops in one year are could demonstrate in an experiment con- followed by smaller crops in the next. ducted at the Wagga orchard that pruned This “alternate bearing” has been ob- Manzanillo olive trees bore more fruit served in California (UCCE 1997); Italy overall and that the production was more (Chapman 1896); the Spain (Jordano even (table 2.4). 1987); and in Australia (Anonymous It would appear that alternate bearing 1873; Allen 1902b). Alternate bearing is holds true for both the domesticated/ well developed among Sevillano where cultivated plants and for ferals. For the interval between heavy crops can be example, according to an 19th century three to four years (Mort 1953, p. 257). source, a great variability has been ob- Table 2.3. compiles the experiential data served, with untended/unpruned trees for the Wagga Wagga orchard. Allen which have ample seeds in one year and (1902b) argues that the alternate bearing scarcely any the next (Davey 1873). is more pronounced among unpruned Overall, unpruned trees not only tend to trees than in well tended orchards. Even produce less, but also produce smaller though, the productivity is known to (drupes? and) seeds (Barnard 1881). fluctuate. Substantial growth of olives, however, increases leaf litter generation and fire According to Dal Pero Bertini (1960a, risk (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992, p. p. 32) the plant uses up selected nutrients 523). While flammable, due to the thin in a heavy crop year and cannot establish and well aerated branch network, mature enough flowers in the next (see also olives cannot be destroyed by fire. W. Rallo et al. 1992). Alternate bearing is Frogatt mentions an example from Crete, more pronounced in warmer climates where mature olive orchards had been where the required number of dyas of burnt in a civil feud. For practical pur- chilling to develop the floral buds cannot poses the trees appeared to be dead. yet always be guaranteed (Lavee and Aida they grew new shoots and suckers the 1992). following year (Frogatt quoted in Beverly 1935). Pruning merely acts as a method of fruit thinning and thus tends to balance

Table 2.4. Effect of pruning on the annual yield (in lbs) of Manzanillo olives (Mort 1953). Year 1950 1951 1952 1953 Total Pruned (n=2) 184 137 85 180 586 Unpruned (n=2) 275 7 164 4 450

14 Biology

Use of olive trees The use of olive oil and pickled olives as selled that olives would take 20 years to items of food are culturally conditioned, grow into large and dense shade trees. A with a high consumption in the dual use of shade tree and production traditional olive countries, such as tree, while theoretically possible, was not Greece, Spain, Italy and southern France. practical as the unpruned trees would In the United Kingdom, on the other show alternate bearing and would grow hand, olive oil was only rarely consumed too tall to allow effective harvesting. as table or salad oil. Mort (1950), based on trails at Wagga While today olive oil is primarily an Wagga, recommended the Corregiola, alimentary product, it was also used for Nevadillo Blanco, Mission and Sevillano industrial purposes in the 19th century, varieties as ideal shade and shelter trees. mainly as a lubricant, but also in woollen Both Hall (1972) and Simpfendorfer manufacture (Anonymous 1865b, p. 78) (1975, p. 232) suggested the use of olives and as an emulsifier in the drying of as a hedge and windbreak as the plant raisins (Anonymous 1937). can be trimmed to a hedge if required. According to Hardin (1992, p. 412) the Machinery oil, commonly traded as th subspecies Olea e. europaea is predomi- “Gallipoli oil” in the mid 19 century, nantly used for fruit production, while was often produced from overripe drupes Olea e. africana serves as the main or- that had been gathered up from the namental plant. ground (Macarthur 1871). Oil from such fruit tended to have a rancid taste that Barnard (1882) recommended to use made it unpalatble for human consump- (cheep) seedlings as hedge plants as the tion, a factor irrelevant in industrial ap- yield would be of no consequence, and to plications. In 1899/1900 the Royal Navy plant a high quality, grafted trees every inquired whether olive oil could be pro- 9m (30ft) which should be allowed a cured from the Australian colonies clear stem above the hedge. This would (Anonymous 1900a; 1900e) as both the maximise fruit production while at the Navy and the merchant marine had a high same time check the growth of the hedge. consumption of the oil as a lubricant. Olives had also been planted at In addition to the common use of olive property boundaries at regular intervals trees as producers of fruit for pickling with wires put through the stems, not and table oil production, olives are grown only produceing fruit but also serving as as ornamentals, hedge plants, windbreaks permanent and fireproof fence posts (cf. and shelter plants (Beadle et al. 1982; Th. Hardy’s property at Bankside, SA: Hall 1972; Simpfendorfer 1975). Ander- Crompton 1899). son (1931) in an assessment of the use of Because of their drought resistance trees on farms comments that on the and generally low demands on water western slope of NSW and along the olives have been advocated as landscape coast olives would be suitable plants to plants in other dry countries, such as the provide a shelter belt and windbreak, es- southwest of the USA. Because they are pecially for orchards (figure 2.6). This heavy pollen producers, the fruit bearing had also been advocated in South Aus- varieties have been banned in some areas tralia (Perkins 1916; 1918b; 1921), and the planting of fruitless varieties is Queensland (Benson 1899) and Victoria recommended (cf. Plantadviser 1996; (Pye 1917). Mort (1950), however, coun- Emerson 1997).

15 Figure 2.10. Olea europaea ssp. europaea as a windbreak for an orange orchard at Yanco Agricultural Research Station (Photo: © Dirk H.R. Spennemann 1997).

Figure 2.11. Row of mature Olea europaea ssp. europaea at the southern boundary of the Agricultural Research Institute Paddock at Wagga Wagga (Photo: © Dirk H.R. Spennemann 1997).

16 In the Mediterranean olives have been cause of its longevity, it had been used in th grown also as fodder for goats since the 19 century in lieu of brass for bear- Classical Greek times. Cremer (1990, p. ings in sawmills, especially for circular 381) advocates olives as browse and fod- saws (Maiden 1887). Although the use of der plants suitable for broad scale plant- the wood had been advocated at the time ing in subtropical to temperate Australia of olive introduction (Anonymous 1870), (listed as an economic plant by Hartley olives have not been grown for this pur- 1979, p. 168). pose in Australia. On Norfolk Island, however, Olea europaea ssp. africana The wood of the olive is very hard and has been grown during the period of the marbled and has been traditionally used convict settlement for fence post timber for wood carving. The heartwood of the (Stevenson 1997). olive is hard, oily and cross-grained. Be-

17 3 Current Distribution

Drawing on the botanical literature the during bloom and seed development are approximate distribution of exotic olives also detrimental. if these conditions are (Olea europaea ssp. europaea and Olea not met, olives can still grow, if tended, europaea ssp. africana ) in Australia can but do not tend to fruit and thus are not be determined. In addition to the distri- likely to be dispersed by birds and other bution shown on the maps (figures 3.1 vectors. This normal distribution is al- and 3.2) and in the discussion, olives oc- tered during El Niño/Southern cur in gardens, and especially in Catholic Oscillation years when the climatic belts convents and orphanages run by nuns, as shift marginally with drier conditions in the olive is associated with the Mother the interior and warmer conditions in Mary concept (Moldenke 1953). Both Southern Australia. because of its longevity and its frequent Figure 3.1 compiles the distribution of mention in the bible, inc. the Garden of Olea europaea ssp. europaea and Olea Gethsemane (Jerusalem), olives are fre- africana ssp. europaea in Australia based quent ornamentals in cemeteries on the distribution map provided by Par- (Standish 1960) and occur in the gardens sons and Cuthbertson (1992, p. 522) with of Catholic convents and orphanages. additional data. The fact that the early The parameters limiting the natural dis- clusters of olive distribution centre on persal of Olea europaea europaea in Perth, Adelaide, Melbourne and Sydney Australia are the annual rainfall with the suggest that the spread is mainly due to 500 isohyet being the boundary, and the escaped garden and orchard plants. required night chilling in winter. Frosts

18 Current Distribution

Figure 3.1 Distribution of Olea europaea ssp. europaea and Olea europaea ssp. africana in Australia in the 1960s

Figure 3.2 Distribution of Olea europaea ssp. europaea and Olea europaea ssp. africana in Australia in the 1990s.

19 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

New South Wales and the ACT Jacobs and Pickard (1981) in their census et al. 1987; Cuneo pers. comm. 1997) of NSW plants mention that Olea eu- and in the Windsor districts (Parsons & ropaea ssp. europaea is distributed on Cuthbertson 1992, p. 523). In Camden the northern and central western slopes, Olea europaea ssp. africana showed a while O. europaea ssp. africana is dis- 100% increase in area covered since tributed on the north and central coast. 1985. On the drier ridge areas on Mount Annan Botanic Gardens the olives have Hardin (1992, p. 472) states that Olea become a significant weed problem europaea grows in disturbed sites, often (Cuneo pers. comm. 1997). along roadside and river banks. It occurs south from Lismore area. Olea europaea In urban bushland around Sydney ssp. europaea, planted as a fruit tree, is (Sydney Harbour National Park) Olives occasionally naturalised in the inland Olea europaea ssp. africana) is found districts from Inverell to Grenfell, and is scattered throughout the parkland (Smith reported on the northern and central 1984). Olea europaea ssp. africana is western slopes. Olea europaea ssp. also reported in patches from all three africana, planted as an ornamental, has coastal areas and the and central western often become naturalised and an invasive slopes. Its coverage is patchy, however. weed, occurring chiefly in the coastal dis- For example, it was not found during a tricts from Lismore to Milton. Particu- systematic flora survey of Eurobedalla larly dense populations have been re- National Park on the NSW South Coast ported around the Camden area (Dellow (Lockwood et al. 1997).

Figure 3.3 Large, self seeded Olea europaea var. europaea on the northern slopes of “Winery Hill” Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga NSW. (Photo: © Dirk H.R. Spennemann 1997).

20 Olea europaea ssp. europaea is not ssp. africana on the other hand, has be- mentioned in Western New South Wales come a major invasive weed in all (Cunningham et al. 1981), but reported cleared areas of the Norfolk Island forest, for Broken Hill (Hall 1972, p. 393). as much of its seed crop germinates (Skeat 1984; Stevenson 1997). An almost identical situation exists on Hawai’i, Norfolk Island where Olea europaea ssp. europaea is confined to the original plantings (Green Olea europaea ssp. africana had been 1997) and where Olea europaea ssp. transplanted to Norfolk I. during its use africana has spread (pers comm. Tunison as a convict settlement from 1788 on- 1997). Olives will propagate vegetatively wards, mainly for use as fencepost timber even in near tropical environments (Hermes 1987; Stevenson 1997). The (Connell 1994). subtropical oceanic climate with for olives comparatively high rainfall (mean: 1325mm) is not suitable for the self Australian Capital propagation of Olea europaea ssp. europaea (due to the absence of cold win- Territory ters), even though it is present on the is- The plant is not listed in the 1979 flora of land as an introduced cultivar (Stevenson the ACT (Burbridge & Gray 1979), but 1997). Eradication campaigns in 1987 occurs in as cultivated planting in private (Hermes 1987) were only partially suc- gardens. cessful (Stevenson 1997). Olea europaea

Figure 3.4 Olea europaea var. europaea at a former homestead., now Charles Sturt University, Thurgoona Campus NSW. (Photo: © Dirk H.R. Spennemann 1997).

21 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

34°S

36°S

38°S

140°E 142°E 144°E 146°E 148°E 150°E Figure 3.5. Point data of the distribution of feral Olea europaea ssp. europaea in Victoria (Source: Victorian Flora Database )

Victoria The distribution in Victoria is not well In the Grampians olives from neigh- published. Willis (1972, p. 518) mentions bouring olive orchards have infested olives as spontaneous or long-persistent parts of the national park (Doyle pers. in parts of Victoria. He reports Olea eu- comm 1997). A similar infesttaion of the ropaea as appearing on the steep escarp- Warby Ranges State Park in north-east- ments of the Yarra River at Studley Park. ern Victoria in the 1980s was combatted The Victorian Flora Database was by cutting off the olives and posisoning queried, which furnished a print out the stumps (McDonald pers comm.) showing the point data for feral Olea eu- Abandoned orchards have been ropaea ssp. europaea (figure 3.5.). docuemmnted as the source of incipient Carr et al (1992, p. 51) state that Olea roadside infestations, such as Chiltern europaea ssp. europaea occurs as a se- (MacDonald pers. comm). vere threat distributed widely but in small Dookie Agricultural College had an populations. The vegetation formation olive grove as an orchardry teaching tool predominantly invaded by olives are low since 1879 (Thompson 1891). Little is grassland and woody grassland, dry scle- known about the spread of olives from rophyll forest and open woodland, ripar- that source. An olive plantation near ian vegetation and rock outcrop vegeta- Wangaratta was left to go feral in the tion. 1880s (Thompson 1891).

South Australia Cultivated since the early days of settle- had spread into the Adelaide hills. ment, Fuller (1942) reports that the olive Robertson (1965, p. 685) mentions that

22 Current Distribution the olive has spread spontaneously not number of official trees in the census only on the Adelaide foothills but also (30,000), it appears that some 20,000 into the sandhills at Encounter Bay. The feral olive trees are also harvested 1986 edition of the Flora of South Aus- (Cooke n.d.) tralia mentions that Olea is distributed on the Eyre peninsula, the Yore peninsula the Murray Region, Kangaroo Island, the Southern Lofty Region and the southeastern region (Jessop & Toelken 1986, p. 1037). It is not totally clear whether the spread is solely due to vectors or whether incomplete reporting in the earlier period contributed to this massive spread in distribution. Cooke (1989) shows that feral olives are now abundant around Clare as self-sown plants around road sides, mainly close to old planted olive trees, confined by the 500mm isohyet, and that the olives had spread into Figure 3.6. Point data of the distribution the Northern Lofty and Flinders Ranges of feral Olea europaea ssp. europaea in Regions. South Australia (Source: Cooke n.d.) Given the reported figures of olive oil production in South Australia, and the

Queensland & Western Australia Vegetation surveys of South and Central the coastal areas and the Darling Downs Western Queensland as well as South (Anonymous 1909). Central Queensland have not yet reported the presence of feral Olea sp. (cf. Boy- land 1984; Jessop 1981; Neldner 1984; Western Australia 1991; 1992). Domesticated olives grew well at the turn of the century in the Olea europaea ssp. europaea is reported southern and central parts of Queensland to occur as feral plants from Perth and (Anonymous 1907), and along the coast, the Dale Region (Hnatiuk 1990, p. 408). especially on St. Helena, fruiting well in

Status Once established, Olea europaea forms a declared a community pest species for dense and permanent canopy under three areas 1980, which was extended which olive seedlings can grow, but na- other areas in 1990 (SAAPCC 1990; tive trees cannot regenerate. This charac- Cooke n.d.). Consequently, the olive has teristic was not only observed in South been classified in South Australia as a Australia (Cooke 1991), but also in South noxious weed, class 5, unless planted for Africa (Manders and Richardson 1992). domestic or commercial use (Parsons & In South Australia Olea europaea was Cuthbertson 1992, p. 552). In Victoria

23 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus too its is considered to be an environmen- marginal land and disturbed lands, for tal weed (Carr et al 1992, p. 51). example along road sides, riparian strips In Sydney Harbour National Park and so forth such as in California (Maslin Olea europaea ssp. africana is found 1996), Hawai’i (pers. comm. Tunison scattered throughout the area and recog- 1997) and South Africa (Manders and nised as a plant pest potentially capable Richardson 1992; Richardson and Fraser of creating a much greater problem 1995). In the South African example (Smith 1984). In the Camden area of olives had been found in all survey NSW olives have invaded remnant bush- squares of scrubland, indicating that Olea land (Dellow et al. 1987) and pose a europaea var. africana successfully major problem in Mt. Annan Botanical spread on a wide front and was posed to Garden (Cuneo 1997). Eradication was dominate the bushland. conducted on Norfolk Island (Hermes Clearly, the new thrust to develop an 1987; Stevenson 1997). Australian olive industry in the 1990s has The importance of olives as a woody meant the proliferation of new olive or- weed is increasingly recognised. It is, for chards, both on a commercial and a small example, not included in Lamp and Col- hobby scale. The trend continues at pre- let’s Field guide to weeds in Australia sent. All of these plantations now form (1976; 1989), but treated extensively in focal points of new weed invasions Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992, p. throughout much of New South Wales, 522ff.). Victoria and South Australia. The problem will become exacerbated if the new In South Australia a number of weed ventures become uneconomic and the or- eradication programs were conducted (cf. chards are let up to run feral. Olives may Bellette 1993; Hawkins 1994; Stafford well become the major woody weed of and Venning 1984; Robertson 1984). the next decade. All over the world olives have proven themselves to be successful invaders of

24 Figure 3.7. Self seeded olives along a road side verge. CSU Wagga Wagga Campus (Photo © Dirk H.R. Spennemann 1997).

Figure 3. 8. Self seeded olives in remnant bushland. CSU Wagga Wagga Campus (Photo © Dirk H.R. Spennemann 1997).

25 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

4 Olives in Australia

Traditionally, olives are widespread culti- Alcalá in Southern California, the vars throughout the Mediterranean, with “Mission” variety of olives became wide subfossil seeds occurring commonly in spread in California, and the southern the Bronze Age (Metcalfe 1966; Zohary USA (Louisiana, Mississippi, Florida, and Spiegel-Roy 1975), with the to date Arizona, and New Mexico) and was in- oldest samples obtained from troduced overseas, among them Australia archaeological contexts in Spain dated to (Marvin 1888; Connell 1994). The Por- 7410±70BP associated with late tuguese introduced olives to Brazil, Epipalaeolithic material culture (Barton British enterprise carried them to India, et al. 1990). During the Greek Classical South Africa, New Zealand, Australia period olives were predominant crop in and HongKong, and from there through the Near East (Syria, Lebanon, western China (Allen 1901a; Coates Palestine), spreading through Greece and 1902). Because of its apparent use as a Italy, and during the Roman times not very demanding plant, various becoming an important crop in the south governments provided financial of France and especially in Spain and incentives to grow olives (cf. US northern Africa. Olive cultivation was of Department of the Treasury 1818a-b; great importance in ancient Greece and Anonymous 1921a). Rome with sixteen varieties known British trading interests owned large (Hehn 1902, pp. 102-121; Groß 1975). olive plantations in Italy and Spain. The The usefulness of the plant, especially Estate of the Duke of Wellington at as a source of oil, saw its rapid spread to Granada, for example, comprised in addi- the Spanish colonies in Chile (1560) and tion to vineyards of an olive grove of Peru (early 1600s), Argentina (La Rioja, 36,000 trees (deCastella 1908). It was 1600s), Mexico (early 1700s), and Cali- from plantations such as this that the de- fornia. (Allen 1901a; CPJ 1884; Titarelli mand for olive oil in the British colonies 1997). Introduced in 1769 by Spanish was met—at least until such time when missionaries to the Mission San Diego de own plantations had been developed.

26 Table 4.1 Mentions of olives in Sydney and Melbourne Newspapers until 1855 Year Date Newspaper Item 1812 May 23 Sydney Gazette George Suttor introduces olive and date palm plants 1822 November 29 Sydney Gazette Medals offered by the Society of the Arts for olive oil from NSW. Gold medal for 10 gals of first oil in British colonies of Africa or NSW, Silver medal more than 6 gallons of fine oil in ditto, specimens to be produced on the last Tuesday in February of the years 1825, 1826 or 1827 1824 February 26 Sydney Gazette Premium offered by the Society of the Arts for olive oil from NSW. Conditions as above, but extended to 1828 1826 January 9 Sydney Gazette Premium offered by the Society of the Arts for olive oil from NSW. Conditions as above, but extended to 1829 1827 January 15 Sydney Gazette Olives now bearing in the Botanical Gardens, Sydney 1827 October 5 Sydney Gazette Description of an olive tree in the Botanical Garden, Sydney, flowering for the first time, six years after planting 1829 February 14 Sydney Gazette Editorial on the need to improve the olive production in NSW. The history of the olive introduction and its potential are described 1829 February 14 Sydney Gazette Free cuttings to be had at the Botanical Gardens, Sydney 1829 February 23 Sydney Monitor Editorial criticising the views of the Sydney Gazette 1829 March 3 Sydney Gazette Editorial criticising the views of the Sydney Monitor 1829 March 3 Sydney Gazette Letter criticising the views of the Sydney Monitor 1829 March 9 Sydney Monitor Editorial criticising the views of the Sydney Gazette 1830 January 23 Sydney Gazette Article mentioning an abundant crop of olives in the Botanic Gardens 1831 May 11 Sydney Monitor Article by Thomas Sheppard on olive culture 1836 August 11 The Colonist Advertisement for olive oil and pickled French olives (J.B. Bossley) 1836 August 11 The Colonist List of commodity prices, inc. olive oil 1836 December 15 The Colonist Advertisement for pickled French olives (J.B. Bossley) 1836 December 22 The Colonist Advertisement for pickled French olives (Lipscomb & Co.) 1841 August 7 Australian Prizes for olive oil offered by the Floral and Horticultural Society 1842 September 21 Australian Editorial on the resources of the colony, arguing for the production of olive oil, then retailing at 2/6 per gallon 1842 October 11 Sydney Morning Advertisement for imported olive oil, first quality 12s/gal, Herald second quality 9s/gal. 1842 October 17 Australian Editorial on the olive 1842 November 30 Sydney Gazette 1843 April 27 Sydney Morning Letter to the editor by J.W. of Jamberoo, proposing wide Herald propagation of olives 1843 August 23 Sydney Morning Letter to the editor by J.W. of Jamberoo, on colonial produc- Herald tions’, inc. olives 1843 June 5 Sydney Morning Letter by EW.S. Hall, in response to previous item. Provides Herald a discussion of imports and import substitution opportunities 1844 March 21 Sydney Morning Article on olive cultivation Herald 1853 May 18 Argus Stating that olives were not successful in Victoria

27 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

Introduction of olives to Australia Olives were among the earliest exotic When the South Australian olive crop plants brought to Australia. George had borne fruit and had provided Suttor introduced an olive in 1800 to commercial quantities, the South New South Wales. Since then olives have Australian experience was paraded to the been introduced on several occasions to other colonies by the South Australian Australia and are now cultivated in most ‘protagonists’ Samuel Davenport (1864; states. Without doubt, however, the most 1870; 1871a-b; 1892), William Boothby successful olive industry was established (1878) and J.Brown (1884), often in South Australia. combining Australian and European data Olive growing was seen by many as a (Villanis 1884). The nursery trade also suitable means to make the most of the weighed in, providing some handy hints dry land encountered inland of the settled in the back pages of their trade coast. In the early period of the colonies catalogues (cf. Shepherd 1851). William in Australia a number of pamphlets were Macarthur, producer of olive oil since the written that set out the methods of olive 1820s, also commented on olive cultiva- cultivation in the traditional olive tion, but did so only rarely and then in countries of Spain, Portugal, Italy and not well publicised places (Macarthur France, and which provided 1871). recommendations for the successful In the period of the 1820s to 1840s transplantation of the olive to the Sydney, Melbourne and Perth papers Australian environments (cf. Busby commented on the desirability of 1839; Duncan 1844; Mitchell 1849). Oth- cultivating the olive. The London-based ers advocated the same for a local, rather Society for the Encouragement of the than colonial audience (cf. Waugh 1851). Arts, Manufactures and Commerce Occasionally articles appeared that advo- offered prizes for colonial olive oil as cated the cultivation and use of olives as early as 1822, with the deadline being evidence of a cultured society. “J.W.” of expanded to 1829 (table 4.1). Further Jamberoo, in a letter to the editor of the encouragement occurred. In 1842, for Sydney Morning Herald of April 1843, example, the Australian editorialised that for example, wrote a three-column item “the cultivation of the olive may be discussing the antiquity of the olive and undertaken with profit to individuals and its suitability for Australia, replete with the greatest positive advantage to the Latin quotes. colonies”(Australian 17 October 1842, p. The trend to draw upon at overseas ex- 2). amples for guidance continued even after It is of interest to note that little com- Australian experiences had been made munication seems to have taken place be- not only in South Australia but also in tween the British settlement in Western NSW (Bernays 1872; Browne 1883). E. Australia and the eastern colonies. At- Neville-Rolfe, British consul at Naples, tempts to develop an Western Australian provided a report on the olive industry of olive oil industry seem to have been Italy for the British Parliament. Excerpts made in isolation (Anonymous 1929). from this report were reprinted in both the Agricultural Gazette of New South The 1860s to 1880s saw a continual Wales and the Queensland Agricultural stream of small articles, mainly letters to Journal (Neville-Rolfe 1898a-b). the editors, suggesting recipes for the

28 Olives in Australia pickling of olives as well as general hints on the culture of olives Bartee 1871; Howitt 1871; Davenport 1871b; Anony- Olive oils shown at Inter- mous 1879a-b; Sangar 1866). Despite re- national Exhibitions peated attempts by the governments of NSW and Victoria to develop a viable Australian olive oils were shown at a olive industry, the production of olive oil number of international and intercolonial was essentially confined to South Aus- exhibitions, with the aim of tralia until the 1930s. demonstrating to potential buyers that At the turn of the century formal gov- high quality oils could be procured ernment involvement occurred, following regionally and locally. Table 4.2 the formation the Departments of compiles the available evidence for olive Agriculture in New South Wales (1890), oils exhibited, while table 4.3 presents Victoria (1889), Queensland (1887), the data for the pickled olives. South Australia (1888) and Western Figure 4.1 plots the number of Aus- Australia. In addition to the ongoing tralian papers written on the topic of research into propagation, interest olive propagation and the use of the developed in the establishment of an drupes. The histogram reflects the overall organised industry. A number of articles interest in the topic. The frequency of appeared in the journals of the various papers on olives shows a cyclical pattern. Departments of Agriculture describing The rationale for the olive oil production, and assessing the olive oil and pickling mainly as a means of import substitution, industries of Spain, Italy and France (cf. is determined in one or more papers, fol- deCastella 1908). lowed by a flurry of papers on the topic. Research and observation had shown Then the issue of the olive industry dies that most of temperate Australia was suit- down, mainly due to economic failure, able for olive production, assuming the only to be resurrected one or two decades locality was neither too wet nor to too later. dry, and that olives could even be grown In the 1870s olives were heavily advo- in tropical Queensland, but would not cated as a means of import substitution produce any fruit on a reliable basis. The and consequently a number of papers and influence of the soils on the quality of the treatises was published. This continued, olive oil was also discussed (Pye 1917). on a lesser scale, in the 1880s. The Systematic observations made at formation of the departments of Dookie College in Victoria, for example, agriculture in the 1890s meant the showed that each sample of olive oil renewed effort to utilise olives as an pressed there from growers in the area alternative means of income, especially not only varied in texture, colour and in the drier areas. This resulted in a taste between the olive varieties use, but number of experimental papers published also within the varieties also between the in the first decade of this century. Then areas it came from (Pye 1917). Little was the interest in the topic flagged, made of this observation until the recent resurfacing in the late 1940s and the advent of ‘designer labelled” olive oils. 1950s, following the war effort and especially the post-war immigration of Italians and Greeks which resulted in both a real and a perceived demand for the fruit. In the 1980s and 1990s interest again surfaced, driving once more by the ideas

29 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus of import substitution and the provision Olive plantations were established in of a local alternative to expensive food most Australian states with the exception items. To a degree the revived impetus in of Tasmania. olives mirrors the success of the Australian wine industry in the 1980s and 1990s.

Table 4.2. Origin of Australasian olive oil samples exhibited at intercolonial and international exhibitions Exhibition Year S.A. NSW Vic. W.A. N.Z. Source Great International London 1851 ■ Maiden 1888 Exhibition International Exhibition London 1862 ■ Knight 1865 New Zealand Exhibition Dunedin 1865 ■ Anonymous 1865a Intercolonial Exhibition of Melbourne 1866 ■ ■ ■ Anonymous Australasia 1866a Intercolonial Exhibition Sydney 1870 ■ Anonymous 1870b International Exhibition Vienna 1872 ■ Davenport 1892 International Exhibition Philadelphia 1876 ■ Scott 1888 Universal International Paris 1878 ■ Boothby 1878 Exhibition International Exhibition Sydney 1879 ■ Anonymous 1879a International Exhibition Melbourne 1880 ■ Scott 1888 Indian Exhibition Calcutta 1883 ■ Scott 1888 Colonial and Indian Exhi- London 1886 ■ ■ ■ Scott 1888 bition Centennial International Melbourne 1888/89 ■ ■ ■ Anonymous Exhibition 1890b New Zeal. & South Seas Dunedin 1889/90 ■ ■ Hastings 1891 Exhibition Franco-British Exhibition London 1908 ■ ■ Anonymous 1908

Table 4.3. Origin of Australasian samples of pickled olives exhibited at intercolonial and international exhibitions Exhibition Year S.A. NSW Vic. Qld N.Z. Source International Exhibition Melbourne 1880 ■ Anonymous 1880 International Exhibition Sydney 1879 ■ ■ Anonymous 1879b New Zeal. & South Seas Dunedin 1889/90 ■ Hastings 1891 Exhibition Franco-British Exhibition London 1908 ■ Anonymous 1908

30 Olives in Australia

0 1830 1850 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1990

Figure 4.1. Number of papers written on olives (by decade)

The Protagonists • George Chaffey (1848-1932), irrigation pioneer and The protagonists of the olive introduction entrepreneur in Canada and to Australia were mainly viticulturists, Victoria; for whom olives were a side line. Among the protagonists were: • George Suttor (1774-1859), settler and horticulturalist in New • Samuel Davenport (1818-1906), South Wales; and landowner and parliamentarian in South Australia; • John Morphett (1089-1892), land owner and politician in South • Thomas Hardy (1830-1912), vi- Australia. gneron in South Australia; Data on the olive oil production of the • James Busby (1901-1871), viticultur- various Australian colonies and States is ist and civil servant in New either non-existent, as the industry was South Wales; too small and insignificant to be enumer- • William Boothby (1829-1903), Sher- ated, or patchy. The most complete data iff of Adelaide and returning set comes from South Australia. With the officer for South Australia; formation of the Commonwealth annual • Thomas Henry Fiaschi (1853-1927), statistics exist, but they, too, are quite medical practitioner and vi- patchy. There are no data specifically for gneron in New South Wales; the volume of pickled olives imported to • John Ignatius Bleasdale (1822-1884), Australia. Catholic clergyman and educator Various authors discussed the eco- in Victoria; nomic prospects of developing an olive oil industry in various colonies/states of

31 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

Australia. The main hurdle was the com- the olive industry in Australia following parably high costs of collecting/picking World War II was the large influx of mi- the drupes in Australia, compared to the grants from the Mediterranean countries, cheap labour available in the Mediter- which created a new domestic market for ranean countries. This observation was both olive oil and pickled olives. made throughout the life of the industry, By 1961 olive processing in Australia from Macarthur in 1871 to Macdonald in was limited. No table olive processing 1917 and Beverly in 1935. (pickling) plants existed in the country The Queensland Agricultural Journal and all oil was pressed at five mills in commented on this and argued that the Adelaide, Renmark, Mildura, Robinvale low wages paid in Spain and Italy were (since 1954) and Leeton (Hartmann exploitation and that Australian produced 1962). oil should be preferred on these grounds. Other argued that the Commonwealth tariff of 2 shillings per gallon on imported olive oil could be increased to protect a budding local olive oil industry (cf. Macdonald 1911). The main reason why the olive industry did not expand in the 1920s and 1930s was that olive oil and pickled fruit were not staple diet items for the majority of Australians and because mineral oils had replaced olive oil as a lubricant for machinery (Macdonald 1911; Fowler 1939b). The interruption of shipping in WWII and the events of the war in the olive pro- ducing countries of France, Spain, Italy and Greece, saw the volume of olive imports drop from 358,000 gallons in 1938 to 14 gallons in 1942. Correspondingly the prize for imported oil climbed from 10-13 s/gal to 28-30 s/gal in 1942 (Hartmann 1962). The price development and the shortage of imported oil, coupled with a war ministry objective to improve the production of oils and other fats brought about a renewed interest in the development of an Australian olive industry. Following the end of the war the acreage of olive plantations increased dramatically from 340 acres in 1943 to 7233 acres in 1959. The main expansion of the industry occurred in Victoria. A factor which aided the development of

32 5 Olives in Wagga

The 1860s saw the development of agri- societies but to take a central and leading culture of New South Wales expand and role, the New South Wales government the ‘wheat frontier’ being pushed further formally established in 1890 the NSW and further away from Sydney. In the late Department of Agriculture. The main aim 1870s and early 1880s the inland of the new department, placed under the districts, such as the Riverina had direction of H.C.L. Anderson, was to en- become a major grain producer (Butler gage in the collection and dissemination 1959). The development of the railway, of ‘all useful information in regard to reaching Albury in 1881, and here agriculture in its many branches … [to] especially the establishment of branch introduce and distribute new seeds and lines in the 1890s made increased wheat cuttings’ and so forth. The Department production a viable option (Dunsdorfs was to analyse soils, investigate 1956; Robinson 1976). Despite the exten- orchardry and animal husbandry, and sion of the arable land, and increased send samples of wheats and other cereals acreage of land under wheat, the average and crops to a number of farmers as field wheat yields quickly declined due to an trials. exhaustion of the soil and increased In addition, along the lines of Victori- infestation with weeds and plant diseases. a’s Dookie College (founded in 1876 as a The 1889 wheat season in NSW almost farm, 1886 as a college) and South Aus- failed when most of the harvest was de- tralia’s Roseworthy College, the NSW stroyed by an outbreak of wheat rust (a government decided to establish one or fungal disease). Millers were even forced more agricultural colleges and, at the to import wheat from abroad for the first least, farm schools integrated into the time in many years. Similar trends had research farms. Each farm was to be in a been observed in the other colonies as different area of the state and had been well, and ominous sign for the future allocated different research directions. In economic development of the Australian 1891 the Department of Agriculture economies. planned for the establishment of four In view of this disaster, and in view of experimental farms and farm schools, over five years of pressure from rural one of them in Wagga Wagga lobby groups not just to fund agricultural (Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales 2[7], 1891, 429; 2[12], 1891, 814).

33 Figure 5.1. View of the experimental farm (orchards) seen from the top of the granary (Photo taken about 1903)

Figure 5. 2 View of Bald Hill from the east. Note the experimental orchards in the foreground. Photo taken about 1903.

Due to the recession of 1890-93 only It had been intended to commence the Agricultural College and research work on the Wagga Wagga Experimental farm at Hawkesbury was begun (in Farm in December 1891 (initially called 1891). the Murrumbidgee Experimental Farm),

34 Olives in Wagga Wagga but the legalities of the excise of the area Agriculture, in April it was announced an required for the farm from the Wagga orchard was to be established Wagga temporary Commons could not be (Anonymous 1894). Shortly after accomplished as quickly as anticipated. development progressed (Wagga Wagga Eventually dedicated in October 1892, Advertiser 14 June 1894, p. 3). the land chosen for the farm was in many respects this was not the best land in the area, and thus suitable to demonstrate farming in adverse conditions. The initial agricultural development of the farm be- gan in April 1893 with forty acres of bushland and wood land being cleared, grubbed and ploughed. Sample crops were sown and planted. In the middle May 1893, for example, Nathan Cobb went to Wagga Wagga to sow over a period of four days some 200-300 varieties of wheat in drills side by side to test their qualities and to select the best returns for future sowing (Coleman 1894). In a parallel fashion a major orchard was established, comprising, among other trees, olives.

Introduction of olives to Figure 5.3. A Nevadillo Blanco variety at the Wagga Wagga Experimental Wagga Wagga Farm in 1901 (Allen 1901).

During August and September 1891 the The Wagga Wagga orchard was estab- NSW Department of Agriculture lished in January 1894 with the planting obtained 500 olive truncheons from Sir of pears, plums, prunes, mulberries, Samuel Davenport’s olive grove in South quinces, persimmons, chestnuts and other Australia. Obtained were truncheons fruit trees (figures 5.1 and 5.2). A row of from four varieties originally from the olive varieties had also been planted with south of France: Verdale, Bouquettier, an eye on a complete collection of Blanquette, and Pigale. varieties available in Australia (Pelc These had been split and distributed 1980). Seeds and cuttings had been “to a large number of applicants in all obtained from Sir Samuel Davenport’s parts of the colony”, many of which had crop in Beaumont, South Australia, as struck root by the time a report was well as Dookie Agricultural College in written in late 1892 (Anonymous 1892). Victoria. The olive orchard had been The Department of Agriculture also planted by June 1894. In the same year planted olives on its experimental farms the orchardist Benson wrote: of Hawkesbury, and Wollongbar. “Amongst the trees from During a visit to the Wagga California was a very fine Experimental Farm by H.Wood, collection of olives, so that Undersecretary for Agriculture and W.S. now we have at Wagga the Campbell, Chief Clerk, Dept of finest collection and the best varieties in Australia,

35 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

as in addition to the South Australia” (Benson Californian trees we have 1894, p. 853-854). specimens of the best trees that are at present growing in this colony and also in

Figure 5.4. Aerial view of the Olive orchard, Wagga Wagga Campus of Charles Sturt University. Scale approx. 1: 5500. Date: April 1971. (Source: Orthophotomap 1:4000 Wagga Agricultural College 2717-VIII).

36 Olives in Wagga Wagga

Figure 5.5. Cover of the olive extension booklet published by W.J. Allen based on his Wagga Wagga research

37 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

Figure 5.6. Example of a descriptive plate (I) contained in Allen's 1902 extension booklet. 1 Amellau, 2 Blanquette, 3 Regalis

38 Olives in Wagga Wagga

Figure 5.7. Example of a descriptive plate (VII) contained in Allen's 1902 extension booklet. 19-Verdale, 20 Atro violacea, 21 Gros Redondou, 22 Boutillon

39 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

Figure 5.8. The experimental olive oil yield of 1901 (Allen 1902)

40 Olives in Wagga Wagga

Table 5.1. The first oil results from the Wagga Wagga Orchard (Allen 1902) Date of Har- Nº to Average Oil (g)/kg Variety vesting lb weight of olives Crop load Oil (oz) Macrocarpa 4 June 1900 179 2.53 93.75 Heavy 1.5 Amelan 6 June 1900 78 5.82 125.00 Heavy 2 Pleureur 8 June 1900 160 2.84 875.01 Small 14 Pigale 10 June 1900 90 5.04 687.50 Small 11 Dr. Fiaschi 12 June 1900 254 1.79 562.50 Medium 9 Gros Redondou 19 June 1900 129 3.52 375.00 Small 6 Bouquettier 23 June 1900 308 1.47 125.00 Heavy 2 Corregiola 28 June 1900 132 3.44 875.01 Heavy 14 Boutillan 3 July 1900 200 2.27 703.13 Medium 11.25 Blanquette 5 July 1900 248 1.83 62.50 Medium 1 Cucco 10 July 1900 104 4.36 93.75 Heavy 1.5 In a simultaneous move an orchard southern side of McKeown Drive from the had been started at Pera Bore also in managers house towards the east (starting 1894, which produced some fruit in with modern tree nº 70). All these trees had 1901 (Allen 1901) and, shortly af- been planted in 1897 and pruned in 1921 terward (1897) an orchard at Native (p. 200). Of these all but the eastern-most Dog Bore (Coghlan 1899, p. 382). tree (ex nº 26, Arecrizza variety) survive. The government statistics for 1895 show that 30 acres of olives had been planted at the Murrumbidgee Experimental Farm (Coghlan 1895, p. 442). Later this figure was reduced to 8 acres (Coghlan 1897b, p. 359). An article on the 1897 open day of the Wagga Wagga Farm mentions that an additional 10 acres were being prepared for the cultivation of olives in an orchard (Wagga Wagga Advertiser 27 November 1897). This area was established in addition to the official collection of olive varieties already planted along Bomen Road (now McKeown Drive). The olive grove is now reputedly the single largest olive gene pool in Australia. Approximately a total of 60 varieties had been introduced to Australia at the turn of the century Figure 5.9. Oil press used at the Wagga (Hobham 1995a) and a large percentage Wagga Experimental Farm in 1901 of these are represented in the (Source: Allen 1901) Wagga Wagga Orchard. The history of alternate bearing is doc- The orchard book (SA 24/2) shows umented for the Wagga orchard, with 1902 the list of olives planted along the being a good, and 1903 being a weak year.

41 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

The same was observed for the truncheons from Navara (Spain). These Hawkesbury Orchard (Agricultural were planted in orchard block nº 8, and Gazette 14, 1903, 822). then replanted along McKeown Drive in In 1901 the Wagga olive trees had 1935 (Orchard book SA 24/2 p. 199). come into bearing for the first time. The The orchard books provide some in- orchardist W.J.Allen prepared a formal formation on the original layout of the or- description of the varieties planted at chard and on the varieties planted in areas Wagga and their potential for pickling 1 and 8 (see figures 5.4 to 5.6). The olive and oil production. This series of papers trees planted in area 1 and 8 all had origi- in the Agricultural Gazette of NSW nally been planted from truncheons in formed the basis for a formal extension 1932 and those in area 8A had been moved document produced by the NSW De- to new locations in 1935. All trees in area partment of Agriculture (Allen 1902). 1 and area 8 stem from a consignment of This document formed the peak of olive truncheons from Navara (Spain). development of olive research in Two olives (row 1, trees 2 and 3) had Wagga Wagga. Most of the data were arrived in Wagga Wagga without reproduced over time, with only packaging labels and their variety could minimal amendments until 1919. not be ascertained at the time of planting. Based on the Wagga experiments A 1955 orchard map claims them to be Allen (1919) recommended the varieties Boucchine. Figures 5.10 to 5.12. show the Bouquettier, Gros Rendonneu, Hardy’s layout of the olive plantations as shown in Mammoth, Blanquette, Verdale, and the orchard books. Figure 5.14. shows the Silver Verdale as the most suitable olive arrangement of the orchard plots as shown varieties for non-irrigated orchardry in in the orchard books. Figure 5.8 provides New South Wales. shows the current orchard layout, based on an orchard map put together in 1963. The current species list has been reproduced in Extending the col- Appendix B2, together with data on planting and introduction. It is to be noted lection that the species identification as given in Another emphasis on olive production the orchard map of 1963 as at odds with occurred in the 1930s. In 1932 a the identification given in the original number of varieties were obtained as orchard books. ! South North " Row Tree 6 Tree 5 Tree 4 Tree 3 Tree 2 Tree 1 1 Regalaise Borregiola label lost label lost Bouchine Languedoc 2 Oji blanco Barouni Barouni Salome Corregiola doncel 3 Oblitza Large Large Sevillano Manzanillo Manzanillo fruited fruited Nº 2 Nº 14 4 Apple Apple Apple Apple Apple Apple 5 Apple Apple Apple Apple Apple Apple 6 Apple Apple Apple Apple Apple Apple

Figure 5.10. Layout of olive planting in area 1 in 1934 (plants shown in italics are no longer present). (Source: NSW Riverina Archives Wagga Wagga SA 24/2, page 2.

42 Olives in Wagga Wagga

Figure 5.11. The Wagga Farm looking east as seen from the olive orchard. The row of trees in the right background, running northward (left) from the street) is the remains of large scale olive planting in the 1890s.

Row 1 Row 2 Row 3 Tree 1 Dr. Fiaschi Lucca Attica Tree 2 Lucca Verdale Rubra Tree 3 Macrocarpa Pigale Peccholine Tree 4 Sevillano Olive de Gras Frantojo Tree 5 Macrocarpa Olive de Gras Oblonga Tree 6 Pecholine St. Chamis Belle d’Espagne Big Spanish Tree 7 Olive de Gras Seedling 1934 Columella Tree 8 Nevadillo Blanco Manzanillo Nº 14 Polymorpha Tree 9 Nevadillo Blanco Pendulina Atro Violecea Tree 10 Cucco Lucca Regalis Tree 11 Cucco Olive de Gras Gros Redoneau Tree 12 Hardy’s Mammoth Hardy’s Mammoth Amelau Tree 13 Pera Bore Boutillan Verdale Tree 14 Pera Bore Artro Rubens Verdale Tree 15 Pera Bore Boutillan Figure 5.12. Layout of olive planting in area 8A in 1934 (plants shown in italics are no longer present). Notes: A-Almond tree; P-Peach tree. (Source: NSW Riverina Archives Wagga Wagga SA 24/2, page 187-190.)

43 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

! South North " Row Tree 8 Tree 7 Tree 6 Tree 5 Tree 4 Tree 3 Tree 2 Tree 1 1A P 1 P Palermo P Barouni 2A P P P P P P 2 P Bouchine P Bouchine P Regalaise P Regalaise Langued Langued oc oc 3A P P P P P P P P 3 P Salome P Oji P Lucques P Lucques blanco doncel 4A P P P P P P P P 4 P Blan- P Blan- P Borre- P Rubra B. quette quette giolo d'Aise early late 5A P P P P P P P P 5 A Oji A Mission A Corre- A Barouni blanco giola doncel 6A A A A A A A A A 6 A Man- A Man- A Man- A Man- zanillo zanillo zanillo zanillo Nº 14 Nº 14 Nº 2 Nº 2 7A A A A A A A A A 7 A Oblitza A Large A Large A Large Fruited Fruited Fruited 8A A A A A A A A A 8 A Oblitza A Corre- A Corre- A Gaeta giola giola 9A A A A A A A A A 9 A Ascalano 10A A A A A A A A A 10 A A A A A A A A 11A A A A A A A A A

Figure 5.13. Layout of olive planting in area 8 in 1934 (plants shown in italics are no longer present). Notes: A-Almond tree; P-Peach tree. (Source: NSW Riverina Archives Wagga Wagga SA 24/2, page 187-190.).

44 Olives in Wagga Wagga

Figure 5.14. Layout of the main orchard areas 1941 (Source: NSW Riverina Archives Wagga Wagga SA 24/2)

45 46 Olives in Wagga Wagga

Figure 5.15. Phylogeny of the feral olive stock derived from the olice collection at the Wagga Wagga Experimental Farm.

47 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

Original layout 1897 1935 expansion

1 2 3

4 5 6 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 7

8 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 9 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

10 15 20

11 16 21 35 12 17 22

13 34 18 23

14 10 24

25 70 33 71 32 72 31 73

74 30

75 29 76 77 78 79 28 80 81 82 27 83 84 85 26 86

87 88 89 90 91 92 93

Rootstock trails (1948) and reduction in 1961 Current Layout (1998) Figure 5.16. Variations in the layout of the olive orchard

48 Olives in Wagga Wagga

Table 5.2 Olive varieties represented at Wagga Wagga Campus (see table B2. for ID Nos.)

Obtained Year Introdu- Originally Allen Mort Variety from acquired ced via from 1902 1953b Amelon (Amellau) 1897 France ❖ ❖ Atro Rubens France ❖ ❖ Atro Violacea Dookie College 1894 France ❖ ❖ Attica Greece ❖ Barouni California 1914? Tunisia ❖ Belle d’Espagne (Bella Spain ❖ ❖ di Spagna) Big Spanish Spain ❖ Blanquette Davenport 1894 France ❖ Blanquette (Early) France ❖ ❖ Blanquette (Late) France ❖ Borregiolla Italy ❖ Bouchine France ❖ Bouquettier Davenport 1894 France ❖ ❖ Boutillon 1897 France ❖ ❖ Columella Italy ❖ ❖ Corregiola 1897 Tuscany, It. ❖ ❖ Cucco 1897 Italy ❖ Dr Fiiaschi Tizzana Vine- 1897 Sicily, Italy ❖ ❖ yard Frantojo/ Fantago Italy ❖ Gaeta Spain ❖ Gros Redoneaux 1897 France ❖ ❖ HAC [*] Hawkesbury ❖ Hardy’s Mammoth Hardy’s (SA) Davenport ? Spain (?) ❖ Large Fruited Davenport Spain ❖ Lucca Italy ❖ Lucques France ❖ Manzanillo No 2 Spain ❖ ❖ Manzanillo Nº 14 Spain ❖ Marcocarpa 1897 Italy ❖ ❖ Mission California 1894 Spain ❖ Nevadillo Blanco Spain ❖ O de Gras Davenport (SA) France ❖ Oblitza Italy ❖ Oblonga Dookie College 1894 France ❖ ❖

49 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

Table 5.2 Olive varieties represented at Wagga Wagga Campus (cont.

Year Introdu- Originally Allen Mort Variety Obtained from acquired ced via from 1902 1953b Oje Blanco Doncel Navara 1932 Spain ❖ Palermo Italy ❖ Pecholine France ❖ Pecholine de St Chamis France ❖ Pendulina Italy ❖ ❖ Pera Bore No 1 Pera Bore Exp Farm 1932 ❖ Pera Bore No 2 Pera Bore Exp Farm 1932 ❖ Pera Bore No 3 Pera Bore Exp Farm 1932 Pigale Davenport 1894 France ❖ Polymorpha Dookie College 1894 France ❖ ❖ Praecox ❖ Regalaise de Languedoc France ❖ Regalis Dookie College 1894 France ❖ ❖ Rubra ❖ Rubra d’Aix [**] France ❖ Salone [***] Greece ❖ ❖ Sevillano Spain ❖ Tarascon France ❖ Verdale Davenport 1894 France ❖ Wagga Seedling Wagga Farm [*]– Hawkesbury Agricultural College. In addition two trees of unknown provenance; [**]- also known as Rubra B. de Aixe; [***] Synonyms: Salome, Salonica.

Table 5.3 Olive varieties no longer represented at Wagga Wagga Campus

Year Introdu- Originally Allen Mort Variety Obtained from acquired ced via from 1902 1953b Arecluzzo/Arecrizza Italy ❖ Ascolano/Ascolana Italy ❖ Columbaro Italy ❖ Pleureur France ❖ Ragialo Italy ❖ Regati Italy ❖ Silver Verdale France ❖

The extension of the collection also al- Bore (three seedlings) and Hawkesbury lowed to trial seedlings obtained from Agricultural College, as well as a other experimental farms such as Pera seedling from Wagga itself.

50 Olives in Wagga Wagga

The extension of the collection gave Figure 5.16 shows the phylogeny of rise to a new series of experiments and a the feral trees on the Wagga Wagga Win- new push for olive culture to be estab- ery Hill. As can be seen, the flow of lished in NSW (cf. Bryden 1936a-b). cultivars is quite complex. The important During World War II the war effort de- element is that the stock used in Wagga manded that all sectors of the Australian has gone through several stages of economy contribute. As a result the olive acclimatisation in Australia, in Dookie oil production in Wagga Wagga was College, at Camden Park, Parramatta, analysed. This was not confined to NSW, and at Samuel Davenport’s estate and as documents from South Australia show other localities in South Australia. Some (Fowler 1940; Steer 1940). stock was directly imported to The Wagga orchardist H.C. Mort was Wagga Wagga. the main protagonist following the war, publishing a variety of papers on olive propagation (Mort 1949; 1950a-b; 1951; Reducing the collection 1953a-b; 1956) and utilisation (Mort Olive oil production picked up during 1951). World War II but fell again after the war. An economic assessment of in 1947 argued that while there was a demand for Rootstock Trials olive oil, the market was not sufficient to In 1950 a number of rootstock and graft- make an expansion of the olive industry ing trials was conducted when viable (Ballantyne 1947a-b). Manzanillo Nº 14 were grafted onto a J.R. Davison, manager of the variety of rootstocks. These rootstocks Agricultural research farm in 1959, had also formed the basis of a vegetative recommended that most of the olive trees propagation experiment two years earlier be removed, as there was no market for (Mort 1950a). The remains of these olive oil (unless the harvest failed rootstock trials survive as a row of olives elsewhere), and only a limited market for running north-south just east of the pickled olives. According to Davison, a winery building. Figure 5.13 shows the that time three distinct groups of olives lay-out of the rootstock trials of 1948-49 existed: conducted in sections Ia and Ib. These 1) original plantings, the more than 60 data have been gleaned from orchard years old, comprised of 644 trees; maps dating to 1955, 1960 and 1961. 2) plantings of Navara olives, then 32 The lay-out of the present collection can years old, comprised of 48 trees; and be seen from figure 5.15. In addition, two 3) rootstock trials using Manzanillo Nº rows of mature olive trees set at right an- 14, grafted on various root stocks, gles to each other, exist at the eastern end comprised of 70 trees. of McKeown Drive, bounding paddock nº 18 of the Agricultural Research It was recommended “to retain the line of Institute’s research plots. These trees trees along the avenue [=McKeown seem to be the remnants of an orchard. Drive] and such trees elsewhere as are from the overall size of the trees it required to maintain one of each of the appears likely that the olives would date 51 varieties. (Davison 1959).” to the phase of initial planting in 1897.

51 ! South North " Row Tree 6 Tree 5 Tree 4 Tree 3 Tree 2 Tree 1 1935 Reglaise label lost label lost 1 Languedoc Borregiola (Bouchine?) (Bouchine?) Bouchine Oji blanco 2 doncel Barouni Barouni Salome Corregiola Large Large Manzanillo Manzanillo 3 Oblitza fruited fruited Sevillano Nº 2 Nº 14

1962 Regalaise label lost label lost 1 Languedoc Borregiola (Bouchine?) (Bouchine?) Bouchine Ascolano 2 Rubra d’Aix Mission Gaeta Salome (Oblitza !) Large Manzanillo Blanquette 3 Oblitza fruited Lucques Palermo Nº 2 (early) Figure 5.17 . Layout of olive planting in area 1 before and after the reworking of 1962). (Source: NSW Riverina Archives Wagga Wagga SA 24/2 and orchard plan 1963).

Figure 5.18 The 1935 trials as seen in 1953 (Source: Mort 1953).

52 Some time between the completion of the useable. This affected trees nº 8, 15, 17, orchard book and the numbering of the 18, 19, 20, 22,and 23. tress some transcription errors must have Some doubt surrounds the occurred. Table B2 spells out the identification of Ascolano (tree nº 15), varieties as shown on the 1963 orchard however, because the tree identified as map with deviations in the orchard book Ascolano on the 1960 and 1961 orchard shown in brackets. Inconsistencies occur plans is the variety Oblitza according to in numbers 8, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, and the orchard book. As the 1951, 1960, 23. In addition trees 47 and 55, both 1961 and 1963 plans do not identify trees labelled as ‘unknown on the 1963 map, nº 47 and 55, which the orchard book could be identified as ‘Hardy’s identifies as Hardy’s Mammoth, it is Mammoth’. Following the removal of likely that a transcription error occurred most of the trees in te olive orchard some and that the wrong tree had been kept. isolated olive trees had been retained to Today, in total five varieties, almost maintain the varietal collection. Ac- all Italian varieties imported before 1897, cording to a hand drawn orchard map the have been lost as a result of the orchard collection was rearranged in 1962 and reduction and subsequent mix-ups in the some olives in the western part of block I 1950s. These are Arecluzzo/Arecrizza, were ‘reworked’ to maintain the varietal Ascolano, Columbaro, Ragialo, Regati, collection, but to make block VIII more and Silver Verdale.

Acknowledgments

The study reported here was made Doyle (Pest Control Officer, Grampians possible by a number people through National Park, Department of Natural their assistance in the field and Resources and the Environment, laboratory, as well as through the provi- Victoria); Noel MacDonald (Pest Control sion of data and information. Their Officer, Chiltern, Department of Natural contribution is gratefully acknowledged: Resources and the Environment, Don Boadle (Riverina Archives, Wagga Victoria); Derek Moore (School of Agri- Wagga). David Cooke (Animal and Plant culture, CSU Wagga Wagga); Petina Pert Control Commission, South Australia, (Department of Natural Resources and Adelaide); Peter Cuneo (Mt. Annan the Environment, Victoria); Tim Tunison Botanical Gardens); Jim Dellow (NSW (U.S. National Park Service, Hawai’i). Dept of Agriculture, Orange); Karen

53 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

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54 Olives in Wagga Wagga

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55 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

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56 Olives in Wagga Wagga

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57 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

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Parsons, W.T. and Cuthbertson, E.G. Jonkershoek Valley, Stellenbosch: A (1992) Noxious weeds of Australia mountain fynbos habitat. Southern Melbourne: Inkata Press. African Ornithological Society, Southern Birds 18. Greenside: Pelc, Joan (1980?) The founding of the Southern African Ornithological Wagga Experiment Farm 1892-1918. Society. MS typescript, held at CSU Wagga. Rinaldi, L.M.R., Menabeni, D., Perkins, A.J. (1916a) Breakwinds. Lambardi, M. and Cimato, A. (1992) Journal of Agriculture of South Changes of carbohydrates in olive Australia 19(7), 533. seeds (Olea europaea L.) during fruit Perkins, A.J. (1916b) On the scope in maturation and their correlation with South Australia for the extension of germination. in S.Lavee and I. Klein olive groves: an opening for the (eds), Second International employment of returned soldiers. Symposium on Olive Growing. Acta Journal of the Department of Agri- Horticulturae 356. 58-61. culture of South Australia 20: 443- Roberts, R. (1942) Olive Culture. 462. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria 40(6), Perkins, A.J. (1918a) Olives. Journal of 295-300. Agriculture of South Australia 22(1), Robertson, E.L. (1965) Flora of South 2-3. Australia Part IV: Oleaceae- Perkins, A.J. (1918b) Olives and Carobs. Compositae (Final Part). Adelaide: Journal of Agriculture of South W.L. Hawkes, Government Printer. Australia 22(2), 124-125. Robertson, Enid (1984) The Watiparinga Perkins, A.J. (1930) The value of the Experience-Weed control by agricultural department to primary persistent effort in an urban reserve. producers. Journal of Agriculture of in: G.M. Rowberry and P.M.Kloot South Australia 34(2), 107-118. (eds), Management of weeds of recreation areas, particularly Perkins, A.J. (1931) Olive growing. bushland and national parks. Journal of Agriculture of South Proceedings of a workshop intiated by Australia 35(3), 274. the Australian Weeds Committee. Plantadviser (1996) Olea europaea. Adelaide, South Australia: Olive. Southwestern deserts edition. Department of Agriculture. Pp. 84-88. URL: Robinson, M.E. (1976) The New South www.plantadviser.com/plants/oleaeur Wales Wheat Frontier 1851-1911. o.htm. Department of Human Geography Pouget, J. (1902) Rapid method of testing Publication HG/10 (1976), Research the percentage of oil in olive School of Pacific Studies, Australian [Reprinted rom the Bulletin Agricole National University, Canberra. de l”Algerie et de la Tunesie]. Robinson, W. (1874) Report by William Agricultural Gazette of New South Robinson, superintendent of the Wales 13, 687-689. Colonial Section of the Vienna Pye, H. (1917) Sidelight on the olive Exhbition, 1873, upon the British industry. Journal of Agriculture, colonies represented there, with Victoria 15(3), 158-165. particular reference to their produce. London: George E. Eyre and William Read (1877) Olive Culture. Adelaide. Spottiswoode. [not seen] Rugini, E. and Lavee, S. (1992) Olive. Richardson D.M. and Fraser M.W. in: F.A. Hammerschlag & R.e.Litz (1995) Birds of the Swartboskloof, (eds), Biotechnology of perennial fruit

75 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

crops.Biotechnology on Agriculture Simpfendorfer, K.J. (1975) An Nº. 8. Walingford: C.A.B. In- introduction to trees for southeastern ternational. Australia. Melbourne: Inkhata Press. SAAPCC (1990) South Australian Skeat, Hilary E.J. (1984) Weeds and Animal and Pant Control Commission weed control: Mount Pitt Rserve, Proclaimed Plant Policies. Adelaide: Norfolk Island and Christmas Island South Australian Animal and Pant National Park, Christmas Island. in: Control Commission. G.M. Rowberry and P.M.Kloot (eds), Sangar, J.M. (1866) On the culture of the Management of weeds of recreation vine, wine making and the olive. The areas, particularly bushland and na- Australasian 15 September 1866, p. tional parks. Proceedings of a 762-763. workshop intiated by the Australian Scott, H.J. (1888) South Australia in Weeds Committee. Adelaide, South 1887-88. A handbook for the Australia: Department of Agriculture. Centennial International Exhbition, Pp. 15-18. Melbourne, 1888. Adelaide: H.F. Skerman, P.J., Fisher, A.E. and Lloyd, Leader, Government Printer. P.L. (1987) Guiding Queensland Shepherd, Thomas (1835) Lecture on the Agriculture 1887-1987. Brisbane: Horticulture of New South Wales. Department of Primary Industries. Delivered at the Mechanic’s School of Smith, A. (1920) The official year book Arts, Sydeny, by Thomas Shepherd, of of New South Wales 1918. the Darling Nursery. Sydney. Government of New South Wales, Shepherd, Thomas W. (1851) catalogue Sydney: W.A. Gullick, Government of plants cultivated at the Darling Printer. Nursery, Sydney, New South Wales, Smith, Clifford W. (1997) Impact of arranged at the natural system as alien plants on Hawai’is native biota. pointed out by Dr. Lindley, Honolulu: University of Hawaii comprising the names habits &c of Department of Botany. upwards of 2500 species and varieties URL: with a complete alphabetical index http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculy/ forming a reference to the whole, to cw_smith/impact.htm. which is added a few practical Smith, L.W. (1984) Weeds in Urban remarks on the cultivation of the bushland around Sydney. in: G.M. orange and the olive in Australia. Rowberry and P.M.Kloot (eds), Sydney: W. and F. Ford. Management of weeds of recreation Sheppard, Thomas (1831) To the land areas, particularly bushland and holders in New South Wales. III: The national parks. Proceedings of a grape, the olive, mulberry, figs, bitter workshop intiated by the Australian and sweet almonds, loquet. Sydney Weeds Committee. Adelaide, South Monitor VI(372), 30 April 1831. Australia: Department of Agriculture. Shillinglaw, John J. (1888a) The Pp. 92-99. cultivation of the olive in Victoria. Spennemann, Dirk H. R. (1997) Nathan The Australasian 27 March 1886, p. Cobb's Laboratory Conservation & 587. Interpretation Project. A conservation Shillinglaw, John J. (1888b) The management plan for Nathan Cobb's cultivation of the olive in Victoria. Laboratory Johnstone Centre of The Argus (Melbourne) 16 March Parks, Recreation & Heritage Report 1886, p. 5. no. XX. - Albury, NSW: Charles Sturt University, The Johnstone Centre of Parks, Recreation and Heritage.

76 Olives in Wagga Wagga

Stafford, J.L. and Venning, J. (1984) Thompson, J.L. (1891) Olive culture. Revegetation: a long-term means of Agricultural Gazette of New South weed control. in: G.M. Rowberry and Wales 2: 467-479. P.M.Kloot (eds), Management of Titarelli, L.P. (1997) Argentinia. weeds of recreation areas, par- Australian Olive Grower 1(3), 14-15. ticularly bushland and national parks. Proceedings of a workshop initiated Tome, F. (1987) Pictorial history of by the Australian Weeds Committee. Agricultural Research at Adelaide, South Australia: Wagga Wagga. Wagga Wagga: Department of Agriculture. Pp. 59-62. Agricultural Research Institute. Standish, R. (1960) The first of trees: the Turner, F. (1890) New crops. story of the olive. London: Phoenix Agricultural Gazette of New South House. Wales 1: 129-130. Steer, N. (1940) The uses of olive oil. Turrill, W.B. (1951) Wild and cultivated Journal of the Department of olives. Kew Bulletin pp.437-442. Agriculture of South Australia 43(12), UCCE (1997) Olive Notes (January 911. 1997). University of Californa Stevenson, Paul (1997) African Olive on Cooperative Extension, Tulare Norfolk Island. County. URL: URL: http://155.187.10.12/norfolk.gardens/o http://www.ucce.tualre.ca.us/pub/olOl live.html. 97.htm. Sutherland, J. (1996) From Farmboys to Ullrich (1907) Olives on unused roads. PhD's: Agricultural education at Journal of Agriculture of South Wagga Wagga, 1896-1996. Australia 10(8), 671. Wagga Wagga: Charles Sturt United States, Department of the University. Treasury (1818a) Letter from the Sutter, Ellen G. (1994) Olive cultivars treasury, transmitting information on and propagation. in L. Ferguson, G.S. the progress that has been made Sibbett and G.C. Martin (eds), Olive under the act of Congress of the 3d Production Manual. Davis: Division March, 1817 entitled “An Act to set of Agriculture and Natural Resources, apart and dispose of certain public University of California. Pp. 23-29. lands for the encouragement of the cultivation of the vine and the olive. Suttor, George (1843) The culture of the Dated 4 December 1818. Washington: Grape Vine and the Orange in E.DeKrafft (Shaw-Shoemaker Nº Australia and New Zealand. Sydney. 46357). Thomas, J. (1995) Olive Fact Sheet. UC. United States, Department of the Fruit and Nut Research and Treasury (1818b) Message from the Information Centre, Dept. of President of the United States, Pomology, University of California at transmitting a statement of Davis. proceedings which have been had URL: under the act of Congress of the 3d http://pom44.ucdavis.edu/olive3.html. March, 1817 entitled “An Act to set Thompson, J.L. (1888) The olive. in: apart and dispose of certain public Alfred Midley, The Queensland lands for the encouragement of the Illustrated Guide for the use of cultivation of the vine and the olive. farmers, fruit-growers, vignerons, and Dated 16 March 1818. Washington: others. Brisbane: James C. Beal, E.DeKrafft (Shaw-Shoemaker Nº Government Printer. Pp. 107-111. 46423).

77 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

Villanis, P. (1884) The cultivation of the Wickson, Edward J. (1900) The olive and the methods of making olive- California fruits and how to grow oil as recommended by the best Italian them: a manual of methods which and French authors, together with the have yielded greatest sucess: with lists results obtained after long practice. of varieties best adapted to the Adelaide: Webb, Vardon & Pritchard. different districts of the state. 3rd Voyiatzis, D.G. and Pritsa, T. (1992) The edition. San Francisco, CA: Pacific onset and disappearance of relative Rural Press. dormancy of olive embyos as affected Willis, J.H. (1972) A handbook to plants by age. in S.Lavee and I. Klein (eds), in Victoria. Volume III Dicotyldons Second International Symposium on Melbourne: Melbourne University Olive Growing. Acta Horticulturae Press. 356. 148-151. Young, K. (1996) Study of significance in Walden, N.K. (1928) Olive growing: a relation to St.Hilaire Homestead. South Australian Industry. BankNotes Albury: Ken Young Conservation 1928, 34-35. [not seen] Architect. Walsh, G.L. (1981) Thomas Henry Zohary, D. (1992) The wild genetic Fiaschi (1853-1927). in: Bede Nairn resources of the cultivated olive. in and Geoffrey Serle (eds), Australian S.Lavee and I. Klein (eds), Second Dictionary of Biography Vol. 8: 1891- International Symposium on Olive 1939. Cl-Gib. Melbourne: Melbourne Growing. Acta Horticulturae 356. 62- University Press. Pp. 491-492. 64. Warnock, P. and Pendleton, M. (1994) Zohary, D. and Spiegel-Ray, P. (1975) Pollen analysis of Roman and Iron Beginnings of fruit growing in the Old Age plaster floors in the great temple World. Science 187: 319-327. of Amman, Jordan. Abstracts of the Proceedings of the Twenty-Seventh Annual Meeting of the American Personal Commu- Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists 27th Annual Meeting, nications College Station, Texas, 1994. Cooke, David A (1997) South Australian URL Animal and Plant Control http://opal.geology.utoronto.ca/AASP/ Commission, phone dicussion on Abstr27AnMtg.html. olive spread and eradication, 27 June Waugh, James (1851) The cultivation of 1997. the olive tree. For distribution to Cuneo, Peter (1997) Horticultural members of the Kiama Agricultural Development Officer Royal Botanic and Horticultural Society. Sydney: W. Garden Sydney—Mount Annan Nation. Botanic Garden. letter 26 August Westkott, Peter (1979) George Chaffey 1997. (1848-1932). in: Bede Nairn and Doyle, Karen (1997) Pest Control Geoffrey Serle (eds), Australian Officer, Grampians National Park. 27 Dictionary of Biography Vol. 7: 1891- September 1997. 1939. A-Ch. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. Pp. 599-601. McDolnald, Noel (1998) Pest Control Officer, Chiltern Work Station. 28 Wheeler (1877) Olive Culture. Reprinted March 1998. from the South Australian Advertiser. Adelaide 1877. [not seen] Tunison, Tim (1997) US National Park Service Hawaii, e-mail on olive spread and eradication, 27 June 1997.

78 Olives in Wagga Wagga

Appendices

79 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

Appendix A — Point data for feral olives in Australia

Victoria Date Location Altitude 04 May 1992 141°49'44” 36°45'49” n/a 03 Sep 1992 142°06'53” 36°45'35' n/a 01 Jan 1991 143°20'48” 36°16'03” n/a 07 Oct 1993 143°31'50” 36°10'32 n/a 01 Jan 1991 143°32'14” 36°10'28” n/a 05 Oct 1993 143°32'15” 36°10'30” 110 05 Oct 1993 143°32'20” 36°08'40” 110 06 Oct 1993 143°33'20” 36°09'28” n/a 27 Aug 1987 143°48'00” 36°35'50” 280 01 Jan 1990 144°00'00” 38°15'00” 0 01 Dec 1984 144°47'32” 37°55'33” n/a 01 Mar 1987 144°47'58” 37°38'34” 140 04 Apr 1995 144°50'08” 37°42'24” 20 23 Jan 1987 145°00'47” 37°48'10” 020 26 Ju1 1984 145°35'00” 36°15'00” n/a 20 Sep 1989 145°35'00” 36°25'00” n/a 01 Jan 1992 145°41'03” 36°24'12” 180 31 Aug 1992 145°41'21” 36°21'33” n/a 07 Mar 1995 145°41'26” 36°05'20” n/a 19 Ju1 1989 145°45'00” 36°25'00” n/a 26 Sep 1990 146°30'37” 36°12'56” 360 28 May 1990 148°09'55” 37°30'58” n/a 09 May 1990 148°10'00” 37°30'00” n/a 15 May 1990 148°12'00” 37°28'00” n/a

80 Olives in Australia

Appendix B — Olive varieties currently planted at Wagga Wagga

Table B.1. Current list of olive varieties planted at Wagga Wagga Campus (nos refer to trees in the orchard)

Tree Old Variety (Orchardbook) Place of Origin Seeds/cutting Year of No. ID obtained from planting No. 1 12 Oje Blanco Doncel Navara 1932-34 2 14 Corregiolla Navara 1932-34 3 46j Manzanillo Nº 14 Navara 1932-34 4 12a Oje Blanco Doncel Navara 1932-34 5 91 Blanquette (Late) Navara 1932-34 6 11 Barouni Navara 1932-34 7 1L Sevillano Navara 1932-34 8 1i Sevillano Navara 1932-34 9 50 Large Fruited Navara 1932-34 10 40 Bouchine Navara 1932-34 11 ? Unknown (Bouchine?) Navara 1932-34 12 ? Unknown (Bouchine?) Navara 1932-34 13 13a Borregiolla Navara 1932-34 14 42 Regalaise de Languedoc Navara 1932-34 15 48 Ascolano Navara 1932-34 16 43 Salone Navara 1932-34 17 49 Gaeta Navara 1932-34 18 45 Mission Navara 1932-34 19 44 Rubra d’Aix Navara 1932-34 20 9e Blanquette (Early) Navara 1932-34 21 47 Manzanillo No 2 Navara 1932-34 22 41 Palermo Navara 1932-34 23 52 Lucques Navara 1932-34 24 50a Large Fruited Navara 1932-34 25 51 Oblitza Navara 1932-34 26 46 Manzanillo Nº 2 on rootstock trial Wagga Wagga 1950 Nevadillo Blanco 27 46a Manzanillo Nº 2 on rootstock trial Wagga Wagga 1950 Nevadillo Blanco 28 46b Manzanillo Nº 2 on rootstock trial Wagga Wagga 1950 Nevadillo Blanco 29 46c Manzanillo Nº 2 on own rootstock trial Wagga Wagga 1950 roots

81 The spread of Olives on Wagga Wagga Campus

Table B.2 Current list of olive varieties planted at Wagga Campus

Tree Old ID Variety (Orchardbook) Place of Origin Seeds/cutting Year of No. No. obtained from planting 30 46d Manzanillo Nº 2 on own rootstock trial Wagga Wagga 1950 roots 31 46e Manzanillo Nº 2 on own rootstock trial Wagga Wagga 1950 roots 32 46f Manzanillo Nº 2 on own rootstock trial Wagga Wagga 1950 roots 33 46g Manzanillo Nº 2 on Oje rootstock trial Wagga Wagga 1950 Blanco Doncel 34 46h Manzanillo Nº 2 on Oje root graft trial Wagga Wagga 1950 Blanco Doncel 35 46i Manzanillo Nº 2 on Oje root graft trial Wagga Wagga 1950 Blanco Doncel 36 16 Dr Fiiaschi Tirazza 1950 Vineyard 37 15 Lucca 1935 38 17 Marcocarpa 1950 39 1j Sevillano 1935 40 17a Marcocarpa 1935 41 18 Pecholine de St Chamis 1935 42 3a Olive de Gras 1935 43 19 Nevadillo Blanco 1935 44 19 Nevadillo Blanco 1935 45 20 Cucco 1935 46 20a Cucco 1935 47 unknown (Hardy's Mammoth) 1935 48 21 Pera Bore No 1 Pera Bore Farm 1935 49 22 Pera Bore No 2 Pera Bore Farm 1935 50 23 Pera Bore No 3 Pera Bore Farm 1935 51 24 Belle d’Espagne 1935 52 25 Wagga Seedling 1934 Wagga Wagga 1935 53 46k Manzanillo Nº 14 1935 54 26 Pendulina 1935 55 unknown (Hardy's Mammoth) 1935 56 27 Boutillon 1935 57 28 Atro Rubens 1935 58 29 Attica 1935 59 30 Rubra 1935 60 31 Pecholine 1935 61 32 Frantojo 1935 62 33 Oblonga 1935 63 21 Big Spanish 1935

82 Olives in Australia

Table B.2 Current list of olive varieties planted at Wagga Campus

Tree Old ID Variety (Orchardbook) Place of origin Seeds/cutting Year of No. No. obtained from planting 64 34 Columella 1935 65 35 Polymorpha 1935 66 36 Atro Violacca 1935 67 37 Regalis 1935 68 38 Gros Redoneaux 1935 69 39 Amelon 1935 70 1h Sevillano 1897 71 1g Sevillano 1897 72 1f Sevillano 1897 73 1e Sevillano 1897 74 1d Sevillano 1897 75 1c Sevillano 1897 76 2 Big Spanish 1897 77 1b Sevillano 1897 78 1a Sevillano 1897 79 1 Sevillano 1897 80 3 O de Gras 1897 81 4a Verdale 1897 82 5a Bouquettier 1897 83 5 Bouquettier 1897 84 6c Tarascoa 1897 85 1k Sevillano 1897 86 6b Tarascoa 1897 87 6a Tarascoa 1897 88 6 Tarascoa 1897 89 7 Pigale 1897 90 8 Hawkesbury Agricult. Hawkesbury 1897 College Ag Coll 91 4 Verdale 1897 92 9 Blanquette 1897 93 10 Praecox 1897 94 8a Hawkesbury Agricult. Hawkesbury 1897 College Ag Coll