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"Our subcultural shit-music": Dutch jazz, representation, and cultural politics

Rusch, L.

Publication date 2016 Document Version Final published version

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Citation for published version (APA): Rusch, L. (2016). "Our subcultural shit-music": Dutch jazz, representation, and cultural politics.

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In"1978,"journalists"and"musicians"associated"with"the"Stichting"Jazz"in"the"Netherlands" (Foundation"for"Jazz"in"the"Netherlands,"from"here"on:"SJN)"and"the"Jazz/Press"magazine" published"Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde-Muziek-in-Nederland,"a"“companion"to"the"Dutch"jazz" world.”39"The"book,"edited"by"Wim"van"Eyle,"served"in"the"first"place"as"a"platform"to" inform"jazz"professionals"and"enthusiasts"about"venues,"labels,"magazines,"record"stores" and"people"active"in"the"field"of"jazz."Also,"the"book"contains"a"number"of"short"historic" narratives,"including"the"histories"of"traditional"jazz"in"the"Netherlands;"jazz"between" 1945H1965;"jazz"and"improvised"music"between"1965H1978;"the"history"of"the" Foundation"of"Jazz"in"the"Netherlands;"jazz"on"the"radio;"Dutch"jazz"and"related"music;" Belgian"jazz;"Dutch"jazz"records;"and"100"years"(!)"of"Dutch"jazz"writing"between"1877H 1977."This"way,"the"compilers"sought"to"chronicle"what"they"considered"the"“unique" story”"of"Dutch"jazz,"a"story"that"“needed"to"be"captured”"before"the"first"generation"of" Dutch"jazz"musicians"ceased"to"exist." " The"publication"of"the"Companion-followed"from"and"reflected"the"increasing" institutionalization"and"professionalization"of"Dutch"jazz"culture"during"the"1970s"and" the"optimism"felt"among"Dutch"jazz"enthusiasts."In"1974,"for"example,"the"Bimhuis— named"after"the"1971"founding"of"an"improvising"musicians’"union—opened"its"doors," the"first"Dutch"concert"hall"especially"designated"for"jazz"and"improvised"music."Two" years"later,"jazz"critic"and"impresario"Paul"Acket"organized"the"first"edition"of"what" would"become"the"internationally"renowned"North"Sea"Jazz"Festival."That"same"year," conservatories"in"the"Netherlands"began"to"include"jazz"in"their"curricula."In"his" foreword"to"the"Companion,"prominent"jazz"promoter"and"radio"host"Michiel"de"Ruyter" asserts"that,"“Jazz"in"the"Netherlands"shows"an"upward"trend,”"observing"an"increase"of" venues,"festivals,"labels,"radio"programs"and"literature"featuring"jazz."However," “symbolically"the"most"important”"event"for"the"recognition"of"Dutch"jazz"on"the" international"stage"and"improvised"music,"was"according"to"De"Ruyter,"the"visit"of"“a" New"Yorker,”"who"had"traveled"across"the"Atlantic"especially"to"attend"a"concert"by"one" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 39"Wim"van"Eyle,"ed.,"Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde-Muziek:-Handboek-voor-de-Nederlandse-Jazzwereld- (Antwerpen:"Het"Spectrum,"1978),"6."

17" " of"Dutch"leading"improvised"music"ensembles,"the"Willem"Breuker"Kollektief."“Indeed,”" De"Ruyter"recalls,"“in"1977"the"first"American"[fan]"came"over"to"the"Netherlands"to" hear"what’s"going"on"over"here.”40"Altogether,"De"Ruyter’s"observations,"the"tone"of"the" articles,"and"the"companion"itself"signaled"an"increasing"selfHawareness"and"optimism" among"musicians"and"journalists"about"Dutch"jazz"and"its"significance"on"the" international"stage." " Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde-Muziek-in-Nederland"was"the"first"companion"to"express"an" outspoken"desire"among"Dutch"jazz"journalists"and"musicians"to"manifest"themselves"as" part"of"a"local"jazz"and"improvised"music"community—a"community"of"professionals."It" followed"the"example"of"similar"publications"that"had"appeared"earlier"in"Belgium," Scandinavia,"England,"Germany,"Switzerland"and"the"United"States."The"editors"asserted" with"confidence"that,"“It"was"about"time"that"the"Netherlands"too"presented"its"own" ‘who"is"who’"in"jazz.”41"Together"with"market"research"bureau"Inter/view,"the"editors" compiled"746"short"biographies"with"the"contact"details"of"musicians"(89"percent)"and" nonHmusicians"such"as"programmers,"promoters,"and"photographers."The"list"“officially" presented”"the"members"of"the"BIM,"the"union"for"improvising"musicians"that"had"been" founded"in"1971"with"the"purpose"of"“providing"the"government"with"a"recognizable" support"group"for"jazz.”42"Moreover,"the"Companion"presented"jazz"in"the"Netherlands" as"an"important"part"of"“cultural"history”"with"a"significant"past"and"an"exciting" presence." " While"Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde-Muziek-in-Nederland-presents"the"1970s"jazz"and" improvised"music"community"in"the"Netherlands"as"a"homogeneous,"even"harmonious" whole,"the"biographies—which"in"most"cases"had"been"provided"by"the"jazz" professionals"themselves—suggest"a"much"more"complex"socioHcultural"practice."In"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 40"Ibid.,"7." 41"Van"Eyle,"ed.,"Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde-Muziek,"6." 42"The"handbook’s"presentation"of"the"“professional”"Dutch"jazz"and"improvised"music"community"is"very" optimistic,"as"only"a"handful"of"the"listed"jazz"professionals"made"a"fulltime"living"from"jazz."In"a"1978" study,"Frans"van"Leeuwen"calculated"that"the"gross"national"income"for"jazz"as"generated"by"ticket"sales," subsidies"and"additional"funding"would"allow"for"approximately"one"hundred"musicians"to"earn"their" income"by"playing"jazz."His"estimation"of"the"total"jazz"community"amounted"to"300"jazz"and"improvising" musicians,"consisting"of"181"BIMHmembers"and"120"“active"nonHmembers.”"Frans"van"Leeuwen,"De"fluit" en"de"duit"(deel"4"H"slot),""Jazz/Press"53/54"(1978):"33."

18" " terms"of"ethnic"background,"for"example,"the"musicians"showed"quite"a"diversity."With" almost"10"percent"of"its"members"born"outside"the"Netherlands,"jazz"and"improvised" music"represented"twentyHone"different"nationalities."Of"these,"sixteen"jazz"musicians" came"from"the"United"States"and"resided"in"the"Netherlands"permanently,"or,"in"case"of" saxophonists"Don"Byas,"Coleman"Hawkins"and"Ben"Webster,"stayed"in"the"Netherlands" on"a"temporary"basis."By"far"the"largest"number"of"the"musicians"listed"who"were"not" born"in"the"Netherlands"came"from"the"former"Dutch"colonies"Indonesia"(24),"Surinam" (5)"and"Curacao"(1).43"The"ethnic"background"of"the"musicians"not"only"reveals"the" country’s"colonial"past,"but"also"underlines"the"notion"of"jazz"as"a"transnational"practice" that"encapsulates"and"embodies"multiple"musical"traditions;"a"music"that"should"be" understood"as,"in"the"words"of"E."Taylor"Atkins,"“a"harbinger"of"what"we"now"call" ‘globalization.’”"44"A"further"study"of"the"biographies"shows"how"1970s"jazz"and" improvised"music"in"the"Netherlands"also"represented"a"musically"and"stylistically" diverse"and"maleHdominated"space"of"cultural"activity."The"categories"used"by"the" musicians"to"define"their"music"illustrate"how"the"label"“jazz"and"improvised"music”" covered"a"wide"range"of"musical"styles"and"genres."While"most"musicians"used" conventional"jazz"styles"to"label"their"music"(“Dixieland,”"“swing,”"“bop,”"“free" improvised"music,”"“rock"jazz”),"the"alternatives"(“modern"Dixieland,”"“music"theatre,”" “people’s"music,”"“honest"style,”"“music"influenced"by"African"folk"music"and"Japanese" classical"music,”"among"others)"at"the"same"time"indicated"the"musicians’"unease"with" labels"that"confined"their"creative"work"into"prescriptive"pigeonholes."The"absence"of" women"on"the"list"is"particularly"striking."No"less"than"4"percent"of"the"entries"are"on"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 43"Indonesia"(24),"U.S.A."(16),"Belgium"(5),"Surinam"(5),"Germany"(3),"France"(2),"Russia"(2),"U.K."(2)," British"Guyana,"Curaçao,"Denmark,"Ghana,"Greece,"India,"Monaco,"Austria,"SouthHAfrica,"Switzerland," Venezuela,"Zambia."Photographer"Rico"d’Rozario’s"country"of"birth,"India,"is"not"mentioned."" Indonesia"(24):"Rob"Agerbeek,"Hans"Assenderp,"Gé"Bakker,"Richard"Daniëls,"Nedley"Elstak,"Fred"Gilhuys," Edgar"de"Haas,"Juul"van"Hogezand,"Victor"Kaihatu,"Eric"Krans,"Max"Lim,"Theo"Uden"Masman,"Charlie" Nanlohy,"Frank"Noya,"Nippy"Noya,"Bob"van"Oven,"Babs"Pronk,"Rob"Pronk,"Ruud"Pronk,"Bas"Schop,"Lu" Ssanet,"Aart"Steffelaar,"Flip"Willemse,"Peter"Ypma;"U.S.A."(16):"Joe"Albany,"Don"Byas,"Johnny"Dunn,"Frank" Grasso,"Charlie"Green,"Burton"Greene,"Rosa"King,"Johnny"Griffin,"Coleman"Hawkins,"Tristan"Honsinger," Freddie"Johnson,"Ben"Webster,"Wilbur"Little,"Sandy"Mosse,"Irv"Rochlin,"Glenn"Spearman;"Canada:"Alan" Laurillard;"Belgium"(5):"Mon"Devoghelaere,"Fred"van"Hove,"Bert"Page,"Jean"Robert,"Marcel"Thielemans;" Surinam"(5):"Teddy"Cotton,"Kid"Dynamite,"Wim"Essed,"Ronald"Snijders,"Henny"Vonk;"Germany"(3):"Toto" Blanke,"Thijs"Chanowski,"Eddy"Marron;"France"(2):"JeanHPierre"Perroud,"Hans"Vlig"van"der"Sijs;"Russia"(2):" Misha"Mengelberg,"Jascha"Trabsky;"U.K."(2):"Wally"Shorts,"William"Nelson;"British"Guyana:"Mr."Slim;" Curaçao:"Tony"Nahar;"Denemarken:"Børge"Ring;"Ghana:"Cab"Kaye;"Greece:"Constantin"Poustochkine;"India:" Rico"d’Rozario;"Monaco:"Yvon"Fadd;"Austria:"Monika"van"der"Zwart;"SouthHAfrica:"Sean"Bergin;" Switzerland:"Tom"Braaksma;"Venezuela:"Hein"van"der"Gaag;"Zambia:"Michael"Baird." 44"Atkins,"Jazz-Planet,"xiii."

19" " women:"seventeen"vocalists,"ten"instrumentalists,"two"promoters"and"one"journalist." Altogether"the"list"shows"how,"as"a"fullHfledged"member"of"the"cultural"landscape,"the" field"of"jazz"and"improvised"music"provides"an"excellent"site"for"the"study"of"socioH cultural"issues,"such"as"cultural"exchange,"race,"class,"ethnicity,"nationality"and"gender." " This"chapter"engages"with"the"further"development"of"Dutch"narratives"in"jazz"and" focuses"on"the"socioHcultural"binaries"that"are"created"and"reinforced"by"members"of"the" Dutch"jazz"community"themselves."It"explores"the"main"subgenres"in"jazz"(traditional" jazz,"modern"jazz,"and"improvised"music)"used"by"musicians"and"other"professionals" during"the"1960s"and"1970s"in"the"Netherlands"and"juxtaposes"their"main"differences"in" terms"of"representatives,"music,"aesthetics"and"socioHpolitical"views."Furthermore,"it" engages"with"the"soHcalled"richtingenstrijd,"a"battle"that"arose"midH1960s"between"the" soHcalled"modern"jazz"musicians"and"the"emerging"group"of"AmsterdamHbased" improvising"musicians,"and"which"developed"into"one"of"the"tropes"through"which"the" story"of"Dutch"jazz"continues"to"be"told."This"work"is"in"dialogue"with"what"art"historian" Terry"Smith"has"called"the"“simultaneity"of"antinomies”"and"the"“coexistence"of"very" distinct"senses"of"time,"of"what"it"is"to"exist"now,"to"be"in"place,"and"to"act,"in"relation"to" imagined"histories"and"possible"futures.”45"Although"Smith’s"topic"is"quite"different— exploring"the"issue"of"contemporaneity"in"the"diversity"of"presentHday"art"and"culture— his"approach"is"useful"as"it"offers"a"more"inclusive"model"on"arts"and"culture,"which"not" only"centers"around"a"relatively"small"group"of"revolutionary"avantHgardists"but"which" also"engages"with"more"conservative"voices"and"evolutionary"processes"of"musical" change."Smith’s"model"contributes"to"the"understanding"of"the"complexity"of"artistic"and" cultural"change"both"in"time"and"place."Rather"than"simplifying"musical"practices"into" stylistic"categories,"this"chapter"exposes"the"ideological"and"political"implications"of" categorization"and"canonization"processes,"demonstrating"the"complexity"of"meaningH making"in"the"musical"realm." " My"distinction"between"three"subcultures"is"loosely"based"on"the"works"of"sociologist" Wim"Knulst,"who"in"1970"explored"the"potential"of"earning"an"income"by"playing"jazz"in" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 45"Terry"Smith,"“Introduction:"The"Contemporaneity"Question,”"in"Antinomies-of-Art-and-Culture:- Modernity,-Postmodernity,-Contemporaneity,"ed."Terry"Smith,"Okwui"Enwezor"and"Nancy"Condee"(Duke" University"Press,"2009),"vi."

20" " the"Netherlands"and"who"investigated"the"organizational"structures"needed"for"a"viable" jazz"culture.46"Commissioned"by"the"Boekman"foundation,"a"study"center"for"arts," culture"and"related"policy,"in"his"study"Knulst"distinguishes"three"“clusters”"that"could" be"separated"in"terms"of"socioHeconomic"backgrounds"and"geographical"centers"of" activity."The"first"cluster"consists"of"fortyHeight"musicians"who"largely"earned"their" income"by"playing"in"radio"orchestras"active"in"the"record"and"television"studios"located" in"the"city"of"Hilversum."The"second,"most"clearHcut"cluster"centered"around"eleven" AmsterdamHbased"“improvising"musicians,”"including"members"of"the"Instant" Composers"Pool,"and"other"avantHgarde"musicians."Third,"Knulst"identified"a"remaining" group"of"musicians"in"the"eastern"part"of"the"country"who"in"terms"of"professional" organization"largely"connected"to"the"first"cluster,"and"which"for"that"reason"I"will" consider"as"belonging"to"the"same"group."In"addition"to"Knulst’s"categorization,"I"will" start"with"a"brief"introduction"of"traditionalist"jazz."Knulst’s"survey"largely"ignores"the" Dixieland"scene,"which"was"largely"amateurHbased"and"perhaps"for"that"reason"fell"out" of"the"survey’s"aim"to"investigate"the"viability"of"earning"an"income"by"playing"jazz."

Jazz&audiences& In"the"late"1950s"and"early"1960s,"radio,"television"and"magazines"increasingly" responded"to"what"cultural"historian"Hans"Righart"has"labeled"the"“hedonistic”"and" “commercialized”"“teenager"culture”"of"the"Sixties.47"Teenagers"during"this"time"were" increasingly"drawn"to"Americanized"forms"of"popular"culture,"and"the"rock"and"beat" music"of"Bill"Haley,"Elvis"Presley,"the"Beatles,"and"the"Rolling"Stones.48"This"new"group" of"teenagers"separated"themselves"from"other"generations"by"means"of"music,"fashion," beauty"magazines"and"other"“lifestyle”"and"could"therefore"be"targeted"commercially." Radio"programmers"attracted"young"listeners"with"an"increasing"offer"of"Dutch"radio" broadcasts"exclusively"dedicated"to"pop"music."While"teenagers"initially"turned"to"the" EnglishHlanguage"programs"broadcast"by"Radio"Luxemburg"for"the"latest"rock-and-roll,""

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 46"Wim"Knulst,"Jazz-anno-1970"(Amsterdam:"Boekmanstichting,"1972)." 47"Righart,"De-eindeloze-jaren-zestig,-162."AVRO"(A.V.R.O.)"and"VARA"are"abbreviations"of"respectively" “Algemene"Vereniging"Radio"Omroep”"(General"Broadcasting"Association)"and"“Verenigde"Arbeiders" Radio"Amateurs”"(Workers’"Assocation"of"Radio"Makers)."From"1957,"the"V.A.R.A."was"no"longer"officially" spelled"as"an"abbreviation,"but"as"VARA"instead." 48"Hans"Righart"wrote"extensively"on"the"emergence"of"soHcalled"“teenagercultuur”"in"the"Netherlands," Hans"Righart,"De-eindeloze-jaren-zestig"(1995)."One"could"question"whether"jazz"in"the"Netherlands"was" ever"a"popular"music"with"a"large"audience."

2"1" they"were"drawn"to"Dutch"broadcasts"with"clearHcut"titles"such"as"Tijd-voor-Teenagers" (Time"for"teenagers,"1959H1970),"Tussen-10+-en-20H-(Between"10+"and"20H,"1962H1970)" and"Grammofoonmuziek-voor-de-teenagers-(Gramophone"music"for"teenagers).49" Similarly,"the"upcoming"medium"of"television"seized"up"on"this"new"teenager"market."A" young"generation"of"programmers"for"the"liberal"protestant"radio"broadcasting"VPRO" committed"themselves"to"more"progressive"and"experimental"forms"of"television" making,"which"challenged"traditional"codes"of"behavior"related"to"sexuality.50"The" controversial"television"series"Hoepla,"for"example,"reached"the"international"headlines" in"1967"as"the"first"Dutch"television"program"to"show"a"naked"woman:"twentyHone"year" old"visual"artist"and"FluxusHrepresentative"Phil"Bloom."The"event"led"to"debates"in"the" House"of"Representatives,"illustrating"the"growing"concern"of"the"established"generation" for"the"young"and"rebellious"teens"and"what"they"saw"as"their"repugnant"ideals"of"sexual" liberation." " Although"jazz"could"be"considered"part"of"this"new"teenager"culture—the"Chris"Barber" Band,"Dutch"Swing"College"Band,"Papa"Blue’s"Viking"Jazz"Band"and"other"revivalist"jazz" groups"continued"to"make"the"pop"charts"throughout"the"1960s—rock"and"roll"and"beat" largely"pushed"jazz"aside"as"the"youth’s"primary"music.51"The"declining"interest"in"jazz" affected"the"music"scene,"as"the"number"of"jazz"club"visitors"dropped,"forcing"jazz" associations"and"jazz"clubs"to"close"their"doors."The"Amsterdam"jazz"club"Sheherazade" discontinued"its"jazz"activities"in"1962"after"the"club"changed"ownership."The"press" lamented"the"loss"of"this"“Mecca"of"modern"jazz,”"which"over"the"years"developed"into" one"of"the"country’s"“leading"jazz"centers.”52"The"Sheherazade"owed"its"leading"position"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 49"“Jubileum"van"tussen"10+"en"20H:"Jos"Brinks"honderdste,”"Friese-Koerier,"March"30,"1965,"2." 50"The"VPRO"was"originally"spelled"V.P.R.O.,"which"is"an"abbreviation"of"Vrijzinnig"Protestantse"Radio" Omroep"(Liberal"Protestant"Radio"Broadcasting)."To"underline"the"new"direction"and"to"move"away"from" the"original"religious"connotations,"the"name"was"changed"from"V.P.R.O."into"VPRO."Currently"the" statutory"name"is"Omroepvereniging"VPRO"(Broadcasting"Association"VPRO)." 51"This"information"is"based"on"the"charts"provided"from"June"1958"by"popular"music"magazine"Muziek- Express,"published"between"January"1956"and"December"1989."The"hit"charts"that"appeared"in"the" Netherlands"during"the"1960s"were"typically"based"on"record"sales"as"provided"by"record"stores."In"1951," programmer"Ger"de"Roos"initiated"the"KROHhitparade,"the"first"pop"charts"in"the"Netherlands"based"on" record"sales."The"popularity"of"the"Muziek-Express"chart"decreased"during"the"1960s,"as"other"magazines" and"radio"programs"(Tijd-voor-Teenagers,"Top-10,"Parool-Top-10,"Veronica-Top-40)"started"their"own"hit" lists."http://www.hitnoteringen.nl/start/muziekHexpres/"(accessed"November"25,"2014)."" 52"In"June"1950"the"“modern"music"magazine”"Rhythme"announces"a"concert"by"the"orchestra"of"Joop" Korzelius"at"the"Sheherazade."“Cees"Slinger:"‘We"gaan"uit"elkaar,’"The"Diamond"Five"zoekt"ander"home,"”" "

22" " particularly"to"the"club’s"house"combo"the"Diamond"Five,"which"from"1958"attracted" modern"jazz"fans"and"musicians"through"jam"sessions."In"addition,"they"accompanied" visiting"American"soloists"such"as"Kenny"Drew,"Donald"Byrd"and"Johnny"Griffin.53" Likewise,"jazz"magazine"Rhythme-saw"teenagers"and"other"commercial"market"groups" as"the"main"reason"for"its"discontinuation."In"September"1961,"“the"Netherlands’"only" jazz"periodical”"Rhythme,"announced"that,"“the"magazine’s"circulation"cannot"even"begin" to"compete"with"magazines"aimed"at"families,"women"or…"teenagers”"[emphasis"added]" (for"a"further"discussion"of"jazz"writing,"see"Chapter"Four).54" " However,"jazz"not"only"lost"audiences,"but"at"the"same"time"reached"new"audiences" through"radio"broadcasts,"jazz"magazines"and"the"emerging"medium"of"television."From" 1955"onwards,"jazz"musicians"and"enthusiasts"listened"to"the"Voice-of-America-Jazz-Hour," the"American"music"program"on"long"wave"radio"presented"by"Willis"Conover,"who" presented"the"latest"jazz"records."After"midnight,"listeners"throughout"Europe"fiddled" with"the"dial"of"their"shortwave"radios"to"find"the"opening"notes"of"“Take"the"‘A’"Train,”" followed"by"a"dark,"slow"voice"announcing,"“Time"for"Jazz…Willis"Conover"in" Washington"D.C."with"the"Voice"of"America"Jazz"Hour.”"Among"those"listeners"was"the" young"drummer"Han"Bennink,"who"lists"the"program"as"an"important"source"of" inspiration"during"his"early"career.55"Jazz"also"featured"in"special"programs"made"for" Dutch"radio,"starting"with"VARA’s"Romance-in-Jazz"(1958–60)"presented"by"reed"player" and"composer"Theo"Loevendie,"and"followed"by"the"phonetically"spelled"Dzjess-Zien- (1964–66),"the"title"referring"both"to"“seeing"jazz”"(zien-means"“to"see”)"and"to"“jazz" scene”"(zien"is"roughly"pronounced"as"“scene”).56" " While"new"teenage"cultures"unquestionably"effected"the"further"development"of"jazz," not"everyone"shared"the"view"that"jazz"was"losing"potential"young"listeners"to"beat"and"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" Het-Vrije-Volk,"12"February"1962,"15;"“Gé"van"Toorenburg"won"muziekoorlog,”"De-Tijd,"21"July"1962,"41." “Tweemaal"Rita"Reys"in"de"Maasstad,”"Het-Vrije-Volk,"December"21,"1959,"4." 53"“Exclusief"optreden"van"Johnny"Griffin,”"De-Telegraaf,"March"3,"1963,"9;"“JazzHpianist"Kenny"Drew"in" ‘Zade’,”"De-Telegraaf,"April"17,"1963,"9;"“Donald"Byrd,”"De-Telegraaf,"November"11,"1963,"7." 54"Anton"Kop"and"Skip"Voogd,"“Farewell"Blues,”"Rhythme"144,"September"1961,"3." 55"Van"den"Berg,"Han-Bennink,"38." 56"The"program"was"aired"by"the"Dutch"Christian"Radio"Association"NCRV"(Nederlandse"Christelijke"Radio" Vereniging,"which"was"part"of"a"publicly"funded"broadcasting"system"that"was"subdivided"according"to" religious"beliefs,"reflecting"a"societal"division"known"as"verzuiling-(pillarization)."

23" " rock"and"roll."“I"don’t"believe"that"the"parting"of"[the"Sheherazade"and"the"Diamond"Five]" is"the"result"of"a"declining"interest"in"jazz,”"bandleader"and"pianist"of"the"Diamond"Five" Cees"Slinger"insisted"in"1962,"“It’s"a"matter"of"taste."Jazz"fans"nowadays"rather"listen"to" Ornette"Coleman"and"John"Coltrane.”57"Slinger’s"observation"not"only"responded"to"and" consequently"reinforced"the"common"view"that"1960s"jazz"increasingly"lost"(potential)" young"audiences"to"rock,"beat"and"other"popular"music,"it"also"signals"how"changes" within"the"subculture"of"jazz"during"the"1960s"created"shifts"in"terms"of"audiences," sound"and"location."Slinger’s"idea"that"Sheherazade’s"closure"was"caused"by"an" increasing"interest"among"jazz"fans"for"the"latest"jazz"rather"than"for"(other)"popular" music,"implies"a"fascinating"correlation"between"taste,"socioHcultural"change"and"place," as"these"jazz"fans"literally"distanced"themselves"from"the"places"that"had"come"to" represent"the"music—and"the"people—of"bygone"days." " Which"jazz"styles,"then,"came"to"represent"the"old"jazz"and"the"new"jazz,"who"associated" with"these"styles,"and"on"which"platforms"did"their"stories"unfold?"The"following" paragraphs"engage"with"the"implications"of"traditional"jazz,"modern"jazz"and" improvised"music,"three"of"the"main"categories"used"to"differentiate"jazz"during"the"midH 1960s"and"1970s,"and"which"can"be"distinguished"in"terms"of"musical"style," representatives,"cultural"values"and"geographical"center." " Traditionalists- As"part"of"a"broader"international"revivalist"movement,"traditionalist"jazz"bands" blossomed"in"the"Netherlands"during"the"1950s"and"1960s."Groups"such"as"the" Dixieland"Pipers,"the"Down"Town"Jazz"Band"and"Jan"Burgers’"New"Orleans"Syncopaters" fell"back"on"the"prewar"jazz"idioms,"employing"variations"on"the"standard"lineHup"of" clarinet,"trumpet,"saxophone,"trombone,"banjo,"piano,"bass,"and"drums."58"Among"the" most"prominent"Dixieland"bands"in"the"Netherlands"was"the"Dutch"Swing"College"Band" (DSCB,"also"known"as"the"Orchestra"of"the"Dutch"Swing"College),"which"had"its"origins"as" the"house"band"of"the"jazz"society"by"the"same"name"in"The"Hague."Led"by"reed"player"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 57"“Cees"Slinger:"‘We"gaan"uit"elkaar,’"The"Diamond"Five"zoek"ander"home,"”"Het-Vrije-Volk,"12"February" 1962,"15." 58"Terms"used"to"describe"this"genre,"include"“oudere"jazz,”"Dixieland,"also"referred"to"as"“traditional,”" “swing,”"“old"style,”"and"“revival”"prevailed"during"1950s"the"Netherlands."

24" " Peter"Schilperoort,"the"band"began"after"the"war"by"playing"EllingtonHrelated"repertoire" and"from"1947"developed"into"one"of"European"leading"Revival"orchestras.59"However," despite"the"band’s"international"success"in"terms"of"public"attention,"the"international" press"initially"responded"with"lukewarm"enthusiasm"to"the"band’s"music."In"1960"the" British"Jazz-Journal-dismissed"the"DSCB’s"album"Jazz-Class-(Philips"P08045L,"1960)"as" “depressingly"suburban,”"adding"that,"“something"is"missing"here,"anyway,"and"what"is" left"will"appeal"only"to"the"most"casual"DixielandHwhileHshaving"record"buyer.”60" Similarly,"in"1962"American"Down-Beat-journalist"Gilbert"E."Erskine"credited"Dixie-Gone- Dutch-(Philips"PHS"600H010,"1962)-with-3.5"out"of"5"stars,"considering"the"record" “decent”"but"with"a"“lack"of"originality.”61"Notwithstanding"these"negative"reviews,"the" DSCB"from"1960"onwards"performed"professionally"on"stages"across"the"world,"and"was" one"of"the"few"Dutch"traditionalist"jazz"groups"whose"members"were"able"to"make"a" living"playing"jazz.62" " Over"the"years,"Dixieland"in"the"Netherlands"developed"into"a"relatively"independent" scene,"with"its"own"network"of"musicians,"audiences,"venues,"festivals,"and"magazines." From"1963,"Doctor-Jazz,-a-bimonthly"magazine"for"“devotees"and"collectors"of"classic" jazz,"blues"and"related"music,”"became"the"primary"space"for"sharing"information"on" early"jazz."Besides"providing"information"on"concerts,"song"lyrics"and"chords," discographies,"records"and"reissues,"the"editors"reissued"historical"recordings"and"held" regular"meetings"under"the"appropriate"name"of"“reunions.”63"The"traditionalists’" relatively"isolated"position"became"evident"from"a"rather"unfortunate"communication" between"Doctor-Jazz-editor"J."Nijland"and"the"SJN"on"the"association’s"plans"to"initiate"a" jazz"library."In"the"July"1966"edition,"Nijland"responded"to"the"increasing"demand" among"his"readership"to"be"informed"about"these"plans"and"remarked"angrily"that," “[f]rom"the"fact"that"this"association"never-[underline"in"the"original]"invited"us,"we" drew"the"conclusion"that"[the"SJN]"never"intended"to"cooperate"with"Doctor-Jazz.”" Nijland’s"response"typified"the"separation"between"the"more"traditionalist"jazz"fans"and"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 59"Rudy"Koopmans,"Jazz:-Improvisatie-en-organisatie-van-een-groeiende-minderheid"(Amsterdam:"SUA," 1977),"15." 60"T.S.,"“Record"Reviews,”"Jazz-Journal,"September"1960,"31." 61"Gilbert"M."Erskine,"“Record"Reviews,”"Down-Beat,"August"30,"1962,"24H25." 62"Rudy"Koopmans,"Jazz,"156." 63"In"For"more"information"on"the"current"Dutch"traditionalist"jazz"scene,"see"www.doctorjazz.nl""

25" " those"drawn"to"other"jazz"styles."With"the"1971"initiation"of"the"Breda"Jazz"Festival"as" supported"by"local"authorities"and"the"local"“Roaring"Twenties"Club,"the"southern"town" of"Breda"became"one"of"the"music’s"main"centers;"A"geographical"separation"that"further" underlined"the"scene’s"relative"independent"position"compared"to"other"subgenres"in" jazz.”64" " Modernists- Other"than"the"prewar"jazz"aesthetics"of"traditionalist"jazz"musicians,"modern"jazz" represented"a"new"generation"of"jazz"musicians"who"emerged"during"the"1950s.65" Among"the"most"prominent"jazz"groups"active"in"the"Hague"was"the"Rob"Pronk"Boptet,"a" sextet"that"in"its"original"lineHup"consisted"of"pianist"and"trumpet"player"Rob"Pronk,"the" trumpet"playing"brothers"Ack"(Arie)"and"Jerry"(Gerard)"Van"Rooyen,"tenor"saxophonist" André"Blok,"bass"player"Hans"Tan"and"drummer"Jan"Opgenhaefen."Active"from"the"late" 1940s,"the"group"consisted"mostly"of"conservatoryHtrained"musicians"who"picked"up"the" bebop"idiom"listening"to"records,"or"during"visits"to"New"York"(Pronk,"Van"Rooyen" brothers)."The"Diamond"Five,"the"aforementioned"house"band"of"the"Amsterdam" Sheherazade"gained"further"recognition"through"radio"broadcasts"on"Saturday"evening" for"the"VARA.66" " In"terms"of"musical"approach,"these"musicians"predominantly"modeled"themselves"after" the"small"group"style"of"postwar"American"“modern"jazz”"musicians,"performing"a" repertoire"firmly"based"in"the"tradition"of"the"American"Songbook.67"While"the"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 64"Koopmans,"Jazz,"184." 65"Musicians"associated"with"modern"jazz,"include"Louis"van"Dijk"(1941),"pi;"Frans"Elsen"(1934H2011),"pi;" Wessel"Ilcken"(1923H1957),"dr;"Pim"Jacobs"(1934H1996),"pi;"Ruud"Jacobs"(b."1938),"b;"Rob"Madna"(1931H 2003),"pi;"Piet"Noordijk"(1832H2011),"as"“Charlie"Parker’s"fierce"(“felle”)"nervous"heir;”65"Wim"Overgaauw" (1929H1995),"gi;"Rob"Pronk"(1928H2012),"pi;"Rita"Reys"(1924H2013),"vc;"Ack"van"Rooyen"(b."1930),"tp;" Jerry"van"Rooyen"(1928–2009);"Herman"Schoonderwalt"(1931H1997),"as/bs;"Cees"Slinger"(1929H2007),"pi;" Peter"Ypma"(1942H2013),"dr." 66"As"a"result"of"the"1961"installment"of"the"“free"Saturday”"the"broadcasts"moved"to"Saturday"morning." “VARA"past"programma’s"aan"bij"vrije"zaterdag,”"Het-Vrije-Volk,"5"September"1961,"6."To"avoid"getting" mixed"up"with"the"popular"singing"duo"the"Blue"Diamonds,"the"Diamonds"in"1959,"changed"its"name"into" the"Diamond"Five."Throughout"the"years,"the"lineHup"remained"unchanged,"with"the"exception"of"1961," when"Jacques"Schols"replaced"Dick"van"der"Capellen"on"bass."On"the"nights"the"Diamond"Five"performed" at"the"Sheherazade,"the"club"was"renamed"the"Diamond"Five"Club."Although"the"band"officially" discontinued"in"1964,"they"regularly"got"together"in"the"years"after." 67"Modern"musicians"have"been"labeled"under"diverse"names,"such"as"“moderne"musici,”"(“Naar"een" structuurplan"voor"de"jazzmuziek”"1971);"“studiomusici”"and"“swingmusici”"(Knulst"1972);"“jazzos”" (“Jazz"plan"Zwolle,"1970);"“mainstream”"(Oudejans"1987)"and"“boppers”"(Kuyper"1967).""

26" " aforementioned"Sheherazade"in"Amsterdam"and"the"“jazzHMondays”"in"nightclub"De" Wieck"in"Rotterdam"formed"vital"meeting"points"for"modern"jazz,"The"Hague,"was"best" known"for"its"bebop"players."As"journalist"Ruud"Kuyper"observed"in"1967," " Around"1950"a"good"few"young"musicians"from"The"Hague"became" obsessed"with"the"sounds"of"Charlie"Parker,"Dizzy"Gillespie,"George" Shearing"(yes,"indeed!),"Miles"Davis,"Tadd"Dameron,"and"others,"whose" music"entered"our"country"on"the"fast"but"fragile"78"RPM"records."These" “modernists”"or"“boppers”"hang"around"a"dance"institute"that"will"always" be"associated"with"The"Hague"modern"jazz:"GaillardHJorissen"on"the"Laan" van"Meerdervoort"[Meerdervoort"Lane]."(Ruud"Kuyper,"Over-Jazz" [Amsterdam:"De"Arbeiderspers,"1967],"19)68" " Not"only"did"these"musicians"musically"follow"the"American"example,"it"also"showed"in" the"way"they"presented"themselves"or"in"the"way"they"were"presented"by"their"record" companies,"using"imagery"with"clear"references"to"the"major"American"jazz"labels"of" that"time."Dutch"modern"jazz"appealed"to"record"companies,"as"its"American" connotation"created"an"urban"feel"of"cosmopolitanism"and"freedom"that"connected"to" the"modernist"spirit"of"postwar"youth."This"spirit"resonates"in"the"liner"notes"of"the" threeHpart"series"of"LP’s"Jazz-Behind-the-Dikes"(Philips,"1955–57),"another"prime" example"of"Dutch"modern"jazz."Radio"maker"and"producer"of"the"record"series"Michiel" de"Ruyter"writes:"" " This"record"is"the"first"of"its"kind"to"present"some"of"our"greatest"Dutch" jazzmen"under"ideal"conditions,"in"other"words,"in"their"own"combo’s"and" playing"the"music"of"their"own"choice."They"were"allowed"complete" freedom,"so"that"they"were"not"forced"to"consider"the"commercial"aspects" the"whole"time,"an"element"which"frequently"leaves"its"mark"on"the" performances"of"many"a"fine"jazz"artist."This"record,"therefore,"contains" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 68"“In"ieder"geval"waren"er"tegen"1950"nogal"wat"jonge"musici"uit"Den"Haag"in"de"ban"geraakt"van"de" geluiden"van"Charlie"Parker,"Dizzy"Gillespie,"George"Shearing"(ja"zeker"!),"Miles"Davis,"Tadd"Dameron"e.a.," wier"muziek"mondjesmaat"ons"land"binnenkwam"op"even"snel"draaiende"als"breekbare"78Htoeren"platen." De"“modernisten”"of"“boppers”"concentreerden"zich"in"het"dansinstituut"dat"voor"eeuwig"verbonden"zal" blijven"met"de"Haagse"moderne"jazz:"GaillardHJorissen"aan"de"Laan"van"Meerdervoort.”"

27" " nothing"but"straightforward"modern"jazz"[original"in"English]."(Michiel"de" Ruyter,"liner"notes,"Jazz-Behind-the-Dikes"[Philips,"1955])69" " Although"De"Ruyter"represents"the"series"as"a"work"of"freedom,"away"from"the" commercial"market,"commercial"interests"did"play"a"part"in"the"process,"as"Philips’"sub" label"Phonogram"was"in"a"race"to"get"the"first"Dutch"modern"jazz"out,"a"race"they"only" just"won."A"year"after"Philips’"release,"the"competing"record"company"Bovema"launched" Jazz-From-Holland-(Bovema,"1956),"again"with"Pronk,"Madna,"Ilcken"and"the"brothers" Van"Rooyen." " Similar"to"the"record"companies,"concert"promoters"used"the"American"example"as"their" main"tool"for"marketing"jazz."On"April"15,"1952,"the"American"impresario"Norman"Granz" introduced"the"Dutch"audiences"at"the"Amsterdam"Concertgebouw"to"Jazz-at-the- Philharmonic,"a"tour"featuring"America’s"greatest"jazz"musicians"such"as"Ella"Fitzgerald," Max"Roach,"Lester"Young,"Flip"Philips,"Roy"Eldridge,"Oscar"Peterson,"Irving"Ashby"and" Ray"Brown."Granz’"concert"at"the"Concertgebouw"developed"into"the"nachtconcerten,"a" series"of"night"concerts"that"continued"until"1976,"and"which"gained"somewhat"of"a" legendary"status"because"of"their"midnight"hour"start,"the"young"audiences"and"the" liberal"drug"policy.70"Following"the"example"of"the"Jazz"at"the"Philharmonic"series,"Dutch" impresario"Paul"Acket"initiated"Jazz-at-the-Kurhaus,"a"similar"initiative"featuring"Dutch" jazz"musicians."On"1"August"1953,"Acket’s"“hot"and"cool”"program"climaxed"with"a"battle" between"the"Dixieland"Pipers"and"the"modernist"“Jazz"at"the"KurhausHformation”"with" alto"saxophonist"Tony"Vos,"tenor"saxophonist"“Skymaster”"Sander"Sprong,"pianist"Frans" Vink"and"drummer"Tony"Nüsser."Much"to"the"surprise"of"a"reporter"of"the"daily" Telegraaf,"the"Dixieland"Pipers"“gained"a"massive"victory.”71"The"recordings"of"Jazz-at- the-Kurhaus,"recorded"live"at"the"Rembrandt"Theater"in"Eindhoven"(Jazz-at-the-Kurhaus," Omega"33H1"and"3302,"1953),"became"known"as"the"“first"Dutch"modern"jazz"record,”"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 69"Musicians"on"the"record"included"Wessel"Ilcken,"dr;"Rita"Reys,"vcl;"Tony"Vos,"as;"Stido"Alström,"pi;"Frans" Elsen,"pi;"and"Rob"Madna,"pi." 70"Bob"de"Groot,"an"ardent"visitor"of"the"concerts"during"his"college"days,"remembered"vividly"how"a" tolerant"drugs"policy"at"the"Concertgebouw"allowed"the"young"crowd"to"smoke"cannabis,"which"filled"the" concert"hall"with"a"thick"smoke"and"heavy"smells."Discussion"with"author,"May"29,"2014." 71"“Jazz"at"the"Kurhaus,”"Telegraaf,"August"4,"1953,"4."

28" " featuring"some"of"the"most"prominent"Dutch"modern"jazz"musicians.72"Like"the"concert" program,"the"recording"was"largely"modeled"after"Granz’"example"which"journalist" Ruud"Kuypers"therefore"labeled"as"a"“straight"imitation"of"Norman"Granz’"circus.”73" " Modern"jazz"musicians"during"the"1960s"dominated"the"professional"jazz"scene,"holding" the"prime"positions"in"broadcasting"orchestras"and"doing"most"of"the"studio"work." While"amateur"jazz"musicians"generally"performed"their"music—typically"Dixieland"or" bop—in"jazz"clubs,"which"paid"little"to"nothing,"these"musicians"increasingly"found" employment"in"the"entertainment"industry."Until"the"end"of"the"1950s,"paid"jobs" included"cabaret"shows,"small"ensemble"performances"for"American"musicians" stationed"at"military"bases"in"occupied"West"Germany,"and"studio"work"for"radio" orchestras"based"in"the"broadcasting"studios"in"Hilversum."The"Van"Rooyen"brothers," for"example,"in"the"late"1940s"performed"with"the"cabaret"show"the"Snip-en-Snap-Revue," to"continue"in"the"1950s"in"professional"radio"and"dance"orchestras,"the"Ramblers" (1926H1964),"the"Metropole"Orkest"(from"1945),"the"Skymasters"(1946H1991),"and"the" KRO"Dansorkest"(1946H1964)."In"addition,"bands"such"as"The"Diamond"Five"earned"a" living"by"performing"in"jazz"clubs"and"concerts"halls,"often"accompanying"American" guest"soloists."Only"few,"however,"were"able"to"make"a"living"playing"jazz."Tenor" saxophonist"Rudi"Brink"recalled"these"poor"circumstances:" " I"took"every"chance"I"got,"just"to"pay"the"rent."Studio"jobs"can"be"really" tedious."You’re"hired"to"record"a"few"notes"and"consequently"leave"the" studio"with"the"feeling"that"you"haven’t"done"anything."It"starts"to"get" interesting"when"you’re"asked"as"a"soloist."The"other"day"I"played"with"the" Metropole"Orkest"for"three"days"[…]"At"least"then"you"get"to"work"with" skilled"musicians."On"commercial"dance"evenings,"I"sometimes"end"up"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 72"The"record"featured"the"following"musicians:"Nedley"Elstak,"tp;"Tony"Vos,"as;"Jos"van"Heuverzwijn,"Toon" van"Vliet"and"André"Blok,"ts;"Hans"van"Assenderp,"tb;"Robbie"Pauwels,"gi;"Hank"Wood,"b;"Frans"Elsen,"pi;" and"Tony"Nüsser,"dr." 73"Kuyper,"Over-Jazz,"24."“De"eerste"grammofoonplaat"die"van"de"Nederlandse"moderne"jazz"is"gemaakt," was"dan"ook"een"lijnrechte"imitatie"van"de"plaat"die"in"Amerika"waren"verschenen"van"de"“stal”(ook"wel:" het"“circus”)"van"Norman"Granz.”"

29" " with"a"bunch"of"botchers,"you"wouldn’t"believe."(Rudi"Brink,"Jazzjaarboek- 6"[Amsterdam:"Van"Gennep,"1987],"106)74" " Dominating"the"fields"of"radio"and"television,"modern"jazz"musicians"were"largely" responsible"for"making"American"jazz"visible"to"the"mainstream"public"in"the"1960s." The"very"set"up"of"the"pioneering"television"series"Dzjess-Zien,"which"ran"weekly"on" national"television"from"1964"to"1966,"was"exemplary"for"the"attempts"of"modern"jazz" musicians"to"align"themselves"with"the"great"American"jazz"tradition."Loosely"modeled" after"Ralph"J."Gleason’s"“Jazz"casual,”"a"public"television"series"on"jazz"and"blues"that"ran" from"1960H1968,"the"producer,"pianist"and"host"Pim"Jacobs"weekly"invited"(American)" soloists"to"perform"live"at"his"show."During"these"30Hminute"broadcasts"Jacobs" accompanied"his"guests"together"with"his"trio"plus"vocalist—and"spouse—Rita"Reys."" " The"show"is"revealing,"as"it"demonstrates"how"modern"jazz"musicians"not"only"educated" general"audiences"in"how"to"listen"to"and"understand"jazz,"but"also"fueled"the"idea"of" jazz"as"an"American"art"form"that"was"both"exotic"and"intellectual"at"the"same"time."This" becomes"evident"from"the"first"broadcast,"which"featured"American"tenor"saxophonist" Johnny"Griffin"and"the"young"and"upcoming"Dutch"drummer"Han"Bennink."After" introducing"the"musicians,"Pim"Jacobs"explains"to"the"viewer"the"“rules"of"jazz" improvisation.”"He"starts"off"by"playing"the"melody"line"of"a"Dutch"children"song,"“Toen" onze"mop"een"mopje"was”"(When"our"dog"was"still"a"puppy),"successively"adding"a"bass" line"and"chords"while"noting"during"the"latter"that,"“We"could"even"consider"calling"it"a" chord-scheme.”"After"syncopating"the"melody"and"adding"swingHfeel,"he"continues"to" demonstrate"the"“rules”"of"jazz"improvisation"by"playing"a"variation"on"the"melody"line." In"addition,"before"he"invites"Griffin"to"the"stage,"Jacobs"warns"the"audience"for"what"he" calls"the"“strange,"jungleHlike"body"movements"and"cries”"of"the"AfricanHAmerican" musician,"explaining—twice—that"these"movements"are"NOT"meant"as"a"showHoff,"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 74"Jeroen"de"Valk,"“De"roots"van"Rudi"Brink,”"in-Jazzjaarboek-6,"ed."Erik"van"den"Berg"and"Frank"van" Dixhoorn"(Amsterdam:"Van"Gennep,"1987):"106."“Ik"moest"alles"aanpakken,"gewoon"om"de"huur"te" kunnen"betalen."Dat"studiowerk"is"soms"heel"onbevredigend,"je"wordt"ingehuurd"om"op"band"even"een" paar"noten"in"te"blazen"en"je"gaat"weer"naar"huis"met"het"gevoel"dat"je"niets"gedaan"hebt."Interessanter" wordt"het"als"je"wordt"gevraagd"als"solist"[…]"Onlangs"speelde"ik"drie"dagen"met"het"MetropoleHorkest"[…]." Dan"werk"je"in"ieder"geval"met"behoorlijke"muzikanten."In"die"echte"commerciële"groepjes,"waarmee"je" dan"een"dansavondje"moet"verzorgen,"zat"ik"soms"opgescheept"met"een"stelletje"beunhazen,"dat"houd"je" niet"voor"mogelijk.”"

30" " stating"that"“it"is"all"part"of"who"Johnny"Griffin"is.”"By"pointing"out"Griffin’s" idiosyncrasies,"Jacobs"remarks"fed"into"the"exotic"appeal"jazz—and"black"musicians"(“it" is"part"of"who"they"are”)—held"to"the"Dutch"audience,"while"at"the"same"time" reinforcing"the"idea"of"jazz"as"an"intellectual"pursuit"(“not"meant"as"a"showHoff”),"a"skill" that"can"be"taught,"and"which"therefore"exceeded"the"status"of"sheer"entertainment." " The"modern"jazz"musicians’"selfHappointed"role"as"gatekeepers"of"an"intellectual"art" form"signified"the"departure"of"jazz"as"youth"culture"towards"an"established"art"form"for" connoisseurs."In"his"1978"essay"on"the"socioHcultural"position"of"Dutch"jazz"musicians," sociologist"Frans"van"Leeuwen"asserts"how"the"role"of"modern"jazz"changed" dramatically"during"the"1960s:" " While"the"music"of"the"Modern"Jazz"Quartet,"for"example,"initially"kept" listeners"breathless"in"concert"halls,"it"came"to"serve"primarily"as" background"music"for"television"documentaries"on"Dutch"polder" landscapes"or"as"intermission"music"played"during"a"signal"interruption"of" the"television."Something"similar"happened"in"the"Netherlands"to"the" music"of"Pim"Jacobs"and"Rita"Reys,"which,"much"to"their"own"relief,"found" a"better"place"than"smoky"jazz"clubs"and"draughty"youth"centers."(Van" Leeuwen,"“De"fluit"en"de"duit"[deel"1],”-Jazz/Press-47"[1978],"16)75" " The"notion"of"(modern)"jazz"as"an"intellectual"pursuit"is"underlined"by"films"such"as"Jazz- and-Poetry-(1964),-a"short"fourteenHminute"documentary"by"Dutch"filmmaker"Louis"van" Gasteren"featuring-the"Piet"Kuiters"Modern"Jazz"Group"with"pianist"Piet"Kuiters,"alto" saxophonist"Herman"Schoonderwalt,"bass"player"Ruud"Jacobs,"drummer"Cees"See"and" the"American"jazz"poet"Ted"“the"hipster”"Joans"and"Dutch"poet"Simon"Vinkenoog.76"The" opening"scene"shows"an"image"typical"for"modern"jazz:"a"small"combo"playing"Charlie"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 75"“Hield"[de"muziek"van"het"Modern"Jazz"Quartet]"bijvoorbeeld"aanvankelijk"een"ademloos"publiek"in"de" concertzaal"gevangen,"later"ging"die"vooral"dienst"doen"als"achtergrondmuziek"bij"tvHdocumentaires"over" polderlandschappen"en"als"pauzeHmuziek"bij"beeldstoringen."Voor"wat"Nederland"betreft"kunnen"we" denken"aan"de"muziek"van"Pim"Jacobs"en"Rita"Reys,"die"zich"er"bij"herhaling"verheugd"over"uitlieten"dat"ze" voor"hun"muziek"betere"onderkomens"hadden"gevonden"dan"rokerige"jazzclubs"en"tochtige"jeugdhonken.”" 76"Jazz"and"Poetry,"directed"by"Louis"van"Gasteren"(1964)"16"mm,"14"min."[The"American"poet"Ted"Joans" reads"his"poem"“Jazz"is"My"Religion,”"accompanied"by"Piet"Kuiters,"pi;"and"Herman"Schoonderwalt,"as;" Ruud"Jacobs,"b;"and"Cees"See,"dr.]"

31" " Parker’s"classic"blues"“Now’s"the"time”"in"a"dark,"smoky"place"full"of"youngsters"wearing" suits,"ties,"dark"hornHrimmed"glasses"who"drink"beer"and"wine"while"thoughtfully" listening"to"the"music."Although"two"couples"can"be"seen"dancing,"the"image"illustrates" how"modern"jazz"was"perceived"as"an"intellectual"exertion"that"is"best"enjoyed"with" your"eyes"closed,"a"drink"in"one"hand,"a"cigarette"in"the"other,"tapping"along"with"your" foot."The"intellectual"aspect"of"jazz"is"underlined"by"the"fact"that"the"sets"alternate"with" Joans"reading"two"poems."After"remarking"that"how"the"Dutch"swing"“even"though" you’re"not"wearing"klompen"[wooden"shoes]”"and"after"taking"his"shades"off"(“I"always" take"the"glasses"off"for"the"photographers,"so"I"won’t"look"like"the"rest"of"them.”),"Joans" reads"“Jazz"is"my"religion,”"which"is"accompanied"by"a"slow"blues."After"he"finishes," Joans"smilingly"summons"the"listeners"to"stop"clapping"(“No,"no"man,"you"keep"your" claps"to"yourself."I"don’t"need"that.”),"which"is"followed"by"a"second"round"of"applause" and"laughter."The"underlying"message"here"is"that"jazz"and"poetry"is"serious"business," an"intellectual"pursuit"that"should"not"be"disturbed"by"applause"or"other"gestures" belonging"to"entertainment."The"presence"Van"Gasteren’s"camera’s"adds"to"this"sense"of" urgency,"to"the"sense"that"something"vital"is"happening"here." - Improvised-music- While"until"the"1960s,"jazz"musicians"of"different"generations"regularly"played"together," most"notably"in"the"popular"modern"style"big"band"of"Boy"Edgar"(1915–1980)—a"band" that"was"active"between"1960"and"1971"and"which"was"especially"credited"for"its" exceptional"saxophone"section—generations"began"to"diverge"during"this"period.77" In"Amsterdam,"the"Dutch"capital"of"countercultural"activity,"a"particular"scene"developed" around"key"musicians"such"as"reed"player"and"bandleader"Willem"Breuker"(1944–2010)," drummer"Han"Bennink"(b."1942),"and"pianist"Misha"Mengelberg"(b."1935);"all" experienced"jazz"players"who"sought"for"new"ways"of"making"music"and"who"were"no" longer"satisfied"with"what"they"saw"as"the"rigid"bebop"idiom"as"imposed"by"conventional" comboHstyle"groups"and"big"bands.78"As"jazz"journalist"Bert"Vuijsje"observed"in"1963,"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 77"The"original"lineHup"of"Boy"Edgar’s"band"consisted"of"Tinus"Bruijn"(1914–1997),"Piet"Noordijk"(1932– 2011),"Theo"Loevendie"(b."1930),"Herman"Schoonderwalt"(1931–1997),"Toon"van"Vliet"(1922–1975),"and" Harry"Verbeke"(1922–2004)." 78"Bennink"and"Mengelberg"had"a"bebop"style"quartet"with"alto"saxophone"player"Piet"Noordijk"and"bass" player"Rob"Langereis"that"regularly"accompanied"American"jazz"musicians."Most"famous"was"their" performance"with"multiHinstrumentalist"Eric"Dolphy"on"Last-Date"(1964),"which"was"to"become"Dolphy’s" "

32" " " Until"recently,"most"Europeans"chose"to"imitate."Also"in"the"Netherlands" we"saw"how"different"musicians"started"as"boppers,"began"to"play"WestH coast"during"the"1950s"and"then"changed"to"hardHbop"around"1956." Consequently,"concerts"by"Dutch"jazz"musicians"were"often"tedious,"even" useless,"considering"the"many"concerts"by"great"American"musicians." However,"the"Holland"Jazz"concert"that"took"place"recently"at"the" Amsterdam"Concertgebouw"showed"how"exciting"things"have"started"to" happen"in"Dutch"jazz."Some"soloists"seem"to"have"found"a"way"[…]"of" expressing"their"own"personalities"with"respect"to"the"pioneering"work"of" the"greatest"musicians."Especially"the"more"experimental"and"avantHgarde" musicians"[such"as"the"Mengelberg"quartet"with"alto"player"Piet"Noordijk," bass"player"Arend"Nijenhuis"and"Han"Bennink]"attracted"particular" attention."(Bert"Vuijsje,"Vrij-Nederland,-1963)79" " Rather"than"imitating"American"jazz,"these"musicians"began"to"use"the"improvisatory" idiom"borrowed"from"jazz"in"search"for"their"own"musical"identity,"most"notably" through"an"eclectic"practice"of"collective"improvisation."The"founding"of"flexible"crossH genre"ensembles,"such"as"the"Instant"Composers"Pool"(ICP,"1967),"the"Theo"Loevendie" Consort"(1968),"the"Volharding"(1971),"and"the"Willem"Breuker"Kollektief"(WBK,"1972)" offered"improvising"musicians"both"an"escape"from"the"hierarchical"organization"of"big"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" last"recorded"session"(Kleijwegt"2006)."The"recording"took"place"with"a"live"audience"on"2"June"1964"in" the"VARA"studio"in"Hilversum"and"included"Jacques"Schols"on"bass."Breuker"learned"the"jazz"idiom"by" playing"saxophone"in"Boy"Edgar’s"big"band"and"in"Loevendie’s"FAMOS"workshops"(Koopmans,"Jazz,"14)." 79"Bert"Vuijsje,"Vrij-Nederland,-1963"in"Koopmans,"156H7."“Tot"voor"kort"kozen"de"meeste"Europeanen" voor"de"navolging."Ook"in"Nederland"hebben"we"bij"verschillende"musici"kunnen"zien"hoe"ze"als"boppers" begonnen,"in"het"begin"van"de"jaren"vijftig"WestHCoast"gingen"spelen,"om"rondom"1956"over"te"schakelen" op"hardHbop."Koncerten"door"Nederlandse"jazzmusici"waren"dan"ook"veelal"een"taaie"en"zelfs"overbodige" gelegenheid."Gezien"de"vele"koncerten"door"Amerikaanse"topHmusici."Het"Holland"Jazz"concert"dat" onlangs"in"het"Amsterdamse"Concertgebouw"werd"gegeven,"toonde"echter"aan"dat"er"de"laatste"jaren" verheugende"ontwikkelingen"in"de"vaderlandse"jazz"hebben"plaatsgevonden."Een"voorlopig"nog"kleine" groep"van"vooraanstaande"solisten"heeft"de"enig"mogelijke"uitweg"uit"het"dilemma"gevonden."Zonder"aan" het"pionierswerk"van"de"zeer"groten"voorbij"te"gaan"blijken"ze"toch"in"staat"de"eigen"persoonlijkheid" volledig"in"hun"spel"te"laten"doorklinken"…"vooral"de"musici"die"zich"met"de"avantHgardistische" experimenten"bezig"houden"vielen"op"[Het"Mengelberg"kwartet"met"altist"Piet"Noordijk,"bassist"Arend" Nijenhuis"en"Han"Bennink].”"

33" " bands"and"combos,"as"well"as"new"possibilities"of"musical"expression.80"Seeking"for" crossHgenre"and"interdisciplinary"collaborations,"improvising"musicians"connected"to" the"international"free"jazz"movement"as"well"as"with"local"musical"cultures." Consequently,"jazz"and"Western"art"music"in"the"Netherlands"during"the"1970s" intertwined,"both"social"and"musically,"resulting"in"a"crossHgenre"collaboration"in"the" Netherlands"that"generated,"facilitated"and"directed"social"and"musical"changes"within" musicoHcultural"landscape"in"the"Netherlands."By"exploring"the"improvising"musicians’" musical"backgrounds"and"collaborations,"the"following"paragraphs"give"insight"into"the" musical"characteristics"associated"with"Dutch"improvised"music." " While"improvising"musicians"have"become"known"for"creating"a"distinct"local"sound"in" jazz"(see"Introduction"and"Chapter"Three)"and"for"radically"changing"the"jazz"scene," their"playing"remained"firmly"rooted"in"the"American"jazz"idiom."For"example," Amsterdam"musicians"trumpeter"Nedley"Elstak"and"saxophonist"Theo"Loevendie"moved," in"the"words"of"Rudy"Koopmans"“along"modernist"lines,"but"didn’t"care"a"straw"about" the"bop"orthodoxy”"as"they"“toured"through"Turkey"and"heralded"a"generation"that" modeled"themselves"to"a"much"lesser"extent"after"the"American"jazz"music.”81"Drummer" Han"Bennink,"who"over"the"years"was"transformed"from"a"suitHwearing"modern"jazz" musician"into"one"of"the"key"figures"of"Dutch"improvised"music,"started"by"playing"in"the" style"of"Kenny"Clarke,"Percy"Heath"and"Ray"Brown,"musicians"he"got"acquainted"with" through"Dutch"“modern”"bass"player"Ruud"Jacobs.82"Bennink,"son"of"a"professional" drummer"and"musician,"was"an"autodidact"who"notoriously—and"to"his"father’s" regrets—never"mastered"sightHreading,"a"necessary"skill"for"the"professional"musician"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 80"The"listed"improvising"musicians"collaborated"in"the"following"ensembles:"De"Volharding"(Breuker,"Van" Manen,"Driessen),"the"ICP"(Breuker,"Van"Manen,"Gorter),"the"Theo"Loevendie"Consort"(Van"Manen," Cuypers,"Gorter,"Driessen)"and"the"WBK"(Breuker,"Van"Manen,"Cuypers,"Gorter,"Driessen)." 81"Koopmans,"Jazz,"155H57."“Ook"in"deze"periode"[Jaren"vijftig?]"kwamen"twee"Amsterdamse"musici"naar" voren,"trompettist"Nedley"Elstak"en"saxofonist"Theo"Loevendie,"die"zich"wel"op"modernistisch"vlak" bewogen,"maar"zich"weinig"gelegen"lieten"liggen"aan"de"bopHorthodoxie."Zij"gingen"geruime"tijd"op" tournee"door"Turkije,"en"vormden"de"voorbode"van"een"generatie"jazz"musici,"die"zich"minder"exklusief" door"de"Amerikaanse"jazzmuziek"lieten"inspireren.”"Even"later"kwam"altist"Eric"Dolphy"hier"spelen"met"de" groep"van"Mengelberg:"de"grens"van"de"bop"werd"bijna"overschreden."In"het"seizoen"64/65"kwam"het" kwartet"van"Albert"Ayler"naar"Nederland,"waarmee"de"bakens"definitief"verzet"werden,"al"reageerden"de" meeste"Nederlandse"musici"nog"negatief.”" 82"Van"den"Berg,"Han-Bennink,"39."“Op"school"maakten"we"lijstjes:"kies"je"voor"Percy"Heath"of"voor"Paul" Chambers"op"bas?"Dan"wordt"het"al"moeilijk."Kies"je"voor"Mel"Lewis"of"Shelly"Manne"op"drums?"Buddy" Rich"of"Gene"Krupa?"(…)"Percy"Heath"en"Kenny"Clarke,"dat"was"de"ultimate-rhythm-section"voor"jongens" uit"het"Gooi.”"

34" " his"father"envisioned"him"to"be.83"Breuker,"who"started"playing"the"clarinet"at"twelve"at" the"Volksmuziekschool"(People’s"music"school)"in"Amsterdam"and"continued"on"a" borrowed"tenor"saxophone"and"a"clarinet"from"the"brass"band"Tuindorp"Oostzaan," learned"to"play"jazz"by"playing"with"the"modern"jazz"quartet"of"Mengelberg."In"a"1965" interview"Breuker"explained"how"from"an"early"age"he"felt"the"urge"to"experiment"and" open"up"ways"of"playing"jazz:" " I"can"play"bop,"but"I"don’t"really"feel"comfortable"with"it."Parker"doesn’t" mean"that"much"to"me,"I"have"always"very"much"enjoyed"his"playing,"but"it" is"not"a"source"of"inspiration."I"have"always"been"inspired"by"pianists," Lennie"Tristano"followed"by"Chet"Baker’s"pianist"Dick"Twardzik"and" currently,"of"course,"Cecil"Taylor."I"could"not"think"of"a"better"example." (Vuijsje,"De-nieuwe-jazz,"149)84" " In"the"early"1960s,"the"first"explorations"into"free"improvisation"in"the"Netherlands" developed"within"the"conventional"settings"of"jazz"combos"and"workshops."Inspired"by" Ornette"Coleman’s"idea"of"playing"“free"of"preconception,”85"drummer"Pierre"Courbois"(b." 1940)"formed"the"Original"Dutch"Free"Jazz"Group"(1961),"allegedly"the"first"Dutch"group" to"experiment"with"free"improvisation.86"During"his"1965"engagement"with"the"German" Gunter"Hampel"quintet"in"the"Parisian"Blue"Note,"Courbois"tried"to"open"up"song"forms"by" adHlib"extensions"of"each"bar"of"the"tune."He"refers"to"this"technique"as"“fermate"play,”"a"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 83"Ibid.,"31H43." 84"“[Bert"Vuijsje]"Is"het"mogelijk"free"jazz"te"spelen"zonder"dat"je"je"eerst"in"oudere"jazzvormen"hebt" verdiept?"Breuker:"De"geloof"ik"niet,"je"moet"ten"slotte"weten"wat"je"overboord"zet."Je"ziet"vaak"knapen," die"nemen"hun"toeter"mee"en"die"gaan"dan"gewoon"wat"staan"blazen."Nou"ja,"je"drukt"maar"wat"in"en"er" komt"geluid"uit"dat"ding,"dat"moet"dan"free"jazz"zijn."Maar"dat"is"natuurlijk"helemaal"geen"free"jazz,"die" gasten"vallen"na"twee,"drie"nummers"toch"door"de"mand."Het"gaat"om"de"instelling"die"je"tegenover"de" muziek"hebt."Ik"voel"al"vanaf"mijn"zestiende"jaar"dat"ik"muziek"in"deze"richting"moet"maken."Ik"kan"wel" bopmuziek"spelen,"maar"ik"voel"me"er"eigenlijk"niet"in"thuis."Parker"heeft"me"nooit"zoveel"vreselijk"veel" gezegd,"ik"heb"het"altijd"wel"verschrikkelijk"fijn"gevonden"wat"hij"deed,"maar"ik"ga"er"niet"van"uit."Ik"ben" altijd"van"pianisten"uitgegaan,"vroeger"van"Lennie"Tristano,"later"van"Dick"Twardzik"die"bij"Chet"Baker"zat" en"tegenwoordig"uiteraard"van"Cecil"Taylor."Ik"ken"gewoon"geen"beter"voorbeeld.”" 85"Alyn"Shipton,"A-New-History-of-Jazz"(London"and"New"York:"Continuum,"2007"[2001]),"572H76." 86"Kusters"and"Schulz,"Pierre-Courbois,"13."The"Original"Dutch"Free"Jazz"Group"(ODFJG)"is"also"referred"to" as"the"Free"Jazz"Group"or"Original"Dutch"Free"Jazz"Quartet."The"original"lineHup"of"the"ODFJG"consisted"of" Maarten"Beckers"(Bakker)"on"tenor"saxophone,"Peter"Krijnen"on"bass,"Piet"Hein"Veening"on"bass"and" Pierre"Courbois"on"drums."The"group"should"not"be"confused"with"the"Free"Music"Quartet"that"Courbois" formed"around"1965."

35" " term"coined"by"the"band’s"pianist"Alexander"von"Schlippenbach.87"Courbois’"gradual" development"from"conventional"solo"with"accompaniment"to"collective,"free" improvisation"typified"the"progress"among"the"early"generation"of"free"jazz"musicians"in" the"Netherlands."He"recalls:" " The"next"step"was"to"let"go"of"individual"improvisation"and"move"on"to" group"improvisation:"playing"all"together,"riding"right"over"each"other"and" doing"it"loud!"…We"didn’t"want"to"rehearse"anymore"either."What"we" wanted"was"a"complete"unpreparedness,"to"clamber"onto"the"stage"and," with"no"arrangements"beforehand,"just"start"playing."(Pierre"Courbois"in" Kusters"and"Schulz,"Pierre-Courbois,"112)88" " During"their"visits"in"1964"and"1965,"American"musicians"such"as"Eric"Dolphy,"Albert" Ayler"and"Ornette"Coleman"introduced"Dutch"audiences"on"a"larger"scale"to"ideas"of"free" improvisation"and"extended"sounds." " "A"pivotal"moment"in"the"establishment"of"improvised"music"was"the"controversial" performance"of"Breuker’s"“Litany"for"the"14th"of"June,"1966”"at"the"finals"of"the" Loosdrecht"Jazz"Concours"(Loosdrecht"Jazz"Competition)"in"July"1966.89"The"largely"preH composed"performance"consisted"of"an"eighteenHpiece"orchestra"casting"up"a"wall"of" musical"chaos"against"which"singer"Sofie"van"Lier"recited"newspaper"reports."As"such,"it" commented"on"the"dramatic"riots"in"Amsterdam"that"had"followed"the"suspicious"death," on"the"13th"of"June,"of"a"protesting"construction"worker.90"With"its"unconventional"lineHup" and"socialHpolitical"theme,"the"performance"was"unprecedented"at"a"festival"that"was"used" to"slotting"participating"musicians"into"pigeonhole"categories"like"“Dixieland”"or"“modern" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 87"Ibid.,"36." 88"“De"volgende"stap"was"het"loslaten"van"de"individuele"improvisatie"en"de"opkomst"van"de" groepsimprovisatie:"allemaal"tegelijk,"dwars"door"elkaar"heen"en"hard…"We"wilden"ook"niet"meer" repeteren."Wat"we"wilden"was"totaal"onvoorbereid"en"zonder"afspraken"het"podium"opklimmen"en" beginnen"te"spelen.”" 89"The"competition"was"part"of"the"Loosdrecht"Jazz"Festival,"which"was"organized"annually"from"1958"and" continued"under"various"names"until"1989."Numerous"studies"take"this"event"as"a"crucial"moment"in" development"of"Dutch"jazz"and"improvised"music,"including"Bert"Vuijsje,"De-nieuwe-jazz:-Twintig- interviews"(Baarn:"Bosch"en"Keuning,"1978);"Adlington,"Composing-Dissent." 90"The"riots"in"June"1966"became"known"as"the"Bouwvakkersoproer"(Construction"Workers"Revolt)"and" the"TelegraafHrellen"(TelegraafHriots),"referring"to"the"headquarters"of"the"daily"paper"of"the"same"name," in"front"of"which"these"riots"took"place."

36" " jazz”"and"as"such"it"spread"discord"among"the"members"of"the"jury.91"The"piece" combines"the"aesthetics"of"contemporary"music"with"jazz"idioms,"using"largely"preH composed"material,"graphic"scores"combined"with"improvisation,"and"performed"by"a" mixed"group"of"classically"trained"and"jazz"musicians"and"is"therefore"generally"marked" as"one"of"the"earliest"examples"of"Dutch"improvised"music." " Illustrative"of"his"awareness"of"the"provocative"aspects"of"his"performance,"Breuker" gave"specific"attention"to"the"visual"aspects,"dividing"the"ensemble"over"three"stages." Two"years"earlier,"in"1965,"Breuker"discussed"this"idea"of"adding"theatrical"elements"to" the"practice"of"jazz,"which"he"saw"as"a"solution"to"the"problem"of"decreasing"audiences:" " I"believe"80"percent"of"the"listeners"just"sit"there"tapping"their"foot"and" nodding"their"head."Perhaps"20"percent"really"enjoy"themselves"and"goes" home"satisfied."For"those"80"percent"we"need"to"add"a"visual"aspect"to"the" stage,"a"kind"of"music"theatre."That"way,"the"musical"stuff"is"more"likely"to" go"down"as"well."I"am"busy"working"out"plans"in"that"direction."(…)"If" audiences"are"looking"at"four"musicians,"those"musicians"need"to"add" something"to"make"the"performance"complete."Otherwise"you"might"as" well"record"it"and"play"the"tape"in"front"of"the"audience."(Willem"Breuker," Jazzwereld"3,"November"1965)92" " Altogether,"“Litany”"can"be"seen"as"an"early"attempt"to"reformulate"conventions"in"jazz" and"consequently"(reH)envision"jazz"as"a"politically"engaged"form"of"avantHgarde"art."The" acceptance"in"1966"of"jazz"group"at"the"prestigious"Holland"Festival"further"signalled" jazz’s"shifting"status"from"entertainment"to"a"respected"form"of"art.93"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 91"Loes"Rusch,"“Common"Ground:"1970s"Improvised"Music"as"Part"of"a"CrossHGenre"Dutch"Ensemble" Culture,”"in"“Jazz"Collectives:"History,"Theory,"Practice,”"ed."Nicholas"Gebhardt,"special"issue,"Jazz-Research- Journal"5.1/5.2"(2011):"123H141." 92"“Ik"geloof"dat"tachtig"procent"van"het"publiek"er"zit"om"met"de"voet"mee"te"stampen"en"met"het"hoofd"te" knikken."Misschien"twintig"procent"heeft"er"iets"aan,"gaat"naar"huis"met"het"gevoel"van"ik"heb"een"toffe" middag"gehad."Er"moet"voor"die"tachtig"procent"iets"visueels"op"het"podium"gebracht"worden,"een"soort" muzikaal"theater."Dan"kunnen"die"muzikale"dingen"er"ook"makkelijker"ingaan."Ik"ben"al"druk"bezig"met" iets"in"die"richting.”"See"also,"Vuijsje,"De-nieuwe-jazz,"150H1." 93"In"1966"the"Holland"Festival"featured"the"quintet"of"German"trombonist"Albert"Mangelsdorff,"Dutch"Pim" Jacob’s"trio"with"singer"Rita"Reys,"the"Mengelberg"Quartet"and"Boy"Edgar’s"big"band"(Down-Beat"8" [September"1966],"43)."

37" " " From"these"early"experiments"with"free"jazz,"a"distinctive"jazz"practice"evolved"in"the" Netherlands"that"came"to"be"known"as"improvised"music."The"Werkgroep" Geïmproviseerde"Muziek"(improvised"music"task"force),"which"had"been"installed"in" 1970"as"a"subdivision"of"the"BEVEM,"defined"as"improvised"music"as" " the"music"that"is"made"by"instrumentalists,"vocalists"and"composers"who," either"or"not,"call"themselves"by"the"name"of"jazz"musician"and"who" connect"to"the"tradition"of"jazz"improvisation."This"then"excludes"forms"of" pop"music"and"new"music"that"engage"with"improvisation."This" distinction"is"made"for"practical"reasons,"as"these"improvisers"form"a" distinct"social"group"with"its"own"distinct"problems."(“Rapport" Werkgroep"Geïmproviseerde"Muziek,”"BEVEM,"1970,"1).94" " Musical-renewal" In"their"search"for"new"musical"forms"and"ways"of"integrating"their"music"with"other"art" forms"and"music"traditions,"the"improvising"musicians"were"deeply"embedded"in"the" spirit"of"the"times."Vernieuwing"(renewal,"reform,"modernization)"became"one"of"the" keywords"that"resonated"in"the"music"of"international"free"jazz"scene"as"well"as"in"the" crossHgenre"works"of"Dutch"ensemble"culture."The"improvised"music"collectives"fitted"in" with"the"international"free"jazz"movement"and"other"collectives,"whose"musicians" turned"out"to"have"a"predilection"for"acronyms"and"abbreviations."Originating"in"late" 1950s"the"American"black"art"movement,"the"search"for"a"more"egalitarian"and"open" organization"of"musical"led"to"a"nationwide"initiation"of"collectives,"including"Sun"Ra’s" Arkestra,"PanHAfrican"Peoples"Arkestra"(P.A.P.A."or"ARK,"Los"Angeles,"1961),"the" Contemporary"Five"(New"York,"1962),"the"Jazz"Composer’s"Guild"(JCG,"New"York,"1965)," and"Jazz"Composers"Guild"Orchestra"(New"York,"1965),"the"Association"for"the" Advancement"of"Creative"Musicians"(AACM,"Chicago,"1965),"and"the"Black"Artists"Group" (BAG,"St."Louis,"1968)."Europe"followed"midH1960s"with"the"Spontaneous"Music" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 94"“de"muziek"die"gemaakt"wordt"door"de"zich"al"of"niet"jazzmusicus"noemende"instrumentalisten," vocalisten,"en"componisten"die"bij"de"jazzHimprovisatietraditie"aansluiten."Met"buitensluiting"dus"van"die" nieuwe"muziek"en"popmuziek"waarin"improvisatie"een"rol"speelt."Deze"begrenzing"is"op"practische" gronden"gemaakt,"waar"deze"improvisators"een"duidelijk"te"onderscheiden"sociale"groep"vormen"met"een" eigen"problematiek.”"

38" " Ensemble"(SME,"UK,"1966),"the"Willy"Roggeman"Jazz"Lab"(Belgium),"the"Music" Innovation"Company"(UK,"1970),"the"London"Jazz"Composers"Orchestra"(UK,"1970);"the" Ett"Mine"för"Livet"(Sweden,"1975H1985);"the"Association"à"la"recherché"d’un"Folklore" (ARFI,"France,"1977).95" " Both"American"and"European"artists"experimented"with"collective"improvisation"in"larger" group"settings,"employing"a"democratic,"nonHhierarchical"model"of"creating"music"that" focused"on"the"process"rather"than"on"the"result."Moreover,"it"forced"each"of"the" musicians"to"actively"contribute"to"the"process"of"decisionHmaking."As"Tim"Wall"and" Simon"Barber"have"observed,"these"European"collectives"created"a"production"culture" that"allowed"the"musicians"to"“work"regularly,"locally,"and"in"a"manner"which"meets" their"goal"of"creative"work"unencumbered"by"economic"and"cultural"assumptions"about" the"accessibility"and"viability"of"the"music.”96"Furthermore,"musicians"such"as"Bennink" and"Breuker"took"part"in"initiatives"that"deliberately"aimed"at"transcending"geographical" and"socioHcultural"boundaries,"such"as"the"Globe"Unity"Orchestra"(1966),"the"Annual"Free" Jazz"Meeting"(from"1966,"renamed"New"Jazz"Meeting"in"1973)"and"the"AntiHFestival"or" Total"Music"Meeting"in"Berlin"(1968)."The"transnational"cultural"exchange"also" encouraged"a"further"politicization"and"organization"of"the"free"jazz"movement."Free"jazz" musicians,"increasingly"turned"to"collectively"run"labels"which"sought"to"record"and" distribute"music"through"means"and"channels"independent"of"those"used"by"their" established"competitors.97"In"this"respect,"Dutch"improvising"musicians"showed"an" extraordinary"capacity;"the"staggering"number"of"independent"record"labels"for"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 95"For"a"further"study"of"these"collectives,"see"Ian"Carr,"Music-Outside:-Contemporary-Jazz-in-Britain" (London:"Latimer"New"Dimensions,"1973"[2008]),"44H61;"J."Wickes","Innovations-in-British-Jazz:-Volume- One,-1960H1980-(Chelmsford:"Soundworld,"1999),"96H104;"Alf"Arvidsson"and"Jörgen"Adolfsson,"“Ett"Minne" För"Livet:"A"Swedish"Music"Collective,”"in"“Jazz"Collectives:"History,"Theory,"Practice,”"ed."Nicholas" Gebhardt,"special"issue,"Jazz-Research-Journal"5.1/5.2"(2011):"142H152;"J.F."Szwed,"Space-is-the-Place:-The- Life-and-Times-of-Sun-Ra"(Edinburgh:"Payback,"1997);"H."Tapscott"and"S.L."Isoardi,"Songs-of-the-Unsung:-the- Musical-and-Social-Journey-of-Horace-Tapscott-(Durham,"NC:"Duke"University"Press,"2001);"George"E." Lewis,"“Experimental"Music"in"Black"and"White:"The"AACM"in"New"York"1970"to"1985,”"Current- Musicology-71H73"(2002):"100H57;"B."Looker,"Point-from-which-Creation-Begins:-The-Black-Artists’-Group-of- St.-Louis"(St."Louis,"MO:"Missouri"Historical"Society"press,"2004);"Ingrid"T."Monson,"Freedom-Sounds:-Civil- Rights-Call-out-to-Jazz-and-Africa-(Oxford:"Oxford"University"Press,"2007);"Tim"Wall,"“David"Murray:"The" Making"of"a"Progressive"Jazz"Musician,”"Jazz-Research-Journal-1/2"(2007):"173H203;"George"E."Lewis,"A- Power-Stronger-than-Itself:-The-AACM-and-American-Experimental-Music"(Chicago:"Chicago"Press,"2008."" 96"Tim"Wall"and"Simon"Barber,"“The"Collective"Organization"of"Contemporary"Jazz"Musicians"in"the"UK,”"in" “Jazz"Collectives:"History,"Theory,"Practice,”"ed."Nicholas"Gebhardt,"special"issue,"Jazz-Research-Journal" 5.1/5.2"(2011):"89H112." 97"Hurley,"The-Return-of-Jazz,"121,"125."

39" " improvised"music"that"proliferated"in"the"Netherlands"between"1968"and"1989—at"least" 27!"—surpassed"the"achievements"of"all"other"European"countries"for"that"same"period.98" " Following"the"Globe"Unity"Orchestra"and"Annual"Free"Jazz"Meeting"in"1966,"Breuker," Bennink"and"Mengelberg"founded"the"Instant"Composers"Pool,"or"ICP,"the"first"Dutch" collective"to"experiment"with"largeHscale"collective"improvisation."99"Initially"started"as"an" independent"record"label,"the"ICP"performed"for"the"first"time"as"a"fiveHpiece" improvisation"group"on"1"December"1967"in"the"Utrecht"club,"Persepolis.100"During"the" early"years,"the"ICP"developed"into"a"loosely"organized,"eclectic"group"of"musicians"that" showed"great"flexibility"in"terms"of"their"personnel,"instrumentation"and"musical" influences."Between"1967"and"1980,"the"lineHup"varied"from"one"player"(Bennink"on"Solo," 1971)"to"ten"(tentet"on"Tetterettet,"1977)"and"included"nonHDutch"musicians,"such"as" Danish"saxophonist"John"Tchicai,"English"guitarist"Derek"Bailey,"English"trombonist"Paul" Rutherford,"German"saxophonist"Peter"Brötzmann,"English"reed"player"Evan"Parker"and" American"saxophonist"Steve"Lacy."At"the"end"of"the"1970s,"Bennink"and"Mengelberg" assembled"a"tentet"that"would"become"the"still"active"ICP"Orchestra."In"terms"of"musical" organization,"the"ICP"was"shaped"by"a"constant"subversion"of"hierarchy"and"order,"a" practice"that"had"resulted"from"years"of"close"collaboration"between"Bennink"and" Mengelberg."The"varying"musicians"and"instrumentation"and"the"subversive"playing"of" Bennink"and"Mengelberg"forced"the"members"into"a"continuous"and"active"renegotiation" of"their"position"within"the"group."The"loose,"egalitarian"model"of"the"collective"ensemble" proved"a"stimulating"alternative"to"the"hierarchical"big"band,"and"soon"found"following" throughout"the"country,"resulting"in"groups"such"as"the"Sunship"Kollektief"(1973)"in" Rotterdam,"the"9Hpiece"Neptet"(translated"as"FakeHtet,"1976)"in"Nijmegen"and"the"Ohm" Kollektief"(1977)"in"Tilburg"(van"Eyle"1978).""

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 98"C.G."Bakriges,"“Musical"Transculturation:"From"African"American"AvantHgarde"Jazz"to"European" Creative"Improvisation,"1962H1981,”"in"Jazz-Planet,"ed."E.T."Atkins"(Jackson:"University"Press"of" Mississippi,"2003),"99H114." 99"Vuijsje,"De-nieuwe-jazz,"146." 100"The"performance"took"place"in"club"Persepolis"in"Utrecht"with"the"following"lineHup:"Mengelberg," Breuker,"reed"player"Peter"Bennink,"bass"player"Maarten"van"Regteren"Altena"and"drummer"Han"Bennink" (Rusch"2007:"28)."In"1968,"the"ICP"published"its"first"recording,"ICP01-New-Acoustic-Swing-Duo,"with" Bennink"and"Breuker."

40" " Dutch&ensemble&culture& From"the"late"1960s,"Dutch"musicians"and"composers"from"different"musical" backgrounds,"such"as"contemporary"composer"Louis"Andriessen,"early"music" representative"Frans"Brüggen"and"jazz"musician"Willem"Breuker,"committed" themselves"to"the"renewal"of"musical"life"in"the"Netherlands"and"to"more"socially" engaged"forms"of"musicHmaking."Not"only"did"they"find"common"ground"in"their" dissatisfaction"with"the"cultural"establishment,"they"also"collaborated"musically"and" financially,"actively"demanding"governmental"support"for"their"work"(this"is"discussed" further"in"Chapter"Three)."Alliances"between"their"avantHgardes"(improvising"musicians" and"contemporary"musicians)"contributed"to"what"came"to"be"known"as"Dutch" ensemble"culture.101"The"countercultural"activism"directly"affected"the"Dutch"musical" landscape,"which,"until"then,"was"dominated"by"the"symphony"orchestras"and" nineteenth"century"repertoire."In"response,"the"new"musical"avantHgarde"founded" ensembles,"such"as"the"aforementioned"Volharding"(1971),"Ensemble"M"(1972)," Schönberg"Ensemble"(1974),"the"WBK"(1974),"Hoketus"(1976),"Slagwerkgroep"Den" Haag"(1977),"Delta"Ensemble"(1978)"and"the"Amsterdam"Baroque"Orchestra"(1979)." Because"of"their"flexibility"in"terms"of"lineHup,"instrumentation"and"repertoire,"these" ensembles"opened"up"new"possibilities"in"musicHmaking."As"such,"these"“small," motivated,"flexible"and"specialized”"ensembles"were"to"epitomize"the"urge"for"renewal" and"selfHcontrol"visible"within"Dutch"concert"life."Or,"as"contemporary"composer" Reinbert"de"Leeuw"put"it"in"the"charged"language"of"his"generation:"“The"twentieth" century"belongs"to"us.”102" " Improvising"musicians"connected"in"many"ways"to"other"artistic"avantHgardes,"most" notably"contemporary"composers"known"as"the"Five.103"De"Volharding"was"founded"by" Louis"Andriessen"in"1972"and"officially"premiered"at"one"of"Theo"Loevendie’s"soHcalled" “inclusive"concerts”"(Inklusiefe"Concerten)"at"the"Amsterdam"Carré"theatre,"where"the" ensemble"presented"itself"“spectacularly”"with"the"piece"De-Volharding,"for"three"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 101"I"have"discussed"the"role"of"jazz"and"improvised"music"in"the"development"of"a"Dutch"ensemble"culture" in"“Common"Ground”"(2011)." 102"Domein-van-de-Vrijheid,"directed"by"A."’sHGravesande"and"S."Verster"(NPS,"1996)."“Nu"moeten"we"ook" aan"een"groter"publiek"kunnen"duidelijk"maken"dat"die"twintigste"eeuw"eigenlijk"van"ons"is."Dat"is"onze" eeuw.”" 103"Rusch,"“Common"Ground,”"123H141."

41" " trumpets,"three"trombones,"three"saxophones"and"a"piano.104"In"her"discussion"of"the" political"implications"of"the"Volharding,"journalist"Johanneke"van"Slooten"in"1982"recalled" the"initial"hesitance"of"the"audience"at"the"concert:" " Some"listeners"felt"that"the"loud"repetitive"melodic"phrases"and"rhythmic" figures"would"never"end"and"burst"into"fury."During"the"concert"the" people"got"more"enthusiasm"and"finally"the"last"booing"was"drowned"out" by"a"storm"of"applause."(Van"Slooten,"“Muziekpolitiek"of"politieke"muziek?”" 45)105" " Stimulated"by"their"close"geographical"and"ideological"proximity—most"composers"and" musicians"were"active"in"the"Randstad-conurbation—practitioners"of"early,"contemporary" and"improvised"music"collaborated"on"a"growing"scale"during"the"1960s."In"search"of"both" “alternative”"music"practices"as"well"as"new"audiences"for"their"music,"they"increasingly" used"each"other’s"venues"and"organized"eclectic"performances.106"The"twelveHpiece"Theo" Loevendie"Consort,"for"example,"explicitly"aimed"at"bringing"together"such"disparate" musical"worlds."The"liner"notes"of"the"Consort’s"first"album"Mandela"(Catfish,"1969)" summarized"the"ideas"behind"its"formation."There"was"to"be," " no"restriction"to"a"specific"idiom"with"its"limitations,"but"an"openness"that" allow[ed"for]"the"integration"of"various"jazz—and"nonHjazz—elements" like"popHmusic"in"Mr.-Brook,"brass"band"music"in"Pepy"and"a"sort"of"dead" march"in"Trompedly."(Theo"Loevendie,"liner"notes,"Mandela"[Catfish,"1969])" " Although"the"ensemble"on"Mandela-used"NonHWestern"meters,"explored"different"sounds" and"subverted"the"combo"hierarchy"by"using"two"drums,"the"compositions"remained" conventionally"structured"in"preHcomposed"themes,"improvised"solo"parts,"solo"cadenzas,"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 104"Johanneke"van"Slooten,"“Muziekpolitiek"of"politieke"muziek?"Tien"jaar"de"Volharding,”"Haagse-Post,"18" September"1982,"45." 105"Ibid.,"45."Sommige"toehoorders"bekroop"het"gevoel"dat"de"eindeloze"herhalingen"en"melodische"frasen" en"ritmische"figuren"gebracht"op"vol"volume"nooit"meer"te"stuiten"zouden"zijn"en"dat"ontlaadde"zich"in" woedeHuitbarstingen."Maar"naarmate"het"concert"voortduurde"groeide"het"enthousiasme"in"de"zaal"totdat" uiteindelijk"een"stormachtig"applaus"het"laatste"boegeroep"wegvaagde.”" 106"This"was"not"an"entirely"new"development:"already"in"1926,"Paul"Whiteman"performed"with"his"jazz" orchestra"at"the"prestigious"Concertgebouw"in"Amsterdam.""

42" " backgrounds"and"interludes."In"this"respect,"the"album"reflected"the"musical"background" of"Loevendie,"who"studied"both"composition"and"clarinet"at"the"Sweelinck" Conservatorium"in"Amsterdam"and"was"an"experienced"jazz"saxophonist."" " Likewise,"classically"trained"composers"increasingly"used"musicians"from"different" backgrounds"to"create"new"sounds."A"significant"and"controversial"collaboration"was" the"eclectic"musicHtheatre"piece"“Reconstructie”—written"by"The-Five,"added"with"the" authors"Hugo"Claus"and"Harry"Mulish—"which"premiered"in"Amsterdam’s"Carré"at"the" June"1969"Holland"Festival.107"Bennink"and"Breuker"took"part,"as"well"as"popular" chansonnier"Ramses"Shaffy."Early"music"representative"Frans"Brüggen,"an"outspoken" supporter"of"the"Notenkrakersactie"and"“new"music,”"was"prominently"featured," performing"a"solo"on"an"amplified"contrabass"recorder."The"interdisciplinary"and" eclectic"collaborations"were"further"explored"during"nightlong"“inclusive"concerts”"that" had"as"its"goal"the"bringing"together"of"different"kinds"of"music"and"the"attraction"of" new,"heterogeneous"audiences.108"An"important"event"was"the"twelveHhour"Musici-voor- Vietnam-(“musicians"for"Vietnam”)"benefit"concert"on"20"February"1970"in" Amsterdam’s"Frascati"theatre,"which"featured"approximately"120"performers"associated" with"early"music,"contemporary"music,"pop,"jazz,"as"well"as"“mainstream"classical"music.”" The"program,"which"included"compositions"of"the"second"Viennese"School,"recent" compositions,"classical"works"of"Mozart,"Schumann"and"Chopin,"pop"and"jazz,"reflected" this"diversity."The"Eksperimusika"concert"of"26"February"1970"was"organized"for"similar" reasons;"under"the"common"theme"of"improvisation,"there"were"performances"by" Baroque"ensemble"Musica"da"Camera,"jazz"combo"Louis"van"Dijk"and"pop"group" Ekseption.109"Likewise,"the"STAMPHconcerts"of"the"BeveM"(Foundation"for"Alternative" Music"Practices)"in"Amsterdam’s"Shaffy"Theater"(now"Felix"Merites)—organized"by" Loevendie"from"1972—aimed"at"what"was"called"an"“alternative”"music"practice.110" Besides"performances,"the"new"alliances"were"captured"on"recordings."For"example,"the" musicians"on"Breuker’s"Contemporary"Jazz"from"Holland"(Relax,"1969)"featured"both"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 107"For"the"political"implications"of"Reconstruction-see"Adlington,"“‘A"Sort"of"Guerilla,’”"167H193." 108"Elmer"Schönberger,"ed.,"Ssst!:-Nieuwe-ensembles-voor-nieuwe-muziek"(Amsterdam:"International" Theatre"and"Film"Books,"1996),"81H82." 109"K.R."Rubinoff,"“Cracking"the"Dutch"Early"Music"Movement:"The"Repercussions"of"the"1969" Notenkrakersactie,”"TwentiethHCentury-Music"6/1"(2011),"7." 110"Kusters"and"Schulz,"Pierre-Courbois,"18."

43" " classically"trained"musicians"as"well"as"jazz"players.111"Likewise,"Loevendie,"on"his" album"with"the"Theo"Loevendie"Consort"Chess!"(BASF,"1972),"used"a"combination"of" musicians"of"different"musical"backgrounds.112"Consequently,"the"media"increasingly" categorized"the"diverse"and"often"interdisciplinary"performances"under"the"umbrellaH terms"of"“new"music”"and"“avantHgarde.”"" " The"improvised"music"ensembles,"as"well"as"the"classical"Nederlands"Blazers"Ensemble" (1959),"served"as"inspirational"models"for"contemporary"composers,"which,"as"Louis" Andriessen"recalls,"were"the"only"existing"Dutch"ensembles"when"he"founded"the" Volharding"in"1971.113"Ensembles"such"as"the"Volharding"developed"its"own"repertoire," mixing"politically"committed"street"music"with"avantHgarde"(minimal"music)."The" ensembles"democratic"principles"played"out"in"different"ways."Until"the"1990s,"the" Volharding"played"without"a"conductor,"organized"its"own"concerts"and"created"a"circuit" of"alternative"concert"venues,"including"community"centers,"street"stages,"outdoor" bandstands,"schools,"socialist"festivals"and"smaller"concert"venues.114"Furthermore"the" ensemble"focused"on"the"mixing"of"different"musical"traditions,"which"became"apparent"in" personnel"(musicians"of"different"backgrounds)"as"well"as"performance"and"the"blending" of"classical"composition"techniques"with"free"improvisation."The"idea"of"a"“pool"of" musicians,”"however,"was"not"entirely"new"in"contemporary"music."In"1964,"composer" Ton"de"Leeuw"had"coined"the"idea"of"a"mobiel-ensemble,"with"the"intention"of"rendering" material"his"ideal"of"an"“open"music"practice.”115"He"considered"the"“mobile"ensemble”" an"addition"to"symphony"orchestras,"which"represented"a"“different"strength,"way"of" playing,"interpretation,"technique"and"mentality.”"Moreover,"De"Leeuw"believed"that" these"mobile"ensembles"would"draw"new"audiences."Although"the"term"never"achieved" common"currency,"De"Leeuw’s"ideas"paved"the"way"for"the"development"of"flexible" ensembles"within"the"practice"of"contemporary"music." """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 111"The"performance"on"the"album"Contemporary-Jazz-from-Holland"(Relax,"1966)"includes"the"former" conservatory"students"Gilius"van"Bergeijk"on"clarinet,"Guus"Dral"on"bassoon,"Jan"Wolff"on"French"horn"and" Rob"Kattenberg"on"drums,"and"the"jazz"musicians"Arjen"Gorter"on"double"bass,"accordion,"and"harmonica," Victor"Kaihatu"on"guitar,"and"Courbois"on"drums." 112"The"album"Chess"featured"the"classically"trained"musicians"Harry"Sparnaay"on"bass"clarinet"and"Rien" de"Reede"on"flute." 113"Domein-van-de-Vrijheid,"directed"by"A."’sHGravesande"and"S."Verster"(NPS,"1996)."" 114"Leo"Samama"and"Hylke"van"Lingen,-Nederlandse-muziek-in-de-20Hste-eeuw-.-Voorspel-Tot-Een-Nieuwe- Dag."(Amsterdam:"Amsterdam"University"Press;"Salomé,"2006),"299." 115"Ton"de"Leeuw,"“De"toestand"is"urgent,”"Algemeen-Handelsblad,"October"24,"1964."

44" " " Altogether,"musicians"from"different"musical"traditions"found"in"the"mediumHsized" ensemble"a"shared"musical"solution"to"what"they"considered"the"problem"of" conventional,"fixed,"hierarchical"structured"models"of"symphony"orchestras,"jazz"big" bands"and"jazz"combo’s."These"flexible"ensembles"consisted"usually"of"seven"to"nine" musicians"and"enabled"their"members"to"experiment"with"collective"improvisation," graphic"scores,"and"interdisciplinary"collaborations."This"way,"the"ICP,"the"Volharding" and"other"flexible"ensembles"allowed"the"musicians"themselves"to"be"in"control"and"be" part"of"the"decisionHmaking"process."However,"despite"the"liberating"potential"of" collective"improvisation,"ensembles"established"after"the"ICP"increasingly"focused"on"preH composed"material"and,"to"a"degree,"moved"away"from"free"improvisation."A"prime" example"of"the"growing"interest"for"preHcomposed"material"within"improvised"music" ensembles"was"the"foundation"of"the"Willem"Breuker"Kollektief,"or"WBK,"in"1974."During" his"years"with"the"ICP,"Breuker"had"become"less"interested"in"free"improvisation"and" started"to"distance"himself"from"Bennink"and"Mengelberg."Frustrated"by"the"lack"of" discipline"and"the"lack"of"interest"in"his"compositions"he"left"the"ICP"in"1973"to"start"his" own"elevenHpiece"band.116"Until"his"death"in"2011,"the"WBK"enabled"Breuker"to"further" develop"his"own"ideas,"which"included"projects"with"written"material"and"several"music" theatre"productions.""

Richtingenstrijd;+constructed+binaries+in+jazz+

WILLEM"BREUKER."What"is"jazz,"man?"Explain"me."Bullshit."

FRANS"ELSEN."Listen."I’ll"tell"you."Look."Back"then"there"was"this"association"called"“The" association"for"jazz"in"the"Netherlands,”"remember?"And"in"1971"there"was"a"soHcalled- Overval,"you"might"remember"that"as"well,"and"then"all"of"a"sudden"it"was"called"“[the" association"for]"Jazz"and-improvised-music-in"the"Netherlands."

WILLEM"BREUKER."That"name"changed"in"1977.117"

FRANS"ELSEN."Well,"I"don’t"want"to"make"a"fuss"about"a"year"or"two."

WILLEM"BREUKER."Well,"I"do."Because"you"make"it"sound"like"it"all"changed"overnight."

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 116"Buzelin,"Willem-Breuker,"76H80." 117"In"1979"the"SJN"changed"its"name"into"SJIN."

45" " FRANS"ELSEN."The"only"thing"I"want"to"say"is"that"it"wasn’t"the"jazz"musicians"who" changed"the"name,"it"was"the"improvising"musicians."So,"if"you"ask"me"“what"is"jazz?”—I" don’t"need"to"explain,"because"everyone"knows"that"by"now—but"if"you"ask"me"to" explain"the"difference"between"jazz"and"improvised"music,"then"I"can"tell"you"that"we- never"made"such"a"distinction,"but"you-did."Otherwise"you"would"never"have"changed" the"name."Okay?"

WILLEM"BREUKER."Well,"it"was"just"because"the"name"did"not"cover"it"anymore."

FRANS"ELSEN."It"still"doesn’t.118" " In"1986,"a"heated"discussion"on"jazz"funding"took"place"between"Frans"Elsen"and"Willem" Breuker."The"two"had"been"invited"on"a"radio"program"for"the"VPRO"hosted"by"Han" Reiziger."The"debate,"themed"around"the"issue"of"jazz"funding,"reveals"how"during"the" previous"decade"growing"tensions"between"established"modern"jazz"musicians"and"the" improvising"musicians,"as"especially"on"issues"of"subsidies"and"education,"created"a" dichotomy"within"the"Dutch"jazz"scene."As"Breuker"observed"in"1965,"“"I"can’t" remember"there"ever"being"as"much"scandal,"discussions"and"fighting"in"Dutch"jazz"as" there"is"at"the"moment.”119"As"early"as"1958,"the"young"Misha"Mengelberg’s"free"jazz" performance"at"the"Amsterdam"Lucky-Star"club"had"caused,"in"the"words"of"Dutch"jazz" critic"Rudy"Koopmans,"“somewhat"of"a"palace"revolution.”120"While"after"the" performance—which"remains"further"unspecified—young"musicians"were"drawn"to"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 118"Radio"interview"by"Han"Reiziger,"1986."VPRO"radio."Wat-is-nou-jazz,-man?-Leg-me-dat-nou-eens-uit.-Gelul.- Moet"je"eens"luisteren."Dat"zal"ik"je"dan"vertellen."Kijk."Indertijd"heette"die"stichting"“Stichting"Jazz"in" Nederland,”"weet"je"nog"wel?"En"toen"is"er"in"1971"een"overval"gepleegd,"misschien"herinner"je"je"dat"ook" nog"wel."En"toen"werd"het"ineens"“Jazz"en-geïmproviseerde-muziek”"in"Nederland."Wanneer-werd-dat?-In- 1977.-In"1971"is"die"overval"gepleegd."Die-naamsverandering-was-in-1977."[Harm"Mobach"noemde"het"een" overval."Rudy"Koopmans"speelde"een"soort"paard"van"Troje,"volgens"Frans"Elsen]"Nou"ik"wil"niet"over"een" paar"jaar"discussiëren."Maar-ik-wel.-Jij-doet-net-alsof-het-van-de-ene-op-de-andere-dag-is-veranderd."Ik"heb" alleen"maar"gezegd"dat"de"naam"veranderd"is,"niet"door"de"jazzmuzikanten,"maar"door"de"improviserende" musici."Dus"als"jij"mij"vraagt"“wat"is"dan"jazz?”"Nou,"dat"hoef"ik"niet"te"gaan"zitten"uitleggen,"dat"weet" iedereen"zo"langzamerhand."Maar"als"je"aan"komt"met"“wat"is"het"verschil"tussen"jazz"en"geïmproviseerde" muziek?”"of"iets"dergelijks,"dan"kan"ik"je"toch"wel"vertellen"dat"wij-dat"onderscheid"niet"gemaakt"hebben," maar"jullie."Anders"zouden"jullie"die"naam"niet"hebben"veranderd,"natuurlijk."Oké?"Nee-hoor,-het-was- gewoon-zo-dat-de-vlag-op-dat-moment-de-lading-niet-meer-dekte."Dat"doet"het"nog"steeds"niet."Nou-jongen,- hou-nou-toch-op,-man.-Jij-denkt-dat-jij-de-wijsheid-in-pacht-hebt-door-te-weten-wat-een-jazzHmuzikant-is.-Dat- is-absoluut-niet-waar.-Ik-bedoel...-Ik"denk"sowieso"niet"dat"ik"de"wijsheid"in"pacht"heb.”" 119"Vuijsje,"De-nieuwe-jazz,"149."“Zo"nu"en"dan"schaam"ik"me"ervoor"dat"ik"constant"het"enfant-terrible"ben," wat"ik"helemaal"niet"wil"zijn."Ik"wil"gewoon"muziek"maken"en"ik"kan"me"niet"herinneren"dat"er"in"de" Nederlandse"jazz"ooit"zoveel"schandaal"is"geweest,"dat"zoveel"mensen"zich"druk"gemaakt"hebben,"elkaar" in"de"haren"hebben"gezeten.”" 120"Koopmans,"Jazz,"154."“Dat"was"het"begin"van"de"scheiding"der"geesten.”"

46" " Mengelberg’s"playing,"some"of"the"more"established"musicians"refused"to"play"with"him" any"longer."Koopmans"concluded"in"1977"that,"“[t]hat"was"when"the"diverging"of" opinions"began.”121"" " Koopmans’"“diverging"of"opinions,”"as"represented"by"the"“rebellious”"Breuker"on"the" one"side"and"the"“conservative”"Elsen"on"the"other,"has"become"known"as"the" richtingenstrijd."The"tensions"between"Breuker"and"Elsen"originated"in"different"views" on"esthetics,"the"notion"of"musicianship"and"the"role"the"arts"in"society."However,"much" of"this"jazz"discourse"was"informed"by"a"repertoire"of"stereotypes"that"reinforced" constructed"binaries,"i.e."low"versus"high"art,"commercialism"versus"authenticity,"and" the"swinging"craftsman"versus"the"autonomous"artist."The"following"paragraphs"explore" these"constructions"by"tracing"back"the"musicians’"conflicting"views"in"terms"of" aesthetics"and"socioHpolitical"issues." " i)-Low-versus-high-art- Musicians"such"as"Breuker"during"the"1960s"and"1970s"increasingly"promoted"their" music"as"an"individual"expression,"as"an"autonomous"artistic"product"that"should"be" allowed"to"develop"outside"the"commercial"market"and"away"from"entertainment."In"a" 1965"interview"Breuker"explained"how"he"refused"to"go"to"the"Sheherazade"any"longer," because"the"jazz"club"in"his"view"promoted"and"therefore"devaluated"jazz"as"a"form"of" commercial"entertainment:"“Jazz"is"misplaced."It"doesn’t"belong"in"dancings"and"bars," because"to"me"it"is"concert"music.”122"The"quote"not"only"shows"the"musician’s" uncomfortable"relationship"with"jazz’"connotations"as"a"form"of"entertainment,"but"is" also"indicative"of"the"Breuker’s"attempts"to"align"his"music"with"the"more"“serious”"form" of"concert"music."The"label"of"“improvised"music”"is"also"revealing"in"this"case."From"the" 1970s,"the"media"and"musicians"themselves"explicitly"divorced"the"concept"of" “improvised"music”"from"that"of"“jazz,”"the"latter"evoking"undesirable"images"of" commercialism"and"uncreative,"slavish"studio"work."As"such,"the"specification"of"the" novel"term"was"an"act"of"liberation"in"itself."The"phonetic"reworking"of"“collectief”"in"the"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 121"Ibid.,"154."“Dat"was"het"begin"van"de"scheiding"der"geesten.”" 122"Vuijsje,"De-nieuwe-jazz,"150."De"hele"jazz"zit"in"de"verkeerde"hoek,"het"is"geen"muziek"die"in" dancings"en"drankgelegenheden"gebracht"moet"worden,"het"is"concertHmuziek"voor"mij."Van"die" SheherazadeHtoestand"word"ik"ook"doodziek,"ik"ga"er"niet"meer"heen."

47" " Willem"Breuker"Kollektief-is"another"example"of"rebellion"against"the"received"tradition." In"this"case"the"orthographic."The"earlier"discussed"collaboration"of"the"AmsterdamH based"improvising"musicians"with"contemporary"composers,"writers"and"other"artists," further"underlined"the"attempt"to"move"away"from"the"realms"of"commercialism"and" entertainment"and"reposition"improvised"music"as"a"form"of"high"art."The"improvising" musicians’"deliberate,"but"by"no"means"consistent,"rejection"of"the"label"“jazz”" demonstrates"the"improvising"musicians’"awareness"of"the"social"connotations"of" classification"(i.e."jazz"as"light"entertainment)"and"showed"their"ability"to"make"use"of" these"terms."Furthermore,"it"articulated"the"artists’"desire"to"identify"with"the"present"and" the"things"to"come." " ii)-The-swinging-professional-craftsman-versus-the-autonomous-creative-artist- Whereas"the"AmsterdamHimprovising"musician"came"to"represent"the"narrative"type"of" the"autonomous"creative"artist,"the"HilversumHbased"studio"musicians"embodied"the" type"of"swinging"professional"artist."Improvising"musicians"particularly"opposed"to" those"who"found"employment"in"radio"orchestras"and"studio"jobs."Their"critique" particularly"focused"on"the"HilversumHbased"studio"musicians"engaged"in"broadcasting" orchestras,"who"they"criticized"for"being"commercial,"parochial,"and"acting"as"slavish" imitators"of"American"jazz."Elsen,"who"was"notoriously"conservative"in"his"views"on" jazz,"dismissed"the"experimental"and"radical"music"of"improvising"musicians,"blaming" them"for"“suffering"from"an"originality"obsession.”123"His"view"was"typical"for"the" modern"jazz"musicians,"who"regarded"craftsmanship,"such"as"the"reading"and"technical" skills"and"the"ability"to"“swing”"as"important"criteria"for"being"a"competent"musician." The"view"on"music"as"a"craft"rather"than"a"creative"art"followed"from"the"musicians’" work"in"studio’s"and"radio"orchestras,"which"demanded"a"professional"attitude"and"a" level"of"competence"that"largely"depended"on"these"skills.124"Also"the"necessity"of" actively"promoting"their"work"was"less"urgent,"as"these"studio"musicians"earned"a" guaranteed"albeit"modest"income"in"radio"orchestras."" "

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 123"Loes"Rusch,"“Jazzpracticum:"Over"de"institutionalisering"van"jazzonderwijs"in"Nederland,”"(master’s" thesis,"University"of"Amsterdam,"2007),"35H35." 124"Kuyper,"Over-Jazz,"22."

48" " iii)-American-purist-versus-creative-activist- While"improvising"musicians"typically"legitimized"their"work"by"virtue"of"its"esthetical" and"innovative"quality,"underlining"the"quality"of"jazz"as"a"scheppende-kunst"(creative" art),"modern"jazz"musicians"tended"to"be"less"outspoken"in"their"positioning"within"the" Dutch"music"practices"and"society"and"took"pride"in"being"part"of"an"American"jazz" tradition."Elsen,"for"example,"stressed"the"AfricanHAmerican"background"of"jazz,"noting," “all"Dutch"are"white"men"who"never"in"their"youth"visited"a"black"church.”"Underlining" his"view"of"jazz"as"an"essentially"black"American"practice,"Elsen"stated,"“all"jazz"is" borrowed"culture.”"The"“deHAmericanization”"or"appropriation"of"jazz,"in"contrast," which"became"prevalent"among"improvising"musicians"should"first"of"all"be"understood" as"a"political"act,"as"a"way"to"distinguish"oneself,"an"act"that"was"crucial"in"order"to"be" recognized"as"a"musician"worth"of"(financial)"support."In"a"1974"interview"with"Herman" de"Wit,"the"improvising"musician"and"Volharding"member"asserted"what"by"then"had" developed"into"the"“old"sores”"between"modern"jazz"and"improvising"musicians."On"the" absence"of"improvising"musicians"at"the"jazz"festival"in"Laren,"De"Wit"complained,"“The" NOS,"which"largely"organizes"the"festival,"still"thinks"that"jazz"comes"from"the"United" States."I"don’t"mean"to"be"negative"about"the"American"jazzHcats."They"are"fine"musicians." But"they"are"incredibly"expensive."Nothing"is"left"for"our"music.”125"The"festival" organization,"however,"did"invite"De"Wit"to"lead"one"of"the"two"workshops"in"the" festival’s"next"edition,"an"invitation"that"De"Wit"saw"as"a"“victory.”" " Also,"while"musicians"such"as"Elsen"propagated"a"“purist”"notion"of"music,"improvising" musicians"also"saw"music"as"a"way"of"expressing"their"political"views,"or"showing"their" sympathy"for"certain"political"ideas."In"1982"trombone"player"Willem"van"Manen" reflected"on"the"performances"of"improvised"music"ensembles"on"political"meetings" parties"such"as"the"Dutch"communist"party"CPN"and"the"Pacifist"Socialist"Party"(PSP):" " We"have"a"political"function"on"these"meetings;"we"teach"the"people"that" music"has"an"intrinsic"value,"which"can’t"be"manipulated"like"background"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 125"Jos"Haagmans,"“‘Wij"willen"aan"de"mensen"laten"zien"dat"muziek"maken"ook"anders"kan’,”"De-Waarheid," September"7,"1974,"4."“De"NOS,"die"het"festival"voor"een"groot"deel"organiseert,"meent"nog"steeds"dat"de" jazz"uit"Amerika"komt."Geen"kwaad"woord"hoor"over"die"Amerikaanse"jazzHjongens."Prima"musici."Maar" wel"hartstikke"duur."Zo"blijft"er"voor"onze"muziek"niets"meer"over.”"

49" " music"played"at"the"dentist"or"at"a"warehouse."That’s"why"we"believe"that" you"need"to"play"music"that"is"so"compelling"that"people"need"to"stop" talking;"just"because"the"music"is"so"forceful"in"its"own"right."(Van"Slooten," “Muziekpolitiek"of"politieke"muziek?,”"47)126" " Music,"in"this"view,"carried"the"potential"of"bringing"about"actual"changes"within"society," or"at"least"reflected"the"leftist"political"ideals"held"by"most"improvising"musicians."

Conclusion&

In"this"chapter"I"engaged"with"the"construction"of"narratives"in"jazz"through"an"analysis" of"different"Dutch"jazz"scenes"and"investigated"how"these"narratives"articulate"certain" cultural"values."As"I"pointed"out"at"the"beginning"of"the"chapter,"the"1978"companion"to" Dutch"jazz"presents"jazz"as"a"rather"unified"community,"integrating"musicians"of" different"backgrounds"into"a"singular"group."However,"the"opposing"views"and"conflicts" as"represented"by"individual"musicians"show"a"much"more"complex"and"diverse"story." To"get"insight"into"the"tropes"that"define"this"story,"I"explored"the"different"labels"that" journalists,"musicians,"and"audiences"have"used"to"distinguish"different"jazz"styles"or" scenes:"traditional"jazz,"modern"jazz,"and"improvised"music."These"musical"scenes"are" by"no"means"fixed"territories"or"closed"systems,"as"is"demonstrated"by"the"works"and" lives"of"individual"musicians"such"as"Theo"Loevendie,"Leo"van"Oostrom"and"Hans"Dulfer," who"are"often"active"within"multiple"scenes,"appropriating"different"styles"and" aesthetics."Seen"this"way,"the"labels"of"traditional"jazz,"modern"jazz"and"improvised" music"function"not"so"much"as"excluding"categories"or"scenes,"but"as"outlining"the" extremities"of"a"spectrum"of"musical"approaches"that"reflect"different"perspectives"on" identity,"aesthetics"and"politics." " Through"a"critical"investigation"of"one"of"the"most"significant"debates"within"the"Dutch" jazz"scene,"the"richtingenstrijd,"I"have"shown"that"these"scenes"have"come"to"represent" certain"shared"value"systems"that"have"informed"further"debates"in"jazz."Based"on"a" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 126"“Het"is"een"politieke"functie"van"ons"op"zo’n"bijeenkomst;"dat"je"de"mensen"leert"dat"muziek"op"zichzelf" een"waarde"vertegenwoordigt"en"dat"die"muziek"niet"manipuleerbaar"is"zoals"een"achtergrondmuziekje" bij"de"tandarts"of"in"het"warenhuis."Dat"is"ook"de"reden"dat"wij"vinden"dat"je"op"die" solidariteitsbijeenkomsten"een"muziekstuk"moeten"laten"horen"waar"ze"niet"doorheen"kunnen"lullen;" gewoon"omdat"het"dwingende"muziek"is"en"volkomen"op"zichzelf"staat.”"

50" " romanticized"and"simplified"reading"of"the"past,"the"richtingenstrijd-as"a"narrational" device-continues"as"a"local"frame"of"reference"through"which"individual"musicians," bands,"performances,"even"institutions"are"positioned"and"valued."This"becomes"clear" from"the"opening"section"of"Bert"Vuijsje’s"biography"of"vocalist"Rita"Reys:"" " It"is"June"25,"2004."Rita"Reys"is"seventyHnine"and"six"month"and"she"is" making"her"debut"at"the"Bimhuis."For"thirty"years,"from"the"moment"it" opened"its"doors"1974,"the"Bimhuis"and"Rita"Reys"have"avoided"each" other."In"the"eyes"of"the"Amsterdam"sanctuary"of"jazz"and"improvised" music"she"represented"TROS"and"Telegraaf."In"the"eyes"of"Europe’s-First- Lady-of-Jazz"the"Bimhuis"was"an"obnoxious"hotbed"of"subsidized"noise." (Bert"Vuijsje,"Rita-Reys:-Lady-Jazz"[Amsterdam:"Thomas"Rap,"2004],"7)127"" " The"account"is"exemplary"for"the"use"of"stereotyped"imagery,"in"this"case"of"the"grand" lady"that"performs"commercially"attractive"music"for"a"nonHcritical"audience"that" watches"family"shows"and"reads"populist"newspapers,"versus"the"Bimhuis,"which" represents"the"notion"of"jazz"as"an"elitist,"incomprehensible"clutter"of"sounds." " The"debates"and"conflicts"between"established"and"emerging"musicians"as"represented" by"the"richtingenstrijd"was"by"no"means"uniquely"Dutch"nor"was"it"unique"for"this"time," as"the"modern"jazz"musicians"in"the"1950s"had"been"the"young"and"emerging" generation.128"However,"the"ideological"divide"between"jazz"and"improvised"music"went" beyond"that"of"a"mere"generational"conflict"and,"as"I"will"demonstrate"in"the"following" chapters,"impacted"the"further"organization"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands."I"will"begin"in"the" next"chapter"with"an"analysis"of"the"institutionalization"of"jazz"education.""

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 127"Bert"Vuijsje"and"Rita"Reys,"Rita-Reys:-Lady-Jazz"(Amsterdam:"Thomas"Rap,"2004),"7." 128"See,"for"example,"Alf"Arvidsson"and"Jörgen"Adolfsson,"“Ett"Minne"För"Livet,”"142H152."

51" "