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The Handbook of Communication Skills

Hargie Owen

Nonverbal behaviour as communication: Approaches, issues, and research

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315436135-4 Rall A. Gordon, Daniel Druckman Published online on: 24 Jul 2018

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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 I el fcreative thought(e.g. Glashow, 1980;Koestler, of realm 1964; Leary, 1990). processes such inthe scientists acknowledge thevalue andnecessityof bothphilosophers andworking thought tobepervasive. Indeed, been fundamentalanalogies,andtheirinfluence has or metaphors, paradigms, have perspectives ontheirwork. Such called tobear been comparisons figurative perspectives and personal inquiry– any field–bring a fieldof In recent years, it has become increasingly recognised that investigators in NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR INPERSPECTIVE o ute hoeia eeomn fthefield. development theoretical of further for insitu.We behaviour asitoccurs withdirections conclude analyses of thatcanbeusedtoguide thethemesandtechniques implications for We expressions andgestures are inwhich tures learned. alsodevelop roles thevarying within societies andthediverse taken byactors cul- of itoccurs. Settingsaretion tothesettingsinwhich definedbothin terms Nonverbalexplorations. communicationcanbeunderstood bestinrela- approaches that have highlightingthe major spective, guided scientific nonverbal per behaviour inhistorical wechapters, placethestudy of the earlier covered in the previous chapter. Following of the structure adding fifty-seven new not references somepre-2006 thatinclude articles andBaxter, Rozelle, 2006), Druckman, thisHandbook(Gordon, edition of inthethird appeared onthedecadesincelastchapter particularly C Chapte n cross-disciplinary literature onnonverbalcross-disciplinary literature communication.We focus

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- Chapter 3 Chapter 81 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 RANDALL A.GORDONANDDANIELDRUCKMAN 82 NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION ttemaiguns fgesture andnonverbal behaviour since earliest recorded of at themeaningfulness Tobe meaningful. directed thisend,itisinteresting tonote thatattentionhasbeen nonverbal behaviour may to the field of contributions of A comparable examination nonverbalour communication. understanding the role thatadaptationplays in of alludestothe importance in the face emotionsprimarily withDarwin’smunication began (1872)bookontheexpression of nonverbal com- humanbehaviour. Theobservation thatthescientificstudy of tion of perspectives onthe evolutionary investiga- thediscipline-wideinfluenceof function of Frank & Shaw, as a in part, 2003; Zebrowitz, 2016; Patterson, 2003). This has occurred, nonverbal behaviour hasreceived attentioninrecent increased years (Floyd,of 2006; tohave explicitly.language examined doesnotseem been andwritten,therole playedlinguistic expression, bothoral bynonverbal of aspects matically and unconsciously analyses (Gibbs, 1994). haveAlthough such focused on processes essentially complex are auto- across such assumedtooccur domains. Indeed, situationsfiguratively (e.g. meaning ity toconceptualise non-literally) andtranspose as metaphor, metonymy, irony, fundamentalabil toour andrelated- expressions, point mind(e.g. Gibbs,1994;Lakoff, 1993;Ortony, such of aspects 1993).Linguisticforms poetic of (even beyondclearly scientificandcreative and reflect the discourse) presence showing (tropes), thattheyabound ineveryday andotherlinguisticforms phor usage thesubjectmatterwe study (Gibbs,1994;Soyland, 1994). thought tobeconstitutive of Fundamentally, analysis and hierarchic. is multifaceted specific, are metaphors such influence are stressed. Predictionsbut are complex sation, precision and mutuality of suggests afocusonlawfully amongelementswhere- interaction organi constrained about theirsubjectmatter. For therecent emphasisonsystemsmetaphors example, one canidentifyremarkable shiftsintheways psychologists inwhich have thought and introduces and interrelation, different and predictive explanatory emphasis, relief thefieldin different placesdifferent metaphors of aspects Recognising thattheuseof usage over time. preference trends inmetaphor of andrates found clear –and andsystemsmetaphors animate-being, –spatial, neural theperiod characterised that analogy of categories identifiedfour GentnerandGrudin text. broad sectionsof were frequently only identifiable basedonsubtlycomparisons implied,extended from also consciousness’,but of ‘stream asJames’ such comparisons, often basedonexplicit understanding thefield.They were were asways allintroduced of bytheircontributors domain’(p. anonliteral 182).Thesemetaphors of interms explained is likened toor processes, etc.) themind(ideas, of aspect someparticular either themindasawholeor inwhich comparison as‘anonliteral tal metaphors. Theydefinedamentalmetaphor theyreviewed, articles ty-eight theoretical theywere able toidentify265distinctmen- theyears 1894and1975.From between field publishedinPsychological Review thesix- tothe contributions theoretical asampleof areview (1985)undertook of and Grudin Last, the role that our species’ evolution species’ Last, therole hasplayed thatour intheencodinganddecoding meta- cognitive theanalysis scientistsextended of contemporary A numberof isilluminatingand psychology provocative. thefieldof of anexamination Such this phenomenon abound. For Gentner in psychology instance, Examples of  Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 fitness. Features of the face including size and size physiognomy, faceincluding the expression, emotional fitness. of Features body, viatheface, transmitted andvoice are andreproductive tiedtobothsurvival nonverbal communication byFrank andShaw (2016)suggests that communication onthehypothesisedevolutionary research role of munication. Arecent of summary nonverbal com- models of influence in manyis discussed as a primary contemporary domains(e.g. research social,developmental, cognitive-neuroscience) and a numberof across evolutionary canbeseen psychology tional expressions’ (p. of 133).Theimpact emo- studies in the issues ‘take an evolutionary approach well beyond the domain of outbyZebrowitzdevoted (2003),the Aspointed guidedbythisperspective. toresearch were Behavior Nonverbal theJournal of In2003,twoand work inthisarea. issuesof adaptation,hasreinforced interest evidence of for anditssearch psychology lutionary of evo- nonverbal behaviour, influence increased current scientific investigation the of the for point emotions asastarting to citeDarwin’s (1872)bookontheexpression of where inquiry fail few descriptions general behaviour andcommunication.Inafieldof from on nonverbal evolutionary literature canbefoundintheresearch psychology form. neuromuscular expression of are 1984),anemphasisisplacedontheplasticnature acquired (Cole, of plays inothers (EkmanandOster, 1979;Matsumoto, 1996;Triandis, how rules 1994)or recognise interest. how affective Inexamining readily people dis- expression are of overlays of ananalysis, although experiential such modifiedforms andculturally behaviour. consciousness,intentionandguileare to ordinarily notcentral Indeed, of affect, universal serviceable, automatic, aspects anemphasisisplacedon therapid, movement, vocalisation, movement facial gesture, andparticularly asexpressive of 1971; Tomkins, 1962,1963;Woodworth &Schlosberg, bodily 1954).Indelineating approach andelaborated theaffective expression (e.g. metaphor Ekman,1992b;Izard, investigators have this extended aninneraffective Anumberof state. mative of andinfor thepast emotion,vestiges of behaviour expression of asaneuromuscular somewhat differentfacial analogies can be identified. Darwin(1872) focused on of broad andcontinuinginterest. of analogy century.ning inthelateeighteenth Body movement an ascommunicationhasbeen - stagingbegin mimeand dramatic (1974) have indance, history identifiedacollateral bal symboliccommunication(e.g. Lavater, 1789;Taylor, 1878).SpiegelandMachotka languages’,ral surely provided refined themore andartificial ver thefoundationfor argued scholars theso-called‘natu- that emotional expression andgesture, centuries, (Bulwer, andnineteenth language form theeighteenth and natural 1644/1974). During were chirologia (manuallanguage) toexamine asbotharhetorical posal, undertaken eye’ (quotedinKendon, 1981,p. 155).Subsequentanalyses, inspired byBacon’s pro- totheear, tothe ed.). Hesuggested that‘asthetonguespeaketh sothehandspeaketh with vocal andwrittenlanguage wasrecognised byFrancis Bacon(1884;1947in1st in theaudience. plannedeffects theiruseincreating for gestures andprovided instructions particular of Theyoccasionally definedmany ashedelivered forms hisspeech. theorator duct of andmedieval frequently(1981), classical works onrhetoric focusedontheactualcon- ­Western (cf. Aristotle’s history toKendon (1991)).According Poetics (1927);Rhetoric In an ever-increasing manner, tests of hypotheses derived, at least in part, hypothesesderived, inpart, atleast In anever-increasing manner, testsof the focus on nonverbalIn examining behaviour as communication, a number communicationco-ordinate asearly as1601,gesture asamediumof At least NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION - - 83 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 RANDALL A.GORDONANDDANIELDRUCKMAN 84 ytecrflepiaino nonverbal behaviour ascodemetaphor. Developed most by thecareful of explication areinterpreters equally clearly emphasised bythebehaviour asriddle analogy. prolonged scholarly andskilful bytrained examination obfuscation, andnecessityof above are taken as relevant uniqueness, with context, issues, while the articulation identified universal, unintended,andotherfeatures theautomatic, perhaps instance, communicationindifferent perspectives. Inthefirst placestheprocess of analogy multi-levelled subtle, and gesture ascomplex, communication. regarding speech of the fruitfulness enough’andmanyme’, ‘curiously others provides of anillustration mannerismsas‘bytheway’, ‘incidentally’, Iforget’, ‘honest’, ‘before ‘believespeech such ­Feldman, the significance1959; of Schafer, 1980). Feldman’s of examination 1959; (Deutsch, behaviouraltext havetors utilisedthebroad interpretive analysis of principles. Many hermeneutic) psychoanalyticinterpretive example, investiga (for - accepted bytheapplicationof thatcanbemademeaningful text theobscure perhaps the riddleor tohavebal behaviour ascommunicationappears taken theanalogiesof ing expressive actions. Inany event, nonver Freud’s approach totheinvestigation of - consciousnessandintentionindetermin about recentmore thequestionsof concerns 2003). (Eskritt &Lee, age five tobealready or well of developed four bythetimeweappears years reach Recentogy). datahasrevealed thattheability tonoteverbal-nonverbal inconsistency nonverbalPerl’s expression asaninterpretive toolinGestaltpsychol- [1969]useof nonverbal between andverbal expression, congruence [1961] focusonexamining focusonnonverbal aspecific behaviour (e.g. thatincorporate Roger’stic techniques - psychotherapeu of insubsequentexamples dynamic continuestobeseen perspective of this - psycho and delayed verification, asapproaches tothisproblem. Theinfluence withtheperson’s articulation interpretive including strategies, life context number of Freud interpretation. offered a tothevalidity withrespect the analyst of inaquandary leaving actions, gestural-parapraxic frequentlythat people deny thesignificanceof Freud Atthesametime, acknowledgedcan oftenberecognised byaperson. assuch FreudIndeed, (1905/1938,1924)argued actionsare and that such usually meaningful obscure employed or text to a riddle , hasbeen praxes, by psychodynamic investigators. nonverbal communicationtoprovide integration. needed study of ting. continuestoadvocate Patterson acomprehensive for systemsapproach tothe situationalinfluencesandthebehaviour set- of (2013) alsohighlightstheimportance onnonverbal research communicationandbehaviour, Patterson accountof In abrief influenceswhenonestudiesnonverbal historical) along withdistal(or communication. proximal situational) toinclude (or theneed (2003)echoes verbal Montepare research, cies. onnon- onevolutionary Inanadditionalcommentary anditsimpact psychology - spe our behaviour of tiedtothesurvival alongsideanassessmentof and mechanisms afocusonproximal elements (Zebrowitz &Collins,1997;Zebrowitz, 2003)incorporates immediate situationalfactors. more However,to survival. of thisapproach isproblematic whenitneglectstheimpact voice were alllistedaslinked body movements, staticbodyeye size, andtoneof gaze, A third approach to the behaviour as communication analogy has been providedA third has been approach to the behaviour as communication analogy Certainly, thereliance onanaffective text toanobscure expression asopposed denial, Freud tohave seems foreshadowed the withthe problem of In dealing nonverbal- comparing A related metaphor accidentsandpara actions, especially Zebrowitz based(cf. Gibson,1979)ecologicalapproach of The perceptually  - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 print are offered. andconfigural emphasises holism,consistency Thisperspective withone’s life.Comparisons voice thumb or signature, accomplishingthe tasks of of andstylistic actionandtheexpressive thelatterbeingpersonalised aspects, ways of & Kendon, 1967;Hargie, 2017;Hargie &Tourish, 1999). 1961)andnonverbal behaviour (Allport, asskill(Argyle,personal idiom 1967;Argyle twodence inthearea, additionalanalogiescanbeidentified:nonverbal behaviour as Although the‘nonverbal prece behaviour- ascommunication’analogiesholdhistorical Ansfield,Anderson, Snyder, Sternglanz, (Morris, &DePaulo,2016). thedecoder of skillonthepart thanincreased the nonverbal encodingperformance friendsacrosstion-detection skillsamongsamesex timemay afunctionof bemore 1979;Schlenker,Scheibe, 1980).Recent work suggests thatimprovements- indecep aboundand subtletycomplexity (DePaulo,Wetzel, &Wilson, 2003; Sternglanz, thisanalogy, of aspects ity, Strategy, are important anddeception guile, andpurpose. expression, with emphasis on recognisable skill, authentic- of forward-flowing nature completely situated, holistic, tobethecrafted, appear thisanalogy of features fruitful impression Theparticularly managementis, persuasion, andtacticalpositioning). (that form (thatis,identityandsituationpresentation) andrhetorical expressive form developed byGoffman (1992)asboth (1959,1969), Baumeister(1982)andDePaulo tion (Poyatos, mostskilfully 1974),the approach hasbeen 1983;Spiegel&Machotka, behaviour asdramatic presentation. canalsobeidentified–nonverbal generalcommunicationmetaphor spirit, afourth investigationcurrent innonverbal behaviourInthis ascommunicationisexamined. and valid asthehistory seem thecommunicationanalogy Yet variations of thethree as employedthe metaphors investigators fully. are bydifficulttoparticular articulate munication’ analogies that have identified are fuzzy, been of explicit categories and the nonverbal behaviour cues). (e.g. expression, paralinguistic facial relatively thatallow differentiation for channels thecase for especially fine-grained of notessential,indistinguishingironic from meaning. literal Thisisperhaps mative, if nonverbal behaviour asmeta-message isvery infor theutilisationof 1982). Indeed, &Baxter, Rozelle, (Druckman, themetaphor of features objective, andmechanistic sequence as an orderly, process are linear all designed to emphasise the systematic, theintention-code-channel-code-interpretation receiving andaccessibilityof strategies sendingand messages comparisons, andmeta-messages), instance, channel cation (for of communi- and protocol 1972). applicationsmayLevels andScheflen, attest (Scheflen etiquette and commoditiestrading, athletic coaching,cations, stock and social-political tion. Conventional andefficiency, appreciation isessentialtoaccuracy asauctionappli- communica- of and accuracy-utility transmission of code itself, modes (that is, channels) the of thestructure rests of withthedetailed,molecularexamination concern central Devoe, Runbinow, the withcommunicationengineering, and Geller(1972)comparison extensively byBirdwhistell’s linguisticsandtheWeiner withstructural (1970)analogy Allport introduced the important distinction between the instrumental aspects aspects theinstrumental distinctionbetween introduced theimportant Allport stage danceanddramatic direc clearly descendsfrom- mime, thisanalogy While variations in the ‘behaviour as com- the particular However, the boundaries of NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASSTYLE - 85 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 RANDALL A.GORDONANDDANIELDRUCKMAN 86 The skilled performance analogy The skilledperformance s.Wiecmaiosaedfiut h eea eifisthatskilledactions remain are difficult,the belief comparisons general While use. andresistance todecay, istheirpersistence dis- formances interference, andeffects of skilledper of feature important 1966).Afourth (Bilodeau, physical conditionfactors age andmany desired levels isrecognisable, asare theinfluencesof the attainmentof during marked inprogress irregularities of levels andtheoccurrence performance andrest bothpractice asaidsinacquiringdesired combinations of of importance 1991).The &Bjork, Druckman time(see ally over distributed of periods extended refined develops action. ‘connoisseurship’ serves which toguide andstructure or seeing’ ‘informed conditionsoftenunrecognised Aqualityof bytheuntutored. ties or differentiating isthatitbasedonperceptually environmentalperformance proper such of clearly implied. A second feature skilful expression seems of in the crafting individuality quite different Also, therecognisability from performances. untutored of may be anddevelopment.emerge withtraining performances Thus,final gradually training, butinmany cases only are not,andwhich attheoutsetof in unrefined form acts that maymances usually imply highly motor be present complex, co-ordinated nonverbal behaviour. arewhich relevant First, skilledperfor totheinvestigation of Chapters 1and2), thesesee detailedanalysis more of (for skilledperformance of Chapter1). an aeroplane (see thepilotcontrolling or decipheringamessage, thetelegrapher ducting anoperation, player, thesurgeon thesports engagedatthework-bench, include con- theoperator would performance such Examples of the performance. may be required at the time of whatever issue from theenvironment, the attemptedachievement of anditisusedfor evidence updirectly picked indirectly Theskillisbasedupon or practice. informed acquired bywell-­ it,hasbeen never thoughperhaps all of theexpertness, of much inwhom skill,there are acknowledged experts of caseandin everyeral known form ananalogy. such out,inthegen- (1958)pointed AsBartlett of thecategories some of nonverbal behaviour analysis, itmightprove usefultoattemptexplicate of area issomewhat recent metaphor inthe theskilledperformance Since theintroduction of notinvestigated interaction to-face hitherto. face- nonverbal of to highlight aspects and has begun exchange, of (decoding) aspects directed attention to the expressive sending (encoding) and interpretive receiving or or 1979; Hargie, 2017;Knapp, 1972,1984;Rosenthal, 1979;Snyder, has 1974).Theanalogy (Argyle, &Lassiter,, Stone, 2003;DePaulo 1967; Burgoon &Bacue, 1985;Friedman, 1958; Polanyi, 1958)andrelated investigations have continuedthroughout thedecades thinkingabout nonverbal sometime (Bartlett, recognised for behaviour has been of acquired skillsas a way of theanalogy of The fruitfulness sis onskilledperformance. havemetaphor notyet fully exploited. been the of andfruitfulness notscientific but therichness workers), stage impressionists, if the have theanalogy offered been of amongtheranks (certainly theapplicationof of uniqueness, whilede-emphasisingcomplexity, skill,andauthenticity. Demonstrations A third feature of skilled performances is their dependence on practice, usu- onpractice, istheirdependence skilledperformances of A third feature features important suggests anumberof thecomparison of Initial examination nonverbal theempha- behaviour hasbeen Perhaps themostinviting of metaphor  - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 resent a 25 per cent increase over centincrease resent that nonverbal a25 per theprevious Itwould decade. appear approximately would- rep 340,which ing thisvalue through 2019produces avalue of & Teske, 2011). totheobserved reductionfactor (Baumeister, Vohs, &Funder, Giles, 2007; Patterson, variables are alikely contributing dependent withintoptierpsychological journals verbal andnonverbal and independent ments have shown thatthereduced use of were cent) below slightly that level (7 per 2000-2009 (N = 271). Archival during assess- the 1990s and by approximately sharply tions cent dropped (N = 292) during 35 per However, decade–aneight-foldincrease. ineach with457articles periods, publica- from the mid-tolate1960s. The1970sand1980srepresent themostproductive time empiricalstudies(N=57)were classic published communication. Asmallnumberof empiricalwork onnonverbal of publicationsfromnication’, examined theinception thekeywords:A PsycInfo ‘nonverbal for title search ‘nonverbal behavior’ or commu- interpretive skills. specific are likely torepresent awidevariety accuracy of interpersonal of measures islikely affair. tobeacomplex sonal accuracy Thebasicdecodingskillsrelated to andHall(2017)suggests thatinterper Boone, Ameta-analysismance. bySchlegel, individual perfor of theseaspects continuedinvestigations of of to theimportance amongadolescents(Feldman,and socialcompetence Tomasian, &Coats,1999)point Kessler, socialskillsamongadults(Carton, 1999)andencodingskills personal &Pape, similar increases in the control group and the training group. andthetraining inthecontrolsimilar increases group showed control (2005)usingabogustraining group Hughes,andHarms McCormack, training, theseoutcomeshave relatively been inconsistent.Astudy byLevine Feeley, investigations have asafunctionof revealed indecodingaccuracy smallincreases of metaphor. Even though anumber bythe skilled performance as guided, in part, seen Matsumoto &Hwang, 2011;Vrij, 2000;Vrij, Evans, &Mann,2004),canbe Akehurst, (Ekman, O’Sullivan, & Frank, 1999; Frank & Ekman, 1997; and expertise training of theissue thatexamine programmes research contemporary this analogy. Anumberof nonverbal behaviour implied by investigation of achievement represent a few of areas criteriaof andinternalised feedback performance of theimportance practice, role of advancement and possible in the field. individual differences, strategies, Training the develop- nonverbal tohave behaviour asexpression seems suggested several of areas styles.performance serve and which toguidebothpractice performance, refinements intheir quacies or can recognise inade- expression. Performers the quality of standards of internalised of usually entails the incorporation skilled performances Finally, the expression of acquired best by modellinganddescribedonlyble, imprecisely by linguistic means. skilledactionsis that they are ineffa- of characteristic Asixth performances. refined theydisplay towhich is thegeneralassumptionthatindividuals intheextent vary importance losttorecovery.viable hasbeen afterverbal information of Afiftharea The search revealedThe search - 295publications listedinPsycInfo in2010.Prorat starting Research thathasrevealed nonverbal relationships between decodingandinter intheinvestigation metaphor of theskilledperformance The development of THE SCIENTIFICSTUDYOFNONVERBALBEHAVIOUR NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION - - - 87 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 RANDALL A.GORDONANDDANIELDRUCKMAN 88 Behavioural dimensionsandtaxonomies expressions, but rather information about thatiscommunicatednonverbally. the actor information rather expressions, but overt nonverbal donotinvolveand environmental categories factor anassessmentof adornment, communication. It is interesting to notethatthe physical characteristic, nonverbalway, Knapp’s corner. astreet or seven of thebreadth dimensionshelpdepict ahall- thephysical aclassroom, an office, thebehaviour occurs: setting inwhich of wigs. with the influences Environmental and deal make up the last category factors jewellery, clothes, asperfume, such and adornments or artefacts of tics isthecategory skin colour, body andattractiveness. bodyodour shape, Related- to physical characteris as peoplesuch of thephysicalcharacteristics territoriality. concerns Afifthcategory of isproxemics, involves which andnorms Another category spacing interpersonal touching. involves Athird time. category of physical contact intheform given unitof ina words spoken andnumberof rate speech of andmeasures interruptions pauses, as voice volume, frequency, pitch, ‘ah’), silent example, stuttering,pauses (for filled such associatedwithspeech patterns and isdefinedascontent-free vocalisations and gestures, eye movements is paralanguage expressions. and facial A second category shifts, footandleg, postural head, thehand,arm, movementslanguage’, andincludes of iskinesics,commonly toas‘bodyreferred Thefirst category inperspective. chapter verbal behaviour as related research placing this to communication, and are useful for non- Knapp (1972)suggested of seven categories dimensionsthatdescribethemajor andapplication. yet research as ameaningful topicfor complex perspective nonverbal intreating shouldassumeacritical,scientific reader behaviour the reader. any applicationisappropriate towhich for particular Inturn, the degree to evaluate critically needed munication skill,whilemaintainingthescientificintegrity theanalysis.accompanies fascinating, valid, and often face no recognisablecommunication. While empirical data nonverbal of aspects of onthepsychological discourse meaning viding anextended pro interesting- piecesinthisvein ontheInternet, nication. Indeed, regularly appear commu- nonverbal of behaviour asoneform understanding of proper for necessary validity thatexamines andreliability andresearch thetheory aspects presentation of lay toemphasiseapplicationwithoutabalanced popular texts of onthe part tendency communication, there is a its relation to the subtle and interpretative of aspects of Because orientation. and(2)anapplication-demonstration retical-research orientation theupdatedmaterialinthischapter. of good portion and psychologists thelastdecadeandwillcomprisea have during examining been questions that communication researchers methods and research the wide variety of (2013), Kostić Manusov (2006), Matsumoto, and Patterson Frank andHwang(2013), Hall and Knapp found inthePsycInfo andScherer (2005), database. ThehandbookseditedbyHarrigan a renewed interest innew methodswould empiricalwork beconsistentwithincreased handbooks devoted the last twelve published during to research years (2005–2016) and and editedchapters Therelatively mightbeontheriseagain. research large numberof h hleg fthepresent istodiscussnonverbal chapter behaviour asacom- of The challenge Nonverbal is usually research presented with two different emphases: (1) a theo- and Chadee (2015),andMatsumoto, Hwang, andChadee Frank (2016)represent  Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 cally to survey factors that may be of importance in more personally familiar settings. familiar personally inmore importance thatmaycally beof factors tosurvey nonverbal behaviour. systemati - is encouraged The reader communicative of meaning affecting factors the nonverbal behaviours. Theseare justseveral of examples cies of settings will also produceco-operative interaction different levels, types, and frequen- manyto which nonverbal Competitive versus behaviours are performed. suppressed or thedegree asettingwilldetermine uations (RozelleandBaxter, of 1975).Theformality thatdifferentdemonstrated behaviours are produced in stressful versus unstressful sit- socialnonverbal & Svyantek, behaviour 1985).Research has (JonesRozelle, of eration 2016). ­Quadflieg, & differences (Collett,1971;Hall,1966,Patterson and cultural patterns ininteraction spacing,proxemicswith physical-environmental hasfocusedoninterpersonal factors & Baron, 1983;Willems, innonverbal 1985). Mostresearch communicationdealing humanbehaviour (McArthur focusinthestudy of onbehaviour isanimportant tors fac- ecological asalibrary. inaquietersettingsuch ent meaning Theinfluenceof thatwouldproduce nonverbal have exaggerated communicationpatterns very differ than,say,the street noiselevel inaclassroom. Background inawork settingmay and toaffectinteraction behaviour aseye such rotation. contact,gazing, andhead have shown arrangements toserve seating different been functionsduring angle of inachair. openly issittingbehindadeskor Theproximitywhether theperson and nonverbal behaviours therein. exhibited Body movements are different upon depending influencingthe factor inanofficecanbeamajor arrangement thefurniture example, tononverbal factors sible contributing communication.For behaviour asmeaningful theenvironmentpos- mustbedescribedinsufficientdetailtoassess of social aspects associated withit. nonverbal communicationandthebehaviours will beusedtoguidethisdiscussionof factors contextual itoccurs. Several of be considered inwhich inthecontext types nonverbal behaviour must of Themeaning toosimplistic. thetopicismuch view of communication.This of andabsolute form independent, itasaseparate, is totreat nonverbal behaviour problems of infocusingontheinterpretation themajor One of the‘universe’ comprisingnonverbal communication. always of beconsidered aspart andshould and empiricalpresentation; others are are not,but nevertheless important are covered thesecategories inthetheoretical communication totakeSomeof place. meaningful for thesefactors stress thatnonverbal allof upon behaviour isdependent tononverbal to as theypertain behaviour asacommunicationskill.Itisimportant in various will present combinations detailed discussion. This chapter these categories etal.,1978;LaFrance andMayo,Harper isreferred 1978)andthereader tothesefor individually incombinations(e.g. or Argyle 1977; &Cook,1976;DuncanFiske, The social climate of the environment is also an important factor intheconsid- factor theenvironment isalsoanimportant of The socialclimate Nonverbal behaviour may have very different on whenexhibited meanings thebehaviour.One involves Boththephysical and theenvironmental settingof either There thatdetailthesecategories, are numerous intheliterature examples NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION SETTING ANDROLEINFLUENCESON NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR - 89 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 RANDALL A.GORDONANDDANIELDRUCKMAN 90 and outcomefactorsoftheinteractionepisode Nonverbal behaviourascommunication:Process tem. Weiner requirement communicationto etal.(1972)argued for thatthisisacrucial nottheencoderanddecodershare acommon,sociallywhether or definedsignalsys- awareness thenbecomesdifficultto determine. levels of nonverbal towhich behaviours involve conscious intention. The degree varying uct of definedspecifically goal-directed behaviour becomes habitual andisnolonger a prod- awareness involve or noawareness wasoncea atlow levels atall.What of formed conversations, many nonverbal behaviours andare becomeautomaticresponses per behaviours thatcan be considered communicative. Intypical limits thenumberof thedecoder’s upon theencoderdepending response, of diate adjustmentonthepart andlistening. inspeaking take turns pants involvesocial interactions - encoderanddecoderasthepartici roles changing between intentions. Also, many involveamong people of less extreme emotion and a complexity Most interactions bothencoderanddecoderin an interaction. of behaviour onthepart ‘communicative’ or whatisconsidered ‘informative’ of misinterpretations togross lead behaviour indicatingunintendedguilt,anxiety, discomfort. or informative asfidgetinggaze and aversionacts such are presentedexamples of as (e.g.usually describedintheliterature Jones&Pittman,1982).Similarly, informative behaviours intendedtoconvey emotionsasanger, such are approval disagreement or communicative motivated non-specifically behaviour.dental’ or Extremeexamples of to‘acci- consciousintentasopposed of degrees difficulty liesindistinguishing varying ers we A are able tostop‘giving’ information. messages, cannotstop‘giving but off’ message toa to sendaspecific receiver. Goffman suggested thatasimpression manag- expressions thatare ‘given’. theencoderisintentionallyterms, attempting Inthiscase, the ‘communicativeor, is termed act’ intention. A second classification or in Goffman’s withouttheencoder’s isthatanimpression isbeingformed point knowledge important byadecoder(Goffman, interpreted incorrectly or may 1959).The beeithercorrectly Thus, anindividual’s nonverbal behaviour isunintentionally signalsthat ‘giving off’ thesender. areceiver of withoutany active consciousintentonthepart or of the part on messages. interpretations act’which results in certain Thefirst isthe‘informative 1978). (­Dittmann, communication andprinciplesof and unintendedmessages obeythesamerules intentionandwhetherintended isthatof concern er-decoder distinction,amajor theencod- Withinbehaviours theminsome fashion. of andinterpreting thecontext Thedecoderisanalogousto beinterpreted. toanobserver ‘receiving’ the presented impression manager, or is analogous toanactor producing and‘sending’thebehaviours theencoderand decoder.behaviour ascommunicationisthatbetween Theencoder distinctioninviewing nonverbal communication.Animportant situational levels of level therole andhaveon theinterpersonal and notelaborated tothesamedegree Many communicationmodelsasappliedtononverbal behaviour have concentrated nte osdrto o h nesadn fnonverbal communicationis theunderstanding of for Another consideration Requiring communicative behaviour tobeexplicitly goal-directed, withanimme- As willbediscussedlaterinthischapter, role can andsituationalconsiderations Ekman and Friesen (1969) provided behavioural for two general classifications  -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 ue aiyo n te ntuetlo oilydsigihbefr fbehaviour. of socially distinguishable or any form familyor otherinstrumental ture, nonverbal behaviour refers tocul- another. or Athird of source inone form portation - trans for humanbeingsusetheirfeet withtheenvironment:in dealing example, for asreflex actions;other nonverbalsuch andused behaviours are commonly learned Friesen Somenonverbal isitsorigin. behaviours are rooted inthenervous system, people. other andinfluencethebehaviour of understood, provide information, involve nonverbal towhich types messages are information thedegree these three Thus, inaninteraction. participants theother or modify thebehaviour of influence and communicative actshave discussed.Interactive actsare been those thatdetectably interactive. communicative, Informative or beinginformative, conveyed of interms have received information been andevaluated. Finally, usage alsorefers of tothetype behaviour, hernonverbal to thesenderthathisor behaviours isonly but information encoder. Thisdoesnotinvolve thesender’s thereceiver’s of actualinterpretations nonverbalor totheencoder’s reactions nonverbal behaviours bythe asinterpreted isdefinedasthe addition, usage which receiver’s involves feedback external verbal the encoder, as discussed previously.awareness of and intentionality on In the part beunrelated toverbal or behaviours.tute for behaviour. For nonverbal substi- instance, acts may servesupport, to accent, duplicate, Usage co-operative. alsoinvolvesor verbal therelationship between andnonverbal cold, competitive or warm relaxed, hostile, stressful friendly or or informal, or formal Theemotionaltonemay be teacher–student. husband–wife or supervisor–employee, therapist–client, aninterviewer–interviewee, The role relationship may involve thatof acar,encoder anddecodermay ahome, becommunicatinginanoffice, or astreet. For theinteraction. example, ical setting, role relationship andemotionaltoneof conditionthataffects theexternal asthephys theact,such - of consideration includes and(3)coding. (2)origin (1)usage, behaviour: nonverbal of characteristics three by distinguishing between (1969). They began does notresolveissues (but presented them)isoneoriginally by EkmanandFriesen nonverbal these communication that encompasses Perhaps the most useful model of communicationperse. of consequences andmustbeconsidered atype behaviour toprofound thatresults canlead of Themisinterpretation an interaction. are inappropriately factors role considered andspatial during ascultural, such factors encodedbehaviours mayCertain have unintendedeffects, whencontextual especially behaviour results. is whenacommonsystemnotshared of andmisinterpretation nonverbal behaviour intheencodinganddecodingprocess problems intheuseof pervasive themore onwhatisconsidereda limitedperspective communication.Oneof any towhich behaviour isintentional.Thisrepresents thedegree occur, regardless of h eodcaatrsi fnonverbal behaviour discussed by Ekman and of The second characteristic EkmanandFriesen toemploywith Usage chose isthecharacteristic indealing thenonverbal act.It Usage refers tothecircumstances atthetimeof thatexist APPROACHES TONONVERBALBEHAVIOUR NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION AS COMMUNICATION Ekman andFriesen

91 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 RANDALL A.GORDONANDDANIELDRUCKMAN 92 Illustrators Emblems eblsd lutaosaescal ere,uulytruhiiainb hl fa usually through of imitationbyachild areverbalised. socially learned, Illustrators These are movements andserve whatis toillustrate thatare tieddirectly tospeech with relative across consistency allsixcultures. ‘thirst’ were displayed andinterpreted andthe physical ‘threat’ stateof tal stateof ‘yes’, themen- ‘no’,and‘Idon’tknow’ andemblemsdepicting of attitudinal responses universality. Emblemsrepresenting the of emblematic expressions show somedegree evolution on nonverbal communication, the most survival-based of esised impact religious religion acts. or emblems thatdepicted However, consistentwiththehypoth- investigated. Interestingly, themostdiverse anddifferentiated wasamong contentarea uniqueemblemsacross thesixcultures moto andHwang(2013)foundawiderangeof differenthaving identicalemblematicdisplays. for learned meanings anencoderanddecoder asafunctionof when unintentionalcommunicationoccurs focus emblemscancomeintosharp & Valentine, of nature 1988).Theculture-specific (­ ChineseandKurdish gestures of interpretations (Payrato, 1993),Dutch lans inSpain theCata- studiedinclude foundintheway emblems:cultures interpret cultures been emblems. Differences have also of dictionary to suggest compiling an international variationstantial regional, nationaland intranational in these displays, them leading frowninging or toindicatedisapproval. Ekman,Friesen,(1984)foundsub- andBear thebody.- waving Examplesinclude be shown thehandsinagreet inany of area andmay isculture-specific, which mostof through learning, Emblemsoriginate ture. cul- or class, group, iswell understood which byaparticular of words, themeaning These are nonverbal actsthathave direct verbal andcansubstitutefor translation behavioural acts. Ekman andFriesen went ontodistinguishamongfive of categories aggression. of isanintrinsically codedactinthatitisactually aform arm, the upper Intrinsically codedmovements are whattheysignify. Playfully say hittingaperson, on athroat-cutting movement withafinger. resembleexample of whatitsignifies,asinthe Aniconically codedacttendsto trarily codedactsinceitconveys ‘byitself’. nomeaning signallingthateverythingrepresent. isOKwould Athumbs-upsignfor beanarbi- novisualresemblance iconically towhatthey coded.Arbitrarilycodedactsbear or codes. Extrinsically codedactssignifysomethingelseandmay beeitherarbitrarily toanonverbal andintrinsic attached extrinsic distinctionisbetween act.Theprimary involved. interaction of thetype upon otherdepending ate distancesfrom each one another,greeting expressing approval appropri- disapproval, or and apportioning ourselves invarious ways.ner andgroom of Socialcustomsdictatenonverbal patterns man- inacertain weThus, we behaviours eat adoptidiosyncratic whendriving acar; Poortinga, Schoots, &Van Schoots, Poortinga, (Safadi inIsrael deKoppel , 1993),andHebrew speakers opeesv rs-utrlivsiaino emblematic gestures by Matsu- A comprehensive investigation cross-cultural of definingnonverbal andcodingasabasisfor Employing origin, usage, behaviour, nonverbal behaviour iscoding, thatis,themeaning of The third characteristic 

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 universality. to which A study by Elfenbein and Ambady (2003) documented the degree specificity and both cultural of findings supportive that integrates tionist perspective to show socially acceptable behaviour. ‘appropriate’ behaviour. Thus,affect displays may bemasked insocialsettings inorder as rules learned displayexpressions are usually modified and oftenhiddenby cultural expressions (happiness, sadness,fear,basic facial anger, anddisgust),these surprise, six regarding thepresumed universality there isgeneral agreement of 2000). While isnotreliably labelled as‘contempt’(Wagner, expression itself tions inthatthefacial tobequalitatively itappears differenttional response, emo- thantheother primary expression canbereliably associatedwithsocialsituationsthatbringabout thatemo- addition to thislist(Matsumoto&Ekman,2004).Although asapossible gated investi contempthasbeen recently,1994). More - thenonverbal expression of facial these expressions (Ekman, 1992a, 1992b,1993, the intensity of of on their ratings emotions (happiness,sadness,anger, fear, disgust,andinterest) disagree surprise, but the primary expressions for ple from different on their judgements of agree cultures emotions. There- isevidence thatpeo expressions of facial These consistprimarily of behaviours. onthetable tasksandmay smoking tappingapencil include or instrumental perform to macy,originally are learned which withdrawalflight;and(3)objectadaptors, or torepresent inti- from or attack intendedtoprotect oneself ments andarm-folding may protective which the hands; (2) alter-adaptors, include clasping or hand move - thehead asscratching such (1)self-adaptors adaptors: of There types are three need. thesettingthatrelates totheoriginal habits andare triggered of bysomefeature adaptive are the original behavioural behaviour Adaptors is exhibited. of fragment Inadultexpression, only childhood. a usuallyefforts during tosatisfybodily needs, as self-manipulations. behavioursThese arelearned are objector Thespecific first isdescribed. research police–citizen detailwhentheauthors’ greater different later in This will be examined ethnic backgrounds. or cultures of people are ofteninvolvedulators inmiscommunicationandinappropriate among responses reg- their subtle nature, nods, body shifts and eyeas head position contact. Because of andmay todirectare besubtleindicators such oftenculture-specific verbal interaction These nonverbal actsserve toregulate conversation people. Regulators flow between anobject. toindicatethelengthof distanceapart a certain isholdingthehands anillustrator of shewishes toresemble. Anexample heor person - aninterac Recent findings related tothisissuehave ledtothe development of NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION Affect displays Regulators Adaptors 93 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 RANDALL A.GORDONANDDANIELDRUCKMAN 94 Dittman mit atany given can bedescribedalongtwo dimensions: moment. Channelcapacity trans- each may information defined astheamount of their ‘capacity’, of in terms (3) vocalisations; and(4)body movements. canbe discussed channels Thesefour communication:(1)language; expression; (2) facial of channels major ily onfour usingnonverbal behaviour asacommunicationskill.Dittmanfocusedprimar of aspect emotionsandare animportant thecommunication of a larger model of of have These concepts presentedtransmission. byDittman(1972,1978)aspart been message channel capability and of is byfocusingonthe‘communicationspecificity’ theircommunicative nature, nonverbal organising of actsinterms Another way of 2009). &Manstead, limitingitsuseasacueto veracity (Krumhuber learned, findings reveal smile andthatitcanbe thatitmaypossible to feign theDuchenne be smiles (Williams, Senior, David, 2001).However, Loughland,&Gordon, recent more such havethat couldpossibly communicative evolved role of duetotheimportant smile suggest thatthere may auniversal tothesedisplays exist response cross-cultural theDuchenne ing anddissimulation(Ekman,1993).Results from investigations of initial investigations tobequite showedresistant tostag- profile that thisfacial seems genuine enjoyment andhappiness. Moreover, tobeareliable of seems which indicator Smile’, ‘TheDuchenne smile, aparticular istherecognitionfrom of thisliterature themostpromising findingstoemerge & Scherer, 1991;Hyman, 1989).Perhaps oneof dissembling (Ekman, 1992b; Ekman & O’Sullivan, 1991; Ekman, O’Sullivan, Friesen, the systemindistinguishinghonestandauthenticexpressions from thedeceptive and expression (Ekman,1992b,1993;Ekman,Davidson, &Friesen, 1990),andtheutilityof investigations genuine intotherelationships andrecalled between emotionandfacial couldbecitedmany amongwhich significanttopicareas, focused onanumberof thesystemhas socialinteractions. Extendeduseof expression-exchange innormal, and information communication andisreadily applicable indescribingprocesses of analysing nonverbal andorganising behaviours usedin of vided ausefulmeans ecologically valid stimuliwere used. whenthenonverbalpositively correlated unrelated stimuliwere but whenmore posed, displayingrelationship between andreceiving nonverbal affect cues. Theseskillswere bythe vs. stimuli asmoderated posed spontaneous of theimportance demonstrated nonverbal displays. Ameta-analytic investigation byElfenbein(2010) andEisenkraft previous vs. outcomes based onposed spontaneous tions the ecological validity of vs. nonverbalassessments based on spontaneous posed displays. This outcome ques- Matsumoto, Willingham, advantage toshow andOlide(2009)failed thein-group for when agiven emotioniselicitedmay berelatively universal. Inaddition,work by movements muscle facial triggered the particular but fromvary to culture, culture Matsumoto, 2002).Itmay (see bethecasethateventsculture thatelicitemotions of questioned duetomethodologicalrestrictions instudiesdocumentingtheimpact Ambady, 2002a, 2002b). However, advantage an in-group such evidence for has been this questionhave revealed advantages (­ in-group indecodingaccuracy decodingaccuracy, increases familiarity (cultural) andmeta-analytic assessmentsof h ovra hrceitcctgr ytmo EkmanandFriesen haspro- systemof The nonverbal characteristic-category  Elfenbein & -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 3 pcfcnneblidctr fthecues. nonverbal(3) specific of indicators nonverbal into(1)dimensions,(2)associatedcuesand expression isthus organised of responsiveness. Mehrabian’s volume system activity andfacial are indices of speech nonverbal Such participants. behaviourthe interaction asvocal activity, rate, speech behaviourity’ cues that relate and involve to orientating of the relative importance asymmetry. position andarm-leg angle, Responsiveness isexpressed through ‘activ- relaxation, ashandandneck sideways-lean, reclining such posture ation’ cuesof touching, distanceandorientation. aseyeciated withpositiveness cuessuch represent ‘immediacy’ contact,forward-lean, liking. Nonverbal behaviours asso- avoidance of tendencies,usually describedinterms objectsthatrelate toapproach-­ or otherpersons Positiveness involves theevaluation of are, potency, positiveness sions, describedassocialorientations, andresponsiveness. Mehrabian (1972).Thesedimen- dimensionsis thatof three of nise theminterms An influentialapproach thatusesmultiplenonverbalorga- andattemptsto categories & Elfenbein, 2013). (cf., transmission Kudesia of multiplechannels ecologicallymore valid assessmentof observation toprovide a have researchers useof increased calledfor contemporary Anumberof mission provide communication inhumaninteraction. meaningful more - trans single versus towhich of multiplechannels thedegree istoexamine research in nonverbal challenge communication. A major behaviour of channels his analysis of notnoticingamessage beingsentbyanencoder.repressing or awareness refers toadecodereitherbeingaware of, emotions tobeexpressed. Level of her allowing hisor anencoder isincontrol towhich of control refers tothedegree thedecoder. Intentional theencoder, and awareness of onthepart of trol onthepart thebehaviour andwhetherthedecoders are family, strangers. friends,or setting of ontheirdelivery,emotional expression depending isplaying, the role theperson the expressions toconvey andvocalisations may intheircapacity (paralanguage) vary conveying isfeeling. regarding how aperson a lowerfor Facial capacity information sive communicative thanspecifically channels have intheiremotionalcontent.These are continuousbehaviours more thanare words, andareposture expres spoken - more atively expressive more andcontinuous. For footmovements in changes example, or emotionalmeaning. of messages with a wide variety conveying for capacity the largestgreatest number of itwillusually have. thecommunication specificity channels have These greater the discrete Themore acommunicationis,the words). instance, identifiable (for meanings containingdistinguishable unitswith of value willbeinterms discrete itsinformation (discrete-continuous). (1) communication specificity (communicative-expressive) ­communication specificity value and (2) information Potency represents status or socialcontrol throughPotency andisdemonstrated represents ‘relax statusor - byDittmantothe nonverbalThe most useful contribution is communicationarea amessage varies towhich inintentionalcon- Dittman alsodiscussedthedegree dimensionare describedasbeingrel thecapacity - Channels attheotherendof thecontinuum,more istothecommunicative achannel The closer endof NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION Mehrabian 95 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 RANDALL A.GORDONANDDANIELDRUCKMAN 96 Patterson movements, paralanguage, and so on), does not properly emphasise the interdependent movements, andsoon),doesnotproperly emphasisetheinterdependent paralanguage, expressions, arm facial instance, (for channels separate verbal of behaviour in terms combinationsasrelatedmulti-channel totheseven functions. Thus,presenting non- of bal behaviour is bestconsidered andconfigurations exchanges’ as‘co-ordinated function; (6)affect taskgoals. or management; service and,(7)facilitating Nonver (4) expressing social control;(3) expressing intimacy; ing interaction; (5) presentation thoseactsprimarily involved insocialinteraction. and presentation) of nonverbal behaviour are related tothemanagement (bothinterpretation functions of relationship 1988). The basic in a primary (Patterson, viewing participants parties third for 1983),or theother(Patterson, for constructs person each behavioural context behaviours that mustbeconsidered andrequires sensitivity tothe relational of nature It is this in aninteraction. participants expressions between of an exchange of terms as socialcommunication,nonverbal behaviourwhenconsidered isonly in meaningful communication is presented (1983, 1988, 2001). He argues by Patterson that of poses recentA more nonverbal attempt to organise pur behaviour into basic functions or communicate. tothose withwhomthey professionals whose judgement and influence are important readily testable andapplicable daily, tosocialsituationsexperienced by particularly nonverbal are which behaviours intomanageable proportions, setof ised acomplex perceivedsion, either as intended (encoding) or (decoding). Thus, Mehrabian- organ interaction. relations, andtherapist-client power, teacher-student corporate rank, professional asmilitary statusissalient,such expressed byrelaxation cues,isusefulinunderstanding situationswhere socialor dimension,as 2013).Thepotency attitudesandbehaviour (Blincoe&Harris, teacher aswell asafocusonhow studentnonverbaloutcome measures behaviour impacts work on academic more calling for and academic performance, immediacy between room revealed stronger and student attitudes than immediacy relationships between Weister, onnonverbal research - behaviour intheclass &Lauer, 2017).Last,areview of Rogers-Stacy, engagementinonlineeducation(Dixson,Mackenzie, with studentcourse nonverbal have immediacy alsoshown positive relationships Recent of examinations (Goodboy, andexpertise competency Weber, &Bolkan,2009;Schrodt &Witt, 2006). perceived impacts instructor immediacy has revealedtional research that instructor outcomes(McCroskey,and studentlearning Sallinen,Fayer, 1996).Addi- &Richmond, (McCroskey, teachers Sallinen,&Fayer, Richmond, of 1995;Rocca &McCroskey, 1999), intheclassroom hasalsorevealedbal immediacy positive effects onbothevaluations communication.McCroskey’s truthful withdeceptive or onnonverconcerned research rabian andothers indicatethatthepositivenesscues,is dimension,withitsimmediacy results. bynumerous experimental For datacollectedbyMeh- are example, supported nonverbal behaviour decoding roles can be applied equally and to encoding or sions of nonverbal useful for and is especially behaviour as a communication skill. The dimen- There are seven (2)regulat - basicfunctions suggested: (1)providing information; The responsiveness dimension,asexpressed byactivity- cues,relates topersua Mehrabian’s systemplacesnonverbal behaviour contexts insocially meaningful  - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 impersonal in nature. Role and situational factors are particularly important here Role are important particularly innature. andsituationalfactors impersonal away from contact, averted andturning decreased thepartner. gaze in instancesof associated withstrong socialanxiety, positive affect; shame or embarrassment, or as touching of by demonstrative processes asembracing, kissingandotherforms such strong affect others. Theaffect management functionfocuses ontheexpression of of attention are ofteninthepresence frequent more behaviours examples. Such occur flen &­ have identifiedtheseprocesses as‘tie-signs’(Goffman,- or ‘withnesscues’(Sche 1971) asitisatothers outsidethedirect relationship. at theotherpartner Someauthors andistypically enhanceanimage, aimednotsomuch or acoupletocreate ual or function andwillbediscussedlaterinthechapter. relates research tothis theauthors’ view. of Much another’sone toaccept of point eye contact,direct bodyandvocal some- orientation intonationtoattemptpersuade statusdifferences; toclarify involved andtouch and patterns insocialcontrol are gaze nonverbal behaviours Examples of participants. the interaction related to theroles of communicatingintimacy. are of andmutualtouching examples spacing interpersonal intoanother’s towards Extendedmutualgazing ‘openness anotherperson’. eyes, closer ‘union’or refers Intimacy interaction. toliking, or, attraction generally, of thedegree nonverbal an acts during inunderstanding and predicting of the nature importance greater interactions. extended Theseare more of tion andare molardescriptionsof nonverbal isolatedandspecific more behaviours. of andrepresent communicative and regulating functionsare aspects ‘molecular’inform in voicechange volume (Argyle & Kendon, 1967; Duncan, 1972). Both the information voice and of toneandpitch conversational expression, gaze, as facial such exchange, distance;thesecondisdynamic andaffectsand interpersonal in changes momentary body orientation posture, and include an interaction tively stable over of the course that involvedremain aspects rela- thefirst are inregulating interactions: structural behaviour awareness. are Two atlow levels operate of ally of ‘automatic’or types acommunicative Thesenonverbal exchange. behaviours are usu- of and termination theimpression. informulating and visualare alsoimportant paralinguistic, nonverbal asthepostural, behaviour such However, of otherchannels cues are emphasised(Ekman&Friesen, 1975)usually toinfer emotionalexpressions. averbal Facial interaction. of themeaning states,or temporary acquired dispositions, theencoder’s encoder’s (actor’s) thedecodermay of infer aspects behaviour patterns, an observing When decoderperspective. or primarily from animpression formation expression, shouldermovement, movement, arm andhandmovement. theverbalisation theemblemfor ‘Idon’tknow’ involvesexample, facial aco-ordinated display thatoftenemploys toproduce multiplechannels adirect verbal equivalent. For anonverbal emblemsprovides agood of example communicationskills. Theuseof of applicationtothedevelopment for approach isimportant functions. Thisconfigural relationship thatare involvedand co-ordinated amongchannels meaningfully inthe The service-task functioninvolvesThe service-task nonverbal behaviours thatare relatively nonverbal behaviours ismanaged by anindivid- The presentational functionof others andestablishSocial control functionstopersuade statusdifferences communica- of The lastfive broaderrepresent functionalcategories purposes withthedevelopment, deals regulating interaction maintenance, The functionof provision functionisconsidered tobemostbasicandisseen The information celn 92.Hlighns tnigcoeadsaigacmo ou fclose andsharingacommonfocusof 1972).Holdinghands,standing Scheflen, NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION 97 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 RANDALL A.GORDONANDDANIELDRUCKMAN 98 lighting, temperature, sound, architectural elements, etc.) on the encoding and decoding ontheencodinganddecoding elements,etc.) sound,architectural lighting, temperature, behaviour settingsand the physical environment (e.g. of focusontheimpact increased (Barker,within ecologicalpsychology 1968;Wicker, an hascalledfor 1979),Patterson many nonverbal the work of communication. Echoing interactivecomplex model of anadequately sendingandreceiving processesthe parallel thatare representative of the evolutionary is that it does not capture perspective criticism of itz (2003), his major nonverbal Zebrow- communication’(p. 207).However,of inamannersimilartothatof processesary play acriticalrole inproviding thisfunctionalsystem thefoundationfor expressive behaviour andthat:‘Evolution isconsistentwiththefunctionalperspective - of forms specific son (2003)statesthattheevolutionary focusontheadaptive value of nonverbalcurrent on psychology Patter evolutionary research, ontheinfluenceof tary theindividual. Inhiscommen- preferred tendenciesof behaviours andlearned cues or nonverbal specific associationsbetween forming asafunctionof judgements canoccur automatic processing socialinformation, of he alsosuggests thatduetotheexperience manner with baby-faced adults) may havenurturing biologically based. However, been that many relatively automaticjudgements (e.g. inapositive toreact and thetendency ourselves. observes Patterson socialenvironmentour andmanagingimpressions of simultaneously decoding withthetasksof automatic processing play dealing inour nonverbal communication,the model is increasingly focused on the roles that goals and thepsychological, socialandenvironmental context. in lightof theseexpressions interpreting of expression amongthefunctionsandimportance overlap inmulti-channel of conditions,byemphasisingthedegree and setting-specific providesPatterson abroader toview framework nonverbal inwhich behaviour inrole- nonverbal communication. However, of configurative aspects useof the multichannel in itsapplicationtosocial-communicative of processes. Bothstress theimportance spective vis-à behaviour asacommunicationskill,yet appropriate itplacesthetopicinamore per taskinusingnonverbal results complex inamore course, social behaviour. This,of interpreting others ineither managingor should notbeconsidered of attheexclusion any clarity; organisational onechannel itisprimarily for bychannel, cussed separately nonverbal behaviourinteractive isdis- behaviour. Itisgenerally recognised thatif demandsentailedinsimultaneouslydescribe thecomplex initiatingandmonitoring behaviour). themodelattemptsto Inthebroadest actor sense, (impression formation, andbehaviouralprocessescognitive perception effort, and(4)person action schemas); affect, expectancies, personal cognitive goals, dispositions, resources, attentionalfocus, ality); (2)socialenvironment (partner, setting);(3)cognitive-affective (inter mediators (biology, containingmultipleprocesses: (1)determinants gender,each culture, - person factors, nonverbal of classes four communication. The model encompasses model of processing adynamic,multi-staged,process parallel maintenancebyconceptualising individuals. of theneeds to service behaviours service-task isthattheyfunction customer. of Thedistinguishingfeature hairdresser aphysician between and towards or apatient of behaviour onthepart andtouching spacing functions.in service-task interpersonal Agood isclose example the same nonverbal behaviours involved are in intimacy since many also present of nmr eetdsrpin f atro’ 19,20)prle rcs oe f Patterson’s process model of (1998, 2001) parallel recentIn more descriptions of Patterson’s functionalapproach tononverbal behaviour issimilartoMehrabian’s social of hisfunctionalconception (1995)hasattemptedtoexpand Patterson -vis communicationingeneral.  - - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 rtr etn eodo mn fthecontextuallyrelevant environmental andsocial many of setting devoid of oratory nonverbal much behaviour isthatitconducted inalab research - limitationof A major ings from humancommunicationencounters. - generatingmean for context of outthecriticalimportance discussion sinceitpoints the present for tionships among the interactants. His last assumption is most crucial professional a social or encounter) and inferences about example, rela(for - longer term asgeneral labelling such interactions with broader of interpretations nals’ anddeals ‘multi-level sig- together. of Anotherassumption isthatcommunicationcomposed and vocal facial signalsoperating asspatial, signalssuch channel combinations of can beviewed. Amongthese are thathumancommunicationconsistsprimarily of communication ingeneralandsuggested several assumptionsfrom theresearch which attempts tostudy thiscommunicationskillmeaningfully. it provides answers, yet willbetter appreciate that the reader scientific it is hoped onnonverbalresearch questionsthan communicationisincompleteandasksmore findingsinselectedcontexts. Atpresent, munication skillsistoprovide asamplingof presenting results research asappliedtocom- application. Perhaps ausefulway of nication cannotbediscussedadequately bypresenting principlesthathave universal nonverbal expressions subjecttodisplay facial rules, commu- of exception possible usefully understood whendiscussedinrole- andsetting-definedcontexts. With the hasstressedThis chapter thatnonverbal behaviour, asacommunicationskill,ismost nonverbal behaviour ascommunication. of nonverbal behaviour vis-à silentverbally,can fall onecannever becomesilentnonverbally. of Thesetwo features man, 1997).Second,itisnever to‘notact’bynonverbal possible one channels. While self-presentational goals tendenciesandstrategic (Levine &Feldby self-monitoring - others; althoughsuch refinements for been shownhave tobe direct andfigural affected andaccess for the actor tionship) presentational difficult refinements andmonitoring than it is to the actor.accessible to others in an interaction rela This makes- self- (or bal channels. Two received emphasis. Nonverbal factors particular behaviour ismore communicatingintendedmessages andemotionalstatesthrough nonver culties of nonverbal reviewed behaviour thediffi- hasbeen (1992).Sheexamined byDePaulo belonging, nonverbal control, self-enhancement) impact communicationandoutcomes. behaviourgoals settings,andinteraction (e.g. environmental of andsocialaspects the asculture, such howmunication, theecologicalsystemsmodelexamines factors nonverbal to the diverse that impact an attempt to provide factors com- integration nonverbal communication. In ecological systems model of are in his current included nonverbal variables & Quadflieg, communication (Patterson 2016). These important of nhsrve,Kap(94 icse h eeac fnonverbalIn hisreview, behaviour to Knapp(1984)discussedtherelevance of communicative andself-presentational usesof thetaskof of The complexity NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION INCONTEXT speech highlightthesignificantandproblematic nature -vis speech NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION Setting androle applications - 99 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 RANDALL A.GORDONANDDANIELDRUCKMAN 100 Actor and observer biasinexplainingnonverbal behaviour Actor andobserver observers, evaluating and judging the behaviours of the citizen withwhom they are thecitizen observers, evaluating andjudgingthebehaviours of tendencies. thesegeneral attributional foundto moderate been (D’Agostinoway &Fincher-Kiefer, thatindividuals process information 1992),have Loy,Krull, Lin,Wang, &Zhao, 1999;Masuda&Kitayama, 2004) and differences inthe differences cross-cultural including factors, (Choi &Nisbett,1998; that anumberof behaviour, todoso. whenitisself-serving especially Itshouldbementioned,however, theirown onesinexplaining dispositional of attheexpense sise situationalfactors related totheobservedtors behaviour. ontheotherhand,usually over-empha Actors, - theactor’s behaviour,- immediatesituationalfac themore whileignoring causes of tised (­ decoder istheobserver. sensi- or thatunlessotherwisetrained proposed Ithasbeen intheencodingrole isconsidered theperson tobetheactor,interactions, the whereas (Jones & Nisbett, 1972; Ross & Nisbett, 1991). In most role-defined tion participants - theinterac of theperspectives withdifferencesing) processes deals arisingoutof (decod - impression-management (encoding)andformation of feature An important honest,law-abiding).picious, deceptive, guilty, (i.e. characteristics dispositional sus- of primarily interms described thecitizen and positions dress asbodyandpostural andbehavioural sequencessuch orientation facial and exclusively vocal cues,eye andhandmovements, onspecific contact,arm Underthenon-dangerous almost thecitizen. conditions,officers concentrated sion of animpres- room, informing activities onthestreet) of town, size cues (e.g. of area were likely more toutilisebehavioural (mainly nonverbal) andsituation-environmental lightingconditions). or onthestreet, room or present insidea otherpeople theenvironment, asnumberof such of (that is,aspects behavioural (thatis,theotherperson’s verbal andnonverbal situational behaviour) or itemswere aseither classified information Cuesor thecitizen. these impressions of officer’andtoindicatecuestheyusedinforming a‘police whileintherole of a citizen with wheninteracting theylookfor and features asked toindicatethecharacteristics Intheinitialstudy interaction. (Rozelle &Baxter,citizen officers were 1975),police nonverbal behaviour. of categories mentionedearlier asdescribingmajor factors andenvironmental proxemics, adornments physicalparalanguage, characteristics, kinesics, of theinterplayamongcategories of andrevealsresearch theimportance setting-androle-defined years isillustrative of studiesconductedover anumberof of Oneseries the interaction. of toaccomplishingthepurposes communication iscrucial havein theseareas interest innonverbal aspecial behaviour. andeffective Accurate encounters. the employmentinteractions, Professionals interview and police-citizen professional-patient counselling session),health or asthepsychotherapeutic (such role-defined settings tospecific impression formation management andprocesses of impression 1984). Thisisaseriousproblem of inattemptstogeneralisetechniques etal.,1982;Knapp, present life(Davis, inreal interactions features 1984;Druckman Rozelle and Baxter (1975) concluded that police officers see themselves as officers see thatpolice Rozelle andBaxter(1975)concluded danger, scanand perceptual officers indicatedabroadened Under conditionsof police-­ of astanding, face-to-face role-defined settingwasthat The specific Watson, 1982),observers over-emphasise the qualitiesininferring dispositional  Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 in hands-at-crotch positioning. Brief rotating head movements rotating head whilefoot increased, in hands-at-crotch positioning. Brief themselvesand handsbetween andtheinterviewer, andthere wasanoticeable increase rotation/elevation movements to placetheirarms Subjects adoptedpositions increased. were reactions facial displayed. movements Small,discrete andhead head occurred, developing.cato pattern Eye movements aversion and gaze while few increased, other withanuneven, anddisorganised, stac- timeandfrequency becamedisrupted speech spacing. Asthesubjectwasincreasingly crowded theinterview, during her hisor interpersonal intimate, inappropriate, experiencing people of with typicalreactions the crowdingbehaviours bythesubjectsduring exhibited conditionwere consistent crowding increased across Thenonverbal time. of theimpact andexamined classes wassystematically to Hall’sofficer andcitizen varied according distance first three the thedistancebetween two-minute phasesinwhich four interview that consisted of spacing. interpersonal of have andthatothercultures cultures different European definitions Northern possibly Americanand Hall (1966)stipulatedthatthese distances are appropriate North only for 4 3 2 1 interactions: communications inface-to-face distancethatdescribedifferentinterpersonal of types of categories four settings,Hall(1959, 1966)proposed can behaviour in a variety of Ameri- North Basedonhisobservations of interaction. inthepolice-citizen included proxemics was of behaviour wasobtainedwhenthecategory of interpretations rate, how toclear, thisobserver biascanlead yet inaccu- of example dramatic A more arelatively brief,initialencounter. ments mustbemadeonthebasisof behaviour, whenjudge particularly - behaviour. of tomisinterpretations Thiscanlead thecitizen’s of behaviour asacontributing, personal situationaldeterminant ignores thecitizen’s behaviour.or Thus,theofficerunder-estimates of situational determinant thesituationandofficer’s behaviour isanimportant distinguishable of features more the theofficerisprobably interaction, face-to-face oneof of note thatinthistype to importance particular theobserved behaviour. Itisof situationalcausesof ignoring interacting. Asaresult, theofficermakes predominantly interpretations, dispositional A study by Baxter and Rozelle (1975) focused on a simulated police-citizen A study byBaxterandRozelle (1975)focusedonasimulatedpolice-citizen which recognition of others spoken toisnotrequired. others spoken recognitionwhich of andinvolvePublic distancesthatrangefrom 12to20feet in public speaking professional interactions client and business thatare typicalof 4to7feet consultativeSocial or distancesof ships personal relation- usually reflectclose, which 1.5to4feet, Personal distancesof andprotecting’ comforting are expressing intimacy ‘love-making interactions andwrestling,other. Types of stand from from interactants 6to 18 inches each Intimate distances in which NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION Interpersonal distance,roles and problems ofinterpretation 101 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 RANDALL A.GORDONANDDANIELDRUCKMAN 102 Cultural influences impressions (Crittenden & Bae, 1994). impressions (Crittenden&Bae, differentnegotiations. societiesmanage Theymay alsoreveal theway that members of French-Chinese municating across asFaure of cultures inthecontext (1993)illustrated (March, 1988). Understanding preferred nonverbal expressions may com - be abasis for a group and bodychronous movements stride, angle with other members of in pace, away from expressive thehands(richly others), themouth(closed), gestures), andsyn- impassive), theeyes (immobile, –intheface (gaze negotiators Japanese expression for of alsosuggest distinctpatterns (Argyle,ing withintimacy 1986).Anecdotalreports and Americansubjects. Thesevariations may differences- reflect cultural rules deal in lesseyeward-lean, away contact,andoriented from theother–thantheirFinnish themselves lessfor tobelessimmediate –indicatedbylesstouching, distance, more get howenactedafteraninitialemotionaldisplay. display rules typical of universal emotions maybe andculture-specific fast sequencing of encoded first. This emotion(e.g. joy over having is justwon anathleticcompetition) versal expression of quickly,rules occurs display culture-specific often inless thanonesecond,the uni- of Research byMatsumotoetal.(2009)suggests thatalthoughtheactivationdeception. expressions thatwould besocially would tomodifycertain inappropriate reveal or or aswe discussedabove.mined display rules serve tocontrol Display anexpression rules (Elfenbein andAmbady,elicited issubjecttocultural 2002b,2003)andsituation-deter emotionsmay theprimary beuniversal,lying physiologyfor theactualexpression emotion(e.g. theunder Ekman&O’Sullivan, 1988).While expressions of for sources distinguishedtheuniversal by Ekmanandhiscolleagues specific from theculturally different cultures. recent More studies behaviour amongmembersand touching of (1966) have shown differences behaviour, ingazing behaviour, space body orientations from several directions. Early studies by Watson (1970) and by Watson and Graves role played differencesThe important bycultural innonverbal behaviour issuggested limitations. decodingaccuracy,to increase alltoolsandmethodshave theirown setsof tools haveverbal shown behaviour, been Vrij (2008) states that although a number of withnon- skillindetectingliesanddeception evidence theexisting onour sive review of guide judgements across (e.g. theboardroom). contexts thecourtroom, Inacomprehen- stereotypes behaviour whethersuch (Vrij, todetermine 2008).Additionaldataisneeded verbal citizen andappropriately tofocusonthecontentof deception trained of index nonverbal behaviour asaninformative of intheefficacy be dissuadedfrom theirbelief to officers need isthatpolice from thework ondeception lessonstobelearned important the most (Bogaard et al., 2016). Perhaps deception one of movement to be indicative of andviewreotypes non-diagnostic(nonverbal) aversion asgaze cuessuch andincreased have context izen revealed officers believe thatbothstudentsandpolice theusualste- suspicion anddeception. Rozelle andBaxter’s officers asthedescribedbehaviours indicatingguilt, police real manipulation (thatis,crowding) were but strikingly similartothoseemphasisedby movements Thesenonverbal decreased. behaviours were produced bya situational Klopf et al. (1991) showed that the Japanese subjectsintheirstudy etal.(1991)showedperceived thattheJapanese Klopf nonverbal- encodinganddecodingrelated tothepolice-cit Recent investigations of  - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 Comparing Chinese experimental truth-tellers toliars, Cody, truth-tellers andChao(1989), Chineseexperimental Comparing Lee, emotion(Marsh, Elfenbein, &Ambady, 2003). expression of anese Americanshave differences revealed cultural in‘nonverbal accents’ inthefacial study. However, otherinvestigations- thathave nationalsandJap Japanese compared emotionfrom inthis face of interpretation wasunrelated totheaccurate acculturation tent withthelikelihoodexpressions would universally thatfacial bemore understood, (Bailey, acculturation 1998). Consis- & Cole, Nowicki, of significantly related to degree voice was and tone of emotionthrough posture the nonverbal for racy expression of thatdecodingaccu- Americansdemonstrated andEuropean African, Afro-Caribbean African-American, between decodingaccuracy infelt stress.groups of Acomparison ter suggests thatthedifferences may reflect ingaze differences subcultural between - this chap 1991; Winkel & Vrij, of 1990). Preliminary evidence obtained by the authors behaviour were gaze found as well in other societies (Vrij & Winkel, of ilar patterns (LaFrance &Mayo,when listeningandtowards theother whenspeaking 1978).Sim- behaviour.jects in gazing away The African American subjects directed their gaze interviewers withArab interacting students. outpreviously English carried byCollett(1971)withtrained parable results hadbeen Asimilarstudy social,andprofessional withcom- personal, competence. of the areas in along with higher ratings preference policeman, showed the ‘trained’ zens a clear for officers with different African American citizens. ratings by thesePost-interview citi- These interviews were with‘standard’ contrasted interviews conductedbythesame an interview with African American citizens. during positioning’ and interpersonal officers toengageinempirically determined ‘African Americannonverbal behaviour Baxter,sequent study byGarratt, Anglo-American andRozelle (1981)trained police through predictableing arrangements adjustments. footwork andorientation Asub- to‘work towards’- inconsistentspac appear contexts, in natural groups intercultural in thatAfrican,Anglo-Americans,wheninteracting demonstrates andMexican theThompsonandBaxterstudy indirection Americans.more thanMexican Indeed, distances and prefer greater than Anglo-Americans, who in turn oblique orientations distancesandatmore AfricanAmericans tendtoprefereral, atgreater interacting in several observational studies(e.g. Thompson&Baxter, 1973;Willis, 1966).Ingen- verbal toincreased andnonverbal leading tures, emotionalexpressivity. outgoing behaviour inindividualistic cul- higherlevels of ualism may beaproduct of suggest thattheobservedThe authors expressivity relationship andindivid between - positive emotions(happinessandsurprise). was driven expression of bythenormative therelationship of individualism. Itshould be notedthat the majority of and measures astrong positive expressivity relationship tance). Asexpected, wasfoundbetween dis- interaction (closer space (direct), and interpersonal gaze manyuse, illustrators), voice (louder, gesture (frequent (relaxed emblem and open), posture andfaster), deeper, the (many amplifyingandillustrating), nels: theface expressions, facial animatedfacial nonverbal expressivity across2016) have sixnonverbal- developed chan ataxonomy of across countries(Matsumotoetal.,2008).MatsumotoandHwang(2013, thirty-two investigationdocumented inacross-cultural than5000participants more thatincluded A few studieshave indeceptive enactments. investigated factors cultural Differences were AfricanAmericanand whiteAmericansub- alsofoundbetween differences preferencesSubcultural spacing have examined ininterpersonal been usage andnonverbal ondisplay culture rule expressivity hasbeen of The impact NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION

103 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 RANDALL A.GORDONANDDANIELDRUCKMAN 104 Some researchimplications tion (see Hyman and Druckman, 1991). Respondentswould beasked about HymanandDruckman, thekinds tion (see - decep about aculture’sinterviews would beconducted tolearn of ‘folkpsychology’ cues. ‘leaked’ specific would beculturally groups. Thesebehaviours within thecultural distinguish deceivers and truth-tellers from those cultures. Theenactmentsshouldreveal thenonverbal behaviours that bysubjects enactingscriptsthatinvolvesettings for truth-telling or eitherdeception identified,thesesituationscouldthenbeusedas When andexperience. background students. Situationsthatproduce guiltare likely withanindividual’s tovary cultural modesty than were Canadian lies aboutto interpret prosocial of behaviour as atype Cameron, andXu(2001)foundthatChinesestudentswere likely more tion. Fu,Lee, - decep there are differences likelyful. Indeed, tobecultural intheacceptability of different would behelp- groups cultural members of situations thatproduce guiltfor investigations display rules, designedtodiscover cultural the of Building ontheidea (p. cultures)’ ticular individuals 188). (or par aguilt-producing statefor or settingsthatconstitutesocialtransgression of sorts the onecouldanticipate would beimproved deception if that:‘detectionof concluded (1991) Hyman and Druckman research, deception groups. Based on their review of indifferentage’ thatmayintentionalstructures complex beusedtoexamine cultural - ‘leak nate thepsychological statesaroused that give withincultures risetothekindof deceive aninterviewer. exploit theydonotillumi- or thestudiesare informative, While different attempt to or when they violate a social taboo, feel cultures example, for themdescribesthe people from way sions influencingnonverbal behaviour. Noneof andHyman(1991). Druckman studies, see other cross-cultural For colour). blinking and facial increased a review of aversion cues) and some notablegaze and paralinguistic differences of (expectations increased of ties withdatafrom theUnited States andWestern (expectations Europe about by Al-Simadi (2000) revealed cues among Jordanians deception some similari- beliefs byothers. of judgingdeception Anexamination contact andfrequent pauses) subjectsusedsimilar,American andJordanian nonverbal inaccurate cues(avoiding eye eyepauses. movements contact,more filledHowever, minuteandmore per boththe displayed subjects(liars andtruth-tellers) AmericanstheJordanian more sample of toacomparable Compared pauses when lying thanwhentellingthetruth. filled more expressed theJordanians theliars andtruth-tellers: distinguishedbetween pauses subjects,Bond,Omar,to Jordanian Mahmoud,andBonser(1990)foundthatonly filled smilingfrequentlyfeelings, andsuppressing body andhandmovements. With regard incommunicatingnegative required were effort. brief Boththeliars andtruth-tellers difficultyincommunicatingdetailedanswers more tothequestionsthat experienced ies reviewed to the truth-tellers) et al. (1985), the Chinese liars (compared byDePaulo ables were related strongly more toquestiondifficulty. Like theAmericansinstud- vari- andvocal thegroups. Otherparalinguistic stresserrors distinguishedbetween Yi Chao(1987)andO’Hair, Cody, Wang, and Yi Chan(1989)foundthatonly speech Following studiescouldbeimplementedinstages. thisapproach, such First, suggestive, dimen- thesestudiesareWhile notsufficientprobes intothecultural  - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 discussed indetailChapter 16). theinterviewer (theemployment interview is of in thedecodingprocess onthepart inadvertently encoded by the interviewee-actor,degrees, misinterpreted and possibly from is,tovarying anonverbal theimpression formed communication perspective, Thus, theimpression formed. and may make a job-related decisiononthebasisof qualitiestothe interviewee-actor dispositional same behaviours toinfer long-term theinterviewee’s behaviours, theinterviewer uses these immediate situationalcauseof theinterviewer isanimportant, theinterviewer. Unaware thatthevery role of of inasensitive reacts the interviewee mannertoevery verbal andnonverbal behaviour observer,uational biaseffect. ‘asusual’,while Theinterviewer, proceeds intherole of - the observer-dispositional Thiscouldincrease bias,actor-sit theinterviewee. one for theworking theinterviewer day, during for itisusually aninfrequent andstressful ty-minute interview. Althoughtheemployment interview may beatypicalexperience behaviour athir observed during asaresult of occurring attributions dispositional job-related basedon decisionregarding theinterviewee often makes animportant, encoder. or whoisthe‘actor’ theinterviewee the verbal andnonverbal actsof the interviewerinteraction, couldbeconsidered decoderevaluating the‘observer’ or actor-observer distinctioncouldbeappliedtotheemployment interview. an Insuch ithaselementssimilartomany professionalexchange, interactions. For the example, verbal extreme situationalproxemic variations withonlyamountof amoderate andinvolved rather encounterdiscussedearlier wasbrief Although thepolice-citizen etal.(1981). ratt etal.(1982),FiedlerandWalka (1992),Druckman (1971), Costanzo (1993),andGar work completedbyCollett modulesalongthelinesof training the development of aswell asfor diagnosticpurposes groups. Thesecuescouldthenbeusedfor tural several cul- of each cues)for (theleakage liars andtruth-tellers distinguish between studiesdesignedtodiscover experimental tured thosenonverbal behaviours that - gathered from theinterviews couldprovide struc more the information thebasesfor beingingroups.) Third, evidence onthedisinhibitingeffects [1994]for & Pruitt, of representative Parker, group alsoMikolic, tonon-representative. compared (See of whentheywere groups intheroleand lessguiltfelt inallcultural byrespondents different thischapter, groups showed cultural differences members of instress for of groups, obtainedbytheauthors group. Preliminary findingsonsubcultural cultural each for orshame guilt would of thensuggest thedimensionsthatinfluence feelings the questions being asked. Analyses for she prepared he or to which and the extent theinterview, anaudienceduring her/himself,thepresence of or resents agroup - rep dimensionsaswhethertheperson such of interms can bedesignedtovary andstress. guilt,shame, Thevignettes of feelings of interms reactions respondents’ vignetteswould bepresented deception for Second,experimental their culture. versus thosethatare liesandlying situationsthatare taboo permissible within of In the authors’ experience withtheprofessional interview experience setting,In theauthors’ theinterviewer SETTINGS: ASAMPLEOFRESEARCHFINDINGS NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR INPROFESSIONAL NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION - - 105 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 RANDALL A.GORDONANDDANIELDRUCKMAN 106 perceptions of supervisors (Richmond &McCroskey, (Richmond supervisors 2000; Jia, Cheng,2017). &Hale, of perceptions 1977 ).Nonverbal shown toberelated topositive hasalsobeen subordinate immediacy ment interviewers (Forbes etal.,1979;Young 1980;Hollandsworth &Jackson, &Beier, affect and evaluative impressionsappearance, formed judgements made by employ- movement,cues, frequent head voice frequent loudnessandpersonal smiling, posture, paralinguistic combinationsof gaze, nonverbalthat such behaviours ashighlevels of nonverbally aninterview (Fretz during &Stang, 1982).Research studiesgenerally show applicants on how school to communicate favourable to graduate qualities research, theAmericanPsychological Associationgives suggestions,example, basedon specific 1976). (Keenan, thancandidates who receivedcomfortable nonverbal disapproval from theinterviewer they were judged byobjective observers andmore relaxed, atease tobemore more that whencandidatesreceived nonverbal approval anemployment during interview, interviewer enthusiasm.Anotherstudy showedably thanthosegiven alow level of gazing, gesturing,instance, andsmiling),theapplicantswere judged favour more nonverbal ‘enthusiasm’bytheinterviewer (for applicants were given ahighlevel of employment interview setting, Washburn andHakelthat when (1973)demonstrated effectivemore interactions. For communication in face-to-face in a simulated example, and nonverbal behaviour canbeusefulinimpression tocreate management techniques verbal effects potential of Knowledge characteristics. of dispositional of indicators nonverbal behaviour andnotto rely on‘favourite’ nonverbal behaviours asflawless theinfluencetheyhaveclients’ on shouldconstantly remind themselvesteaching of behavioural validity etal.,2015). across slices(Murphy nods,andsmileshadthegreatest are bestrepresented inthinslicesshowed thatgaze, nonverbal behaviours of types which be relatively interchangeable). Anassessment of inter-slice reliability sequencestendto sliceswithininteraction (i.e. of stantial degrees thin-slicestimulihave revealed sub- related tothereliabilityon factors andvalidity of a second (Rule & Ambady, research 2008). Current can be reliably in 1/20 of determined (Babad, Avni-Babad, &Rosenthal, 2003,2004).Remarkably, orientation malesexual evaluations students’teaching ispredictive withtheclass wasinteracting of instructor nonverbal toteacher behaviour whilethe (tensecond)exposure shown thateven brief bal andnonverbal) significantlytheeffect moderated Additionalfindings size. have (nonverbal exposure channel vs. nor ver exposure studies. Neitherlengthof sixteen detection.Theyfoundasignificanteffect deception r=.31,across for a predictor size, expressiveof behaviour as orless) on ‘thinslices’(definedasafive-minute exposure minutes.four have shown thatawell-organised judgmentalimpression may bemadeinaslittle nonverbal cuesinaninitialencounter. Others asecondonthebasisof of a fraction lated interactions. Zajonc(1980)statedthatevaluative judgements are oftenmadein in interviewing, andotherprofessionally counselling, therapeutic role-re teaching, - people and evaluativeating expectancies judgements (andsometimes diagnoses)of incre- Research indicatesthatfirst impressions are important patterns. interaction may thatbiastheremaining becreated sinceexpectancies aninteraction, stages of Impression For may management strategies alsobeutilisedbytheinterviewee. People whoare inprofessional roles asinterviewing, such counselling, and A meta-analytic study byAmbady andRosenthal (1992)summarisedtheresearch theinitial during This miscommunicationprocess may important beparticularly  - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 condition. evasive or whetherthesubjectwasin honest,deceptive, intention unaware of nonverbal theinterview andtheinterviewer behaviour bythemduring was exhibited thestudy wastoassess interview. were of notaware Participants thatthepurpose were the and discussionpoints themfor presented tothesubjectshelpprepare and evasive honest, deceptive, arguments evasive or deceptive, Examples of fashion. directed themtoexpress theircountry’s ontheissuesineitheranhonest, position intention conditionsthat three the issues,subjectswere randomly assignedtooneof andpresentedUnited Nationstranscripts tothesubjectsindetail.Afterstudying issueswasderived from pertinent viewed inapress conference setting. Asetof beinginter ambassador aforeign versity toplay studentswere therole of instructed projectThe initialresearch involved arole-playing study upper-level inwhich uni- social interactions. inprofessional people and everyday encountered by abroad rangeof experiences of thatcontainselementssimilartoavariety Itisalsoanarea sion andinterpretation. nonverbal expres- of withthecomplexity andthusattemptstodeal social factors and personal, situational,cultural, abroad rangeof thatencompasses This isanarea (­ others to develop (decoding)observed betterskillsininterpreting behaviour of (encoder),andtothenapply thesefindings thecommunicator intentionsof specific nonverbalan attempttoidentifysystematically certain behaviours associatedwith willbebrieflypresented research thatillustrates of In thissection,aprogramme experiences. role-defined thatone interactions toconsiderindeveloping communicationskillsinthevarious of contexts important Knapp’s seven dimensions are applications, all of for formula complex ates a rather and environmental physicallanguage, characteristics, Althoughthiscre factors. - withothernonverbal kinesicsinteracts - asproxemics, such para categories of form defined settings. However, these results also reveal that nonverbal behaviour in the nonverbal impressions inrole- behaviour inmanagingandforming of importance (Hall,1966). theinteractants markings of clearly identifytheranks asuniform such recognised settingwhere inthemilitary physicalbeen appearance a higher-statusStatusdifferences one. andassociatednonverbal behaviours have also theinterviewer, from alow-statusnotfrom applicantbut of onthepart was expected, low status(Tessler &Sushelsky,negatively thanoneof 1978).Evidently, aversion gaze high status would be evaluated more avoids at the interviewer, gazing an applicant of anapplicant thatif For onestudy reported example, have reported. ing factors been Caution shouldbeadvised behaviours, applying sincequalify- before thesespecific Druckman et al., 1982). The context selected for this research is international politics. isinternational thisresearch selectedfor etal.,1982).Thecontext Druckman hsbif apigo empiricalresults provides impressive the evidence for samplingof This brief AN EXAMPLEOFRESEARCHANDAPPLICATION: NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION INTERNATIONAL POLITICS Laboratory research Laboratory - ­ 107 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 RANDALL A.GORDONANDDANIELDRUCKMAN 108 Research findings oet communication. ­honest, not2004). However, deceptive, thisadvantage judgements wasfoundonly of for conditions(Frank, Paolantonio,Feeley, inthegroup among participants &Servoss, revealed groups asignificantadvantage individuals andsmall(sixperson) between decodingaccuracy thatcompared Additionalresearch admissible evidence incourt. therefore suggests thatoutcomesfrom shouldnotyet thesetechniques beallowed as centand is30per acommontechnique of rate (2015) notesthattheknown error theoutcomeshave Vrij been, involving undergraduates. Aspromising assomeof thosedataemanatefrom studies across moststudies. However,accuracy of thebulk decoding outcomes continuetobequitepromising betterthanchance withmuch verbal veracity assessment tools. Vrij (2015)summarisesthework todateandthe additional criteria-basedcontentanalysis models have developed andusedas been &Bull,2004;Vrij,Soukara, Edward, Roberts, &Bull,2000).Over thelastdecade, inthesestudieshave rates cent(Vrij,Accuracy rangedfrom 77 to89per Akerhurst, verbal content. thatassessthecredibility contentanalysis techniques of ous speech vari- nonverbal behaviour withtheapplicationof combiningtheevaluation of of non-diagnosticnonverbaland ignore behaviour. reliable are topayattention tothemore trained or have nonverbalgroups learned cues (Mann, Vrij, thisisonly &Bull,2004),but likely tobethecasewhentheseprofessional (Ekman &O’Sullivan, 1991;Ekman,O’Sullivan, officers &Frank, 1999)andpolice of the SecretService asmembers such experts groups of can behigheramongspecific bias).There are accuracy datathatsuggest detectiondeception detecting lies(atruth at ing honestyandskillatdetectingliesreveals that we poor tendtobeparticularly skillatdetect- evaluation specific thatdistinguishesbetween outthatamore points 1980;Vrij, etal.,1985;Kraut, cent(DePaulo 45and60per tochance: 2000).Vrijclose across rate thesestudiestendstohover Theaccuracy students toassessdeception. etal., 1985). (DePaulo training such preting nonverbal of behaviours –andactually mayneed beinspecial andskilldevelopment training ininter tobenefitfrom further would appear ‘experts’ thecases,respectively. Thus,even centof inonly 43,30and27per ambassadors thesubject- classified sive correctly condition.Results indicatedthattheexperts eva or - inthehonest,deceptive, thesubjecthadbeen the videosandthenguessedif effectively in‘dealing andexpertise Theseexecutivesexperience withpeople’. viewed their executives selectedonthebasisof judgements corporate produced bythree thesubject. of evasive or the cases in detecting honest, deceptive, intentions cent of in 77 per rate movements, leg timeatinterviewer andobjectfidgeting)instance, gaze were accu- theinterview, nonverbal three behaviours (for evasive.tive, or of Inanothersegment - asbeinghonest,decep thesubjectswere correctly classified centof so on),96.6per time at interviewer, head-shaking, gaze instance, behaviours (for movements, leg and theirnonverbal behaviours. Usingtennonverbal solely onthebasisof accurately Analyses revealed andevasive thathonest,deceptive, subjectscouldbeclassified Research summarised in Vrij the utility and Mann (2004) has demonstrated undergraduate decodingstudies have involved the use of of The vast majority These computer-generated results were toanothersetof instrikingcontrast  - ­ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 inference was shown effective training tobeespecially etal.,1982). (Druckman used for The strategy materials increased. the instructional of applied organisation andevasive honest,deceptive, between presentations improved and asthespecificity judgement indistinguishing intention.Results of showed thataccuracy of indicators briefingandinference (atechnical training)regarding nonverbal information specific from ranging general (aglobal andanaudio-only lecture presentation) to instruction, of types decoders andrepresented four were presented to differentgrammes of groups subjectsplaying thisrole. Four pro training - deceptive andevasive intentionsof designedtoimproveing programme theobserver’s ability todistinguishamonghonest, thisstudy were theywere- complex, intoatrain organised Even thoughtheresults of Schuetzler, &Wilson, 2014). onmultiplebehaviours across deception time(Burgoon, Proudfoot, of ing theimpact investigations- examin exploratory shown somepromising outcomesinaseriesof Anolli (2006) revealed differences cross-cultural investigations current and more have nonverbal behaviour across Early time. work withTHEMEbyAglioti, Vescovo, and of patterns comprehensive a more (Magnusson, 2005)shouldallow for assessment of confidenceandeffectiveness. of expressed feelings conditions displayed relatedand tension.Subjectsinallthree to behaviour patterns ment, whileevasive stress anddeceptive subjectsdisplayed nonverbal indicationof to thesubject.Evasive andhonestsubjectsdisplayed behaviours indicatinginvolve- were related totheintentionconditionassigned apprehension), andthatthesepatterns stress, relaxation, confidence, example, theinterview (for ings thesubjecthadduring nonverbal behaviours were- related tofeel of patterns questions indicatedthatcertain fatigue. relaxation, or adaptation,stress, familiarity, of Thesemay aninteraction. be duetofactors of course even isplaying different whenaperson thesamerole, behaviours emerge the during interview.formal the Thus, five-minute of in the three segments behaviour occurred the role that is being communicated. Also, upon different of depending patterns nonverbal behaviour displaysthat thesameperson different andlevels of patterns Itwould appear period. theinterview thaninthepost-interview during ments occurred fewer displays,nodding, facial lesshead fewer body swivels andlessfrequent state- significantly example, for ambassador: behaviourstrained whenplaying therole of Generally, period. post-interview the informal subjectsshowed suppressed, more con- during role from whenthesubject changed tobeing‘him/herself’ theambassador terns consciousprocessing ondecodingoutcomes. of theimpact for &Vadillo,odological limitations(Street tocarefully control studiesneed 2016).Future hashadmeth- thework inthearea inthesestudieshavesizes smallandsomeof been Stimson, & Carney,Brinke, Vohs, 2014; ten Brinke, & Carney, 2016). However, effect (ten decodingaccuracy togreater subliminalprocessing leading for ated somesupport Current computer-assisted asTHEME behaviouralobservation toolssuch Current post-interview analyses toasetof usingsubjects’responses Yet anothersetof analyses revealed significantshiftsinnonverbalpat- behaviour Another setof Recent work guided by the use of implicit measurement techniques has gener techniques implicit measurement Recent work guided by the use of NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION Training the decoder - 109 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 RANDALL A.GORDONANDDANIELDRUCKMAN 110 Themes foranalysis AN APPLICATION OFEXPERIMENTAL RESULTS STRATEGIES FORINTERPRETINGNONVERBALBEHAVIOUR: sions are made apparent in Duncan’s (1983) detailed analyses of conversational turn conversational turn sions are inDuncan’s madeapparent (1983) detailedanalyses of expres exhibited - peopleon other environment.the built influencesof Constraining of themeaning of interaction/behaviour comesalive (1982) treatment inRapoport’s influencessocial thattranspires. greatly thatcontext thediscourse Theproposition of andthenature withwhomthesubjectinteracts theotherpeople furniture), instance, are ascontext thesemi-fixedobjectsinsetting (for referred Included toascontext. whatisobserved. may Thesesources for explanation be there are of othersources their meaning. But the movements of and intentions, one can get an idea to feelings deceptive ‘ambassadors’. interviews wasobserved with arocking/nodding/shaking cluster during example, for deceivers aswasobserved for the sametimeperiod inthestudy presented above – about within isbehaviours their‘nation’s’ thatoccur information anotherform policy; noddingshown bysubjectsattemptingtowithhold andhead ments, head-shaking swivels, trunk rocking move- of as the pattern such clusters, or indicators correlated object-fidgeting are is usedinequationstoidentifyprobable intentions;asecond form movements leg time, and constituent behaviours, as when gaze combinations of linear may oneconsistsof take several intentions. forms: or Thepatterns feelings behaviours thenprovide inferences a basisfor about of totaldisplays. Patterns of intoaccount. tual features nonverbal behaviours- andtakingcontex themes, namely focusingoncombinationsof cited above. analysis, theframeworks emphasisetwo for general Providing astructure toguidetheresearch lem. Several are suggested leads byframeworks constructed sounds andexpressions. Justwhere tofocus one’s attentionis a basic analytical prob- changingactions, quickly of panoramas Moving filmare shown pictures onvideoor isemphasised. politics, international that of context, oneparticular of analysis features areniques for discussed,andthespecial significant events.- Inthefollowing sections,themesandtech interested observer of it isavaluable analyst; theprofessional itisausefulframework toolfor policy the for interpretation: for &Hyman,1991).Theplanisastructure alsoDruckman (see leaders political plausible inferences about physical intentionsandpsychological or statesof interview, conversation. informal speech, or a the nonverbal example, interest: of for behaviour thecourse observed during of text not transferdirectly settings.mustbeestablished tospecific Meaning withinthecon- behaviour may thenonverbal of aspects pretation ingeneral,anunderstanding of and othernonverbal behaviours convey meaning. However, whileaddingvalue tointer The studiesreviewed above expressions, theassumptionthatgestures, facial support Patterned movements are an important part of the total situation. By anchoring thetotal situation.Byanchoring of part movements arePatterned an important codedseparately,While thenonverbal analysis behaviours canbecombinedfor deriving developed for work, aplanhasbeen Building ontheearlier laboratory  - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 5 4 3 2 1 are thefollowing. andreferences category indicators ineach isrevealedwhose meaning inconjunctionwiththethemesnotedabove. Illustrative behaviours. suggest Theseprovide particular experiments multiplesigns a numberof commitment. toamountasinthecaseof or andstatusindicators) deception andprofiles), channels toparticularnonverbal (for indicators relationships health (for thesethemesserves todirect ananalyst’sand body attentionto movements. of Each expressions facial clusters profiles of summariseco-varying ical status. Biographical relationships proxemic provides- spatial activity topolit or clues careful recording of channels. The behaviours expressed inavariety of revealed intensityof inincreased body activity, as well asdeviations is from baseline data.Strong commitmentto policy differentas well asbetween nonverbal is suggested byexcessive channels. Deception inconsistencies in verbal or and nonverbalare behaviours, suggested by incongruities health failing issuesmentionedabove. thepolitical Signsof of is emphasisedineach expressed? How fully istheperson’s consolidatedandsecure position? political totheposition How committedistheperson actualpolicy)? beliefs(or true sive of To spokesman)? (or are the leader statements honestly expres- what degree of health isthestateof interest mightbequestionslike: What politics. Of international of area circumstances. Several withparticular vary issues are salientwithinthe particularly ing material. - interpret for Highlightedhere interpretation. isastructure the observations/codes for what andhow tolookfor developingfor systemsthataddress thequestionsof analysis. theseworks isastateof-the-art Together, of Each theyare thebackground stylised etal.(1982). enactmentsprovided byDruckman intheanalyses of concern tral taking. Relationships verbal between statementsandnonverbal behaviour are thecen- nwn pcfclywa olo ti h eodse nassmn.Rslso in assessment. Knowing what to look at is the second step Results of specifically theme particular Knowing inassessment.A where tofocusattentionisafirst step interest relationships intention-interpretation of It isobvious thattheparticular the body 1975) (Baxter&Rozelle, hands in front of play, rotation/elevation, head increased placement of increased eyeincreased movements aversion and gaze dis- in an otherwise immobile facial Fuller, & Conner, Horii, 1979), in behaviour changes 1992), abrupt (Hermann, ‘you &Mahl,1965, 1975;Kasl know’ rhythm (Baxter&Rozelle, disturbances or ‘ah’ useof corrections, asindicatedby repetitions, Stress: flustered speech eye blinking, self-adaptive body &Hunt,1975) gestures (for tension) (McClintock Tension: movement spontaneous increased (Mehrabian &Ksionzky, 1972),faster nods (Mehrabian, 1971) &Hunt,1975), fewer smiling(McClintock forced more positive head Irritability: region &Shapiro, (Gehricke the brow 2000) andcheek silence(Aronson &Weintraub, 1972);lowered activity over muscle facial ods of Depression: hand-to-body self-references- motions,increased peri andextended expression (Williams,2002), facial 2002) (Ekman &Friesen, 1975);lowered brow, &Williams, lip(Kappesser upper raised Pain: brow furrowed eyelids; andraised invocal change tone andhigherpitch NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION Health indicators touse 111 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 RANDALL A.GORDONANDDANIELDRUCKMAN 112 Deception indicators ainlvlo tela oeae h rqec n yeo behaviours displayed. of thefrequency andtype theliar moderated vation level of the review etal.(2003),few byDePaulo reliable differences were foundandthemoti- Consistent with to predictions, frequency deception. was observed decreased during ences were found:nodding, handmovements, movements. andfootleg Contrary movements,contact, head differ Only nodding, three smiling, illustrators). adaptors, encoding differencesexamined across twelve behaviour channels/variables (e.g. eye (2007) andSchwandt bySporer honestyanddeception nonverbal encodingof of paralanguage. consistentnonverbalduce more displays of inthearea especially and,high-stakes liespro - liars have detectedbyexperts; easily foundtobemore been negativeaffect. facial Motivated produce nonverbal cuesrelated totheexpression of and others thathave lies’) tendto motivated towhich lies(‘true documentedtheextent Frank and Ekman (2004), Vrij(2000), These findingsare consistentwiththe of work whenlieswere identity relevantto succeed, andwhentheywere about transgressions. bal tension)were pronounced foundtobemore whenencoders were highly motivated nonver (e.g. and overallto deception vocal pitch) increased frequency assessmentof or greater, only but whenthelieswere (unplanned).However, spontaneous cues specific deceit. Consistentwithmany wasalsofoundtobe individual latency studies,response cueswere only deception foundtobeunrelated, weaklyrelated or to of the majority perceived vocal tensionandfidgeting), to beperceived tenseasafunctionof asmore listedabovethe indicators (e.g. liars tendtotalkless, provide fewer details,andtend samples. Althoughthereviewon 120independent reveals consistencieswithsomeof inameta-analytic etal.(2003)based assessmentconductedbyDePaulo ings appears find- Areview of diagnosticpurposes. cuesfor knowledge asetof onhow tousesuch individuals havesimply or, doesnotexist little alternatively, of thatthemajority reliable cues asetof studiessuggest thateithersuch ings from decodingaccuracy nonverbal behaviour. However, theempiricalinvestigation of find- large of segment reliable nonverbal hascompriseda cuestodeception acoherent setof for The search 2 1 6 Two recent related meta-analytic reviews have conducted. An assessment been 1982; McClintock andHunt,1975). 1982; McClintock etal., self-fidgeting throughout (Druckman theinteraction trendincreasing of in the interaction, early stress, periods during frequent head-shaking of periods elsewhere lessassertive), during frequent especially (when subjectfeels gazes silence movements of leg more periods Indirect deception(evasion): during (Anolli&Ciceri, 1997); pauses 1997),andincreased &Morris, Akehurst, ments among skilled deceivers andthose high inpublicself-consciousness(Vrij, (co-­ rocking, andnoddingmovements head-shaking together varying of patterns a baseline period, looking atthe other than during objects, lesstimespent &Rosenthal, voice, Zuckerman, 1980),fidgeting (DePaulo with 1971), toneof asdeviations from baseline data (Mehrabian, errors Direct deception:speech (Mehrabian,sent inthetwo channels 1972). General state: verbal/nonverbal inconsistencieswhere different messages are ordinated bodyordinated etal.,1982),reduction movements) inhandmove (Druckman -  - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 or spatial arrangements. Frequencies are recorded for some measures (for instance, instance, Frequencies arrangements. (for spatial aresome measures or recorded for –vocalisations,are tofocustheirattentionononechannel eyes, trained body, face, legs, citedabove)subjects (experiments andworld leaders. laboratory themovements vocalisations or codeddirectly from theanalysis of some of rocking movements, gestures andfootmovements. nodding, head illustrator Theseare frequency, speaking movements, errors, leg otherperson, object-fidgeting,or speech and emotionalstates. timeatinterviewer inthislistare Included thefollowing: gaze distinguishingamongintentions of interms coders, andimportance, by independent highreliability, nonverbal asdetermined behaviours onthebasisof chosen subset of behaviours.Particularly relevant is a a large variety of sible the efficient coding of well-defined movementsspecific, expressions. and Advancespos- make intechnique thedisplays. istocode Afirst step behaviours thatare theconstituentsof separate nonverbal itisthe behaviour interpretation, are thebasisfor of patterns Whereas difficulttoconceal. mightbeespecially ing asocialcontract) - tofollow thatliesabout (breach itwould seem thereciprocity transgressions norm, of nottheliewasabout Inaddition,givenand whetheror atransgression. theuniversality involved notthedeception whetheror thedeception, identity-relevant content, neity of motivation,- thesponta theliar’s including factors level of by a numberof moderated cues. However, paralinguistic a cue’s a number of diagnosticity is relative utility of thereview deception, etal.(2003)emphasises thesalienceand byDePaulo encoding of verbal behaviours are needed. theseunderstudied non- outcomes. weaker future Clearly, investigations further of of the effect. review Strong initialoutcomesmay barlowertheacceptance setthepeer for towards inconjunctionwithapublicationbiasmay regression themean accountfor effect, thedecline for explanation upon noagreed state thatwhilethere iscurrently thestrongest relationships. Bondetal.(2015) dilation)producedpupillary someof tion. Conversely, cuesthathave studied often(e.g. notbeen footmovement changes, andeye latency length, response contactshowed hardly any- relationship withdecep response studied.Themostcommonly studied cues of timesithadbeen number of anonverbal cueandthe deception strong inverse thestrength relationship of between datafrom themeta-analysisetal.(2003) revealed byDePaulo a of An examination (2015) describe as a and Hartwig bal lie detection is what Bond, Levine, moderational evidence. moderational of the lack database for explanation the experimental as apotential logical validity of to the limited eco- point &Bond, 2014). These authors (Hartwig decoding accuracy of investigations, legal told during negative life events) the level to moderate also failed thelie(e.g. lies thesenderanddecodingaccuracy. Theemotionallevel of tion level of multiple nonverbal themotiva tofinda failed relationship between - cuestodeception decodingstudiesthatinvolved arecent review deception, what gets encodedduring of Even thoughencodingdatahave revealed thatmotivation significantly moderates Efficiency is gained by training coders to be channel specialists. Small groups channel specialists. Small coders to be gained by training is Efficiency theprevious onthenonverbal research To of asdocumentedinmuch summarise, One of the more interesting themore findingstoemerge from onnonver the research One of NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION Techniques for analysis decline effectdecline . - 113 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 RANDALL A.GORDONANDDANIELDRUCKMAN 114 Systematic comparisons f hne rmabsln eidwudgv n etrudrtnigo relatively would from changes give abaselineperiod oneabetterunderstanding of of the analyst in nonverbalchannels. tochanges Theyalsoalert activity: beingaware verbalsituations, between and nonverbal and within different channels, nonverbal These analyses highlight consistencies and inconsistencies at several levels – between commitment). policy position, defence of verbalexample, statements(for of ent types differ displays settings);and(3)compare for informal or formal outside homecountry; nonverbal indifferent displays the same person withinor for example, situations(for (2)compare errors); speech instance, (for person baseline dataestablished each for situations andinconjunctionwithverbal statements. thedisplays byselectedindividuals exhibited across‘subject’. Thisisdonebytracking his her or an analyst’s is designed to increase tematic comparison understanding of sys- of expressive idiom.Thisstrategy behaviour aspersonal of stresses theanalogy analysis and morphogenic of anapproach emphasisesAllport’ssuch (1961)concept leaders.foreign Itis evidentthat Nonverbal profiles canbeusedtobuild of indicators commentary.‘on thespot’ nonverbal behaviours canbeidentifiedfor sensitive analyst, amanageable subsetof bolsteringone’sindicators, thetime- confidenceintheinferences And,for made. from adistance).Theyalsoprovidemovements seen complementary anactor for eye whostandsbehinda podium, andfootmovements as leg aspeaker (such for thatmay areindicators beusefulwhenallchannels notavailable totheobserver evant from archival types provide collections. Multiple measurements alternative retrieving rel- materialsaidsinthetaskof of andindexing systematic categorising anddevelopingcomparisons, profiles. toinventory Italsocontributes management: trends, making charting thetasksof makes possible category cient footage ineach displayed nonverbal behaviours. Suffi- and verbal of statements,aswell astypes situations,purposes, of arange systemthatencompasses generalcategory is amore situations(Badler,in varying Phillips,&Webber, 1993). movement andexpression control, asmanipulatingthedisplaystyles such todepict of resented asanimateddisplays. thecreative toolsfor exploration Theyalsocontribute Usingthenonverbalsituational factors. notationsystem,thesebehaviours- canberep conditionedastheyare by leaders, states. styles Theemphasisisonidiosyncratic of movements physical psychological or or thaninparticular postures in characteristic selected interestedworld one becomes more leaders. Here, into profiles of measures nonverbal of material. Computer-assisted analysis thetransforming would facilitate effort. individualonly of codercontributing two hours each weeks, three behaviours shown bysubjectsinthirty, twenty-minutewascodedinabout segments twenty-five nonverbalreliability and preserves other tasks. the coders for A set of speeds the process,increases of labour thevideos. a division Such of segments specific isobtainedbyassigningthedifferent specialisation to time).Further groups speaking atinterviewer, gaze movements); example, leg others, thecoderrecords time(for for Comparisons would bemadeinseveralComparisons ways: deviations (1)examine from theanalysis. Anotherbasis structuring behaviours isonebasisfor The listof processing video or notation systemfor The procedures define acoding scheme  - ­ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 lished. Serving to increase theanalyst’s toincrease lished. Serving personal judgements, thecodes confidence in alarger codingsystemwhosevalidity ispreviously estab- relevant of detailsare part whatis known, the attention onrelevant largely details. Determined onthebasisof focusing for systems are useful.Theyprovide especially theanalyst withastructure (Vrij,to training Evans, andMann,2004). Undertheseconditions,notation Akehurst, judgements can be such made in a reliable and relatively manner subsequent accurate verbal andnonverbal cuesreveal that decoders canmake judgementswhich rapid of from to the‘typical’.Findingsonextent departure andastuteobservation of terns - pat characteristic past observer’)he callsthe‘sagacious for relies ongood memory observer (whom andlayman. (1979)notedthattheinformed nical specialist Scheibe - theseare bothtech theconditionsoften present for hindsight.Indeed, video footage or analysis,extensive penetrating asked toprovide withoutthebenefitsof interpretations beingfrequently assessmentsoftenplacetheanalyst on thespot, current Demand for relevant totime-sensitiveinformation requests. interest. Theywould alsocontribute in settingsremoved from thecriticalsituationsof analytical capability, onnotationsystemsdeveloped theseresults reduce dependence anhonest,evasive,between anddeceptive toanenhanced statement?Contributing behaviours discriminate a subject’s intentionsare known, namely doesthesubsetof isestimatedfrom behaviours codedinsituationswhere tellingthetruth?’ this person ‘Is theform expressions andmovements over seen Predictive of time. accuracy tions of stress. from thecombina- Profiles are constructed intended toarouse levels varying of toquestions responses behaviours. Relationships are of highlightedfrom comparisons various nonverbal displays. precisely of themeaning addressing different topics. enable These strategies an analyst to discriminate more displays observed in different situations and occasions, as well as when of parison systematiccom- within-subjectanalytic designsfor of execution sons. Italsopermits - compari Extended coverage toassemblebaselinedata for provides anopportunity ‘following asubjectaround’. of theidea formalises strategy group. Each subject or discussionabove our displays? influences.) (See oncultural toobserved culture nonverbal are of relevant isthecontribution tothequestion:What settings,theobservations todisplays inothercultural compared byactors ment. When and intentionsthatare evoked bydifferent situationsare represented inbody move- how thefeelings onthe issue of ated with events theobservations turn andcontext, differences associ- are actors. ‘postural’ When across timeandbetween withinactors displays. displaysments canberepresented inanimatedgraphic Illuminatedbysuch nated movements may which over change time andsituations. move Theco-ordinated - - co-ordi fromdescribed byBadlerandSmoliar(1979).Extracted thedataare setsof movement representation similartothenotationandanimationsystems a systemof withsimilarsubjectmatter. dealing in similarsituationsor different comparing persons unique expressive behaviour. analysis consistsof Further Extensive video footage makes possible quite sophisticated analyses of leaders’ leaders’ Extensive video footage quite sophisticated analyses makes of possible Several enable analytical strategies aninvestigator toget his toknow heror tothedevelopment isthattheycontribute thesecomparisons of The value of NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION Time-sensitive requests 115 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 RANDALL A.GORDONANDDANIELDRUCKMAN 116 Micro-momentary expressions(MMEs) Leaks Abrupt changes 1984). Additional research in this area has shown in this area & Lissak, 1984). Additional research that MMEs Druckman, , 1983;Karis, &Donchin Karis, processing stagessen, &Ancoli,1980)or (Druckman, emotions (Ekman,Frei- quite precisely associatedwithparticular clusters themuscle workers have able instrumentation, special been to identify selection). With the aid of processing, pre-articulation mation-processing seeking, stages (informative response anger, emotions(happiness,sadness,surprise, fear,mary disgust,interest) andinfor Regarded as universal expressions, MMEs are activities that the underliemuscle pri- (Frank &Ekman,1997). emotioncanbetray thedeception revealed expression of inthefacial thatconsistency toreward todeceivelead tonegative has andfailure consequences), research willlead and decodingaccuracy.leakage motivation success will is high (whendeception When related to et al.(2003) meta-analysis,as alluded to in the DePaulo is an additionalfactor details.) further for andHyman,1991, motivatedshowing Druckman behavioural inhibitionfor liars. (See etal.(1985) thefindingsobtainedbyDePaulo deceivers inbothconditions,supporting thishypothesis,theydidreveal lessoverall the results animationfor didnotsupport hypothesis. theleakage Although condition thanintheearlier sessionwould support expressions inthe‘control-body’ facial ments inthe‘control-face’ conditionandmore body movementsMore tocontrol move expressions or deception. during not instructed - movements. Bothconditionswere toanearlier sessionwhere compared subjectswere deceptive communication;thoseinanotherconditionwere asked tocontrol theirbody esis. Subjectsinoneconditionwere a asked tocontrol expressions during theirfacial face. wit, thepoker – to deception attempts by a subject to control expressions during facial quences of describestheconse- leakage Based ona‘hydraulic model’analogy, of theconcept nel (body) combinedwithreduced activity (Ekman&Friesen, inanother(face) 1974). excessive- activity inonechan of take theform leaks deception, Regarded assignsof thelatteroftenindicatesastrong commitmenttopolicies. health; failing of assigns may beconstrued channels. Theformer behaviours expressed in a numberof differentities between nonverbal intensityof andbody)increased (face or channels - incongru Readily detectable of from may changes limiteddata,abrupt take theform thefollowing.include (relevant details)highlightwhere tofocusattentionandwhatlookat.Examples The extent to which the deception is encoded under ‘high-stakes’ circumstances, the deception to which The extent hypoth- theleakage A study wasintendedasatestof designedbytheauthors  - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 than truth-tellers (M=4.3).However,than truth-tellers thedifference wasnotstatistically significantdue utterances. Deceiverstrolled’ para-linguistic (M = 6.4) showed diverted more gazes aversionsvariability controlled’ con- gaze the‘less-easily the‘more-easily thanfor for controllable Vrij, channels. Indeed, Edward, andBull(2001) foundconsiderably more behaviours inmore variabilityalso bethecasethatmore theencodingof isfoundfor manipulated.Itmay thatare easily to consciously inthechannels more control leaks the evidence thatmotivatedhigh-statusencoders may likely or bemore toattempt detection task is the deception Team,Deception of 2006). Adding to the complexity (TheGlobal theparticipants aversiongaze centof were than25per mentionedbymore as cuessuch Inaccurate deception. countries revealed similarnonverbal of stereotypes accuracy. Alarge-scale datafrom assessmentthatincluded fifty-eight cross-cultural decoding levels tono better thanchance of leading and non-diagnosticinformation, aversion) gaze increased components.Decoders may berelying onbothdiagnostic (e.g. (e.g. andinaccurate latency) response bothaccurate increased ally incorporate theyusu- decoders’ stereotypes; may beafunctionof level chance performance of suggests thatoutcomes research, findings from theencodinganddecodingaccuracy atdetectinglies. accurate more cues, were indeed show thatdecoders whoindicatedtheyrelied ontherelevant deception paralinguistic deceptive nonverbal behaviour. This same study did of on a generalised stereotype andlaypeoplealike may (1999)alsosuggestrely that‘experts’ andGreen field, Tickle, 1996; Vrij &Semin, 1996).Findingsfrom aninvestigation byAnderson, DePaulo,Ans- (Akehurst, Kohnken,laypersons Vrij,&Bull, officers) are similartothoseof (police ‘experts’ (Al-Simadi,2000).Otherstudieshavedemonstrated shown thatbeliefsof differencesmentioned inanearlier section,cross-cultural beliefshave insuch been movements,and head andhesitations).However, latency, response errors speech as (e.g.aversion,thought tobeassociatedwithdeception gaze smiling, body adaptors, cueswere Koestner, Zuckerman, issue, andDriver (1981)foundthatawidevariety of this theearliest investigations of 1987;Vrij, &Druckman, 2000).Inoneof Rozelle, studiesand reviews Baxter, (Gordon, findingsacross anumberof consistent setof hasresulted inarelatively deception nonverbal behaviour perceived asindicative of regarding andgeneral stereotypes beliefs,expectations, The empiricalinvestigation of interest. behaviour inthesettingsof leaders’ discovered through careful analysis of whatisobserved. Theseinfluences influencesthatshape andcontextual are cultural missingare the thestory: ever, of are, theyare usefulastheseindicators only apart How - astatement(leaks). of withinthetimeframe andthosethatoccur (incongruities), obviously behaviours (MMEs)or quickly thatchange example, from limiteddata;for are used. questioningstrategies andstrategic are possible, comparisons with low-stakes sequencesare wheninteraction longer, liesandespecially baseline are positively and experience relatedtraining decoding accuracy, to increased even A recent byBurgoon chapter andDunbar(2016)summarisesfindingsshowing that may beusefulindecodingbody cuesaswell (McLeod&Rosenthal, astheface 1983). An examination of the stereotype contentlistedabove thestereotype inconjunctionwiththe of An examination inferences observations thatcanbeusedfor aboveIllustrated are thekindsof STEREOTYPES OFNONVERBALDECEPTION NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION 117 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 RANDALL A.GORDONANDDANIELDRUCKMAN 118 OVERVIEW ohv lopae oei h euto fnonverbalto have communication studies being also played a role in the reduction of andthetrend towardsbasic computertechnology multi-study publicationsare likely null hypothesis testing. Giles,andTeske As Patterson, (2011)haveof documented, and the concomitantlimitations replication of theimportance disciplines including andrelated inpsychology socialandbehavioural science trends andlessonslearned onstereotyping.) theissueinresearch of atreatment Pickering, 2001,for example, for intergroup interactions. (See, or personal socialbehaviour andinter with regard tomany of Itisraised science. other aspects behaviour. for sources interplay amongthesepossible Thisissueispervasive insocial and dynamic thatissensitive frameworks andonempiricalresearch theoretical tothe complex onmore enced) behavioural displays. ontheseissueswilldepend Progress contextuallyinflu- (or cultural-specific of expressions or species-wide knowledge of nonverbal behaviour isimprovedby more valueissue iswhetherthediagnostic of nonverbal behaviour. Themainpractical of thesources for explanations textual nonverbal communicationandbehaviour (Zebrowitz, 2003). of a comprehensive representation for need assessment Both distal and proximal factors thesituationtoproduce nonverbal behaviour 2001). (Patterson, motives of andaspects interpersonal heritage withamultitudeof interact species’ related toour factors which tion andbehaviour. However, toacknowledge themannerin itisalways important nonverbal communica- investigations such to the understanding of of the popularity relatively nonverbal illustrate diverse programmes research contemporary number of Findingsfrom a emotionintheface. andnonverbal of rules ‘accents’onperceptions display culture-specific of ontheimpact outintheresearch continues toplay itself settings. situations,roles, andcultural communication inavariety of nonverbal andenlightenone’s behaviour can enrich understanding andcontrol of of Itisalsothecasethatcareful andreliable applications performed. actions observed or one’s regarding others’perspectives or own behaviour of may tomisinterpretation lead behaviour narrow istaken intoaccount.Incompleteor of thecontext ingful only if knowledge isincompleteandoftencomplex. on communication;yet thisbody of of nonverbal behaviour ated from that scientificinquiry reveals thesignificantimpact gener information thereapplications. of hasdemonstrated, isawealth Asthechapter findingsand research ological frameworks, andprovidedexamples of some specific thediscussioncovered perspective, andmethod - historical general issues, theoretical with an overview communication. Beginning and of form on this important literature the bal behaviour, the present has only provided chapter an up-to-date sampling of published on nonver full-length books andarticles Considering the large number of research. further tation, referred toasthe‘leakage-variability’ hypothesis, awaits theresults of to thelarge standard deviations (9.4and6.2respectively).- Confidence inthisinterpre The last two decades of research on nonverbal research communication reflect general The last two decades of universal versus con- ontherelative powerof The key issueturns theoretical universality bothnonverbal for encodinganddecoding A focusontheissueof We have argued thatnonverbal behaviour,- asacommunicationskill,ismean  - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:27 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315436135, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315436135-4 that more attention be paid to the sender intentionality-receiver attention be paid that more nexus. interpretation behaviour. is researchers Amessage for assessmentsof communication channel) intentionsmay onglobal be basedmore (multiple of settings, interpretations oratory occur. interactions inwhich or culture Further,tion thatreflects innon-lab thecontext - - interpreta nonverbal suspected than looking for it is an act of decoding is more clues; of thisanalysis isthat Animplication deception. tions are influencedbysuspicionsof theother’s inten- where cultures intentionsare of disguisedandattributions political domain,Goffman Extendingthisanalysiswhen serving). tothepolitical describes tongue diagnosis)are countered bytheotherplayer (stopsendingthetongue signal element comesintoplayThe strategic whenuncovering moves byoneplayer (Agassi’s impressions (encoders). (decoders) andconveyers information of roles as receivers of moves players their made through Inthisgame, time. alternate aseriesof sisting of con- agame well. Referred Goffman toasexpression games, thedynamics captured of automatic) senderencodingisgiven byreceiver meaning decoding. to advantage bythereceiver. Thus,whatmightberegarded asinvoluntary (habitual, Here thesenderdidnotintendtosendthissignal.Nonethelessitwassentandused thisopponent. against victories toastringof Agassi was hit.Thissignalpropelled theserve hismouth,justbefore his tonguedisplayed leftsideof apreference, rightor box, theservice andwhere where rightsideof heserved,an associationbetween leftor tennis player Andre toanalyse Agassi hisopponent’s nonverbal behaviour. Henoticed thoseintentions. thispoint. Atennisanecdoteillustrates and receiver of perceptions sender intentions by a related clouded distinction between 2006). The issue is further withoutconsciousintentiontodiscriminate(Amodio &Devine, bias suggests purpose however thatthisdistinctionisfuzzy. becomingincreasingly clear Research onimplicit isapervasive­Patterson, themeacross thenonverbal Itis communicationliterature. and &Quadflieg,goals (Patterson 2016). emphasisonpurpose ing thefieldplacesmore involuntary many bases for nonverbal- behaviours. recent Hismore work onintegrat andthe moderators thanBurgoon explicit ismore andBulleronpossible but context of approach. Hisenvironmentaltems theory focusalsoemphasisestheimportance nonverbal expressions. AnotherisPatterson’s (2013)sys- of awidearray coding of nonverbal behaviour. Theircomputer-based andthorough software quick facilitates observed variables contextual asdrivers of avariety of of lights theimportance One isBurgoon andBuller’s theory. deception high- (2008)interpersonal Thistheory across time. patterns understanding of enhancing our sequential analytical assessments (Dunbar, Tower, Jensen, the use of & Burgoon, 2014), thesender-receiver unitwith ability our thedynamicsshould facilitate toexamine of nonverbal encodinganddecoding. Moreover, promising enhancements technological ically valid stimuliandfieldsettingsindeveloping acomprehensive understanding of usingecolog- of continuetoreveal socialpsychology theimportance and experimental humansocialbehaviour. of nonverbal communication to the study of to the pivotalhandbooks point importance research Thatsaid,thelarge numberof journals. published inthehighestimpact Goffman’s (1969) analysis of strategic interaction captures the tennis example thetennisexample captures interaction strategic Goffman’s (1969)analysis of motivated hisopponent theworld champion attemptstobeat failed Repeated by distinction,raised spontaneous or versus non-purposive The purposive inthisfield. research Two theway of approaches point tothefuture theoretical within human communication research programmes research The contemporary NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR ASCOMMUNICATION

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