Computer Modeling and Visualization in Design 109

Technology: An Instructional Model Studies Technology of Journal The Stan Guidera

Computer aided drafting (CAD) has largely are represented without forshortening. supplanted manual drafting in the workplace. Mitchell (1992) noted that these parallel views As new technologies and practices are adopted inherently flatten perceptions of space and in industry, they should also be incorporated in volume and that “a limitation of this parallel- academic curricula (Stephens, 1997). Con- projection procedure is that it destroys all z- sequently, CAD has also become the standard coordinate information; that is, information in academic environments, and coursework about depth back from the picture plane. This emphasizing manual drafting has been largely often results in spatial ambiguity” (p. 125). eliminated or relegated to introductory classes. Graphic techniques such as shading and However, the increasing use of 3D parametric variation in line-weights have been used in modeling programs such as Solidworks and drafting and technical illustration to Mechanical Desktop is bringing about a communicate depth and distance in fundamental shift to a model-centric paradigm orthographic drawings. However, 3D that may ultimately have a similar impact on drawings such as para-line drawings and electronic drafting. The shift from computer perspectives have significant communication drafting to computer modeling is also making advantages in that they represent form and it possible to extend the use of CAD beyond its space in a more realistic manner (Ching, 1996). role as a production tool to include analysis and While more visually “realistic,” these drawings communication with software emphasizing cannot document the entire object since a design visualization. While in the past the use single viewpoint or viewing angle must be of visualization software has been limited and selected. Therefore, providing informationally specialized, recent enhancements in complete representation requires either 3D interoperability with CAD software have made drawings to be viewed in conjunction with its application more feasible for a wider range orthographic drawings or the creation of of disciplines. Therefore, students in design fields multiple para-line drawings to show multiple must be prepared to leave colleges and 3D views. Additionally, these drawings are also universities with skills in design visualization usually time consuming to create in a drafting- technologies as well as with CAD in order to be centered environment and, since they must be competitive in the marketplace. constructed using the measurements and The role of visualization technologies is related information provided by the to provide an efficient mechanism for orthographic drawings, must be continually communication by enabling the nontechnical updated as the design evolves. This is why person to see and understand design (Mealing, creating realistic 3D representations had been Adams, & Woolner, 1995). Disciplines such perceived as feasible only after the design was as mechanical design and architecture have complete. traditionally utilized orthographic drawings With the introduction of CAD software, such as plans, sections, and elevations as the little changed in this process. Modeling of any primary medium for design communication complexity required the computing power of as well as documentation. Orthographic views expensive workstations, and the limited are discreet 2D images that, when perceived modeling capabilities available on early versions collectively, communicate the design as a whole of PC-based CAD applications were often (Ching, 1996). The images are projected difficult to use and typically too slow on most straight or parallel to the viewing plane with hardware installations. For most designers and only two dimensions, such as length or width, drafting technicians, CAD was used as an visible at one time (Ethier & Ethier, 2000). electronic version of the manual drafting Orthographic drawings require the viewer to processes they were already familiar with and conceptually assemble the discreet views in the expected productivity increase from order to visualize the proposed design. For the computer drafting failed to materialize unskilled observer, orthographic views have (Bhavani & John, 1996). The emphasis perceptual limitations since the design elements remained on documenting the end product of 110 the design process rather than facilitating the drawing and for visualization and design process itself. Conceptual development communication (Boardman & Hubbell, of a design remained a distinct phase in the 1998). Additionally, since digital models can design process that was perceived to be limited be rotated, moved, changed, and viewed from by the precision-driven features of CAD. different vantage points (Goldman, 1997), According to Van Elsas and Vergeest (1998), “it they afford greater efficiency in producing any is this ability to allow design of detailed products number of views for analysis and that makes conventional CAD systems difficult communication as the design evolves. to use during earlier design stages, when not The advantages of a model-based process the complexity of the design, but the creativity are not limited to increased efficiencies in of the designer, is of dominant importance” (p. drawing production. Mitchell (1992) observed 82). CAD applications were seen as most useful that where viewpoint selection with traditional The Journal of Technology Studies at the end of the design process and for representation mediums can be constrained by representation of complex, finished product technical difficulties in constructing 3D images models (Van Elsas & Vergeest, 1998). such as perspective views, this limitation is However, the 3D capabilities now available removed with images generated from computer on PC platforms is closing the gap with high- models. Further, while accurate end workstations (Brown, 1997). Advances representations can be produced with “hand- in processing power have enabled software made” perspectives, computer-generated per- vendors to incorporate sophisticated computer spectives may be interpreted as more “valid” modeling tools in software running on desktop since automated perspective-synthesis computers. This has brought high-end procedures eliminate “the effects of human processing power within the reach of the error, wishful thinking, and dishonest majority of users and is replacing electronic fudging” (Mitchell, 1992, p. 118). drafting with a model-centric process in which Demand for visualization capabilities has the designer creates a virtual object, assembly, led CAD software vendors to include or building as a 3D digital model. These visualization tools as standard features. modeling processes are typically parametric. For However, developing coursework that example, a set of parameters can be established maximizes the visualization potential of that will control relationships, such as relative size computer modeling requires skills that are more and position, between different components of interdisciplinary than those developed in the model. The designer can modify one conventional 2D or 3D CAD courses. component and the other components Computer-based design visualization has been automatically update in compliance with the described as a combination of computer specified parameters. The model then functions graphics, computation, communication, and as the base for all 2D and 3D graphic interaction (Brown, 1997). Design visualization communication. Increased accuracy, elimination is distinguished from computer modeling by of errors, efficiency in collaborative design two key objectives: the articulation or rendering processes, and faster design cycles are only a few of a model with a high degree of realism and of the benefits. the communication of the sequential or The parametric model-centric paradigm temporal characteristics of the design concept. provides additional advantages over 2D Rendering refers to the process of enhancing an electronic drafting in that it enhances the image. However, computer rendering refers potential for computers to be used as both a to an automated digital process that design tool and a communication medium takes digital models and applies user-defined early in the design process. Since designing is enhancements to provide a more realistic view inherently evolutionary in nature, using digital (Goldman, 1997), including “taking a 3 modeling as the primary design tool enables dimensional model and applying color, material, the designer to generate 3D representations and light (or darkness) to its surfaces or faces” from multiple viewpoints throughout the (Ethier & Ethier, 2000, p. 8). Sequential or project’s development. In contrast to manual serial visualization involves a series of individual drafting, both 2D and 3D images can be renderings created as an object or viewpoint is generated relatively easily over the course of a moved through or around the computer model model-centric design process. Therefore, the over time. These renderings can be physically same model can be used for both production assembled as a series of still images and displayed as a “storyboard,” assembled electronically in a refers to competency using any software 111

file, or recorded to video to create animations. application used to create 3D geometry. This The Journal of Technology Studies Technology of Journal The A significant benefit of design visualization is includes nonparametric solid and surface-based its potential for increasing awareness of larger CAD as well as the parametric or feature-based issues related to perceptual and psychological 3D applications that are now being widely aspects of design to which CAD and computer adopted in industry. However, modeling skills modeling alone may not be conducive. can also include the modeling capabilities that Integrating visualization technologies into are provided in many design visualization design coursework can enhance our students’ applications. potential for exploration of these issues. Simulation refers to the competencies related to the computer rendering process. At a Core Skills for Design Visualization basic level, rendering may be limited to color The interdisciplinary nature of the skills gradients and shading. These capabilities are associated with design visualization requires available in nearly all CAD software. More that content and information be drawn from advanced rendering processes can attempt to design disciplines, computer graphics, simulate materials and lighting. However, photography and print media, physics, and design visualization software is characterized geometry. For example, Brown (1997) by sophisticated lighting and control of proposed that “if the visualizations we produce materials that can render the model in a way are to be informative and effective, we must that is indistinguishable from a photograph. understand principles of design, how colors This process, referred to as photo-realism, can interact, and how we perceive information” (p. “accurately simulate complex textured surfaces 2). Therefore, students must develop a skill under the kinds of lighting conditions that are set that is more diverse than developed in the encountered in real 3 dimensional scenes” scope of conventional CAD coursework (Mitchell, 1992, p. 161). Depicting objects utilizing computer modeling. as “real” requires the designer to manipulate Knowledge and skills acquired from 2D images or maps to emulate materials and diverse subject matter outside of technology textures, understand and manipulate color courses make up the first of three knowledge properties and transparencies, and create and areas proposed by DeLuca (1991): control lighting for shade and shadow. 1. Related Knowledge: Knowledge Simulation is not simply an automated process. gained from classes other than According to Mitchell (1992), “in modeling a technology classes. scene, a computer artist must decide what to 2. Prior Technological Knowledge: Knowledge and skills gained from geometrically describe in terms of surfaces and previous study in technology classes. what to treat as texture on those surfaces” (p. 3. Knowledge Seeking: Ability to identify 145). However, the primary benefit of missing information and obtain increased realism is a reduction in the abstract relevant information. (p. 6) nature of the design process. The manipulation These knowledge areas can be directly of materials and lighting produce output that associated with the competencies required to is far more concrete and closely aligned with effectively utilize digital design visualization the physical reality than with the 2D or wire- technologies. Introducing design visualization frame world displayed on the computer screen. within a discipline-specific context requires The understanding that design decisions have students to synthesize core coursework, and the real implications for how objects or spaces are interdisciplinary nature of skills necessary for used or experienced in the real world is effective design visualization will require reinforced by the hyperrealism of the students to draw upon learning from other representation. courses outside of technology. By using design Simulation also includes animation. visualization technologies as an analysis and Animation skills enable students to analyze and assessment tool, students can more effectively communicate the temporal and sequential evaluate design decisions and therefore support issues related to their design proposals. In the “knowledge seeking” process. The core skill addition to animations of part assemblies, set for design visualization encompasses three manufacturing processes, and architectural general skill categories: modeling, simulation, walk-throughs, these issues can also be used to and representation. In this context, modeling illustrate conceptual processes such as 3D flow 112 charts. Since animations are a sequential The use of design visualization is display of still renderings, competency in this particularly relevant in architectural design area is closely tied to skills in articulation and courses. Architecture and the product of its rendering. Students must also develop a practice is inherently public in nature (Scrutin, knowledge base of terminology and techniques 1979). This gives rise to a design process that associated with video and film not only for requires an active dialogue between the purposes of composition but also to address architect and engineer and individuals and technical issues associated with output, storage, constituencies who will be impacted by the and display of animations. completed project. It is common for those The third skill category, representation, outside of the architecture, engineering, and requires students to synthesize rendering and construction fields to have difficulty animation output with other graphical interpreting architectural drawings. Campbell The Journal of Technology Studies mediums into a coherent format for (2000) stated that the communication media presentation and communication and involves used by architects “is dominated by highly competency with 2D graphics skills. symbolic, orthographic drawings and text Representation skills with digital media entail based specifications” (p. 129). Visualization high levels of critical thinking. While digital technologies provide a way to bridge this media affords the opportunity to create highly communication gap. realistic images, students must develop skills Architecture has historically relied on for evaluating the level of detail and realism perspective drawings for nontechnical design appropriate for the level of development of communication, a tradition dating back to the their proposals. Overly realistic images at an development of the science of perspective in early stage of the design process may detract the early renaissance (Honour & Fleming, from the formal issues being presented for 1982). Mitchell (1992) suggested that the role consideration. According to Goldman (1997), of the perspective has been to “predict the visual “the purpose of a rendering should dictate the effect that will result from execution of the degree to which there are consistent levels of design” (p. 118). Similarly, Goldman (1997) abstraction and resolution within the image” referenced the importance of the perspective (p. 232). Similarly, decisions regarding in stating that “there is no image or drawing rendering highly detailed objects must be type used by architects, interior designers, considered in the context in which they will planners, and other members of the building be presented since attention is usually focused design team that can more accurately or more on the part of the image with the greatest detail clearly show what a building or a space will be (Goldman, 1997). Composition skills required like in relation to the observer” (p. 150). The for visualization must draw on other graphics ability to efficiently generate these views with courses within the curriculum, particularly 2D computer models enables the designer to digital media courses when available. The evaluate the spatial implications of the design emphasis on the integration of 3D information and then use the model as a tool to as 2D communication can foster development communicate decisions and receive feedback of analytical and critical thinking skills from those who will use it. Additionally, essential for student success in technology experiencing architecture is highly temporal and design fields. and sequential:

Application of the Course Model One of the principle concerns of architectural An experimental design visualization course design is space: the internal spaces of a building and its setting. One does not react to space from recently conducted at a midwestern university was a static position, as one might view a painting. based on this model. The class included students To obtain a deeper understanding of architectural enrolled in the architectural design and interior space it is necessary to move through the space, experiencing new views and discovering the design programs. Course assignments were sequence of complex spatial relationships. structured to culminate in a final project based (Greenburg, 1974, p. 99) on a design problem that would provide students with experience applying their modeling, The use of sequential perspectives and rendering, and animation skills in a context that animations generated with design visualization would parallel the use of design visualization in technologies provides an opportunity for professional practice. architectural designers to communicate these characteristics in ways in which no analog exists simple 3D scenes created with modeling tools 113

in traditional mediums. available in the visualization software. The Journal of Technology Studies Technology of Journal The Concurrently, other activities were structured Course Detail to develop competencies with 3D modeling Enrollment in the class was limited to using AutoCAD through lecture/lab exercises students in the final year of their academic focusing on creating increasingly detailed program. This was intended to ensure that computer models. These activities were used students had completed an appropriate to introduce more advanced modeling techniques number of “related knowledge” courses (physics and the process associated with linking AutoCAD and graphic communications) and “prior geometry with 3D Studio Viz. technological knowledge” courses (architectural The second half of the course was focused design courses, construction courses, and basic on an “application project.” This design CAD) in order to make the necessary conceptual problem required students to synthesize associations between these knowledge areas and modeling and simulation skills, and provided the course material presented in the class. a context for focusing on the use of design AutoCAD 14 was used as the primary visualization as an analysis, assessment, and modeling application and 3D Studio Viz 2.0 communication tool. The students formed was used for design visualization. This dual- groups and were then given the project application approach was selected because the requirements for three interior renovation combination of conventional CAD projects under consideration on campus. The applications for modeling and separate selection of a potential “real-world” project also visualization applications for rendering and provided a “client” the students would need to animation is common in professional design communicate with as their designs evolved. fields (Boardman & Hubbell, 1998). 3D Limiting the assignment to interior spaces Studio Viz provided advanced rendering and ensured that the scope of the project would be animation tools, including an extensive manageable within the class timeframe. The material library. It was anticipated that the modeling for the final project was developed combination of the software’s extensive library using AutoCAD. This approach allowed of materials and its advanced lighting- students to utilize the drawing-linking features simulation capabilities would enable students of 3D Studio Viz while further developing their to create highly realistic representations. It was AutoCAD modeling skills with more detailed also selected for its drawing-linking feature. modeling. Rather than importing the CAD geometry into The students worked in groups of three the visualization application, drawing-linking or four which enabled them to divide modeling maintains an active connection between the tasks among the group members. Each group CAD file and 3D Studio Viz. This link is maintained a single “master-model” CAD file dynamic and can be continuously updated as with each of the members’ components the project evolves, eliminating the need to re- inserted as an AutoCAD block, which would import the geometry as the CAD model is be updated as they made revisions and then updated. This increases the integration of reinserted their file. Throughout the process, the CAD and visualization operations and allows master-model was linked to 3D Studio Viz and design visualization to be introduced earlier in viewed for analysis and further development. the design process. The final submission requirements were The first eight weeks of the semester structured to allow them to demonstrate concentrated on the core skill sets relating to competencies in all three areas of the core skill modeling and simulation. Initial course areas. Parameters for the solutions included activities were structured to introduce basic material selection and furnishings. In addition modeling, animation, and rendering concepts to floor plans and other 2D documentation, using 3D Studio Viz. These skills were the final submission required the students to developed using lecture/lab instruction with a produce four photo-realistic high resolution series of five short assignments. Modeling using still images (defined in this assignment as 3D Studio Viz was limited. Assignment output of 1024x768 pixels) and a 30-second parameters required students to demonstrate animation. Both the still image renderings and competency with lighting, materials, and the animations were to include realistic lighting animation using preconstructed models or with and shadows. The final drawings, still images, 114 and animations were then made available to Despite these limitations, most students the “clients” and others on campus. expressed satisfaction with course content and final output. The organizations that served as Outcomes clients found the visualization output to be The students’ success in meeting these helpful in understanding proposed solutions, objectives was largely consistent across all the although the still images proved to be more groups. While all were able to produce images useful to them than the animations. This could that could be considered photo-realistic, greater be attributed to a range of factors, including difficulty was encountered by the groups with the photo-realism of the image, the added the highest level of detail in their computer detail of the models, and the ease with which model. The hardware used by the students had still images could be distributed either sufficient memory and processing power to electronically or in hard copy. The Journal of Technology Studies create relatively complex 3D models with AutoCAD. However, even though the installed Recommendations and Summary memory met the minimum requirements of The experience of teaching this class did the visualization software, there was significant lead to several recommendations for faculty or performance degradation when students instructors considering teaching courses using attempted to create renderings and animations CAD and visualization software. Faculty using complex and detailed models, should consider including content covering particularly at higher resolutions. Calculations basic lighting theory and color-composition associated with rendering processes increase theory. While students in this course had been proportionally as the geometry of the computer exposed to this subject matter in other required model becomes more detailed and complex and courses, including a required physics class and as the output resolution increases. classes using Photoshop, the need to review this Additionally, the use of the drawing-linking content was not anticipated. Given the features in 3D Studio Viz is more memory- importance of this subject matter for effective intensive than simply importing the CAD file use of lighting and materials in visualization (Boardman & Hubbell, 2000). Therefore, this software, it is recommended that time be placed even greater demands on the hardware allocated for its review. and resulted in lengthy rendering times. Where Similarly, retention of skills and material added detail in the computer models from the prerequisite CAD course was less than significantly increased file size it proved to be anticipated. Many students were not proficient unfeasible to create animations exceeding more with some of the CAD operations that were than a few seconds in duration. Incorporating integrated into the assignments. For example, lighting and shadows, which is also several students were not familiar with the use computationally intensive, proved to be of AutoCAD blocks to redefine updated impractical for animations on the installed geometry. This was an essential technique for hardware since the processing time would increase updating the master-model in the group to several minutes per frame. assignment. Consideration should be given This required adjustments to the to allocating class time to review key CAD assignment parameters and resulted in a operations necessary for the design reduced emphasis on the animation portion visualization class. Instructors should also of the application project. The length of the consider providing specific guidelines regarding animation submission was reduced from 600 managing CAD data, including providing to 450 frames. Additionally, the required students with written standards for naming resolution of the animation submission was files, layers, and blocks as well as project also reduced. For the more complex models, directories. While it may be desirable to have the use of lighting and shadows in the the students develop these conventions animations was also eliminated since these themselves, specifying these standards as part elements also required additional processing of the project assignment may prevent time- power and rendering time. However, the use consuming errors and allow students to focus of lighting and shadows was determined to be on the core course content. essential for the still renderings since longer It is also recommended that even though rendering times of 10 minutes or more were features such as file-linking are intended to not prohibitive for a single frame. make managing design visualization processes more efficient, this benefit may be offset by an and shadows was completed in 8 seconds and 115 unacceptable decrease in software performance the full 400 frame animation was completed in instructional labs with limited hardware. in less than an hour. The combination of the Therefore, instructors may find it necessary to animation files and the detailed single images consider alternatives such as limiting file- used to document key points through the design linking to early stages of the design process can prove very effective for communicating when models may be less complex. design intent. Instructors should also carefully consider the It should be noted that the limited necessity of animation assignments in the context computing power did provide an unexpected not only of hardware resources but also in terms benefit. Students were forced to be more of the intended class outcomes. Options such as selective in their modeling and rendering “storyboard” rendering (renderings of key frames strategies. This required them to be more along a path of movement through the space) cognizant of what features of their design The Journal of Technology Studies can provide an effective alternative to hardware- solution were most significant to intensive and time-consuming animations and communicating their design intent. As a result, still serve to develop student abilities in students prioritized their design elements conceptualizing and communicating sequential earlier in the process in order to selectively add design issues. In educational settings, detail to the model in the areas they determined assignments involving lengthy animation to be mostsignificant. Thislevel of critical requirements should likely be avoided in favor analysis was consistent with the intended learning of shorter, less realistic animations that still outcomes for the course. provide a way to include animation-related As demand for visualization skills increases, content in the course. This approach may faculty will be challenged to add new learning prove more effective when the less realistic objectives related to visualization competencies animations are accompanied by more detailed, while maintaining pre-existing educational higher resolution single frame images. Figure 1 goals. An instructional model based on an provides a comparison between a higher integrative approach to mastering the required resolution still that included detailed materials, skills provides a framework for the synthesis lighting, shadows, and reflections and the of visualization skills and the core skill-set of identical model rendered at a lower level the discipline (see Figure 2). While hardware without materials, lighting, and shadows. The limitations that may be commonly detailed image took over 6 minutes to render encountered in educational facilities must be on the installed hardware and would have a consideration, this should not necessarily be required over 44 hours of processing time to the primary determinant in the decision to create a 400 frame animation. In contrast, the incorporate design visualization into lower resolution rendering without lighting technology courses and curricula.

Figure 1. Left image is rendered as a single image at higher resolution with materials, lighting, and shadows. Right image is rendered as one frame in an animation at lower resolution without lighting, shadows, and materials. 116

The Journal of Technology Studies

Figure 2. Design visualization skill set framework.

Dr. Stan Guidera is an associate professor in the a member of Alpha Gamma Chapter of Department of Visual Communications at Bowling Epsilon Pi Tau. Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio. He is

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