Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with Particular Emphasis on Relations with the United States of America, 1776-1816
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE ET POPULAIRE MINISTERE DE L’ENSEIGNEMENT SUPERIEUR ET DE LA RECHERCHE SCIENTIFIQUE UNIVERSITE MENTOURI, CONSTANTINE _____________ Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with Particular Emphasis on Relations with the United States of America, 1776-1816 By Fatima Maameri Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Letters and Languages Department of Languages, University Mentouri, Constantine in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of doctorat d’Etat Board of Examiners: Supervisor: Dr Brahim Harouni, University of Constantine President: Pr Salah Filali, University of Constantine Member: Pr Omar Assous, University of Guelma Member: Dr Ladi Toulgui, University of Guelma December 2008 DEDICATION To the Memory of my Parents ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor Dr Brahim Harouni for his insightful and invaluable remarks as well as his patience which proved to be very decisive for this work. Without his wise advice, unwavering support, and encouragement throughout the two last decades of my research life this humble work would have never been completed. However, this statement is not a way to elude responsibility for the final product. I alone am responsible for any errors or shortcomings that the reader may find. Financial support made the completion of this project easier in many ways. I would like to express my gratitude for Larbi Ben M’Hidi University, OEB with special thanks for Pr Ahmed Bouras and Dr El-Eulmi Laraoui. Dr El-Mekki El-Eulmi proved to be an encyclopedia that was worth referring to whenever others failed. Mr. Aakabi Belkacem is laudable for his logistical help and kindness. My home Mentouri University, Constantine deserves no less recognition and tribute. I would like also to thank the Fondation des Sciences de l’Homme at Paris, France for its accommodating and supportive environment. I am especially indebted to Pr Maurice Aymard who provided administrative support and intellectual debate during occasional research meetings over the past three years. Without that I would not have been able to fully develop some of the most important points of this work. No words can appropriately thank Mrs. Brigitte Dufeutrelle whose steady follow up throughout the preparation of this work made its accomplishment possible. The succinct criticisms and insights provided by Pr Pierre Melandri from the Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, Paris are greatly appreciated. Special thanks go to the staff of the libraries FMSH, FNSP, and BULAC at Paris, France. Initially, a Fulbright Program scholarship made the actual research work an envisageable project. Acknowledgments are due to the officers of the National Archives Record Administration at Washington, D. C. and College Park, Maryland and to the officers of the Library of Congress in Washington, D. C., USA who introduced me to the file systems of NARA and LOC and made historical research in early Algerian-American relations an agreeable task for me. To my advisor diplomatic historian Pr. Wayne S. Cole, Professor Emeritus at the University of Maryland at College Park, MD I would like to express my gratitude and respect. He made the study of diplomatic history an even more enjoyable matter and provided some of the published material used in this work from his personal library. I am particularly grateful to my former roommate Mrs. Pamela P. Rittenhaus who made the sight of the flag of Rais Hamidou at the U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, MD possible for me. Perhaps, was it the sight of that trophy flag which inspired the idea of this thesis? iii Among my colleagues, I would like to express my greatest consideration for Dr Samir Laraba who accompanied my first steps of research at Paris and Dr Abdelhak Nemouchi whose encouragements and high spirit were a relief at moments of gloom. My colleague Mr. Nasr Eddine Megherbi accompanied my professional life but was particularly instrumental about a year ago in relaunching this endeavor. I feel more obliged to indicate my appreciation for Pr Zahri Harouni who with great welcomes bore by many phone calls and Pr Lamine Kouloughli who unfailingly supported my professional carrier and comforted my personal grieves. I am especially obliged to Mrs. Houda Bahri and Mr. Abderahmane Dalichaouch who have been loyal friends from the very beginning. Last but definitely not least, my hearty gratitude and recognition go to my family who for decades had to put up with my academic pursuits. Without the endless patience with my moods and countless words of encouragement this year of my brothers and sisters, brothers and sisters-in-law, nephews and nieces, this Dissertation would never have seen daylight. My special love goes for cute Saddam El-Houcine Maameri who could not understand my long absences. My family has always been the port of departure and destination in my historical adventures and a safe place after the allure of daring Algerian corsairs and perfidious Uncle Sam. Those are the most important persons worth returning to. November 2008 iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA American State Papers, Class I: Foreign Relations, 1789-1828. ASP/NA American State Paper, Class VI: Naval Affairs, 1794-1825. CMPP A Compilation of Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1897 . CPPJJ The Correspondence and Public Papers of First Chief-Justice of the United States. DCAR The Diplomatic Correspondence of the American Revolution EN The Emerging Nation: A Documentary History of the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1780-1789 LDC Letters of Delegates to Congress, 1774-1789 . LWJM Letters and other Writings of James Madison. NDBW Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars with the Barbary Powers PTJ The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. SaL The Public Statutes at Large of the United States of America, 1789 to 1845 . SJ Secret Journals of the Acts and Proceedings of Congress SPPD State Papers and Publick Documents of the United States USDC The Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States of America, 1783- 1789 USRDC The Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States. WBF The Writings of Benjamin Franklin WGW The Writings of George Washington . WJA The Works of John Adams. WJM The Writings of James Madison WJMPPP The Writings of James Monroe, Including Public and Private Paper WJQA The Writings of John Quincy Adams WTJ1 The Writings of Thomas Jefferson WTJ2 The Writings of Thomas Jefferson Containing his Autobiography vi LIST OF TABLES Tables Pages Table 1: Spanish Expeditions against Algiers, 1505-1784 36 Table 2: Naval Force of Algiers, 1737-1827 55 Table 3: Activity of Algerian Corsairs during the 17 th & 18 th Centuries 84 Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Commerce between Algiers an d Foreign 139 Countries, 1619-1830 Table 5: European Naval Expeditions against Algiers, 1501-1830 141 Table 6: American and Algerian Naval Forces Compared, 1776-1782 181 Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Algerian-American Treaty of 1795 332 Table 8: Estimated Cost of Annuities in Naval Stores (1795) 333 Table 9: Encounter at Cape de Gatta, June 17, 1815 365 Table 10: The United States and Ottoman Algeria: a Timeline, 384 1776-1816 vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Page Dedication ii Acknowledgments iii Abstract v List of Abbreviations vi List of Tables vii Table of Contents viii Introduction 1 Part One: Algiers in European Diplomatic History: Crusading vs. Corsairing Diplomacy CHAPTER I Foundations of Corsairing: A Religious and Historical Background 16 1. The Spanish Conquest of North Africa 18 1. 1. From Crusades to Reconquista 19 1. 2. From Reconquista to Conquest 22 1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa 27 1. 3. 1. A Crusading Agenda 30 1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa 33 2. Algeria under Ottoman Rule, 1519-1830 38 2. 1. The Coming of the Turks 39 2. 2. Algiers: The Ottoman Regency 42 3. Growth of the Algerian Navy 46 3. 1. Command and the Crews 47 3. 2. Size of the Fleet 50 3. 3. The Fleet and Corsairing 56 viii CHAPTER II Corsairing between Distortions and Legitimacy 62 1. Distortions and Definitions 64 1. 1. Corsairing or Retaliatory Muslim Warfare 65 1. 2. Barbary: Misconceptions and Prejudices 70 1. 2. 1. Defining ‘Barbary’ 72 1. 2. 2. Ideological Interpretation 74 1. 3. Slavery and Captivity 77 1. 3. 1. Slavery in the Mediterranean Basin 79 1. 3. 2. Muslim and Christian Captives 80 2. The Legal Context of Corsairing 85 2. 1. Corsairing vs. Piracy 87 2. 2. Legal Definitions and Statutes 92 2. 3. Corsairing: An Act of War 94 3. Algiers: A Corsairing State 99 3. 1. A Question of Sovereignty 100 3. 2 . Diplomatic Recognition and de facto Independence 102 CHAPTER III Corsairing Diplomacy, 1619-1816 108 1. The Diplomatic Context of Corsairing 109 1. 1. The Background: Impact of European Peace on Algiers 109 1. 2. Foundations of Corsairing Diplomacy 113 2. The Lasting Principles of Corsairing Diplomacy 124 2. 1. Sovereignty 125 2. 2. Free Navigation and Passports 127 2. 3. Treaties and Tributes 128 2. 4. Slavery and Redemption 132 2. 5. Method of Negotiating Treaties 139 3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy 143 3. 1. Developments affecting Corsairing Diplomacy after 1791 144 3. 2. Technological Backwardness 150 3. 3. Economic Difficulties 152 ix Part Two Algiers in early American Diplomatic History: Corsairing vs. Gunboat Diplomacy CHAPTER IV From Colonies to States: America in the Mediterranean 157 1. The North American Colonies and the Mediterranean World 158 1. 1. Colonial Commerce 158 1. 2. The American Colonies in Algerian-British Diplomatic Relations 164 2. The Advent of Americans: Traders and Privateers 175 2. 1. American Mediterranean Trade 175 2. 2. American Privateers 178 2. 3. Algerian Corsairs and American Privateers Compared 183 2. 4. Anti-Algiers Attitudes in American Political Thought 188 3.