Tunisia) Ref N° 2010-03

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MEMORY OF THE WORLD REGISTER Privateering and the international relations of the Regency of Tunis in the 18th and 19th centuries (Tunisia) Ref N° 2010-03

PART A – ESSENTIAL INFORMATION

1 SUMMARY

Privateering is the main feature of the collection nominated for inclusion in the Memory of the World Register. Essentially composed of documents from the end of the eighteenth/ beginning of the nineteenth century, the collection centres on privateering activities and diplomacy in the Regency of Tunis. The collection is unique, containing documents found nowhere else in the world. It includes complete, detailed lists of the names of European captives, their social and ethnic origins in their home country, as well as the biographies of some of them, including their professional and even political careers during their captivity in the Regency.

Very Mediterranean and even international in character, the collection reflects cultural interactions through the phenomenon of privateering, which did not have only negative connotations. Despite the damage it caused, privateering also contributed to cultural dialogue and ethnic and linguistic métissage. Today, this collection can be seen as a source of dialogue between civilizations and cultures.

Also contributing to the richness of the collection are the original, rare and well-preserved documents it contains, written in several languages such as Arabic, Osmanli, French, Spanish, Italian and English.

The documents cover a geographical area extending from the Regency of Tunis to the United States, Europe, the Levant and Scandinavian countries.

2 DETAILS OF THE NOMINATOR

2.1 Name (person or organization): National Archives of Tunisia

2.2 Relationship to the documentary heritage nominated: The National Archives of Tunisia is the institution responsible for the preservation, safeguard and publicity of the nominated archive holdings.

2.3 Contact person(s): the Director-General of the National Archives of Tunisia

2.4 Contact details (include address, phone, fax, email):

Address: 122, bd du 9 April 1938, 1030 Tunis, Tunisia Telephone: 00216-71 575 700 Fax: 00216-71 569 175 Email address: [email protected]

3 IDENTITY AND DESCRIPTION OF THE DOCUMENTARY HERITAGE

3.1 Name and identification details of the items being nominated: “Privateering and the international relations of the Regency of Tunis in the 18th and 19th centuries”. Archive references: History series, files: 200-258

3.2 Description - 2 -

Archive references: History series: files 200-258 Type and content of collection: registers

The registers are classified according to content:

Registers of State income and expenditure

These registers contain accounting documents tied to the financing of privateering operations. They cover, in great detail, the sailors’ (corsairs’) spending, their food provisions, weapons, munitions and all equipment supplied by shipowners, which is also mentioned in the lists of the names of captains (Rais) and sailors. These registers also detail the value and nature of the prizes and captives.

Also listed are the names of these captives, their ethnic origins, their “qualifications” to serve the State, public officials or dignitaries, ransom amounts and those responsible for the exchange (often European consuls).

These data can be used to calculate the cost of a privateering operation and the revenue derived from it.

Registers of the State and political figures

These registers record information on financing for commercial transactions carried out for the State, the Bey or for certain ministers. Among other things, they contain data related to the spoils of privateering and their reinjection into the local or international economy. Comparison with European archives would make it possible to group together data on commercial exchanges, including their volume, prices, supply and demand, earnings and the main actors involved.

These registers also contain information about the activities of European corsairs who displayed their booty on the Tunisian market, providing details of its source.

The registers provide information about State spending on weapons, cannons and munitions. This information may prove useful as it indicates where weapons were sourced and may lead researchers to study the balance of power between different regional and international powers and the strategies they employed in times of conflict.

These documents provide precious information on arms markets and on the changes which occurred in international relations at the end of the eighteenth century with the French Revolution, and the beginning of the nineteenth with Napoleonic expansionism and the growing interest of the United States of America in the Mediterranean.

Hospitality registers

These registers list all of the amounts spent hosting foreign dignitaries from various countries. They show the number of guests, their nationalities, professions, the reasons for their visits and the assignments of emissaries, diplomats or admirals who chose to take on supplies in Tunisia. This is revelatory of Tunisia’s importance in the Mediterranean basin by reason of its geographical position, which made it a relay between East and West and between the two shores of the Mediterranean.

This information can also be used to study diplomatic relations between European powers and their competitors with a view to building coalitions and thus ensuring control over larger areas during periods of conflict.

Registers containing copies of treaties - 3 -

These registers date from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and contain the text of every international treaty signed between the Regency of Tunis and European countries, in which articles dealing with privateering are omnipresent.

They also contain lists of the presents offered by foreign countries to the Tunisian authorities and describe how these gifts were distributed among dignitaries and members of the court. These presents were of great importance, especially military equipment which was often used in privateering.

These documents are a source of information on how political, military, diplomatic and cultural relations between the Regency of Tunis and European powers evolved over time.

The files

Files are classified by subject, in the following order:

*International relations

These files are classified by country. They contain correspondence and treaties signed with each country. The study of these treaties reveals how the balance of power evolved between European countries and the States on the southern shores of the Mediterranean.

They also contain correspondence relating to the missions carried out by important public officials abroad, particularly in Europe and the United States.

*Navy

These files provide information about the activities of Tunisia’s navy and the support it provided to the Ottoman navy by taking part in conflicts or providing logistical assistance.

They are a source of information about the types of weapons and ships, and the ethnic and social origins of Tunisian navy crews at the time.

Privateering appears in correspondence describing a privateering operation in detail, giving the position of ships, the lists of the corsairs who boarded, the “procedure” for verifying the ship’s and crew’s papers, the nationality of the shipowner and captain and, lastly, the decision taken concerning the “legality” (buona prisa) of the operation.

This collection includes a singular and unique file of more than 150 items, including registers with lists of Christian captives, and a very important separate register with a list of Tabarkans, a community of Genoese origin who had settled in Tabarka, a port located in north western Tunis which was conquered in the eighteenth century. Written in Italian, this document shows that captured Tabarkans were treated differently from “ordinary” captives. Tabarkans were rarely separated from their families, who were then assigned to the service of high government officials. Two prominent figures from Tabarkan families were Antonio Bogo and Giuseppe Raffo, ministers and counsellors under several Beys.

*Mariano Stinca

Mariano Stinca was a captive from Naples who worked for Hammuda Pasha Bey of Tunis (1782- 1814). After many years as a statesman, Stinca left behind a large number of documents written in Italian (letters and accounting statements). He also served as the personal interpreter, personal secretary and chief of protocol to the Bey. These positions enabled him to amass a great fortune and negotiate many transactions with European and Jewish merchants on behalf of the Bey and on his own account. These files also contain personal correspondence between Stinca and his family in Italy. - 4 -

4 JUSTIFICATION FOR INCLUSION/ASSESSMENT AGAINST CRITERIA

4.1 Is authenticity established?

The documents in the collection are all authentic. In fact, none of the documents are copies, replicas, of questionable authenticity or hoaxes. Several researchers have consulted and confirmed the authenticity of the collection, using the documents as the basis for their books and other publications. All the information contained in the documents in the collection about places, events, people and the period are trustworthy and verifiable in the historical sources and archives of other countries, Mediterranean countries in particular. In point of fact, the lists of captives, treaties with foreign countries, official diplomatic correspondence and government accounting records come from the archives of the Tunisian State and were produced by its departments.

4.2 Is world significance, uniqueness and irreplaceability established?

The documents of this collection contain full information relating to privateering, captives and captivity which cannot be found anywhere else. Other archives dating from the same time and preserved by international archival institutions would have only fragmentary information, particularly with respect to the precise and exhaustive lists of names of European captives, their social and ethnic origins in their native countries, the biographies of certain individuals, their daily life and professional or even political careers in the Regency of Tunis, and their integration in the royal court and the society of the time. Although the documents in this collection which is being nominated might appear to have counterparts, they are certainly without equal. The possible loss of this collection would be irreversible.

4.3 Is one or more of the criteria of (a) time (b) place (c) people (d) subject and theme (e) form and style (f) social, spiritual and community significance satisfied?

(a) Time:

During the 17th and 18th centuries, privateering was the pillar of the economy of the States of North Africa, commonly referred to as the Barbary Coast in the literature of the time, especially under the regime of the Deys (17th century) in Tunis. The Regency of Tunis, in the reign of Hammuda Pasha (1782-1814), enjoyed social and economic well-being and played an extremely important role internationally, particularly in relation to the belligerents in the Mediterranean at the time of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars: France, England and the United States of America, which partly explains the apogee of privateering in the Regency of Tunis.

In Algeria, however, privateering was practically the sole source of revenue of the State, which did not control the interior of the country.

One of the direct consequences of privateering in the Barbary Coast was the strengthening of the social structure on which the ruling caste depended. Under the hegemony of the Ottoman empire they were able to draw on the population resources of the Empire’s provinces in order to consolidate their hold on the geographical area conquered along the Barbary Coast and subjugate the local communities.

The new ruling caste on the Barbary Coast and in control of privateering discovered a valuable new resource in the adventurers, volunteers and renegades captured by the corsairs, some of whom succeeded in occupying the highest positions in the State, figures such as Murad Dey “the Genoese” and Murad Corso who managed to found the first royal dynasty in Tunisia (1630-1702). In Algeria, there were many governors of European origin, renegades such as Ali Petchin (1645) who was of Italian origin and whose real name was Peccini. - 5 -

Beyond the material proceeds of privateering, what concerns us are its social and cultural contributions.

(b) Place:

The Regency of Tunis, the kingdoms and city-states of Italy, the Kingdom of Spain, France, Great Britain, the United States of America, the Ottoman Empire and the Scandinavian countries.

Studies have shown that the rapid growth of privateering coincided with that of trade and maritime traffic in a well-defined geographical area, at the expense of other geographical areas which had previously held an important position in the world economy.

In North Africa during the sixteenth century, a new maritime trading network took shape after the great discoveries, especially those of the Americas and the Cape of Good Hope, which enabled the emerging European powers to circumvent the trading posts of the Middle East and reach the Indies directly. After these discoveries, the volume of trade increased in the Atlantic and the New World at the expense of the Mediterranean, which was relatively marginalized.

This new situation prompted the corsairs of the Levant, specifically the two Ottoman corsairs Aruj and Khayr al-Din Barbarossa, to migrate to the western Mediterranean where Spain conducted its trade with the kingdoms of Italy drawing on the riches from the New World that had recently been brought under its hegemony.

The activity of the Ottoman corsairs gave rise to a conflict between the Spanish and Ottoman Empires.

North Africa, commonly referred to as the Barbary Coast in the literature of the time, took part in that conflict, according certain privileges to the Ottoman corsairs. It subsequently came under direct Ottoman domination and made use of privateering as a means of “participating”, however marginally, in the world economy.

That practice was regarded as a means of wealth distribution and of participation by reintroducing the spoils into the international market and economy.

After a period of stagnation throughout the eighteenth century, privateering regained its apogee with Hammuda Pasha Bey (1782-1814) and the Napoleonic Wars.

The Deys and Beys (rulers) of Tunis: Murad Dey “the Genoese” (1637-1640), Murad Corso (1630-1702) and Hammuda Pasha Bey (1782-1814).

The kings of the northern shore of the Mediterranean: Louis XIV, Louis XV and Charles X – kings of France; Victor Emmanuel King of Sardinia; the Ottoman Emperors; Tunisian and foreign corsairs. The captives of different nationalities: Mariano Stinca, a captive of Neapolitan origin; Antonio Bogo and Giuseppe Raffo, captive Tabarkans who became ministers of several Beys of the Regency of Tunis. Tunisian and foreign consuls and emissaries: Soliman Malmelli, emissary of Hammuda Pasha Bey of Tunis to the United States of America (1801-1805); S. D. Heap, chargé d'affaires of the United States of America to Tunis (March 1799); Jacques Devoise, Consul General of France to Tunis; and merchants.

(d) Subject and theme:

Piracy and privateering are two different things. Whereas the first was considered to be illegal, the second was legitimized by opposing political forces and recognized as a “legal” practice. - 6 -

Piracy was a maritime “activity” that had been practised and/or financed since antiquity by groups or “individuals”. One example which may be given is the piracy practised by the Vikings. That activity was widespread during the Middle Ages, reaching a peak in Europe between the twelfth and the fourteenth centuries, but then began to decline, giving way to a similar but lawful practice: privateering. Adopted by various countries as an arm against their enemies, privateering was also a “source of revenue” enabling the countries which practised it to seize the cargoes of merchant ships together with their crews, who were taken captive and only regained their freedom in exchange for a quite considerable ransom. The practice also affected island populations and those living in poorly defended coastal regions.

The aim is not, in our view, to seek the motives or reasons which explain the phenomenon of privateering, but rather to draw attention to the fact that it was an ancient practice adopted by several countries and was subject to changes of legal status that drew a distinction between piracy, considered as illegal, and privateering, its opposite in law which was thus legal. That practice was considered to be a means of sharing wealth and participation in the world market.

In fact, privateering was not only practised for economic reasons but also for religious and political reasons, which gave that practice some legitimacy.

In view of this, privateering was considered by the Muslim kingdoms of the Barbary Coast as a maritime Holy War and was also considered as such by the Christians, in particular the Knights of Saint John and the Knights of Malta. Yet, aside from religious considerations, privateering also drew legitimacy from politics and was seen as a military strategy for reinforcing the political and military position of the political forces on the two shores, north and south, of the Mediterranean and between the European forces themselves in Europe and in the New World.

In reality, the distinction between religious, military and economic reasons is only one of methodology, since the “legitimacy” accorded to privateering was derived from all these factors together.

(e) Form and style:

The documents nominated have rather varied forms. Registers, correspondence, treaties, personal letters and statements of account relating to the State’s dignitaries. With regard to style, these documents are drafted in various languages such as Arabic, Turkish, French, Italian and English.

(f) Social, spiritual and community significance:

During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries privateering had a central position in international relations; all of the treaties signed between countries routinely made mention of privateering and regulated it by defining its scope and imposing certain restrictions which depended on the alliances between States. Thus Corsica was eliminated from the activities of the Barbary corsairs of Tunis after it was annexed by France.

Privateering was closely linked to international relations and played an important part in the political and strategic balance. The diplomatic documents such as official correspondence between States, treaties and other matters which we find in the archives testify to this and can be the source of valuable information.

It is true that privateering was responsible for the misfortune of its victims, such as the merchants who were captured, but it is essential not to overlook the role of these captives who passed on their knowledge and know-how and thus helped to forge links between peoples and civilizations and foster a certain ethnic and cultural métissage. - 7 -

We have opted to use the term captive rather than the term slave in this account. The reason for this is their status. Islamic doctrine distinguishes between captives whose legal status is due to the fact that their country of origin is at war with the Muslim States on the one hand, and slaves “bought or sold” by individuals or the State on the other hand, which gives them an entirely different legal status. Moreover, captives are only considered as such in the absence of peace treaties between Muslim and Christian States. All privateering operations are considered to be invalid if the corsairs do not respect the peace treaties.

The captives contributed to the prosperity of their new host countries in various domains: agriculture, technology and industry. The most capable among them were chosen to join the court or hold important government posts. Other captives, lacking such skills, were much less fortunate, being assigned to arduous tasks such as hard labour in prisons and construction sites.

Whatever the fate of the captives, their knowledge, know-how and culture were transferred to the host countries. Sometimes the ransoms demanded for captives were not only financial but also in kind. For example, the ransom of one Sicilian captive at the time of Hammuda Pasha was set at 1,000 orange trees.

Some of the female captives, who were often assigned to the harems, played an important role in the education of the young princes and contributed to the introduction of new customs and forms of behaviour the impact of which, although quite evident, was not recorded in writing but was assimilated by the culture of the time.

The enforced or voluntary settlement of European captives and renegades in the countries of North Africa added to the wealth and ethnic diversity of the entire society. For example, European languages had a strong influence on the dialect spoken in Tunisia and contributed to the emergence of the lingua franca which became the Esperanto of the period.

Captives at the court of the Beys of Tunis managed to introduce their languages, which were increasingly used to draft official correspondence with foreign countries.

At the time of Hammuda Pasha, the Italian language became the official language owing to Mariano Stinca, a captive from Naples who held high office in the State. Stinca left a collection of great importance consisting of several registers written in Italian, official correspondence and lists of captives giving their names and places of origin.

According to certain European travellers, some captives preferred to return to Barbary after being freed since they had formed a network of social and commercial relations there or else had made their fortune. This proves that the relation between people and places does not depend on origins or race but rather on the relationships formed and the past shared by the individuals, the society and the setting. From this standpoint, the personal predicament due to captivity may be transformed into a catalyst conducive to integration and the search for new social, economic or cultural links.

Moreover, captives from the southern shores who lived in European societies in France, Spain or the Italian kingdoms and city-states became integrated and contributed to ethnic and cultural diversity. Genealogical research would demonstrate the existence of kinship ties between families on the two sides of the Mediterranean. In this regard, research in the archival holdings into such ties between ethnic groups would identify common factors and bring peoples closer together. - 8 -

See Annex.

4.4 Are there issues of rarity, integrity, threat and management that relate to this nomination?

The documents in the collection “Privateering and the international relations of the Regency of Tunis in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries” which we are nominating have no counterpart in the archival collections of other countries. These documents describe the privateering operations in detail and provide information which pinpoints “the laws” and even the codes governing this activity and the changes which they underwent as a result of the political, economic and social context influenced by the struggle between the Spanish, British, French and Ottoman Empires to dominate the commercial and maritime traffic in the Mediterranean and by the French Revolution. Another strong point of the collection is the presence of the lists of captives’ names and also of certain agreements and treaties which are not to be found elsewhere.

• integrity of the collection: the collection is complete, with no gaps.

• threat: although the conditions in which the collection is preserved are good, it is not secure from risks due to handling when the documents are consulted by researchers.

5 LEGAL INFORMATION

5.1 Owner of the documentary heritage (name and contact details)

The collection nominated is the inalienable public domain of the Tunisian State. It is under the direct responsibility of the National Archives of Tunisia.

5.2 Custodian of the documentary heritage (name and contact details, if different to owner)

The collection nominated is the inalienable public domain of the Tunisian State. The National Archives of Tunisia are not the custodian of the collection but are responsible for its custody, preservation and transmission to the public.

5.3 Legal status: the collection nominated has the status of a public archive.

(a) Category of ownership: the collection nominated is the inalienable public domain of the Tunisian State.

(b) Accessibility: the collection nominated is universally accessible to all Tunisian and foreign citizens without distinction. Accessibility to the collection is regulated by the law on the transmission of public archives in Tunisia according to which it is accessible provided that the documents requested may be made available in material form.

(d) Responsible administration: The National Archives of Tunisia.

(e) Other factors

6 MANAGEMENT PLAN

6.1 Is there a management plan in existence for this documentary heritage? YES/NO

Yes. The National Archives of Tunisia intend to digitize this collection and place it online so that it may be remotely accessed by all interested researchers. A seminar on the theme of “Privateering in the - 9 -

Mediterranean in Modern Times” will be held in Tunisia under the auspices of the National Archives of Tunisia in collaboration with the “Economic and Social History” research unit of the University of Tunis in October 2009.

The National Archives of Tunisia are also considering the creation of a database compiling the names of the captives who lived in Tunisia on the basis of the collection nominated.

7 CONSULTATION

7.1 Provide details of consultation about this nomination with (a) the owner of the heritage (b) the custodian (c) your national or regional Memory of the World committee.

The collection nominated is the property of the Tunisian State and may be consulted at the National Archives of Tunisia.

PART B – SUBSIDIARY INFORMATION

8 ASSESSMENT OF RISK

8.1 Detail the nature and scope of threats to this documentary heritage

The collection nominated is not secure from risks due to the handling by researchers of the documents which it comprises and an additional effort is required to digitize it in order to ensure its preservation. The inscription of this collection in the “Memory of the World” Register would increase the rate of consultations and thus the risks associated with the handling of the documents in the collection.

9 ASSESSMENT OF PRESERVATION

9.1 Detail the preservation context of the documentary heritage

The documents in the collection which we have described and which we have nominated for inscription in the Memory of the World Register require urgent attention for the purpose of restoring as many of them as possible and digitizing them in order to make the collection available to researchers worldwide. - 10 -

Annex 4.3

Documents on Privateering and International Treaties: for a universal memory of the Mediterranean, area of dialogue between peoples.

Piracy and privateering are two different things. The fundamental difference is the legal status of each practice. The former was considered to be illegal, the latter was legitimized by opposing political forces and recognized as a “legal” practice.

Piracy was a maritime “activity” practised and/or financed since antiquity by groups or “individuals”. One example which may be given is the piracy practised by the Vikings. That activity was widespread during the Middle Ages, reaching a peak in Europe between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries, but then began to decline, giving way to a similar, but lawful practice: privateering. Adopted by various countries as an arm against their enemies, privateering was also a “source of revenue” enabling the countries which practised it to seize the cargoes of merchant ships together with their crews, who were taken captive and only regained their freedom in exchange for a quite considerable ransom. The practice also affected island populations and those living in poorly defended coastal regions.

Studies have shown that the rapid growth of privateering coincided with that of trade and maritime traffic in a well defined geographical area, at the expense of other geographical areas which had previously held an important position in the international economy.

This new situation prompted the corsairs of the Levant, specifically the two Ottoman corsairs ‘Aruj and Khayr al-Din Barbarossa, to migrate to the western Mediterranean where Spain conducted its trade with the kingdoms of Italy drawing on the riches from the New World that had recently been brought under its hegemony.

The activity of the Ottoman corsairs gave rise to a conflict between the Spanish and Ottoman Empires.

This practice was regarded as a means of wealth distribution and of participation by reintroducing the spoils into the international market and economy.

As a matter of fact, privateering was not practised solely for economic reasons but also for religious and political reasons, which gave the practice some legitimacy.

In reality, the distinction between religious, military and economic reasons is only one of methodology, since the “legitimacy” accorded to privateering was derived from all of these factors together.

Privateering had a very important role in international relations.

All of the treaties signed between the countries concerned referred almost systematically to privateering and established regulations which defined the area of the practice and imposed certain restrictions which depended on the alliances between States. In this way Corsica was removed from the sphere of activity of the Barbary corsairs after it was annexed by France.

Privateering was closely connected with international relations and played an important part in the political and strategic balance. The diplomatic documents such as official correspondence between States, treaties and other matters which we find in the archives bear testimony to this and may be a source of valuable information.

During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries privateering was the pillar of the Barbary economy and, more specifically, of the regime of the Deys (seventeenth century) in Tunis. The Regency of Tunis, in the reign of Hammuda Pasha Bey (1788-1814), enjoyed economic and social well-being and played an extremely important role internationally, particularly in relation to the belligerents in the Mediterranean: France, Great Britain and the United States of America, which partly explains the apogee of privateering in the Regency of Tunis.

In Algeria, however, privateering was practically the sole source of revenue of the State, which did not control the interior of the country. One of the direct consequences of privateering on the Barbary Coast was the strengthening of the social structure on which the ruling caste depended. Under the hegemony of the Ottoman Empire, they were able to draw on the population resources of the Empire’s provinces in order to consolidate their hold on the geographical area conquered along the Barbary Coast and subjugate the local communities.

The new ruling caste on the Barbary Coast and in control of privateering discovered a valuable new resource in the adventurers, volunteers and renegades captured by the corsairs, some of whom succeeded in occupying the highest positions in the State, figures such as Murad Dey “the Genoese” (1637-1640) and Murad Corso, who managed to found the first royal dynasty in Tunisia (1630-1702). In Algeria, there were many governors of European origin, renegades such as Ali Petchin (1645) who was of Italian origin and whose real name was Peccini.

Beyond the material proceeds of privateering, what concerns us are its social and cultural benefits. It is true that privateering was the cause of the misfortunes of its victims such as the merchants who were captured but, on the other hand, it is essential not to overlook the role of these captives who passed on their knowledge and know-how and thus helped to forge links between peoples and civilizations and foster an ethnic and cultural métissage.

In this approach which we have adopted to present the phenomenon of privateering, we have endeavoured to highlight the contributions made by its captives to humankind. The captives contributed to the prosperity of their new host countries in various domains: agriculture, technology and industry. The most capable among them were chosen to join the court or hold important government posts. Other captives, lacking such skills, were much less fortunate, being assigned to arduous tasks such as hard labour in prisons and construction sites. - 12 -

The enforced or voluntary settlement of European captives and renegades in the countries of North Africa added to the wealth and ethnic and cultural diversity of the entire society. For example, European languages had a strong influence on the dialect spoken in Tunisia and contributed to the emergence of the Lingua Franca which became the Esperanto of the period.

Captives at the court of the Beys of Tunis managed to introduce their languages, which were increasingly used to draft official correspondence with foreign countries.

On returning to their countries of origin, several captives described the customs, beliefs and various aspects of the daily life of the peoples among whom they had spent their period of captivity, as did Diego de Haedo for example. Indeed, privateering did have some beneficial effects in that it helped to expand the areas of cultural exchange and allowed the captives to spread their cultures in spite of being forced to leave their families and countries.