The struggle of the Shi'is in Indonesia Zulkifli, Z. Citation Zulkifli, Z. (2009, September 24). The struggle of the Shi'is in Indonesia. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/14017 Version: Not Applicable (or Unknown) Licence agreement concerning inclusion of License: doctoral thesis in the Institutional Repository of the University of Leiden Downloaded from: https://hdl.handle.net/1887/14017 Note: To cite this publication please use the final published version (if applicable). THE STRUGGLE OF THE SHI‘IS IN INDONESIA Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden, op gezag van Rector Magnificus prof. mr. P.F. van der Heijden, volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties te verdedigen op donderdag 24 september 2009 klokke 11.15 uur door Zulkifli geboren te Bangka in 1966 Promotiecommissie: Promotor: Prof. dr. C. van Dijk Co-Promotor: Dr. N.J.G. Kaptein Referent: Prof. dr. D. Douwes (Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam) Overige leden: Prof. dr. H.L. Beck (Universiteit van Tilburg) Prof. dr. M.S. Berger Prof. dr. W.A.L. Stokhof Acknowledgements This thesis has grown out of academic endeavor that has been nourished by the support, suggestion, and advice from individuals and institutions to whom I am indebted. I wish I could mention them all. I shall record the great debt to INIS (Indonesian Netherlands Cooperation in Islam- ic Studies) for the scholarship and facilities that enabled me to conduct research and academic activities. At INIS, I sincerely thank Prof. W.A.L. Stokhof, Dick van der Meij, and Rosemary Robson in Leiden and Prof. Jacob Vredenbregt in Jakarta. My gratitude is also expressed to the Inter- national Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS) for its programs and academic atmosphere that enabled me to increase my academic quality and extend my scholarly network. My sincere gratitude is expressed to all my Shi‘i informants and res- pondents to become the subject of my research. They provided me with the chance to interview them, use their collections, and even participate in a variety of activities. Without their permission and cooperation, this thesis would not have been completed. My special thanks also go to IAIN Raden Fatah Palembang, particu- larly the Faculty of Adab, that freed me from academic duties during my PhD program. I also thank my Indonesian fellows in Leiden. They have assisted me in their own way which was important for my life in Leiden. Mufti Ali, Anwar Syarifuddin, Didin Nurul Rosidin, Muslih, Euis Nurlaelawati, Jajat Burhanudin, Noorhaidi, Nur Ichwan, Arief Subhan, Dahlan, and Suryadi are only several names I could mention here. Last, but not least, I thank my wife, Ai Juariah, my daughter Dhea UZ and my son Azka KZ who gave moral support to finish this thesis. To them I dedicate this thesis. Leiden-Sukabumi, 2009 — iii — THE STRUGGLE OF THE SHI‘IS IN INDONESIA — iv — A Note on Transliteration For Arabic words, I have used the system of transliteration adopted by the International Journal of Middle East Studies but diacritics have been reduced for simplification. For the plural forms of Indonesian words I do not add ‘s’ and therefore such words as ustadh and santri may be singular or plural. But I maintain the plural forms of some Arabic words like ‘ulama’ (‘alim, singular) and maraji‘ (marja‘, singular). For names of persons, I fol- low exactly the way they are written by themselves. For the translation of Qur’anic verses, I use Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s The Meaning of the Holy Qur’an, New Edition with Revised Translation and Commentary, 1991. — v — THE STRUGGLE OF THE SHI‘IS IN INDONESIA — vi — Contents Acknowledgements____iii A Note ON Transliteration____v INTRODUCTION____1 • Previous Studies on Shi‘ism in Indonesia____3 • Theoretical Framework____12 • Methodology____12 • The Structure of the Study____13 CHAPTER ONE: THE FORMATION OF THE SHI‘I COMMUNITY ____15 A. The Arab descendant____16 B. The Qum Alumni ____30 C. The Campus Group____37 D. Conversion to Shi‘ism____47 CHAPTER TWO: LEADERS____55 A. Ustadh and Intellectual____55 B. Husein Al-Habsyi (1921-1994) ____58 C. Husein Shahab____70 D. Jalaluddin Rakhmat____75 CHAPTER THREE: MADHHAB____89 A. The Madhhab of Ahl al-Bayt____89 B. Imamate____95 C. The Mahdi____102 D. Ja‘fari Jurisprudence____108 E. Aspects of Shi‘i Piety____115 F. Taqiyya____122 — vii — THE STRUGGLE OF THE SHI‘IS IN INDONESIA CHAPTER FOUR: DA‘WA____127 A. General Developments of the Da‘wa Institution____127 B. The Ideals of the Shi‘i Institution____133 C. The Institutional Elements ____137 D. Types of Da‘wa Activity ____144 E. Da‘wa Training ____154 CHAPTER FIVE: EDUCATION____159 A. Pesantren____159 B. Schools____174 CHAPTER SIX: PUBLISHING____185 A. The Shi‘is’ Publishers____185 B. The Translation of Shi‘i Books____193 C. Works by Indonesian Shi‘is____205 D. Shi‘i Periodicals____211 E. The Impact of Shi‘i Publishing____217 CHAPTER SEVEN: THE MASS ORGANISATION: IJABI____223 A. The Foundation of IJABI____223 B. The Ideological Foundation of IJABI____232 C. The Development of IJABI____240 D. The Response to IJABI____245 CHAPTER EIGHT: SUNNI RESPONSES____259 A. The General Attitude of Islamic Organisations____259 B. The Response of MUI____265 C. The Response of DEPAG____271 D. Anti-Shi‘i Propagations____276 E. The Moderate Response of Muslim Intellectuals____297 CHAPTER NINE: CONCLUSION____305 SAMENVATTING____313 GLOSSARY____325 BIBLIOGRAPHY____333 — viii — INTRODUCTION This study is concerned with the Shi‘is in Indonesia, and their position as a minority Muslim group within the overwhelming Sunni majority, and the ways in which they act to gain recognition in the country. For the purposes of this study Shi‘ism is confined toIthna ‘ashariyya (also known as Twelver or Ja‘fari Shi‘ism). This is a madhhab (school of Islamic thought) which believes in the twelve Imams who succeeded the Prophet Muhammad and has adopted a specific set of practices as a consequence of this belief sys- tem. Shi‘ism is a minority denomination of Islam and Shi‘is, constituting around 10 percent of the world’s Muslim population, have frequently been stigmatised by the Sunnis who form the majority. While most Shi‘is reside as a minority group in Muslim countries, they form a majority in Iran (around 90 percent), Iraq (60 percent), and Bahrain (60 percent). The Shi‘is in Iran came to the world’s attention with the Islamic revolution of 1978-1979 and the subsequent establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Following the American invasion of Iraq in 2003 the Shi‘is there have played an increasingly significant political role in the country and a moderate form of Shi‘ism, adhered to by Ayatollah Ali Sistani, has formed a powerful web of networks that is expected to strengthen civil society in southern Iraq. Scholars, not only in the Muslim world but also in the West have ge- nerally focussed their attention on Sunnism. In the Muslim world Shi‘ism is often seen as a heterodox schism deviating from the true teaching of Islam with regard to theology and jurisprudence. Western scholars of Islam who used to rely on Sunni interpretations of Shi‘ism have contributed to misperceptions about the nature of Shi‘ism. Kohlberg reveals that this lack of appropriate understanding of Shi‘ism can easily be found in the writings 1 In this thesis, I hardly ever use the term Shi‘a and when it is used it refers to its generic meaning namely partition. I use the term Shi‘ism to denote the de- nomination as opposed to Sunnism. The term Shi‘i is used both as adjective and noun. As noun, Shi‘i means an adherent of Shi‘ism and an addition of ‘s’ is used for its plural form and its compound noun. 2 Kohlberg (1987) — 1 — THE STRUGGLE OF THE SHI‘IS IN INDONESIA of the prominent Hungarian scholar Goldziher and others. Shi‘ism did not become a subject of central research until the Iranian revolution forced scholars to understand its ideological foundation which is strongly rooted in Shi‘i tenets. This led to the association of Shi‘ism with radical and revolutionary movements. Much attention has been paid to Shi‘ism in Iran, creating an impression that Shi‘ism is identified with Iranian society and culture. Indeed, as a result of Iran’s ambitious attempts to export its version of revolution to other Muslim countries, studies of Shi‘ism outside Iran tend to be an attempt to measure the effects of the Iranian revolution on Shi‘i communities in Iraq, the Gulf states, Lebanon, Syria, and South Asia, as well as on Sunni communities in Southeast Asia. However, more than a quarter of a century on, no revolution following the Iranian model has occurred elsewhere, even in countries such as Iraq and Bahrain where the Shi‘is constitute a majority, and where Iran has allegedly supported Shi‘i movements. What is striking is that in the eight-year war between Iran and Iraq (1980-1988), Iranian Shi‘is doing battle against Iraqi soldiers were fighting their co-religionists. Nakash has shown historical, economic, and political features of Iraqi Shi‘i society that are significantly different from that of Shi‘is in Iran. This clearly indicates that a monolithic per- spective on Shi‘ism does not aid understanding of the diverse realities of Shi‘is. A study on Shi‘ism necessitates consideration of social, political, and cultural aspects unique to a certain society, region and history for the simple fact that the Shi‘is “employed a wide range of strategies in different times and places.” While the Sunnism that predominates the Indonesian population has been widely studied by scholars from a variety of aspects and approaches, the reality of Shi‘ism in Indonesia and its related historical, sociological, political, and religious aspects is hardly known among scholars and even the majority of Muslims themselves. This study attempts to address this imbalance and understand the reality of the Shi‘is in Indonesia by describ- ing the main aspects of the social and religious life of this minority Muslim group including the formation of the Shi‘i denomination, an examination of its prominent leaders, beliefs and practices, da‘wa, education, publica- tion, organisation, and the Sunni responses to it.