Cultural Landscape As Open Air Museum: Borobudur World Heritage Site and Its Setting

CULTURAL LANDSCAPE AS OPEN AIR MUSEUM: BOROBUDUR WORLD HERITAGE SITE AND ITS SETTING

KEN TAYLOR

‘It is the landscate as a whole – that largely manmade tapestry, in which all other artefacts are embedded … which gives them their sense of place’.1

andi Borobudur, built around 800AD theatrical proportions. The shape of Cand the largest Buddhist monument Candi Borobudur itself mirrors the in Indonesia is located in Central Java volcanic peaks. The sight of the monu- some 40 kilometres from Yogyakarta. ment rising out of the landscape is Regarded as one of the Wonders of the awe-inspiring. Its presence in this World this magnificent stepped pyramid landscape suggests an association style of building consists of nine terraces. The first six are rectangular and the upper three are circular, topped by a large bell- shaped stupa. There are four staircases facing east/west and north/south, the eastern one being aligned with Mount Merapi, the sacred mountain. The base measures 123 metres square; the whole edifice consisting of more than two million blocks. Borobudur stands in the centre of the fertile and richly watered Kedu Plains flanked to the south by the jagged Menoreh Hills and to the east and north from Mount Merapi by a series of volcanic peaks linked by an undulating ridge. The whole setting is a gigantic amphitheatre with Borobudur standing in the middle on a low hill creating a memorable and evocative effect. The whole landscape View north from Borobudur to Mount Sumbung ensemble is a vast outdoor museum of Source: Photograph 2003.

51 Humanities Research Vol. 10 No. 2, 2003 between the monument and its setting area and vehicle parking is chaotic. The that is palpable and rich in Buddhist sense of arrival is shattered by noise, meaning with Hindu overtones. inappropriate advertising and aggressive Two smaller temples, Candi Pawon selling. Street vendors are a part of Asian and Candi Mendut, similar in style and heritage sites, but the sheer number of craftsmanship, are in a perfect east west vendors and merchandise one can buy alignment towards Mount Merapi. But anywhere is a concern. Traditional crafts there are older markers in the landscape. associated with the area such as stone These are the remains of around forty carving or Wayang puppets are notably Hindu temples and archaeological sites absent. Three recent high telecom- which follow the lines of creeks and munication towers mar the view from rivers. The Buddhist temples are Borobudur looking east across the rural surrounded by a rural landscape of rice landscape to Mount Merapi. Increasing paddies and palm groves with small development along approach roads is towns and villages creating a sense of the also impinging on the view of the temple stream of time and place. as it rises majestically out of the land- The first restoration of Borobudur scape. took place in 1907–11. Continuing The purpose of this paper, given at deterioration of the stonework lead to the Fourth Experts Meeting was to other studies culminating in restoration by UNESCO Experts from 1968 to 1972 and 1975 to 1982. The temple was inscribed on the World Heritage list for its cultural heritage significance in 1991. It has been previously monitored by UNESCO Experts in 1986, 1989, and 1995 looking predominantly at stonework and such matters as stability and drainage of the structure. The latest monitoring exercise in July 2003 included consideration of the wider cultural landscape setting of the monument and tourist impact on the structure itself and surrounding region. Two and a half million people visit the site annually with around 2.2 million being domestic visitors. There is little interpretation of the Buddhist meaning of the site and its landscape setting, both of which are assumed to be a Buddhist mandala representation.2 Visitors swarm all over the stonework and the upper stupas. The steps are wearing away at the View to the monument from nearby town rate of 1mm per year. Around 2000 showing building encroachment. Source: vendors collect around the entry and exit Photograph 2003.

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View north across Zone III showing setting of the monument against rice paddies giving a sense of cultural landscape fit. Source: Photograph 2003. explore the idea of historical cultural controlled to protect the setting of the landscapes and suggest application to monument. But encroachment by new Borobudur. In the 1980s five management buildings, erection of inappropriate signs, zones were delineated. Zone 1, or and increasing traffic all present sanctuary area, is the monument itself management problems as they detract (200m radius). Zone II is the archaeo- from the setting of the monument. Zone logical park area (500m radius) with IV (5 kms) is the Historical Scenery Pres- visitor facilities, parking, offices, ervation Zone intended to protect the exhibition building, vendor stalls; it views and sense of address as one includes a landscape park surrounding approaches Borobudur. It includes a Zone I planted in a regimented number of villages and archaeological unappealing gardenesque style which sites. Zone V (10 kms) is the National does not reflect the ninth century Archaeological Park Zone, intended to landscape which would probably have protect archaeological sites. Zones IV and been shady groves of tropical trees where V are important elements in the cultural Buddhist monks taught and lived landscape context of Borobudur, en- bisected by pathways and possibly flower hancing its meaning and its original raison and vegetable growing. Later as the local d’être. The layers in this landscape create population increased village fields and a sense of time and the concept of a vast animal grazing would have surrounded outdoor museum. the temple. An engraving by FC Wilsen In June 2003 the World Heritage (c.1850) shows such a landscape. The rice Committee reviewed current manage- paddies and two villages were removed ment at Borobudur. It recommended, to make way for the park. inter alia, the need to consider tourism Zone III, the land-use regulation zone impacts and advisability of evaluating (2km radius), includes rural lands and and possibly redefining protective villages and Candi Pawon and Mendut boundaries and management guidelines as well as other archaeological sites. for the landscape areas surrounding the Development is supposed to be monument. This applies particularly to

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Zones IV and V given that it is now significant material evidence of its thought that the mandala form of the evolution over time. With the World monument is repeated in the wider Heritage Committee’s instruction in landscape. The Committee also drew mind there is a need to evaluate attention to the need for a comprehensive whether the landscape surrounding socio-economic study involving local Borobudur, as an inextricable part of communities and a marketing strategy for the monument’s cultural and intel- long term benefit to them. It also lectual setting, original creation, and expressed concern over a recent proposal continuation, fits this category. to build a large shopping complex in Zone III. It is with this background that the • Associative cultural landscapes: Experts’ meeting requested a paper on the inclusion of such landscapes is Historical Landscape Planning. justifiable by virtue of the powerful religious, artistic, or cultural associa- CULTURAL LANDSCAPES: A WORLD- tions of the natural element rather than WIDE PHENOMENON the material cultural evidence. Uluru/ Kata Tjuta National Park and the Rice Historical landscapes with their heritage Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras values – now widely referred to as are two Asian/Pacific examples. cultural landscapes – have reached centre Again it is germane to pose the stage in the field of cultural heritage question: does Borobudur and its conservation and planning. The term wider landscape setting fit this ‘cultural landscape’ is now widely category? accepted internationally. Recognition was extended in 1993 to World Heritage status In addressing these two questions on with three categories of cultural land- the cultural context and authenticity of scapes of outstanding universal value: the whole setting of Borobudur it is important to visualise the cosmology of • Clearly defined landscapes designed the Buddhist mandala (cakkaväla/ and intentionally created by man. cakraväla) assumed to be the crux of the building of Borobudur in its cultural • Organically evolved landscapes in (historical) landscape. A diagram two categories: reproduced in an early twentieth century collection of Daniel Gogerly’s writings on (i) A relict or fossil landscape in Buddhism, the cosmology of the Buddhist which an evolutionary process has mandala (cakkaväla/cakraväla) is rep- come to an end but where its resented as a single, circular world distinguishing features are still visible. system surrounded by a mountain of iron (cakraväla) and at the centre is Mount (ii) Continuing landscape which Meru3 (represented by Mount Merapi at retains an active social role in Borobudur). It is a single world system contemporary society associated with where relationships exist between various a traditional way of life and in which parts of the universe and where myth and the evolutionary process is still in reason coalesce to offer an exquisite progress and where it exhibits visualisation of the order of things. Just

54 KEN TAYLOR Cultural Landscape as Open Air Museum to look out over the landscape from the Australia with its increasing under- terraces of Borobudur is a stunning and standing of the meaning of country in moving experience: the landscape speaks Aboriginal culture where there is a fusion dramatically and persuasively of a between culture and nature in a world mystical but real relationship between where mythical ancestors – animal and people, time, events, beliefs and place. human – made the landscape.6 Here are layers in the landscape waiting to be read and interpreted to tell us LANDSCAPES AS HISTORICAL something about who we are in time. If DOCUMENTS Borobudur is, as assumed, a representation of the universe – the cakkaväla What has emerged is that we understand – then the following ancient reflection that in the historical landscape our sense from The Ratu Boko Inscription of 792 AD, of place and heritage are not limited to Central Java, is apposite: separate dots on a map each spatially and temporally isolated. We have embraced I pay homage to the Cosmic Mountain of the concept of the inter-relationship the Perfect Buddhas … endowed with the between places, people, and events, awe-inspiring power of wisdom, – whose through time. We see and feel in the caves are knowledge, whose rock is landscape a sense of the stream of time excellent tradition, whose brilliance is which promotes attachment to our world. owing to its relic: the Good Wisdom Further, and through historical cultural whose streams are love, whose forests are landscape study, there has been a meditation – truly the Mount of Few growing understanding that cultural Desires, which is not shaken by the eight landscapes as an imprint of human horrible winds: the worldly qualities.4 history are the richest historical record we possess. They can tell us if we learn to Historical landscapes under the read and interpret their stories something banner of cultural landscapes emerged in of the achievements and values of our the 1990s as a topic of great interest for predecessors, inform our own present- the international conservation com- day values and, incidentally, those of munity. Thirty years after the Venice future generations.7 They are a window Charter the concept of value and onto our collective past, our culture on significance that cultural landscapes display. brought with them challenged the long Interest in the efficacy of historical held distinction between cultural and landscapes as comprehensive documents natural values and the 1960s concept of of history with concomitant heritage heritage centring predominantly on values was recently further emphasised monuments and sites of antiquity.5 This by the international workshop – blurring of the boundary between what Conservation of Cultural Landscapes is natural – essentially a western view of Workshop – held in Rome in June 2003, the world dating from the Romantic organised by the International Centre for period – and what is cultural has the Study of the Preservation and considerable attraction and merit in the Restoration of Cultural Property context and cultural traditions of South (ICCROM). Representatives from sixteen East Asia. To this we may readily add countries attended bringing mutually

55 Humanities Research Vol. 10 No. 2, 2003 inclusive variations on a theme of what of agriculture as people learned how to is heritage in the landscape including cultivate wild plants as crops involved physical, ancestral, cultural and spiritual deliberate change and manipulation of emphasis. This again underpins the the landscape. For many societies natural importance of recognising intangible components of the landscape itself – values based on cultural traditions that mountains, rivers, forests – have been and are apparent in historical landscapes remain a reflection of their cosmological alongside their physical fabric or form. beliefs, and hence there evolved an In other words they are not merely what intense sense of spirituality in the we see, but a way of seeing. We see with landscape, a sense of the sacred where our eyes but interpret with our minds.8 culture and nature combined. This is not the sacred as opposed to the profane, but WRITING (SHAPING) THE LANDSCAPE: what we might now call the ordinarily READING THE LANDSCAPE sacred.10 The consciousness that people have In looking at historical cultural formed of space around them since our landscapes it is perhaps helpful to state early ancestors, that is where space the obvious, but sometimes perplexing becomes imbued with meaning and maxim, that they are literally most of therefore becomes place, continues to what surrounds us. They are the land- inform the way we see the landscape scapes – the places – urban, suburban and around us both in its historical sense and rural in which we live, work, and in the present time. In his now classic text, recreate. They embrace an extraordinary Edward Relph classifies the kinds of richness and variety of life and scenes as spaces – for me places – that carry the landscapes settled and modified by meaning and significance for human people over time. They are then a beings.11 He notes that the following representation of our ideologies. We different types of space are not separated create and shape the human landscape by the human mind, but rather they are over time according to our ideologies and linked in thought and experience. Each in this way historical landscapes reflect has relevance to the task at Borobudur our cultural traditions and intangible and its historical landscape surrounds in values. As a result we modify natural developing recommendations for the landscape elements and superimpose future with special focus on its spiritual, human patterns to create cultural educational, and cultural values: landscapes. These patterns represent a montage of layers through time. • Pragmatic or primitive space Reading and shaping the landscape structured unselfconsciously by is not a modern phenomenon. In basic individual experience. This prehistoric times people such as hunters is organic space where we feel and gatherers learned how to read the safe; it may have biological roots landscape9 as they searched for game and in our need for shelter and home. plants and manipulated the landscape Habitation and agriculture of the through that seminal discovery, fire. This Kedu Plains from ancient times was the beginning of landscape planning. has envisaged this kind of space The use of fire for hunting and to control thriving as it has through history vegetation followed later by early forms on the well watered, richly fertile,

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volcanic soils of southern Central part of a well-ordered system and Java. The pattern of ricefields, interchange of ideas that had numerous rivers and canals, and started in the fifth century AD, villages has long antecedents at leading to Java being an important least back to the time Borobudur centre for Buddhism from the was built. J.G. de Casparis paints seventh to the tenth centuries. The a fascinating picture in words of strong social ties that bound this how the landscape of around 930 Buddhist society, coupled with AD looked with clusters of many what de Casparis13 calls a pious villages surrounded by ricefields sense of duty, offered a willing and then green jungle,12 the whole labour force of hard-working pattern embraced by mountains: peasantry without which Boro- a synergy of culture and nature. budur may not have eventuated. The monument, mosaic of • Perceptual space which involves ricefields and surrounding direct emotional encounters with mountains and ridges combine the spaces of the earth, sea, sky or physically and mentally as part of with built and created spaces. a tightly knit social fabric where Again the mandala construct of people and landscape have Borobudur and its surrounds fit merged through time. this model. The pattern on the ground reflects a perceptual view One of the problems facing us is of universal perfection that is communicating – that is interpreting – the palpable in Borobudur’s unde- meaning of one cultural group’s niable sense of presence. existential space to others, meanings which may grow opaque over time as • Existential or lived in space where societies change. This may be seen to have we create patterns and structures special relevance at Borobudur as we of significance through building strive to see the monument in its historical towns, villages, houses, and the landscape setting where myth, ceremony whole business of landscape and ritual inform the setting. making. This is space or place that is culturally defined. The • Architectural and planning space. landscape of the Kedu Plains again represents existential space, • Cognitive space with its reflective culturally defined and dating back qualities referenced in maps, plans to the tradition of Mahayana and designs. At Borobudur we Buddhism and the control of might see cognitive space related Central Java by the Sailendra to the Buddhist mandala concept dynasty. The strong, common in the holistic landscape setting religion was undoubtedly a major with Mount Merapi, rivers of the force informing the building and Kedu Plain and the fringing meaning of Borobudur in relation mountains and in the monument to its landscape setting. There itself as a mandala representation. were also international connec- tions with India and Sri Lanka as • Abstract space which is a creation

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of human imagination and logical nor the more refined expressions of relations that allows us to describe cultural activity that have become space without necessarily popularised beyond Indonesia’s borders founding these descriptions on in recent years, but the grassroots and empirical observations. Is this not very locally specific village based culture the concept of the abstract/logical that is at the heart of the sense of space of the mandala as re- community. And that sense of presented at Borobudur? It community, perhaps more that of the permeates and excites the individual has been a strong shaping and imagination. supportive influence in times of trouble, through turbulence and now in Each of these spaces is closely linked strengthening a confident sense of in thought and experience. ‘Pragmatic identity as we combine heritage with a space integrates man with his natural, society opened to the opportunities of the ‘organic’ environment, perceptual space world.15 is essential to his identity, as a person, existential space makes him belong to a Soedjito’s sentiment on expressions of social and cultural totality, cognitive everyday heritage links comfortably with space means he is able to think about current international notions of the space, and logical space … offers a tool significance of historical landscapes and to describe the others’.14 ideas of the ordinarily sacred. Pivotal to this is the realisation that, in addition to INTANGIBLE VALUES AND our national cultural heritage icons, it is HISTORICAL LANDSCAPES the places, traditions, and activities of ordinary people that create a rich cultural A common theme linking these concepts tapestry of life, particularly through our of space/place and underpinning the idea recognition of the values people attach to of the ideology of landscape itself as the their everyday places and concomitant setting for everything we do is that of the sense of place and identity. Identity is landscape as the repository of intangible critical to a sense of place – genius loci – values and human meanings that nurture for people. Relph aptly summarises this our very existence. This is where in his proposal that ‘identity of place is landscape and memory are inseparable comprised of three interrelated because landscape is the nerve centre of components, each irreducible to the other our personal and collective memories. – physical features or appearance, Notably in this regard are the words of observable activities and functions, and Bambang Bintoro Soedjito, then Deputy meaning or symbols’.16 Chair for Infrastructure with the So both tangible physical identity and Indonesian National Development intangible identity related to the Planning Agency, who suggested in 1999 existential distinctiveness of our lived-in that: world and human experiences are inextricably inter-woven with place For us, the most important expressions meaning and significance for people. I of culture at this time are not the believe this association has identifiable monuments, relics and art from the past, consequences also for the way we need

58 KEN TAYLOR Cultural Landscape as Open Air Museum to see the inter-relationship between program to involve them in future cultural heritage interpretation and planning. This means that no presentation of places within the context particular group(s) should be of tourism which has emerged as a major privileged over others. It also issue in Asia. Here there is direct means ensuring cultural context is relevance to the future planning, fully appreciated and that there interpretation and presentation of may need to be a change in how Borobudur in its historical landscape Borobudur is recognised and setting. A fundamental question is whose interpreted. culture are we presenting and why? The extraordinary richness of Indonesian 2. Recommend that an Historical culture represented at Borobudur and its Cultural Landscape Study be cultural landscape means that there is a prepared by a multi-disciplinary need for a plurality of presentations. team. A key initial step will be the definition of boundaries and it is CONCLUSION: BOROBUDUR IN ITS proposed that the boundaries of SETTING the already recognised Five Zones be used. Zones III to IV encompass What kind of actions ought we to propose the wider landscape with its at Borobudur to ensure the right patterns and components in- outcomes for the conservation of the cluding the communities that monument itself and the economic and surround the monument, several conservation future of its wider setting, smaller temples, archaeological that is, its historical cultural landscape? remains, topographic and hy- Within the focus of outcomes we must drological features and the include the protection and enhancement landscape’s overall significance of local traditions and cultural heritage historically as a mandala (cak- resources whilst engaging them within a kaväla/cakraväla). These need to comprehensive conservation manage- be assessed and analysed as an ment and tourism plan for the region. historical landscape with a This is one where a dialogue is remarkable richness of layers and encouraged between conservation and meanings offering a basis for tourism, but where tourism is not driving future action. The cultural and selling heritage. It is where tourism landscape of these Zones may then fits into a heritage planning framework17 be appreciated in the context of as part of an extensive sub-regional their cultural history and cultural mapping project. connection to Zones I and II I recommend that this Experts’ immediately around and in- Meeting consider proposing the concept cluding the monument. A major of a Borobudur Region Cultural Map be focus of this task will be to re-state initiated and that it include the following the authenticity of the association actions: and meaning of Borobudur and its landscape setting where elements 1. Identify all stakeholders and such as water, vegetation, interest groups and devise a topography, orientation, arrange-

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ment of buildings and landscape 5. Development of a cultural tourism engineering with the centre at Mt plan linking tourism to the Merapi have meaning within the underlying social and cultural mandala and its laws governing landscape and the economic well- orderly existence. Replanting of being of the area whilst not Zone II is recommended using detracting from the meaning, local trees set out in an open authenticity, and splendour of woodland reminiscent of the Borobudur and its setting. landscape at the time Borbudur was built. 6. Address the issue of whether we believe that Borobudur and its 3. Site design for car park and setting satisfy the requirements for vendor area promoting a sense of re-inscription on the World arrival and address, signage, Heritage List of Cultural Land- interpretation centre and walks. scapes and propose that an objective of an Historical Cultural 4. Development of interpretative Landscape Study be to recom- programs to enrich the mend whether it fits the two presentation of the monument following categories: itself and to offer the basis for • Organically evolved continuing wider cultural landscape landscape by virtue of the interpretation in the form of manner in which the landscape brochures, guide books and retains an active social role in heritage trail pamphlets. contemporary society associa- Education of guides and ted with a traditional way of development of an enforceable life where the evolutionary code of behaviour for visitors are process is still in progress and necessary. In this regard it would where there is significant be productive to organise a material evidence of its Training Course involving evolution over time. experts, locals, tourist operators • Associative cultural landscape by where aspects of authenticity, virtue of the powerful significance, visitor behaviour and religious, artistic, and cultural management, constraints and association of the natural opportunities, and site man- elements in the landscape agement and planning are related to the cosmic discussed with all stakeholders. significance of the landscape as An excellent example at Yungang a mandala representation of Caves is described by Sharon the universe with both physical Sullivan.18 Such actions needs to and metaphysical manifes- link through to recommendation tation. 5 below with cross referencing of tourism potential to the sig- The sense of continuity, fit with the nificance of cultural context and setting, and Borobudur’s undeniable heritage resources. presence as the ‘Cosmic Mountain of the

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Perfect Buddhas’ make it one of the 7 See K. Taylor, ‘Reading and Interpreting remarkable edifices of not only Central the Cultural Landscape’, Canberra Historical Journal, March 1992, pp. 2–9, Java but the entire Buddhist World.19 Its ‘Making Spaces into Places: Exploring haunting presence reflecting an ancient the Ordinarily Sacred’, Landscape belief in the indivisible junction between Australia, Vol. 2, 1999, pp. 107–112. man and nature where Mt Merapi to the east and Borobudur itself are the focal 8 D. W. Meinig, ‘Introduction’ in Meinig, points of a sacred landscape suggest it is The Interpretation of Ordinary Landscapes: Geographical Essays, Oxford University timely that it be considered as a cultural Press, New York, 1979. landscape of outstanding universal value. 9 J. D. Jeans, ‘The Pleasures of Landscape’ ENDNOTES in Australian Historical Landscapes, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1984. 1 D. Lowenthal, Introduction in D. Lowenthal & M. Binney, Our Past Before 10 See J. D. Tacey, ‘The Edge of the Sacred: Us. Why Do We Save It?, Temple Smith, transformation in Australia, Harper Col- London, 1981. lins, Blackburn, 1995, for further discussion on the ordinarily sacred. 2 A. Wayman, ‘Reflections on the Theory of Barabadur as a Mandala’ in L. O. 11 E. Relph, Place and Placelessness, Pion Gomez & H. W. Woodward, Barabudu Ltd, London Reprinted 1980, 1983, 1986. History and Significance of a Buddhist Monument, Asian Humanities Press, 12 Soekmono, J. G. de Casparis, and Berkeley, 1981. Dumarcay, Borobudur see ‘Introduction’ by de Casparis. 3 J. D. Gogerly, Ceylon Buddhism: Being the Edited Collected Writings of Daniel John 13 Soekmono, J. G. de Casparis, and Gogerly, A. S Kegan, Trench, Trubner & Dumarcay, Borobudur see ‘Introduction’ Co, London, 1908. See also R. Kloetzli, by de Casparis. Buddhist Cosmology. From Single World System to Pure Land: Science and Theology 14 C. Norberg-Schultz, Existence, Space and in the Images of Motion and Light, Motilal Architecture, Praeger, New York, 1971, Banarsidass, Delhi, 1983. quoted in Relph, p. 26.

4 Quoted in Soekmono, J.G. de Casparis, 15 Bambang Bintoro Soedjito speaking at and Dumarcay, Borobudur: Prayer in World Bank Conference, Culture Counts, Stone, Editions Didier Millet, Paris and Florence, 1999. Archipelago Press, Singapore, 1990. 16 Relph, Place and Placelessness. 5 D. Jacques, ‘The Rise of Cultural Landscapes’, International Journal of 17 K. Taylor, ‘Cultural Heritage Heritage Studies,(2), 1995, pp. 91–101. Conservation and Tourism: Dilemma of the Chicken and the Egg’, International 6 See K. Taylor, ‘Nature or Culture: Symposium and Workshop, Managing Dilemmas of Interpretation’, Tourism Heritage Environment in Asia, Culture & Communication, Vol. 2, 2000, Yogyakarta, January 8–12, 2003, pp. pp. 69–84 for a discussion of how 13–20. culture and nature fuse in Australian Aboriginal meanings of country and the 18 See, for example, S. Sullivan, ‘The concept of the ordinarily sacred. Management of Ancient Chinese Cave

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Temples, A Site Management Training Course at the Yungang Grottoes’, pp. 28–40 in Conservation of Ancient Sites on the Silk Road, International Conference on the Conservation of Grotto Sites, October 1993, The J Paul Getty Trust, 1997.

19 M. A. Johnstone, Borobudur An Analysis of the Gallery 1 Reliefs: Pelita Borobudur Seri C No., 1981.