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Economic Growth Potential of the Transfrontier Conservation Areas in

BE V E R L E E WI N N E T T SE E L I G, The Peace Parks Foundation, Somerset West,

A B S T R A C T

he Peace Parks Foundation is funding and facili- tating the development of Tr a n s f ro n t i e r TC o n s e rvation Areas (TFCAs) in Southern Africa, an initiative that is being embraced by the re g i o n ’s polit- ical leaders. The Foundation is encouraging the development of a partnership between govern m e n t agencies, local communities and the private sector, and is placing particular emphasis on the role of TFCAs in c reating new jobs in the travel and tourism economy, c o n s e rving biological diversity and promoting a culture of peace. The economic growth potential of these a reas is being investigated and compared with alter- native forms of land use.

T F C AS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA In May 1990, Anton Rupert, President of WWF South Africa, met with ’s President Joaquim Chissano to discuss the possibility of establishing a pe r manent “link” between some of the s in southern Mozambique and their adjacent counterparts in South Africa, Swaziland and . The res p e c - tive countries involved would co-ordinate management, immigration, tourism/development and other policies within this protected area. The concept of transborder protected area co-opera- tion through the establishment of “peace parks” is not a new one. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) had been p romoting their establishment because of the many potential benefits and by 1988 had identified at least 70 pr otected areas in 65 countries which straddle national fr ontiers. Southern Africa has long held great potential for peace parks, but conflicting national interests and ideolo- sector to help facilitate the creation of seven distinct TFCAs Figure 1 (top) gies have hampered effo r ts to realise this dream. With the throughout southern Africa (Figure 1). Incorporating Ecological bridges: seven pro- posed transfrontier conservation region experiencing peace for the first time this century, the Gemsbok National Park in and the areas th e r e has been renewed interest in the peace park concept. Kalahari Gemsbok National Park in South Africa, the A World Bank rep o r t completed in 1996, req u e s t e d Kgalagadi Tra n s f r ontier Park, the first southern African TFCA, was formally approved by President Nelson Figure 2 (above) by the Mozambique Council of Ministers, suggested an Typical vista in the proposed Mandela and President Festus Mogae in April 1999. im p o r tant conceptual shift away from the idea of strictly Richtersveld/Ais-Ais Peace Park protected national parks towards greater emphasis on multiple res o u r ce use by local communities by introd u c i n g TFCA DEFINED the Transfrontier Conservation Area (TFCA) concept. The 1996 World Bank rep o r t defined TFCAs as rel a t i v e l y The Peace Parks Foundation subsequently adopted la r ge tracts of land, which straddle frontiers between two this new paradigm and is working with regional govern- or more countries and cover large-scale natural systems ments, local communities, other NGOs and the private encompassing one or more protected areas. Ver y often

SU S TA I N A B L E D E V E L O P M E N T IN T E R N AT I O N A L 51 lations have traditionally C O N T E X T C O N C E P T people, can be achieved d the political boundaries Africa has the highest population growth rate of any major A fundamental premise of using TFCAs as a technology inclusion of people, previo extend far beyond desig- region in the world and the lowest prevalence of contra- for sustainable development is linking conserv a t i o n pr ocess of redignification. T d can incorporate such ceptive use. This high rate of growth has resulted in objectives with sustainable economic development in the within a community to ind b i o s p h e re re s e rves and a unprecedented human demands for food, fuel, shelter s u rrounding communities. Ve ry poor people, stru g- in the process. Where approp based natural re s o u rc e and water, and a level of land transformation by pastoral, gling at the edge of subsistence and preoccupied with ni t y , cultural tourism can sustainable use zones. For agricultural and urban development and by alien plant day-to-day survival, have limited ability to plan ahead, community to share their u ional parks as an anchor, en c r oachment that has destroyed or fragmented natural and often have little choice but to degrade or over-e x p l o i t A final objective of TF ned by private landowners habitats throughout the continent (World Resources any available natural resources (Mink, 1993). envisioned by The Peac ed in an economically Institute, 1994). Income earned through conservation and the emergi n g cr eation. Tourism holds man ally sustainable way. Against this backdrop, it is now widely accepted that tourism industry must replace opportunities lost to the It can help retain employm the mammals of Africa face a bleak future, a consequence local communities for their subsistence use of res o u rc e s sify employment and enco of a combination of factors directly and indire c t l y fr om potential “conservation areas”. In other words, the in the work force by wome influenced by the activities of man (Balmford et al., 1995; economic value of conservation/sustainable use must be Happold, 1995). As in other parts of the world, the made greater than that of exhaustive consumption. existence of the parks, with their inherent restrictions A fundamental component of this strategy is the TOURISM AS AN ECONOM on consumption, has brought local c o n s t ructive engagement of the local population, Citing the unique divers communities into direct conflict with conserv a t i o n founded on the recognition that local communities are heritages, The World Tr a departments. frequently acutely aware of the scarcity of the natural pr edicts that, based on gr Rural communities rely to a large extent on the res o u r ces and are in sympathy with the need to practise and eco-tourism and inde land for their livelihood: trees supply building material sustainable use. In this case, the local populations are of southern Africa are set and charcoal; land is cleared to grow crops on a subsis- not threats, but can rather be seen as potential partn e r s . players (World Travel and tence basis; and nuts, fruits and game are harvested to The growth in nature- b a s e supplement daily dietary req u i r ements. Unfortu n a t e l y , has been dramatic, and alrea this utilisation is not always done on a sustainable AGENDA 21 AND THE TFCA MODEL fo r ce in many of the econ basis: charcoal production, uncontrolled hunting and slash- While previous international agreements re c o g n i s e d Botswana, tourism earni n g s and-burn agriculture have taken their toll on the land the importance of addressing local population needs with making the industry the third- l a while providing only a marginal living for the people who respect to protected areas (World National Parks after diamonds (worth some live in and around the conservation area. C o n f e rence, 1982 and MAB/UNESCO Biosphere (EIU, 1999). The WTTC/W Recognising that hostility toward the parks by local Re s e r ves Action Plan, 1984), the Rio Earth Summit in decade the economic contri communities could lead to fragmentation of park 1992 underscored the idea that there could be no the SADC region could grow re s o u rces (either through illegal hunting and conservation without sustainable development for the work and implementation, h a rvesting or pre s s u re to deproclaim certain are a s ) , af fected communities in and around conservation area s . the world average expectat parks officials and conservationists in southern Much like Agenda 21, the TFCA model relies on a Africa are now looking to innovative programmes to pa r tnership between the government, private sector and T F C AS AND TOURISM include local communities in decision-making and local communities to achieve its objectives. The partn e r - Tourism has the potential to show the benefits of protected areas. Conserva t i o n ship itself can take many forms. For example, communities th r oughout the economy prov in Africa can no longer be constrained by rigid park can be stakeholders in safari concessions managed by Of equal importance, it has boundaries and make protecting wildlife its only objec- co m m e r cial operators, a national parks department can for broader social and econo tive. Conservation in Africa must be used to cre a t e manage, with conservation objectives, large tracts of industries such as mining sustainable economic and development opport u n i- land held by private owners, or micro- e n t re p re n e u r s does not take people ou ties for Africans. can create small businesses to supply products to local lodges. rather brings employment relevant to the rural com TFCA BENEFITS pr oposed TFCAs, which a M A RY O F T H E KE Y TH R E AT S T O EC O L O G I C A L BI O D I V E R S I T Y I N SO U T H E R N The World Conservation Union envisages three primary of young people who find M PA C T T F C AS C A N H AV E O N SO LV I N G T H E S E IS S U E S ( HA N K S 1 9 9 9 ) functions of TFCAs: the promotion of peace, the P reviously ignored, o im p r ovement of res o u r ce management and prot e c t i o n , these communities have and the pre s e rvation and enhancement of cultural benefits of conservation TFCA Impact values, especially the protection of transboundary While any opportunity for e people (IUCN, 1991). rural communities, TFCA h agricultural transformations Poverty alleviation and partnership with local community The promotion of peace is often an over-looked objec- pr ovide employment in m tive of the TFCA model. Southern Africa (, as the ability to spawn mi Mozambique, and to a lesser extent Zimbabwe and of government regimes and Co-operation of surrounding communities from diverse community investment. he life of millions of people nations/cultures given an opportunity to promote a wide ) experienced several years of savage conflict and opment is attractive as a c t two decades range of economic benefits associated with the daily gu e r rilla wars which had, and still have, a prof o u n d of the high revenues it c operations of the TFCAs ef fect on economic relations with bordering countries, and consumptive use of natura ed areas – resulting from Increased revenues from increased tourism; cost savings on internal post-independent economies. TFCAs prom o t e s and suitably qualified associated with sharing capital equipment and manpower a culture of peace among bordering nations not only by cr eating a mechanism for the co-ordination of wildlife ECONOMIC COMPONENTS d isolated habitat islands Joining protected areas that are separated by communal management policies, immigration and border issues, and The economic impacts of t s and pressures on park lands or commercial farmland or drop fences that prevent tourism marketing and other development policies at the on the value of the industr natural migration national level, but also by engaging local populations from has on the greater economy. to conservation – caused by Optimum form of land use and generation of revenues ac r oss borders to become part of the process. (“t&t industry”) itself is a n c relationships with through increased tourism A second, and perhaps more intuitive objective of the the goods and services dir TFCA model is conservation of . Each of the Examples of products an accelerating illegal trade Improved management of protected areas and standards proposed seven TFCAs in southern Africa can make a definition are accommoda despread absolute poverty of living for local population; renewed national commitment to major and sustainable impact on the pres e r vation of biodi- t r a n s p o rtation. The WTT conservation versity as described in Table 1. countries in 1999, roughly The third objective, the preservation and enhance- tourism industry will repr ment of cultural values, particularly of transboundary ment in 1999 (WTTC, 199

A L S goods and services in the economy. This spending humans and mammals in A contributes to the earnings of those workers in the vation: a rev i e w . Biodiversi ec o n o m y , and the cycle continues. The SA Foundation res e a r ch indicates that this induced effect added R36.3bn IUCN – The World Conse (US$6bn) into the South African economy, giving for the Earth: a Strategy fo tourism as total impact of R80.6bn (US$13.2bn) in 1998. UNEP, and WWF, Gland S Mink, S. 1993. Poverty an & Development 30: 8-9. JOB CREATION AND TFCAS In the near future, the Peace Parks Foundation will begin OECD. 1995. Niche Mark to measure the economic impacts and job cre a t i o n Workshop Proceedings an capacity in the Kru g e r / B a n h i n e - Z i n a v e / G o n a re z h o u Paris, France. TFCA. Numerous studies have been completed which indicate positive economic impacts of nature- and Tin l e y , K.L. & van Riet, W.F community-based tourism. However, to date, none of for Kruger/Banhine: a Tra n these studies have captured this idea in transfrontier area s . Area. Prepared for SANF Located on the north - e a s t e r n border of South Africa, the World Bank. 1996. M so u t h - e a s t e r n border of Zimbabwe and the south-western Co n s e r vation Areas Pilot a b o rder of Mozambique, The Kru g e r / B a n h i n e - P roject. Report No.155 Zi n a v e / G o n a r ezhou TFCA (95 712 km2) is the largest of En v i r onment Division, Sou the seven proposed TFCAs in southern Africa. It will crea t e World Bank. 17 pp, with m one of the most substantial and impressive conservation area s in the world, with more species of big game than any other World Resources Institu tract of land of equivalent size. This TFCA has the poten- 1994-5. Oxford: Oxford U tial to become one of Africa’s premier ecotourism destinations. Kr uger National Park in South Africa is not only the oldest World Travel and To u r i s m national park in South Africa, it is also one of the most popular So u t h e r n African Develop economy (“t&t economy”) be included when associated with tourist expenditures . and well-developed parks in southern Africa. Tourism: Economic Driver across the economy as a The WTTC estimates that in SADC countries in 1999, This proposed TFCA is of particular interest because, London, England. 48 pp w n, it encompasses those the travel and tourism economy employment is estimated of the proposed TFCAs in southern Africa, it most closely di r ectly for tourists or other at 3.8m jobs or 7.9% of total employment (WTTC, 1999) ca p t u r es the potential of the public/private/community on tourism spending. For A final component which should be measured is the pa r tnership that is the basis of the Peace Parks Foundation’s A B O U T T H E A U T H O R services mentioned above, “induced effect”, or ripple effect, tourism has on the TFCA model. The area surrounding Kruger rep r esents an Beverlee Winnett Seelig is cu ned in retail, building and ec o n o m y . Income earned by workers is partly saved and in t e r esting mix of sustainable/unsustainable use, with private equipment, etc. would partly taxed, the balance is spent on a broad range of game res e r ves, hunting and photo safari concessions, Parks Foundation in Somerset agricultural land and densely populated areas. the economic growth potenti A second component of the study will be an analysis Thunderbird, The American G of land use alternatives including subsistence farmi n g , cattle, timber and mining, highlighting the sustain- Management with an M.I.M., s ability aspects of each activity. ment banker in the US and E financing of conservation areas C O N C L U S I O N Sustainable development is a long-term process, and viable I F Y O U H AV E A N Y E N Q only in the context of interdependence: among the people, environment, policy-makers and private sector. C O N T E N T O F T H I S A RT I In rural areas, tourism, even at low volumes can make Dr. John Hanks a significant impact on the local economy. When tourism is aimed at or complements existing local resources or Executive Director economic activities, it can be a powerful development Peace Parks Foundation tool. TFCAs have the potential to convert interna t i o n a l P.O. Box 227 in t e r est in pres e r ving biodiversity and increasing enthu- siasm for nature-based tourism with the creation of a Somerset West 7129 sustainable development strategy. Republic of South Africa

B I B L I O G R A P H Y Tel: +27 (0)21 855 3564 B a l m f o rd, A., Leader- Williams, N. & Green, M.J.B. Fax: +27 (0)21 855 3958 1995. Parks or arks: where to conserve thre a t e n e d mammals? Biodiversity & Conservation 4: 595-607. Mobile: 082 779 1114 E-mail: [email protected] Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU). 1 -15 September 1999. Wh a t ’ s new in your industry: travel & tourism. Business Web site: www.peaceparks Africa: pp. 12. Hanks, J. 1999. The Role of Tra n s f r ontier Conserva t i o n A reas in Southern Africa in the Conservation of Mammalian Biodiversity. Future Priorities for the C o n s e rvation of Mammalian Biodiversity: Has the Panda Had Its Day? Cambridge University Press, in pres s . Happold, D.C.D. 1995. The interactions between

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