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Archaeology and pre-Christian in Scandinavia

Jennbert, Kristina

Published in: Current Swedish Archaeology

2000

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Citation for published version (APA): Jennbert, K. (2000). Archaeology and pre-Christian religions in Scandinavia. Current Swedish Archaeology, 8.

Total number of authors: 1

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LUND UNIVERSITY

PO Box 117 221 00 Lund +46 46-222 00 00 127

Archaeology and Pre-Christian in Scandinavia Kristina Jennbert

Archaeological research on pre-Christian religion has increased greatly during the last two decades. Studies of and religion appear frequently in scholarly, popular and antiquarian publications of the 1990s. Selected publications in Scandinaviau archaeology are presented in order to characterise and discuss different approaches. Central theoretical and methodological questions are discussed, as as the co-operation with other humanistic disciplines.

Kristina Jeltltl&ert, tnstit«te ofAtcttaeologi:, Luml U»iversitu Samlgatan t, SE-223 50 Lttnd, Su:eden,

INTRODUCTION 1995). Research on religion and ritual of the In the beginning of the 1970s students of past is today a scholarly phenomenon but also archaeology laughed at everything that was a subject of public interest, like the actual called "cultic", a term that could be used situation in earlier archaeological works (e.g. when one had no suggestions for any other Hildebrand 1880:32ff; Muller 1897; Brend- interpretation. Ritual and religion were sted 1938-40; Stenberger 1969). subjects of low scientific value on the archae- In our time, at the very end of the second ological agenda. Today the situation is quite millennium, a kind of nostalgia for past di fferent. in the future is evident. A remembrance of The focus on ritual and religion has never the past and of all former transformations in been so intense within archaeology as during all levels of society is perceptible in maga- the last two decades, both internationally and zines and newspapers, broadcasting and tele- within the Nordic countries, in particular in vision. Unfortunately also sectarian activities, Sweden and Norway and lately also in either with nationalistic goals or in connec- . The interest in religion is notable tion with movements, engage and in scholarly studies as well as in several use the past. Prehistoric symbols and artefacts public events. The exhibitions Viling og are employed for ideological, political or Hvidetrist in Copenhagen, Paris and Berlin religious purposes. (Roesdahl 1993),and Kult, Kraft oclt Kosltlos At the same time, the European modernity (Knape 1996) and the exhibition at the rock- is analysed from an architectural, sociological art museum in Tanum on the Swedish west or political perspective. The Norwegian coast are just a few examples. Exclusive anthropologist Thomas Hylland Eriksen publications have been presented especially emphasises comprehension and significance concerning the ntentalité in the of the past (Eriksen 1996).Somehow the past (Steinsland & Meulengracht Serensen 1994) is present, and it seems like archaeology and and the (Kaliff & Skjöldebrand a long-term perspective are relevant in social

Cw rent Swedistr Aretraeotogv, tot. tt, 2VVV 128 Kristino Jennhert communication. Archaeology becomes sig- Religion was difficult to interpret and catch nificant in evaluating the use and misuse of in the generalised and neo-evolutionist the past (Hedeager & Schousboe 1989). paradigm with methods of quantitative anal- Following that, the attitude of the Min- ysis in a deductive manner. istry of Education and the Swedish govern- Many of the premises for investigating ment to the state of research in the - the past have changed during the last three ities is highly questionable. The government decades in the field of archaeology. In the made a publication on the Holocaust (Bruch- early 1980s it became evident that material feld k Levine 1998), which had a wide culture could have various meanings. Mate- circulation among people in Sweden. The rial expressions were interpreted not as policy towards the Humanities is, however, passive objects but rather as very actively intimidating. Likewise are the priorities at used and with a role in the social process. the universities in Sweden. The publication Symbols in Action (Hodder This article is an outline of a very broad 1982) had an enormous impact on archae- field of research in pre-Christian religion and ology. Instead of being just expressions of sets out from the archaeology in Scandinavia. great economic importance, artefacts also Therefore, selected publications on ritual and could have metaphorical meaning, for ex- religion within archaeology of the late ample the iron slag (Burström 1990) and twentieth century will be presented, in order grinding (Lidström Holmberg 1998). to characterise and discuss different ap- New perspectives and potentials of the proaches and angles. After several centuries material culture opened up for critical archae- without any interest in religion, research on ology, but also the interpretative challenge pre-Christian religion is once again estab- of solving the code of remains. lished in archaeology in the 1990s. Both research within the tradition of post- processual archaeology (e.g. Hodder 1982; ARCHAEOLOGY AND RELIGION Shanks 8c Tilley 1987) and later within the All disciplines undergo changes, of course. tradition of cognitive archaeology (Renfrew In earlier archaeological research the interest 8c Zubrow 1994) opened up for questions also in prehistoric religion was a natural com- about ritual and religion in other ways than ponent of the archaeological interpretative before. But it is also intriguing that within framework (e.g. especially Almgren 1927). the earlier post-processual works, studies of ln retrospect the evolutionist paradigm, religion appear very seldom. Instead the focus but also diffusionism, and functionalism have is on symbols in power relations and ideo- been and still are frameworks in archaeology logical structures, and religion is hidden as well as in other disciplines. They are also within these concepts. fundamental in earlier as well as ongoing The Nordic religion had of course been studies associated with religion in . studied before. It was, however, mainly a Within these theoretical points of departure research field in connection with the history the material culture more often illustrates the of religion and literary studies and the cultural history, rather than being analytical analyses of written sources. Results were in itself. Christopher Hawkes explicitly published both internationally and within the formulated the archaeological limitations of Nordic countries (e.g. de Vries 1956-57; studying past religions in his famous know- Ström, 1961; Dumezil 1973).A wider range ledge of the ladder (Hawkes 1954). And in of sources could, however, be integrated into the 1960s and 1970s in connection with an the study of pre-Christian religion. In short, explicit scientific archaeology, religion was the Nordic material consists of literature as more or less regarded as impossible to study. well as settlement finds, grave finds, votive

Cttrrent Swedish Archaeolo~y, Vol. 8, 2000 Archaeology and Pre-Chrisdan Religion in Scandinavia 129

offerings, picture stones, , that is, the material culture, relate to mythology ordinary archaeological material culture. and cosmology as people act according to Until about two decades ago religion was, their conception of the cosmos and their however, of low scientific value in archae- understanding of reality. ology as were the unspoken premises of However, difficulties in grasping the con- material culture. The communication among stitution of ritual and religion are discernible the disciplines that used different sources and in the archaeological debate. The main ques- methods to research Nordic religion, could tions are related to the possibilities of be described as low. And one postulation is studying pre-Christian religions on the basis that, until a few years ago, archaeologists did of texts or material culture. But also the not question enough the various theories on character and role of religion in connection Nordic religion. This was probably a result to political power and ideological preferences of nearly no collaboration between archae- are fundamental controversies (e.g. Finnestad ology and the or literary 1986; Nordbladh 1986; Schjedt 1986; Dom- studies. Presumably, the apprehension to- masnes 1991;Notelid 1996;Nordström 1997; wards the possibilities inherent in written Bredholt Christensen 1998; Damm 1998; sources and material culture originated from Sveen 1998). constructive-minded dialogues. The unquestionable separation into the But the communication has been en- sacred and the profane in Western society has hanced during the last two decades. In the to be considered in the study of prehistoric 1980s and 1990s the historians of religion societies. The concepts of religion and ritual arranged several conferences for unlimited are linked to the Western world of ideas, too, dialogues among the academic disciplines and there is an extensive debate in connection (Steinsland 1986; Steinsland et al. 1991b; with the concepts (Asad 1993). Therefore, Schjodt 1994). These conferences have had the later, more theoretical, discussions of the a great impact on archaeology. From the concepts of religion and ritual within the archaeological side, conferences also ap- fields of history of religion and anthropology peared around ten years ago (Andrén 1989; are very important for further application to Larsson & Wyszomirska 1989; Lagerlöf archaeological projects. The same is true of 1991; Lidén 1995; Engdahl & Kaliff 1996; different kinds of sources. The relation Bredholt Christensen & Sveen 1998;Anders- between material culture and literary sources son et al. 1998). The archaeologists them- is a significant methodological question selves were forced to find ways to use the (Andrén 1998). On the whole, there are archaeological material in order to trace theoretical, methodological and empirical religion in prehistoric societies. problems in studying past religions. And no From an archaeological point of view, the doubt there is an abundance of questions to interpretation of rituals as inspired by soci- be asked. ology, anthropology, and the history of One question of interest is, how should religion (e.g. Bell 1992, 1997) is very fruitful religion be designated before ? (e.g. the work on Saami mortuary practices, As regards language, there are several names Schanche 1997) but still rather unusual. for religion before Christianity, for example Religious rituals can be understood as being Nordic heathenism, pagan religion, pagan- performed in confirmation with mythology ism, old Scandinavian cult, and fertility cult. and cosmology within an ideologically The terms have slightly different meanings structured society and cultural identity. and are used in different kinds of associations. Hence, rituals are powerful in the struc- The term "heathenism" in particular is loaded turation of society. Thus, embedded in with subjective judgements (Hultgård 1991).

Carreni Sieedish Archaeolog&:, Voh 8, 2000 130 Kristina Jennbert

Is it possible to discern separate "reli- in which the pre-Christian societies were for- gions" or cosmologies during the thousands ced by social and political choices (Steinsland of years before Christianity? How is the 1989, 1991b, 1995). One suggestion in the Norse religion related to earlier and later later direction is that the presence of riding cosmologies? Whose religion or cosmology equipment and horses in Viking Age burials is being investigated? What constituted ritual might express an ideological and religious and religion in the material record, and what reaction from land-owners (Nielsen 1991). kind of representations do we find in the Of significance in a Nordic perspective archaeological material? Was religion trans- and the problematic designation of religions formed during the past millennia, and how is the Saami culture. The interest in the pre- far back in time is Norse religion discernible? Christian religion of the Saami goes back to For a start, what characterised the pre- the nineteenth century and foremost studies Christian religion a few hundred years before in and the history of religion Christianity? Many aspects of rituals, (Johnson 1983; Ahlbäck 1987; Rydving and the cosmos in connection to the ideolo- 1993).Also from an archaeological point of gical structure but also in relation to areas view, the Saami religion and rituals have been south of Scandinavia have been debated. The in focus (e.g. Zachrisson 1987; Schanche following examples represent a few, im- 1997).According to Juha Pentikäinen, there portant topics in the field of research. The was no word for "religion" in the Saami structure of cosmology has been debated (e.g. language as in the modern Western world. Schjedt 1988). Several scholars have stated He mentions a problem tangent to the opinion that was a shamanistic religion that religion is a historical category that (Hedeager 1997, 1998; Solli 1998), but also emerged in the Western society (Asad 1993). that the pre-Christian rulership was sacral Pentikäinen means that the concept of an (Steinsland 1991a). Potentials in the archae- is more suitable, as the ological material for analysing the Chris- concept of Saami religion is something tanization have been emphasised (Roesdahl constituted by the Christians in the seven- 1987; Gräslund 1985; Solli 1995, 1996), and teenth century. The ethnic religion embodies Viking Age and crucifix pendants, much more: the landscape of the , the for example, have been seen as expressions arctic human, nature, way of life, philosophy of the Christian mission (Staecker 1999). and the conception of the world (Pentikäinen Kings, power, churches and the parish for- 1997). These statements could very well mation are well-known topics central to the apply to the northern pre-Christian religion research of the (e.g. Brink as well. 1990; Anglert 1995). Chronologically, the Bronze Age and the To understand the Christianization and Late are the periods that have been thereby the disagreements over the state of most frequently analysed in terms of religion. conversion is a complex matter (Schjedt The image ofthe Bronze Age as very pastoral 1989). An interdisciplinary project, The and cultic with beautiful bronze objects, rock Christianization in Sweden, started in the art, and conspicuous mortuary practices and 1980s. DiAerent perspectives from some of deposition traditions is widespread. A rich the provinces in Sweden were considered and archaeological material with a wide range of the Christianization was regarded as a lengthy marvellous variation such as artefacts, picture process without any collective conversion stones, runes, the literary sources of Norse (Nilsson 1996) and in a sense very peaceful. mythology together with a great public Another interpretation emphasises a dramatic interest, are important components of the confrontation between different ideologies, attraction of the Late Iron Age and the

Current Swedish Archaeolog&:, Voh 8, 2000 Archaeologd and Pre-Christi an Religion i n Scandinavia 131

Christianization. And the attraction goes back by the analyses of the Late burials to the nineteenth century, to the national at Skateholm in southern Sweden (Larsson romantic era. 1988, 1990), and studies of in As will be shown, however, other pre- southern Scandinavia (Holten 1997). historic periods have also tempted studies of The use of rock art in burial rites is religion. The number of articles and publi- explicitly shown in a study of an area in the cations that focus on ritual and religion has north-eastern part ofthe province of Småland increased remarkably during the last ten (Widholm 1998), but also in an analysis of a years. As a consequence, a wide range of Bronze Age grave with rock carvings south material culture and themes has been dis- of Vättern in the district of Småland (Gold- cussed. The following selection illustrates the hahn 1999). Another famous Bronze Age heterogeneity of approaches in studies of with rock art is Kivik in south-eastern rituals and religion within the field of archae- Scania. Analyses of iconography, contexts ology. A reflection on analyses in relation to and analogies have led Klavs Randsborg to burials and votive offerings is followed by a the assumption that the Kivik cairn may discussion of the newly applied interest in represent an almost shamanistic Bronze Age farmsteads and the structuration of the cosmos (Randsborg 1993).At the same time landscape. Lars Larsson's contextual analysis of the surroundings of the cairn has concluded that DEATH, CULT AND CEREMONIAL the local chief buried in the cairn served in a PLACES long-term perspective as the link between the Death and the cult are the most salient profane and the sacred (Larsson 1993). features studied by archaeologists in terms Looking at graves as memorials gives an of ritual and religion. In terms of archae- opportunity to trace tradition backwards and ological remains such as burials, rock art, form some ideas about the underlying forces hoards, booty , etc. , ceremonial in the changing conceptions of death; for places have been the point of departure for example, inhumation graves with pagan studying ritual and religion. And with regard features and Christian influences (Wagnkilde to the long-term perspective, several different & Pind 1991)but also a realisation of regional kinds of archaeological remains, in particular variations in mortuary tradition (Svanberg the burials, could be relevant, as there is 1999).Death as one of life's riles ofpassage evidence from the up to modern and the societal conditions together with time (Jennbert 1988). Changing mortuary other ritual practices give possibilities to form customs reflect changing traditions, that is a picture of mentality and social norms. the mental norms, which were important to Audhild Schanche's doctoral dissertation of the reproduction of society. Graves and mor- 1997 on Saami mortuary practices in a long- tuary practices are projections of mentality term perspective is one of few archaeological and the social world, which bind individuals analyses of Saami rituals and with inspiration together as a consequence of social fellow- from anthropological theories on religion ship. (Schanche 1997). Agneta Bennett (1987) was the first to Rock art is a kind of material culture propose that burials were religious and social central to studies of religion. The reason is symbols in her study of Iron Age burials in perhaps that the rock art, isolated in its the Mälar Valley in central Sweden, and since expression, is easy to assign to the sacred then several other studies have followed (e.g. sphere. In other words, a narrow view of Kaliff 1992, 1997; Artelius 1996). Research grasping religion in a very modern Western on Stone Age burial rites can be represented way is comprehended. The significance of

Carrent Snedish Archaeolog&:, Voh 8, 2000 132 Kristina Jennhert rock art in ritual activities and religion has ological sites like Skedemosse on Öland been studied since the later part of the nine- (Hagberg 1967), Röekillorna in southern teenth century (Hultkrantz 1989).Still today, Scania (Stjernquist 1997), and Käringsjön in the impact of the classical interpretation of Halland (Arbman 1945; Carlie 1998) are rock art as rituals of the regeneration of fer- important examples of sacrificial sites. But tility (Almgren 1927) is considerable. The more recently excavated areas and less- idea of rock art as representations of the known archaeological remains show the very divine (Almgren 1962) is also still popular. close spatial relation between a settlement In the later years rock art has been inter- site and votive deposits (e.g. Hallgren et al. preted in many different ways and claimed 1997). to represent vital moments in religious Several of the classical sites of booty mythology (Malmer 1989). Rock art is also sacrifices and other sacrificial places in the interpreted as cosmological and ritual repre- Iron Age in southern Scandinavia have been sentations (Nordbladh 1980; Helskog 1988; discussed. Changes in the character and Kaul 1998), as part of a Celtic religion (Gör- location of sacrificial places during the Iron man 1987),or as symbols of female divinities Age are interpreted in the light of a changed (Mandt 1986). But rock art could also be social organisation and economy, and the representations of totemism and power of an elite (e.g. Fabech 1991),but also (Tilley 1991).In later works, inspiration from in the light of warfare (Randsborg 1995). phenomenology, post-structuralism, and her- The Sarup enclosures from the Early and meneutics is frequently applied. But more Middle (Andersen 1997), features important in the later studies is that rock art like burnt in the Middle Neolithic is apprehended contextually together with (Larsson 2000), and destruction in terms of other forms of material culture (e.g. Damm fire in connection with the Funnel-beaker 1998; Kaul 1998; Widholm 1998). settlement area (Apel et al. 1997) indicate Since the last century, the cult and tra- the many perceptible structures in relation ditions with votive offerings has also attracted to religious rituals. The focus on hill-forts great interest in archaeology. Over the past and fortified farms as ceremonial enclosures decades an increasing body of studies has in the Late Bronze Age in the province of focused on the nature and character of ritual Uppland in central Sweden resulted in new sites dating from the Stone Age up to the Late conceptions of these kinds of ancient monu- Iron Age. They appear in wetlands as well as ments (Olausson 1995). on dry land, within the settlement area or Following the theme of cult, the focus on nearby. At several places, finds from the Late places of central importance and ceremonial Stone Age up to the Iron Age are deposited centres is essential to the research on the Iron in one and the same location, as if the area Age. Due to new excavations, an abundance has had special meaning through time. Other of such places has been recorded. They play places are more limited in their spatial a vital role in questions of ideology and state dimensions and temporal duration. Several formation, and are situated from Lofoten in meanings can surely be applied to the cer- the North to Bornholm in the South (Stamse emonial places depending on the nature of Munch 1991;Watt 1991;Åqvist 1996; Niel- the context and with consideration to the sen 1996; Näsström 1996; Larsson & Hårdh temporal situation. 1998; Thrane 1998). Hoards and single finds from the Stone One consequence of the recent studies is Age have been recorded and interpreted in that the time-space relation has become terms of ritual tradition that changed over essential. The significance of the material time (e.g. Karsten 1994). Famous archae- culture is also important for understanding

Current Swedish Archaeology, Vol. 8, 2000 Archaeology and Pre-Christian Religion in Scandinavia l 33 the mentality of past epochs. Ritual practices several of these studies. The examples pre- as a force of power in the structuration of sented in this article cover several prehistoric society and in foreign relations is explicitly periods. The earliest is the Mesolithic settle- shown in a study that discusses the Late ment site of Tågerup in Scania in southern- Neolithic ritual hoard from Gallemose in most Sweden. Houses, graves, and extra- (Vandkilde 1998).The re-use of space ordinary find contexts of both stone and and the importance of space are indicated in organic material make the place central to a contexts with barrows overlying houses discussion of rituals (Karsten & Knarrström (Baudou 1991) or the farmsteads and early 1998). church buildings (Jeppesen & Madsen 1991). The deposit of material in the interior of Such circumstances raise the question of houses, places and at the whether the structure of a ritual space is a Bronze Age settlement of Apalle in central representation of specific cosmological Sweden is interpreted in terms of symbolism concepts. The time-space relations in con- (Ullén 1994) and the attitudes to horse and nection with burials, sacrificial places and dog in the course of the Bronze Age (Ullén farmsteads are fundamental in cosmological 1996).In a similar way, changes in diet could terms. correspond to changes in the Late Bronze Age As political and ideological power is cosmology (Skoglund 1999).The localisation moulded, legitimised and transformed, it is of rock art in the coastal area of Trendelag is a challenge for future research to go deeper interpreted as the physical manifestation of into those questions since ritual performances hunter-gatherers' and farmers' control and per se are active in the structuration of ritualisation ofthe landscape (Sognnes 1994). society. At the same time, ritual space as a re- presentation of specific cosmological con- DAILY LIFE AND THE LANDSCAPE cepts is an interesting issue. Consequently, A decade ago, studies of ritual and religion the concept that landscape is not only func- in the relevant daily life and nearby surround- tional but also societal, mythical, and cosmol- ings were seldom carried out. This was ogical is inherent in several archaeological probably due to a narrow view of the sacred studies from different provinces in Sweden. in relation to the profane in Western ways of And the farm as a cosmological model thinking. The economic life was understood (Gurevich 1985; Hastrup 1985) has inspired as a functional matter that was not affected archaeological implications in relation to the by rituals or and therefore not involved Late Iron Age (e.g. Johansen 1997; Cassel in the sacred places. With a broader view to 1998). relations between the sacred and the profane, Shifting mental processes behind the remains of past farms, villages and the organisation of social practice from the Late landscape are integrated into studies of Iron Age up to about 1700AD have been religion. studied in a parish in the province of Dalarna During the 1990s and after the more (Ersgård 1997). Another study focuses on functional and economical approach, the changes of farms and stone enclosures during mental dimensions of the settlement area, the the Roman Iron Age on Gotland, interpreting farmsteads and the landscape per se appeared them as changes in society and in people's in archaeological research. Nowadays, many way of perceiving their world (Cassel 1998). archaeologists are more or less convinced that In a contextual analysis of silver and gold the landscape is saturated with cultural deposits from the Viking Age and the Early messages. And so far, la longue durée, is a Middle Ages in the province of Uppland, the perspective that is extremely important in archaeological remains are interpreted in

Carrent Svvedish Archaeology, Vol. g, 2000 134 Kristina Jennbert terms of landmarks related to religious rituals culture within the discipline, there are (Zachrisson 1998). potentials within archaeology. Today several The landscape is not only understood in studies deal with the rituals and religion of connection with the economic functions. The time periods as far back as the Palaeolithic. landscape has also a "social structure" and a And perhaps the attitudes and ideas of ar- "social ecology", based on economy, society, chaeologists are not stamped with the earlier , and cosmology. Thus people of dif- paradigm of scientific work, but transformed ferent ages and genders and all manner of into a more open-minded and interpretative social standing have left their mark indi- mind in a post-modern sense. Archaeologists vidually or collectively on the landscape, of today perhaps also have a kind of friend- which in tum has left its mark on them. ship with the archaeologists of several de- cades ago. As a reaction to the very scientific ARCHAEOLOGY AND PRE-CHRISTIAN approach, archaeologists of today uphold a RELIGION kind of poetic and artistic liberty, as archae- Archaeology of course, like other disciplines, ologists in the nineteenth century exposed follows the ideas of our time. A hesitation (fig. I). One challenge in the future is, how- and an ambivalence towards the study of ever, to interpret and bind together different prehistoric religion have been recognisable kinds of sources, whether material culture or both in the fields of archaeology and the texts, and to synthesise. history of religion. Due to the credence of The selected publications mentioned in sources and methods, the earlier periods this article show the state of the Humanities, without any written sources at all, induce especially archaeology and the history of more doubt as to the study of religion. But religion. It is obvious that post-processual due to the changing attitudes to material archaeology has had greatest impact in

Fig. 1. Stone Age funeral (Figuier 1870:143)

Current S~~edish Archaeology, Vob 8, 2000 Archaeoiogv antl Pre-Chrishan Religion in Scandinavia 135

Sweden and Norway. The entrance to the hundreds years or about a thousand years. study of ritual and religion is the traditions More seldom has anyone speculated on a of post-processual and cognitive archaeology. more expanded long-term perspective, from The framework of a critical archaeology but modern times to the Stone Age or in the also the study of ritual and religion are opposite direction. One of the few archae- grounded in an apprehension of material ologists that have tackled the question of culture as a social force. The archaeological transformed religions is Mats P. Malmer. In evidence of burials, deposit finds, cult cen- his dissertation Malmer discusses changes tres, rock art, farmsteads and the landscape within religion as interpreted from changes are undoubtedly topics of importance in the within the material culture but also in re- study of religion. sponse to economic changes. Six great The research on ritual and religion is transformations are noted from the Early firmly established in archaeology. One im- Neolithic up to the twentieth century (Malmer pression is that the Bronze Age and the Iron 1962:810ff). Age are still those periods that have generated In connection with studies of different the greatest interest with regard to religion. kinds of material culture, however, several Yet, there are numerous changes within the suggestions for the transformation of religion utilised sources, methods and theoretical per- have been postulated. The potentials of spectives. Frameworks of a more traditional mortuary practices to signi fy a transformation cultural-historical approach to phenomen- are notable, for example in the Migration ology are found. Noteworthy is Jens Peter Period (Bennett 1987) and the Christian- Schjodt's critical comments on the use of the ization (Nielsen 1991). Other sources like phenomenology of religion. In short he deposit finds and sacrifices have been inter- maintains that it is far too simplified to use preted in terms of a shift in religion and ritual universal analogies without attention to the practices, for instance changes in the Neo- ideological structures (Schjedt 1986). It is lithic (Karsten 1994), Late Neolithic (Vand- thereby questionable whether one can study, kilde 1998)and the Migration Period (Fabech for example, eschatological beliefs in pre- 1991). Christian religions. At the same time there Another example concerning the question are unsolved problems among archaeologists, of transformation and the relation between as to how to grasp the relations between the form and content is the focus on phenomena, sacred and the profane, perhaps depending objects and pictorial representations. An on an altogether uncritical attitude. There is, excellent example is the ship, which is however, a tendency towards a broader discussed in a long-term perspective as a understanding of the concept of religion that cosmological symbol but also as a sign of also involves both ideological and social transition and transcendence (e.g. Artelius aspects (e.g. Olausson 1999). 1996; Andrén 1993; Crumlin-Pedersen & The central question in archaeology is Munch Thye 1995; Kaul 1998). The Scan- the temporal and spatial relation between dinavian animal art is another example of form and content. This relation is not con- interpretations in a post-processual frame- stant, but rather changeable, and the trans- work, viewed as active and communicative formation of meaning depends on social for individuals as well as for groups of people struggles and cultural conditions. (Hedeager 1998). Also the gold bracteates Several archaeologists have had inten- have been interpreted as ingredients in a tions to grasp and synthesise religious sym- religious and political struggle, for example bols over vast areas (e.g. Larsson 1997), and the iconography in the light of mythology religion in a time perspective of a few (Kolstrup 1991;Gaimster 1998)or in political

Cnrrent Stvedish Archaeologv, Voh 8, 2000 136 Kristina Jennbert and religious conditions (Axboe 1991) and archaeology of the past could be essential to their original context and ideological function modern people in other ways, too. The (Andrén 1991). Western society can be criticised for a narrow outlook with respect to comprehending cultural and separate historical contexts. The Research on religion and ritual is established long-term perspective offers alternatives and in archaeology. The interest in ritual and alterations. Or, is the contribution from religion in archaeology possibly also reflects archaeologists to society a sense of cultural a kind of nostalgia. Perhaps archaeologists, pluralism in the past as well as in the present too, are looking for other values in a search (Burström 1999)? In a time when digitilised for affinity in a society that is more seg- mortuary monuments and guided tours of regated and more dependent on market condi- churchyards have appeared, archaeologists tions and commercial activities than ever are tempted to critically scrutinise our own before. These include unfortunately also the age. New Age movements, where archaeology plays a crucial part. Whatever the reasons, English revised by Laura Wrang. at the end of the 20'" century studies of ritual and religion in the field of archaeology A CKNOH'LEDGEMENTS appear frequently in scholarly and popular Thanks to Anders Andrén, Anders Rihlborg, as well as in antiquarian publications. The and the two editors of Current Swedish significance of ritual and religion in the Archaeology for discussions and comments.

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