sign in sign up
<<
Home , 1257 Samalas eruption, Lake Ilopango, Mount Agung, Mount Merapi, Mount Rinjani, Mount Tambora

References for HAZARDS - Volcanoes - Global -

1) Timelines for Volcanism on

This timeline of volcanism on Earth is a list of major volcanic eruptions of approximately at least magnitude 6 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) or equivalent dioxide emission around the Quaternary period. Some cooled the global ; the extent of this effect depends on the amount of sulfur dioxide emitted.[1][2] The topic in the background is an overview of the VEI and sulfur dioxide emission/ Volcanic relationship. Before the epoch, the criteria are less strict because of scarce data availability, partly since later eruptions have destroyed the evidence. So, the known large eruptions after the Paleogene period are listed, and especially those relating to the Yellowstone hotspot, the , and the Taupo Volcanic Zone. Only some eruptions before the Neogene period are listed. Active volcanoes such as Stromboli, and Kilauea do not appear on this list, but some back-arc basin volcanoes that generated do appear. Some dangerous volcanoes in "populated areas" appear many times: so Santorini, six times and Yellowstone hotspot, twenty-one times. The Bismarck , New Britain, and the Taupo Volcanic Zone, , appear often too.

In order to keep the list manageable, the eruptions in the Holocene on the link: Holocene Volcanoes in Kamchatka aren't yet added, but they are listed in Peter L. Ward's supplemental table.[3]

2)

Mount Merapi, Gunung Merapi (literally Fire Mountain in Indonesian and Javanese), is an active located on the border between Central and , Indonesia. It is the most active in Indonesia and has erupted regularly since 1548. It is located approximately 28 kilometres (17 mi) north of Yogyakarta city which has a population of 2.4 million, and thousands of people live on the flanks of the volcano, with villages as high as 1,700 metres (5,600 ft) above sea level.

Smoke can often be seen emerging from the mountaintop, and several eruptions have caused fatalities. Pyroclastic flow from a large killed 27 people on 22 November 1994, mostly in the town of , west of the volcano.[2] Another large eruption occurred in 2006, shortly before the Yogyakarta . In light of the hazards that Merapi poses to populated areas, it has been designated as one of the .

On 25 October 2010 the Indonesian government raised the alert for Mount Merapi to its highest level and warned villagers in threatened areas to move to safer ground. People living within the range of a 20 km (12 mi) zone were told to evacuate. Officials said[who?] about 500 volcanic had been recorded on the mountain over the weekend of 23–24 October[vague], and that the had risen to about 1 kilometre (3,300 ft) below the surface due to the seismic activity.[3] On the afternoon of 25 October 2010 Mount Merapi erupted from its southern and southeastern slopes. [4]

The mountain was still erupting on 30 November 2010, but due to lowered eruptive activity on 3 December 2010 the official alert status was reduced to level 3.[5] The volcano is now 2930 metres high,[1] 38 metres lower than before the 2010 eruptions.

After a large eruption in 2010 the characteristic of Mount Merapi was changed. On 18 November 2013 Mount Merapi burst smoke up to 2,000 meters high, one of its first major phreatic eruptions after the 2010 eruption. Researchers said that this eruption occurred due to combined effect of hot volcanic gases and abundant rainfall.[6]

3) Taupo Volcano From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Volcano, lake, and locations in the Taupo Volcanic Zone , in the centre of New Zealand’s North Island, is the caldera of a large rhyolitic volcano called the Taupo Volcano. This huge volcano has produced two of the world’s most violent eruptions in geologically recent times.

The Taupo Volcano forms part of the Taupo Volcanic Zone, a region of volcanic activity that extends from Ruapehu in the South, through the Taupo and Rotorua regions, to White Island, in the Bay of Plenty.

Taupo began erupting about 300,000 years ago, but the main eruptions that still affect the surrounding landscape are the Oruanui eruption, about 26,500 years ago, which is responsible for the shape of the modern caldera, and the Hatepe eruption, about 1,800 years ago. However, there have been many more eruptions, with major ones every thousand years or so (see timeline of last 10,000 years of eruptions).[1][2]

4)

The Toba eruption or Toba event occurred at the present location of , in Indonesia, about 75000±900 years (BP) according to argon dating.[7][8] This eruption was the last and largest of four eruptions of Toba during the Quaternary period, and is also recognized from its diagnostic horizon of ashfall, the youngest Toba (YTT).[9][10] It had an estimated volcanic explosivity index of 8 (the maximum), or a magnitude ≥ M8; it made a sizable contribution to the 100×30 km caldera complex.[11] Dense-rock equivalent (DRE) estimates of eruptive volume for the eruption vary between 2000 km3 and 3000 km3 – the most common DRE estimate is 2800 km3 (about 7×1015 kg) of erupted magma, of which 800 km3 was deposited as ash fall.[12]

The erupted mass was 100 times greater than that of the largest volcanic eruption in recent history, the 1815 eruption of in Indonesia, which caused the 1816 "" in the .[13] Toba's erupted mass deposited an ash layer about 15 centimetres (6 inches) thick over the whole of South Asia. A blanket of was also deposited over the , and the and .[14] Deep-sea cores retrieved from the South China Sea have extended the known reach of the eruption, suggesting that the 2800 km3 calculation of the erupted mass is a minimum value or even an underestimation.[15]

5) - Mount Agung or Gunung Agung is a mountain in , Indonesia. This stratovolcano is the highest point on the island. It dominates the surrounding area, influencing the climate. The clouds come from the west and Agung takes their water so that the west is lush and green while the east dry and barren.

The Balinese believe that Mount Agung is a replica of Mount Meru, the central axis of the universe. One legend holds that the mountain is a fragment of Meru brought to Bali by the first Hindus. The most important on Bali, Pura Besakih, is located high on the slopes of Gunung Agung.[4]

Gunung Agung last erupted in 1963-1964 and is still active, with a large and very deep crater which occasionally belches smoke and ash. From a distance, the mountain appears to be perfectly conical, despite the existence of the large crater.

From the peak of the mountain, it is possible to see the peak of on the island of , although both mountains are frequently covered in clouds. On February 18, 1963, local residents heard loud and saw clouds rising from the crater of Mount Agung. On February 24, lava began flowing down the northern slope of the mountain, eventually traveling 7 km in the next 20 days. On March 17, the volcano erupted (VEI 5), sending debris 8 to 10 km into the air and generating massive pyroclastic flows.[5] These flows devastated numerous villages, killing approximately 1500 people. Cold caused by heavy rainfall after the eruption killed an additional 200. A second eruption on May 16 led to pyroclastic flows that killed another 200 inhabitants.[6]

The lava flows missed, sometimes by mere yards, the Mother Temple of Besakih. The saving of the temple is regarded by the as miraculous and a signal from the gods that they wished to demonstrate their power but not destroy the monument the Balinese faithful had erected. was the dominant lava type with some samples mafic enough to be classified as basaltic andesite.[7]

6) 1815 Eruption of Tambora 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Tambora volcano eruption in 1815) Date 1815 Type Ultra Plinian Location , , Dutch 8.25°S 118°ECoordinates: 8.25°S 118°E VEI 7 Impact Reduced global temperatures, leading the following year, 1816, to be called the Year Without a Summer. The 1815 Eruption of Mount Tambora was one of the most powerful eruptions in recorded history and is classified as a VEI-7 event. The eruption of the volcano, on the island of Sumbawa in the (present-day Indonesia), reached a climax on 10 April 1815[1] and was followed by between six months and three years of increased steaming and small phreatic eruptions.

The lowered global temperatures, and some experts believe this led to and worldwide harvest failures, sometimes known as the Year Without a Summer in 1816.[2] The eruption resulted in a brief period of significant climate change that led to various cases of . Several climate forcings coincided and interacted in a systematic manner that has not been observed since, despite other large eruptions that have occurred since the early Stone Age. Although the link between the post-eruption climate changes and the Tambora event has been established by various scientists, the understanding of the processes involved is incomplete.[3]

Disruption of global temperatures[edit] The conditions during the northern hemisphere summer of 1816 were the result of the largest observed eruption in recorded human history, one during which global temperatures decreased by an average of 0.53 °C, and related human deaths were reported to be about 90,000. The importance of volcanic eruptions during this anomaly, specifically the eruption of Mount Tambora, cannot be overlooked. It is the most significant factor in this important climate anomaly across the globe.[16] While there were other eruptions during the year of 1815, Tambora is classified as a VEI-7 and an eruption column 45 km tall, eclipsing all others by at least one order of magnitude.

The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) is used to quantify the amount of ejected material with a VEI-7 coming in at 100 km3. Every index value below that is one order of magnitude less. Furthermore, the 1815 eruption occurred during a Dalton Minimum, a period of unusually low solar radiation.[17] Volcanism plays a large role in climate shifts, both locally and globally. This was not always understood and did not enter scientific circles as fact until erupted in 1883 and tinted the skies orange.[16] The scale of the volcanic eruption will determine the significance of the impact on climate and other chemical processes, but a change will be measured even in the most local of environments. When volcanoes erupt they eject CO2, H2O, H2, SO2, HCl, HF, and many other gases (Meronen et al. 2012). CO2 and H2O are greenhouse gases, responsible for 0.0394% and 0.4% of the atmosphere respectively. Their small ratio disguises their significant role in trapping solar insolation and reradiating it back to Earth.

Global effects[edit] See also: Year Without a Summer

Sulfate concentration in from Central , dated by counting oxygen seasonal variations: An unknown eruption occurred around the .[18] The 1815 eruption released sulfur dioxide (SO2) into the stratosphere, causing a global climate anomaly. Different methods have estimated the ejected sulphur mass during the eruption: the petrological method; an optical depth measurement based on anatomical observations; and the polar ice core concentration method, using cores from Greenland and . The figures vary depending on the method, ranging from 10 to 120 million tonnes.[10]

In the spring and summer of 1815, a persistent "dry fog" was observed in the northeastern . The fog reddened and dimmed the sunlight, such that were visible to the naked eye. Neither wind nor rainfall dispersed the "fog". It was identified as a stratospheric sulfate veil.[10] In summer 1816, countries in the Northern Hemisphere suffered extreme weather conditions, dubbed the Year Without a Summer. Average global temperatures decreased about 0.4–0.7 °C (0.7–1.3 °F),[5] enough to cause significant agricultural problems around the globe. On 4 June 1816, were reported in the upper elevations of , Maine, and northern New York. On 6 June 1816, snow fell in Albany, New York, and Dennysville, Maine.[10] Such conditions occurred for at least three months and ruined most agricultural crops in North America. Canada experienced extreme cold during that summer. Snow 30 cm (12 in) deep accumulated near from 6 to 10 June 1816.

The second-coldest year in the Northern Hemisphere since c.1400 was 1816, and the 1810s are the coldest decade on record, a result of Tambora's 1815 eruption and another possible VEI 7 eruption that took place in late 1808 (see sulfate concentration figure from ice core data). The surface temperature anomalies during the summer of 1816, 1817, and 1818 were −0.51 °C (−0.92 °F), −0.44 °C (−0.79 °F) and −0.29 °C (−0.52 °F), respectively.[7] As well as a cooler summer, parts of Europe experienced a stormier winter.

This climate anomaly has been blamed for the severity of typhus epidemics in southeast Europe and the eastern Mediterranean between 1816 and 1819.[10] The climate changes disrupted the Indian , caused three failed harvests and contributing to the spread of a new strain of originating in Bengal in 1816.[19] Many livestock died in during the winter of 1816–1817. Cool temperatures and heavy resulted in failed harvests in Britain and . Families in travelled long distances as refugees, begging for food. Famine was prevalent in north and southwest Ireland, following the failure of , , and potato harvests. The crisis was severe in Germany, where food prices rose sharply and demonstrations in front of grain markets and bakeries, followed by riots, arson, and looting, took place in many European cities. It was the worst famine of the .[10]

Effects of volcanism[edit] Volcanism affects the atmosphere in two distinct ways: short-term cooling due to reflected insolation, and long-term warming due to increased CO2 levels. Most of the water vapor and CO2 is collected in clouds within a few weeks to months because both are already present in large quantities, so the effects are limited (Bodenmann et al. 2011[citation needed]). SO2, along with other and particulates, is responsible for global cooling, nullifying the effects of the emissions due to its ability to be found higher in the atmosphere and its efficiency at bonding with any water vapor found in the upper "dry" atmosphere. is exceptional at blocking solar radiation and it usually takes months to years for it to acquire enough water vapor to fall back to Earth. It has been suggested that a volcanic eruption in 1809 may have previously contributed to a reduction in global temperatures.[18]

7) Year Without a Summer The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer (also the Poverty Year, the Summer that Never Was, Year There Was No Summer, and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death)[1] because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4–0.7 °C (0.7–1.3 °F).[2] This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere.[3]

Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies, the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535–536. The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century. Known today as the , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe. The Little Ice Age's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora, which occurred during its concluding decades.[4]

Effects[edit] As a result of the series of volcanic eruptions, crops in the aforementioned areas had been poor for several years; the final blow came in 1815 with the eruption of Tambora. Europe, still recuperating from the Napoleonic Wars, suffered from food shortages. Food riots broke out in the United Kingdom and France, and grain warehouses were looted. The violence was worst in landlocked , where famine caused the government to declare a national emergency. Huge storms and abnormal rainfall with flooding of Europe's major rivers (including the Rhine) are attributed to the event, as is the August . A major typhus epidemic occurred in Ireland between 1816 and 1819, precipitated by the famine caused by the Year Without a Summer. An estimated 100,000 Irish perished during this period. A BBC documentary, using figures compiled in Switzerland, estimated that the fatality rates in 1816 were twice that of average years, giving an approximate European fatality total of 200,000 deaths.

New England also experienced major consequences from the eruption of Tambora. The corn crop was significantly advanced in New England and the eruption caused the crop to fail. In the summer of 1816, corn was reported to have ripened so badly that no more than a quarter of it was usable for food. The crop failures in New England, Canada, and parts of Europe also caused the price of wheat, grains, meat, vegetables, butter, milk, and flour to rise sharply.

The eruption of Tambora also caused Hungary to experience brown snow. Italy's northern and north-central region experienced something similar, with red snow falling throughout the year. The cause of this is believed to have been volcanic ash in the atmosphere.

In China, unusually low temperatures in summer and fall devastated production in Yunnan, resulting in widespread famine. Fort Shuangcheng, now in , reported fields disrupted by frost and conscripts deserting as a result. Summer snowfall or otherwise mixed precipitation was reported in various locations in Jiangxi and Anhui, located at around 30°N. In , which has a tropical climate, snow was reported in Hsinchu and Miaoli, and frost was reported in Changhua.[25]

Cultural effects[edit]

Hong Kong sunset circa 1992 after the eruption of

High levels of in the atmosphere led to unusually spectacular sunsets during this period, a feature celebrated in the paintings of J. M. W. Turner. This may have given rise to the yellow tinge predominant in his paintings such as Chichester Canal circa 1828. Similar phenomena were observed after the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, and on the West Coast of the United States following the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the .

The lack of to feed horses may have inspired the German inventor Karl Drais to research new ways of horseless transportation, which led to the invention of the draisine or velocipede. This was the ancestor of the modern bicycle and a step toward mechanized personal transport.[26]

The crop failures of the "Year without a Summer" may have helped shape the settling of the "American Heartland", as many thousands of people (particularly farm families who were wiped out by the event) left New England for what is now western and central New York and the Midwest (then the ) in search of a more hospitable climate, richer soil, and better growing conditions.[27] became a state in December of 1816 and two years later. British historian Lawrence Goldman has suggested that this migration into the Burned-over district of New York was responsible for the centering of the anti-slavery movement in that region.[28]

Chichester Canal by J. M. W. Turner (1828) According to historian L. D. Stillwell, Vermont alone experienced a decrease in population of between 10,000 and 15,000, erasing seven previous years of population growth.[6] Among those who left Vermont were the family of , who moved from Norwich, Vermont (though he was born in Sharon, Vermont) to Palmyra, New York. [29] This move precipitated the series of events that culminated in the publication of the Book of Mormon and the founding of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. [19]

In June 1816, "incessant rainfall" during that "wet, ungenial summer" forced , , and their friends to stay indoors at overlooking for much of their Swiss holiday.[28][30][31] They decided to have a contest to see who could write the scariest story, leading Shelley to write , or The Modern Prometheus and to write "A Fragment", which Polidori later used as inspiration for The Vampyre[32] — a precursor to Dracula. In addition, Lord Byron was inspired to write the poem "", by a single day when "the fowls all went to roost at noon and candles had to be lit as at midnight".[28]

Justus von Liebig, a chemist who had experienced the famine as a child in Darmstadt, later studied plant nutrition and introduced mineral .

Comparable events[edit] Toba catastrophe 70,000 to 75,000 years ago The 1628–26 BCE climate disturbances, usually attributed to the of Santorini The Hekla 3 eruption of about 1200 BCE, contemporary with the historical Age collapse The Hatepe eruption (sometimes referred to as the Taupo eruption), around 180 CE Extreme weather events of 535–536 have been linked to the effects of a volcanic eruption, possibly at Krakatoa, or Ilopango in . The Heaven Lake eruption of between and the People's Republic of China, in 969 (± 20 years), is thought to have had a role in the downfall of Balhae. The of Mount Rinjani on the island of Lombok in 1257 An eruption of , a Pacific volcano, has been implicated in events surrounding the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. An eruption of , in , caused 1601 to be the coldest year in the Northern Hemisphere for six centuries (see Russian famine of 1601–1603); 1601 consisted of a bitterly cold winter, a cold, frosty, late (possibly nonexistent) spring, and a cool, wet summer. An eruption of , in , caused thousands of fatalities in Europe, 1783–84. The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 led to odd weather patterns and temporary cooling in the United States, particularly in the Midwest and parts of the Northeast. An unusually mild winter was followed by an unusually cool, wet summer and a cold, early autumn in 1992. Enhanced rainfall occurred across the West Coast of the United States, particularly California, during the 1991–92 and 1992–93 rainy seasons.