(IPADA) Conference Proceedings 2016, 16 Other Quality Papers

ANNUAL IPADA st INTERNATIONAL 1 CONFERENCE 2016

International Conference on Public Administration and Development IPADA Alternatives

CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS “GOVERNANCE IN THE 21st CENTURY ORGANISATION”

ISBN: 978-0-620- 69682-1

06-08 July 2016 The Park Hotel,Limpopo Province, South Aca Conference Proceedings Published by the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives (IPADA)

The 1st Annual International Conference on the Governance

in the 21st Century Organisation

ISBN: 978-0-620- 69682-1

Editors

Chief Editor: Prof. M.P Sebola, University of Limpopo

Deputy-Editor: Prof J.P Tsheola, University of Limpopo

Private Bag X1106, Sovenga, 0727, South Africa

Copyright of this conference Proceedings as a whole and in part is vested in the Interna- tional Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives(IPADA); and, no part may be reproduced in whole or in part without Editors expressed permission in writing. All material used and presented in papers are the sole responsibility of author(s); and, the editors take no responsibility for author(s) transgressions on copyrights.

The Park Hotel, Limpopo Province, South Africa 06-08 July 2016

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 EDITORS

Editor: Prof MP Sebola

Deputy Editor: Prof JP Tsheola

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE

Prof. MP Sebola, University of Limpopo

Prof. JP Tsheola , University of Limpopo

Dr. R Mkhonza, Tshwane University of Technology

Dr. KB Dipholo, University of Botswana

Prof. MJ Mafunisa, University of Venda

Mr. RK Manyaka, Tshwane University of Technology

Mr. SD Ndou, University of Limpopo

Ms. MA Mamabolo, University of Limpopo

EDITORIAL BOARD

Prof. SR Malefane, University of South Africa

Dr. B Mothusi, University of Botswana

Prof. CC Ngwakwe, University of Limpopo

Prof. O Mtapuri, University of Kwa-Zulu Natal

Dr. S Olivier , University of Zululand

Prof. S Balkaran , Walter Sisulu University

Prof. K Dipholo, University of Botswana

Prof. KA Mothibi, University of Venda

Dr. G Kareija, Uganda Management Institute

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Prof. DM Mello, North West University

Prof. NW Nkuna, University of Limpopo

Prof. LB Mzini, North West University

Prof. L de W Fourie, Unitech of New Zealand

Prof. M Marobela, University of Botswana

Prof BC Basheka, Uganda Technology and Management University

Dr. RB Namara, Uganda Management Institute

Prof. KO Odeku, University of Limpopo

Dr. N Matsiliza, Cape Peninsula University of Technology

Prof. RS Masango, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University

Prof. O Fatoki, University of Limpopo

Dr. S Kyohairwe, Uganda Management Institute

Dr. A Asha, University of Limpopo

Dr. J Coetzee, Polytechnic of Namibia

Prof. KJ Maphunye, University of South Africa

Dr. MM Makhura , South African Reserve Bank

Dr. MT Makhura, Land Bank of South Africa

Dr. R Molebatsi, University of Botswana

Prof. S Madue, Independent Institute of Higher

Education

Dr. IS Malila, University of Botswana

Prof. OO Othata, University of Botswana

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Editorial Note

The International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives (IP- ADA) was first hosted at the Park Hotel, Mokopane on the 6th July to 8th July 2016. This conference aimed to bring together academics from a multi-disciplinary context to engage on one of the significant issue of debate today which is governance. Governance has become a buzz word for administration and development in modern academic discourse. In its 1stt Annual Conference the Scientific Committee deliberately crafted the theme Gov“ - ernance in the 21st Century Organisations:” as a way of provoking debates that would ultimately bring about solutions to the conflicting relationships in which twenty first century organisations find themselves in with the many different stakeholders in organisations.

Indeed papers received for publication in these Conference proceedings addressed the theme from a variety of perspectives. A number of papers in this publication argue for the concept of governance from a multiplicity of perspectives. In general many papers in this collection addressed the concept of governance from its practice in government, Busi- ness, higher education, Economy and in the Regional African blocks.

All papers that are published in this Conference Proceedings went through a quality scholarship verification of Triple Blind Review process by specialists in the subject of Public Admin- istration, Development and Public Governance. Papers which were accepted with suggested revisions were sent back to the authors for corrections before a final decision could be made by the Editorial Committee to publish them. The review process which determined the publishability of each paper contained herein was compiled in accordance with the editorial policy and guidelines approved by the Scientific Committee of the membership of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives (IPADA).

The International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives (IPA- DA) it’s in its first year of existence but has successfully managed to draw together experts from the subjects’ fields of Public Administration, Development Management, Human Re- sources and Local Government among others to engage and attempt to find solutions for governance problems in the 21st century organisations through dialogue and peer reviewed publication.

This compilation provides only 50 papers out of 147 paper abstracts received and read at the 1st Annual International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alter- natives (IPADA) held at Mokopane, South Africa from July, 06-08, 2016. Indeed only 87 papers were reviewed in which 71 received favourable review reports and 12 were rejected and two papers never submitted for publication. While only 50 papers from this conference were published in the 1st Annual International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives (IPADA) Conference Proceedings 2016, 16 other quality papers

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 from this conference were selected for publication in the African Journal of Public Affairs, a peer reviewed journal accredited with the International Bibliography of the Social Sci- ences (IBSS). This Conference proceeding is published online (ISBN no. 978-0-620-69683-8) and print (ISBN no. 978-0-620- 69682-1) in order to be accessible to as many academics, researchers and practitioners as possible.

This publication consists of 50 scientific papers contributed by authors from 15 South African Universities, 2 African Universities and 4 public and semi-public institutions. The Volume consists of 65% of papers published from varying institutions as per the requirements of the South African Department of Higher Education and Training Research Output Policy guidelines published in March 2015.

Papers published in this Conference Proceedings may be reproduced for Pedagogic and Non-Commercial purposes. For republication of the paper in a journal, the authors have to secure a written permission from the publisher. In this case, the Editor and Deputy Editor of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives (IPADA).

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Foreword

In 1955 the views and aspirations of the people of this country, were consolidated into a document called Freedom Charter which is the main policy framework that guides the democratic government. At the top of its pronouncement is the call that the PEOPLE SHALL GOVERN. And this gave a clear policy direction that, once a democratic government is put in place, it would have to ensure creation and establishment of structures and systems that would enable the process towards creation of a democratic society characterised by non- racialism, non-sexism, democracy and prosperity.

Understandably, the 1994 democratic breakthrough brought in a new order based on the new constitution that replaced the apartheid government. And introduced governance systems and created institutions of democracy, and put at the centre the people as the primary clients of government. And profoundly gave them a responsibility to ensure participatory development, in fact legislated their involvement in the decision making processes of government, implementation and evaluation thereof. Therefore the engagement we are having tonight, is part of an on-going process of academic imperative and political significance, so that intellectual framework could be provided to meaningfully respond , to the complex issues of policy , governance , management and legislative realities facing government and public institutions.

Indeed exploratory discussions took the community of academics to Ottawa, Singapore, Rio de- Janeiro and London. Throughout that intellectual journey, the pertinent area of governance in the 21st century has been at the centre of discussion as countries of the world implement different models of governance. And therefore comparative analysis and continuous assessment is of essence to benchmark and advice accordingly. Our country globally has emerged as the best democracy with the constitution commended by almost every nation. This is an account on how successful we have been to transit from apartheid system to a democratic one.

This is important, given the responsibilities bestowed upon elected leaders and appointed public officials, to understand the systems of the governance for them to lead and manage with integrity and excellence. The people are expecting quality guidance and approach to issues of importance to their lives. Given the challenges and dynamics, that occur in the process of managing relationships between public institutions, public organisations, citizens and complexities of socio-economic management. And this is not a simple area of management given the challenges related to that. But we have been able to set systems and frameworks to guide how to go about that. This area needs serious attention for the success Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 of our agenda of pushing back the frontiers of underdevelopment and advance a revolutionary programme of position our country in the global arena of competitive relations.

During apartheid, thinking in government was based on processes and authority, as there were no standards set and the society had no role to play in the administration of public affairs except, been recipients of programs ad insufficient services of poor quality.- Plat forms of engagements did not exist and as such the top down approach was the thrust of public administration. Hence the people heightened the struggle for liberation, freedom and democracy. For them to be able to determine their own destiny guided by the social forces of our national agenda. And in our country in deepening democratic governance, structures have been created, legitimised by laws of the republic and given powers of engagement and participation. As such there are, State Institutions e.g. Chapter 9 Institutions like Public Protector, Human Rights Commission, Auditor General; Civil Society Formations, Unions, Students formations, defined stakeholders and empowered communities , Nedlac and Demarcation Board.

And this is the broad context within which good governance is expected and exercised. And to manage relations to pursue our development agenda has not been easy and it would not always be, as such it needs attention and skills to perfect the given space in advancing the agenda. Let me just pick up one or two to elucidate the challenges of governance, the emergence of AMCU as a union in the mining sector was not without consequences. The Department of Minerals Resources, Labour and SAPS found themselves in a difficult situation as a result of the principles of democracy, freedom of association and basic conditions of employment.

In schools and Universities, student’s formations are real players in the day to day running of education institutions, often resulting in class disruptions and violence, whenever there is a misunderstanding or disagreements on issues. This challenges management to provide leadership for the stability and progress of the institutions. And we have seen Universities doing their work in this regard, including strengthening their collective leadership to tackle challenges. Notwithstanding the broad related external factors mobilised by various interests.

And continuously bargaining with Unions in the chambers and at work places is not an easy exercise. And the Department of Public Service and Administration face challenges particularly during the salary negotiation season. Throughout every level of management, it’s not easy to handle relations with Union and many times they have sacrificed leaders. For policies to be processed through NEDLAC government often finds it difficult and that affect the pace at which it has to move.eg introduction of dual labour system , incentive policy for unemployed youth the restructuring of the pension fund and the restructuring of electricity policy process had to be abandoned.

The Demarcations Board takes decisions which have far reaching political implications and Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 thereafter management of such has to be done by government. We have seen such at Khutsong, Moutse, Balfour and now Vhuwani. The Government is sitting with a serious challenge and it has to demonstrate its capacity to lead and manage .Failure to which may have ramifications of great proportions. Clearly this shows the need to internalise governance in all structures for them to appreciate the centrality of the citizens in whatever we do.

Through these structures, standards have been set and Government has to contest the public space and influence over society with them. And there have been serious issues of engagements at different times between government and these formations. Indeed institutions of society are strong, efficient, effective and powerful. Take Chapter 9 Institutions like the Public Protector in particular and civil society Organisation like Section 27, Corruption Watch, Right to Know and Equal Education. The Public Protector recently took decisions which shook the ruling party and in- fact the whole nation. A decision unprecedented in the history of our country. Both the interests groups in education also took the education leadership to task on matters of norms and standards, infrastructure, study materials and policy provisions .Right to know as well engaged government on matters of key points even to the extent of expecting us to disclosing security points and plans of the state.

This complex public space, need public officials and elected leaders to have the philosophical understanding of serving the public, that they should give coherence to seemingly disparate situations and give meaning to ambitious trajectories, frame the narrative of hope for collective actions and understand the base of minds of key players . Importantly in doing so, they would ensure engagement, enable social innovation and enhance institutional legitimacy. For that’s the building block for the success of our social democracy. Leading in this Era of Human Age, is very challenging, given that citizens do even challenge political decisions of parties that some do not even belong to. The recent Tshwane Crisis after the announcement of the Mayoral candidate is a clear indication of the profound space occupied by society in the national decision making processes. And many other public displeasures that have been demonstrated. All that need networks managers or what politically is called an All-Round Cadre. That is a well-trained activist who has theoretically and practically developed to a higher level in politics and is able to handle every situation no matter its nature. Indeed we need revolutionary bureaucrats who can advance the cause of our struggle for better life.

An outstanding feature of governance in this era of public affairs , which is at the heart of either success and challenges facing government , is the realisation that , there are fundamental principles of organisational democracy which forms the bedrock of governance. And if not applied sufficiently , we are bound to have problems and their daily application as well is a challenge , given our experiences that in almost every institution there are concerns of insufficient application of these principles;, discipline ,accountability ,mandate, consultation ,transparency , constructive criticism , democratic centralism and decisive- Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ness.

In context , during the fees must fall campaign by students, Minister Ndzimande took a decision to cap the fees at 6% thinking that he is decisive , but the situation became worse. It was only after the President took over and sufficiently consulted that a solution was found. The basic values of a democratic society are enshrined in the constitution as opposed to the previous government, i.e., democracy, rule of law, freedoms, human rights, social justice, due processes to mention but few. And as such the elected leaders and public officials are facing a policy, governance systems and legislative environment different from the past, characterised by domestic and global challenges often with magnitude of distur- bances thus making their work challenging and difficult , e.g. the administration of migrants dispensation and the trade relations:- USA chickens import into our country, where public officials have been made to enter into an agreement on something that they are not convinced about .

Given the concerns that the South African Veterinary Surgeons have on the suitability of those chickens to be consumed. The recent report of the Statistician General also points to critical areas of importance which need attention of public officials. While doing their work, there is an element of increased sophistication and complexity among public structures, expecting good governance, management, appropriate leadership and quantitative expansion of people’s participation. And these challenges require a leadership that would drive and ensure qualitative participation and engagement in the interest of development and progress.

Leadership that drives persuasive communication and create an environment of trust that would bridge the never ending demands of the people and the resource capacity for appropriate response .Which is often a great challenge in many areas throughout the country. Clearly this point to the fact that leadership is a determining and a real factor , that drives every aspect of public life , without which we would never have a stable public administration and governance. Understandingly leadership has become a primary focal point of exploration, exercise and application to drive the 21st century development agenda of societies.

President Julias Nyerere once said after realising that he had walked a journey alone thinking that his comrades were with him in pursuing a socialist agenda for development ,’’Who- ever governs should not impose on the people in pursuance of political power ‘’. It is clear that there are arenas of conflicts emanating from either society, bureaucracy and politics, as a result of knowledge based society as the phenomenon of the 21st century governance systems. The people are expecting at all times from leaders and managers, distributive justice e.g., pay benefits, recognition, scholarships, budgets and projects. Their justice perception contributes to their attitudes, the climate and behaviour which is often characterised by intransigency, impatience and destruction of properties.

The people have been empowered and are active in every sphere of life and this makes

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 governance very challenging. In many instances we are found wanting and struggling to meet their expectations. However, we have occupied a position of importance in the general discourse to advance good governance and public sector transformation.

Unlike in the past , there are issues that are being raised daily as challenges that need attention and in many instances they are the triggers of confrontations and continuous engagements; Corruption, racism, tribalism, poverty, unemployment, underdevelopment, spatial planning, land access, globalisation, economic challenges, governance, fiscal and monetary management and the riches traversing the landscape that are not beneficial to society. And to respond to these matters, is a huge task because there is a need for sound policy designs, legislative tools and managed execution which is often not easy given the myriad of opinions and the broad base of views on policies. And as such to conclude a policy takes a long time and the actual delivery is affected in many instances.eg minerals, land, and transformation of the economy.

The historical intersection of relations of power is based on class, race and gender. And these social and or biological features were used to exclude and retard progress of individuals and communities. And today we are supposed to deal with that, and it’s not easy given the institutionalisation that has occurred and the fact that the world has become a theatre of narrow interests, instead of the collective well-being of humanity.

Social transformation has to be advanced and put in place elements of social cohesion, close the gap between the rich and the poor, minimise class contradictions, increase the middle class in the contested terrain of ideological discourse and empower women. So that, we could deal with features of patriarchy within the context of transforming traditional institution, given the entrenched role of traditional leaders. Clearly governance won’t be easy in this regard and the public officials will find it very difficult to navigate through. There are structures and formations created as platforms of engagements, to protect the privileges thus making it difficult to address the historical contradictions. However through transformation programmes, progress has been recorded despite the related challenges in dealing with the fundamentals that are affecting the society.

Having said what i have said, I hope and believe that this journey and gymnasium of academic minds will continue to contribute immensely in the affairs of the nation. It will continue to shape and influence the course of events on governance in the interests of progress, as we advance an agenda towards creation of a national democratic society.

Honourable Namane Dickson Masemola, Limpopo Provincial legislature

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 TABLE OF CONTENT NS Modiba 1

THE INDISPENSABILITY OF GOOD GOVERNANCE TO SUPERIOR PERFORMANCE

BY PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS

A Malapane 11

HOLDING THE EXECUTIVE ACCOUNTABLE:

PARLIAMENT AS THE BEACON OF HOPE TO THE PEOPLE

T.S. Masipa 23

THE NEXUS BETWEEN GOVERNMENT EFFECTIVENESS AND CORRUPTION IN

SOUTH AFRICA

MS Mitileni 39

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENTS PRIORITIES IN RURAL AREAS: A CASE OF

GOOD GOVERNANCE AS SUSTAINABILITY AND NOT OPPORTUNISM

MS Mitileni, OJ David, AM Letsoalo , J Sebake and TP Mpapane 53

ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY:

A CAPABILITY APPROACH IN CRIME PREVENTION METHODS

M.G. Raphala and K.B. Shai 68

RE-EVALUATING THE EU’S EXTERNAL HUMAN RIGHTS AND DEMOCRATIZATION POLICY:

A CRITICAL ANALYSIS ON ZIMBABWE

BK Sebake 79

INSTABILITY AND CORRUPTION IN STUDENT GOVERNANCE CAUSED BY

TENDER SYSTEM IN UNIVERSITIES IN SOUTH AFRICA:

SELECTED CASES FROM UNIVERSITIES OF TECHNOLOGY

FD Mabasa and E Mabasa 90

THE PORTRAYAL OF WOMEN IN SOUTH AFRICAN MUSIC VIDEOS

PR Msaule 97

THE IMPLICATIONS OF SECTION 19 (1) (b) OF THE CONSTITUTION OF

THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA (RSA), 1996 ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

POLITICAL PARTIES AND THEIR CONSTITUTENCIES

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 MM Mashamaite 110

THE WELFARIST APPROACH IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION:

A NEED FOR A PARADIGM SHIFT TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE RURAL SOUTH AFRICA

KA Mashamaite and KR Moloto 121

ALIGNING INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT PLAN, SERVICE DELIVERY AND BUDGET

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN AND BUDGETING: AN ATTEMPT TO ENFORCE SERVICE

DELIVERY MONITORING IN SOUTH AFRICA’S LOCAL MUNICIPALITIES

PD Semosa and IP Mongale 133

THE EFFECT OF MACROECONOMIC VARIABLES ON INFLATION:

A CASE FOR SOUTH AFRICA.

KI Theletsane 152

CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE MILITARY OMBUDSMAN ACT 4 of 2012

MS Maleka , SL Vuma and K.B. Shai 166

Probing the phenomena of “African Unity” as the pillar of the African Union

M Masenya 178

GENDER DISCRIMINATION AND THE CAPITALIST ECONOMY IN

POST-APARTHEID SOUTH AFRICA

J Gumbo 189

INFUSING RESEARCH ACTIVITIES INTO COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENTS:

A STUDY OF SOUTH AFRICA

RA Mulelu and MX Lethoko 203

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE WARD BASED OUTREACH TEAMS PROGRAMME IN

THE RURAL AREA OF KGETLENG SUB-DISTRICT, NORTH WEST PROVINCE

TM Ntsala and MR Mahlatji 218

STUDENT REPRESENTATIVE COUNCIL: ADDRESSING INFORMATION NEEDS OF

STUDENTS AND EVALUATION OF INFORMATION DISSEMINATION CHANNELS

USED BY THE SRC OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LIMPOPO

FT Maswanganyi and EM Nkoana 235

AN EXAMINATION OF FACTORS HINDERING THE GROWTH OF MEDIA FIRMS IN

CAPRICORN DISTRICT REGION OF LIMPOPO PROVINCE, SOUTH AFRICA

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 KI Makalela 245

INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT PLANNING PROCESS AS A COHERENT STRATEGY

FOR SERVICE DELIVERY BACKLOGS: A CASE STUDY OF LEPELLE-NKUMPI

LOCAL MUNICIPALITY

S Phiri and L Prosapio 255

THE IMPACT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT INITIATIVES ON

TRANSFORMATION AND PERCEPTIONS OF WELLBEING OF WINE FARM LABOURERS

SA Rankoana , HM Tirivangasi, SS Mugambiwa and K Malatji 273

LESSONS FROM POST-APARTHEID SOUTH AFRICA FOR A VIOLENCE IMBUED

PROTEST CULTURE

PH Munzhedzi 283

THE STATE OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN SOUTH AFRICA: A CRITICAL REVIEW

TI Mokgopo 298

THE ROLE OF KING III REPORT ON CORPORATE GOVERNANCE IN IMPROVING

POOR SERVICE DELIVERY IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN GOVERNMENT

NE Mathebula 320

CHALLENGES INHIBITING AFRICA’S SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND

RELATIONS

IP Mongale 331

ECONOMIC GROWTH, GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE AND EXCHANGE RATE

NEXUS IN SOUTH AFRICA

S Makwembere 344

TECHNOLOGY AND WORKER MARGINALISATION: A CASE OF LOCAL

E-GOVERNMENT AT CITY OF CAPE TOWN

HE Zitha, MP Sebola and MA Mamabolo 359

COMPLIANCE TO PROCUREMENT PROCESSES, DEVIANT BEHAVIOUR AND

EFFECTS ON SERVICE DELIVERY IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR

K Molosi and K Dipholo 374

POWER RELATIONS AND THE PARADOX OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION

AMONG THE SAN IN KHWEE AND SEHUNONG

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 L Mmotlana 386

CONTRIBUTION AND CHALLENGES OF THE INFORMAL SECTOR TO JOB CREATION IN

SOUTH AFRICA

KA Mothibi 397

LOCAL GOVERNMENT AND CRIME PREVENTION:AN EVALUATION OF POLOKWANE

MUNICIPALITY’S INVOLVEMENT IN CRIME PREVENTION

PR Mthombeni and MX Lethoko 414

SERVICE DELIVERY PROJECTS FAILURE IN THE GREATER GIYANI LOCAL

MUNICIPALITY IN THE MOPANI DISTRICT

EM Nkoana and FT Maswanganyi 429

WHAT IS IN A WORD? IMPLICATIONS OF UNIVERSITY -COMMUNITY

ENGAGEMENT CONNOTATIONS AT HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS

S Ndou 439

STATE AND CIVIL SOCIETY RELATIONS PERSPECTIVES FOR GOOD

GOVERNANCE: PROPOSITIONS FOR THE AFRICA AGENDA 2063 ASPIRATIONS

TM Ramoroka, JP Tsheola and MP Sebola 454

GOVERNANCE OF BLENDED PEDAGOGIES IN THE 21ST CENTURY FOR

PARTICIPATION IN THE KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY

NS Matsiliza 468

SOUTH AFRICA’S ROLE IN THE SADC COMMUNITY REGIONAL INTEGRATION

P Mulaudzi, LB Juta and AP Tsanwani 479

EXPLORING STATUS OF CHIEFTAINCY IN THE MODERN ERA

S Kyohairwe 489

CHALLENGES AND CONSEQUENCES OF MANAGING PRIMARY ELECTIONS

IN EMERGING MULTIPARTY DEMOCRACIES: A CASE OF UGANDA

K Dipholo and K Molosi 499

THE INCREASED ROLE OF TEACHER UNIONS IN PARTY POLITICS IN BOTSWANA:

THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY.

LB Mzini 513

MONITORING PERFORMANCE OF THE PRO-POOR FUNDED COMMUNITY FOOD SECURITY PROJECTS IN THE GAUTENG PROVINCE

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 F Golele and M Rachidi 528

THE ROLE OF TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN ACHIEVING GENDER EQUITY IN

THE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH LIMPOPO PROVINCE.

R Ndou and M.T Silima 542

THE IMPACT OF SERVICE DELIVERY STRIKES IN SOUTH AFRICAN MUNICIPALITY

T Silima 560

GOOD GOVERNANCE AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN AFRICA

CPM Ngoasheng, MA Dikotla and LA Makgahlela 572

THE CONTRIBUTION OF RECORDS MANAGEMENT TO GOOD GOVERNANCE

AND ACCOUNTABILITY IN THE TRADITIONAL COUNCIL OFFICES

NI Makamu and DM Mello 586

ASSESSMENT OF PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM IN THE

DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND CULTURE

M Mokomane,and M Rachidi 604

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN PURSUING GENDER PARITY

IN THE DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT, LIMPOPO PROVINCE

R Moloele 615

KEEPING COMMUNAL PROPERTY ASSOCIATION’S NOSE ABOVE WATER: ISSUES, TRENDS

AND CHALLENGES OF MORETELE CPA AT VAALBOSCHHOUT FARM.

S. Chikwema and K. Wotela 627

DERIVING A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR A FORMATIVE EVALUATION OF THE CITY OF

JOHANNESBURG ‘SEPARATION OF POWERS’ PILOT PROJECT

SK Mokoena 648

THE EEFECTS OF POOR COMMUNICATION IN SOUTH AFRICAN LOCAL MUNICIPALITIES

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 THE INDISPENSABILITY OF GOOD GOVERNANCE TO SUPERIOR PERFORMANCE BY PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS

NS Modiba University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

The paper critiques why good governance is hard to come by in public secondary schools despite its usefulness. The paper is conceptual and empirical in nature. Document study and interviewing technique such as face-to-face individual interview were used to collect data from three selected secondary schools in one of the Districts of Limpopo Prov- ince. Research findings reveal that, mistaking satisfactory performance to good- gover nance prevents schools from knowing how the two are not synonymous. Secondly, dearth of knowledge that good governance thrives where there are systems and structures in place, contributes to its absence in schools. Thirdly, mismatch between leadership styles and contexts of their implementation, hampers noticing the benefit of good governance in secondary schools. Therefore, public secondary schools to embrace the 21st century manner of managing and leading schools where good governance is encouraged. Such a change of focus stands to alert schools to the importance of good institutional governance other than sticking to its avoidance.

Keywords: Context, Culture, Structures, Systems.

1. INTRODUCTION its success with its core-function of teaching and learning. This is exactly what gover- A sound governance has to be an aspi- nance brings to educational institution. In ration of every school. Gold (2016: 8) em- the context of a school, governance has to phasises that institutions, good governance be internally generated other than being remains a stress-buster for all the organi- externally imposed, so that it remains rele- sational incumbents. This suggests that if vant to the ethos and ways of doing things sound governance is in place, then not a in that school. Governance could nag all single member would be heard of com- institutional incumbents to always wish to plaining of stress-related challenges. Sebo- serve a school with aplomb and distinc- la (2015: 610) comprehends governance tion. Clarke (2009:14) regards governance as the creation of a structure and order to be the act or manner of governing an which cannot be externally imposed, but is educational institution. This implies the of- as a result of interaction between a multi- fice or function of governing. Broadly, this plicity of governing nodes which influence signifies that governance encapsulates each other in creating a certain order or traditions that determine how authority is behaviour. Schools require order and a cer- exercised in a particular educational or- tain way of behaving by all its members for

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 1 ganisation with the intention of carrying institutional systems and structures there. out the mandate of that institution. Gov- 2. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS ernance is indispensable especially in a schools categorised underperformance or Welman, Kruger & Mitchell (2005:12) retort dys-functional. Msila (2016:31) articulates that a theory represents a mental view of that governance will have a potential of phenomenon or a system and normally steering the half-sinking ship into the bay forms the basis for a chain of reasoning. This of educational transformation and social signifies that when one advances a partic- change. Sound governance could trans- ular argument on a phenomenon such as form a school struggling to produce bril- disregarding the indispensability of gover- liant and exquisite learner results to register nance, utilisation of a theory makes one’s quality learner performance. Sound gover- argument to hold substance. The Critical nance teaches civil ways of engagement and the Complexity Leadership theories for institutional members especially when underpin this paper. The relevance the re- faced with insurmountable predicaments. searcher finds in them in terms of illuminat- It can decimate organisational challenges ing issues of sound governance is behind other than aggravating them (Fox, 2010, their choice. One of the principles of these Theletsane, 2014 & Moyo, 2015:16). Khoza, theories is ensuring that change in the form (2015:43) and Masina (2015:24) contend of governance becomes an integral part that a healthy and responsive governance, of every school’s effectiveness. The other delivers a quality schooling to learners. principle centres around steering the stake- Nkuna (2015:120) and Tisdall (2015:15) re- holder collective towards the direction of mark that apartheid has instilled in African accomplishing the vision and mission of a professionals and their learners a sense school. These theories emphasise that as of self-hate and inferiority complex to the regards sound governance for second- level of battling to create a sound gover- ary schools, it takes complexity to defeat nance through which they would use to complexity. The other principle is that these govern, manage and lead their secondary theories are not grounded on bureaucrat- schools with dignity and pride. Brilliant gov- ic structures but in complexity. The Critical ernance is indispensable especially where and the Complexity Leadership Theories a school is not paying any lip service to view governance to be evolving and ca- the concept of a sound governance sys- pable of producing adaptable learner re- tem. Inefficacious governance benefits sults. The selected theories regard gover- no one in public secondary schools (Yukl, nance to be adaptive, administrative and 2006, Motsepe, 2015:5). Many secondary enabling leadership to be efficacious for schools experience unsound governance public secondary schools. These shared that prevents them to shine educationally. principles were behind the choice of these Shejavali (2015:34) and Siswana (2007:182) theoretical perspectives for this paper. Suf- assert that conspicuous indicators of ineffi- fice to stress that governance is character- cacious governance are the dysfunctional ised by complexity which emanates from the rapidly changing interactions, policies and regulations applied in a particu-

2 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 lar public secondary school and beyond nance as occurring in some of the Prov- (Uhl-Bien, Marion & McKelvey, 2007:58). ince’s public secondary schools. Higgs and The fundamental principles of these theo- Smith (2010:67) advise that knowledge and ries were helpful in clarifying how lack of how we understand truth, including scien- sound governance perpetuates inequal- tific truth, moral truth and historical truth ity between learners. For instance, on the should not be separated from everyday one hand learners from Limpopo Province life. This implies that comprehending how under Capricorn District found themselves decent schooling is denied to legitimate re- attending schools where there were no cipients, namely, learners and parents, the sound governance in their learning institu- context of the manifestation of that denial tions, something which was not the case is important. These theories assist in arriving with learners of other Provinces. The pre- at the root cause of the inefficacious gov- dicament with such a sordid state of affairs ernance as experienced by many African could be that some learners would already public secondary schools (Van Niekerk & be advantaged by where they are school- Van Niekerk, 2009:12). The other relevance ing much as others are already disadvan- of the two theories could be traced back taged (Motsepe, 2015:5). Lack of strong to their emphasis of public administration governance may make it difficult for school ethics which is the study of good and bad governors and managers to be account- behaviour by human beings especially in able to their stakeholders, namely, learners the manner in which they interrelate and and parents. In this paper the utilisation of interact in a schooling environment. The the Critical and the Complexity Leadership legitimacy and credibility of these theories theories was informed by their encourage- as regards the worrying effects of ineffica- ment of reflective and analytical thoughts cious governance defining and character- as regards lack of sound governance in ising many public secondary schools, is not most public secondary schools. The ques- in doubt. They advise against separating tion to pose is whether their absence is a “real life testing” from scientific theories. deliberate or a demonstration of a sheer This is to imply that scientists are bound by incompetence by the three secondary social reality and norms as much as the rest schools under study. The said theories were of all the people, including learners who better placed to adequately and convinc- benefit from the availability of governance ingly respond to such a question (Moyo, in schools. Olivier (2912:56) reminds that 2015:16). The theories reveal that inequal- there could be a stage where learners re- ity in schooling in the form of experiencing volt against lack of sound governance in sound governance in school and failure their schools. to witness it, could be entrenched where The researcher contends that it is the Crit- stakeholders are docile and gullible and ical and the Complexity Leadership Theo- not standing up for their trampled upon ries that could productively illuminate the quality schooling rights. The Critical and the problem which this paper addresses (Allen, Complexity Leadership theories are a basis 2015:11). This paper critiques why some for approaching, understanding and inter- public secondary schools continue to avoid preting the whole issue of unsound gover- good governance, despite its proven use-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 3 fulness. The complexity of the problem ne- old as mountains themselves and it is more cessitated the combination of the Critical prevalent in public secondary schools than and the Complexity Leadership theories in the private ones. The question to pose is in this paper. The theories advocate for why such a sordid state of affairs there? This critical reflection on schooling, in order to is due to the suffered colonialism in Africa, discover the hidden assumptions behind and apartheid in the case of South Africa, the avoidance of sound governance by whose legacies are lingering on. Managing schools and its embracement by others a school devoid of sound governance has (Higgs and Smith, 2010:72). The Critical and devastating effects one of which is depri- the Complexity Leadership theories teach vation of decent schooling to innocent that public secondary schools require to learners. be emancipated from inefficacious gov- 3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS ernance experienced daily, sooner rather than later (Arden, 2013: 38). Schools do not The research questions addressed in this have to wait for its unpleasant conditions paper are anchored on the Critical and to spread further. This suggests that how the Complexity Leadership theories (Higgs public secondary schools normally think & Smith, 2010:88). Those research questions and act, is the product of many years of are as follow: What are the roles and signif- being subjected to circumstances that ei- icance of governance structures and sys- ther facilitate or inhibit quality and decent tems that are clearly crafted in line with the schooling to learners through a sound gov- conditions and governance incumbents ernance system (Tisdall, 2015:15). populating an educational institution, in enhancing and reinforcing superior per- 3. PROBLEM STATEMENT formance by public secondary schools? Hofstee (2010:107) advises that there is a What are the ideas, concerns and aspira- distinction between the research topic tions of governance incumbents regarding and the research problem. On the basis the shifting and the strengthening of the of the above, the problem of this paper administrative efficacy? is critiquing why some public secondary Broad as they are, the above questions schools persist to shun away good gover- can be broken down into the following nance despite its worldly acknowledged sub-questions: and recognised impact on excellent learner performance. A plethora of literature • How are governance structures reviewed confirms that it is public second- and systems that lead to superior ary schools that are naturalised to perform performance created? better without sound governance, who are likely to underrate its significance. Manag- • Who benefits most in public sec- ing and leading a school without sound ondary schools when there are governance is tantamount to taking the functional structures and systems stakeholders for granted. This is a disservice ? to mainly internal stakeholders of a school. • How best to replace un-impactful This practice of despising stakeholders, is as governance with an efficacious

4 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 one in a school? the paper, issues of governance are better interrogated. The theories were applied to • How is a superior performance of establish why some schools avoided good a public secondary school linked governance while others enjoy embrac- to structures and systems there? ing it. Amalgamation of the Critical and 4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY the Complexity Leadership theories and the qualitative research approach was Out of the population of fifteen public sec- based on the complexity of the problem ondary schools in a circuit, three were pur- under study. The amalgamation of theo- posively sampled. And in each institution, a ries enabled the researcher to make an in- School Principal, an SGB Chairperson and depth understanding of how despite many a Teacher serving in the SGB were identi- years since colonialism and discriminatory fied for interviewing purposes. The total schooling formally ceased to exists, its ef- number of research participants amount- fects remained firmly in place. The fact that ed to nine because every school contrib- some public secondary schools are not yet uted three. The three schools critiqued as embracing good governance is a con- regards the contribution of governance to firmation of this. In this paper, document excellent scholastic learner results, were study and interviewing techniques were being referred to as Schools A, B and C to utilised to construct relevant data. All the protect their actual identities. That there documents, primary and secondary which were public secondary schools still having contained information about governance shaky governance, was a cause for con- by public secondary schools, were stud- cern that triggered this in-depth study on ied. To corroborate and triangulate the governance. This paper is qualitative in na- gleaned data, interviewing was conduct- ture because the problem addressed is cried with three participants in each school. tiquing why some public secondary schools Responses were audio-taped for transcrip- avoid good governance at all costs de- tion later-on. The two data collection tools spite its known usefulness to the production were helpful in terms of accessing informa- of superior learner results. The nature of the tion pertaining to how inefficacious gover- problem was found to be researchable nance in public secondary schools, reduc- along the qualitative school of thought es learners into sub-human beings denied as against the quantitative line of thinking of quality and decent schooling (Glatthorn (Dawson, 2006 & Levin, 2005). The choice of & Joyner, 2005). Document study and inter- the qualitative research methodology was viewing techniques were well fitted to Criti- also triggered and orchestrated by the util- cal and the Complexity Leadership theories isation of the Critical and the Complexity and the qualitative research approach. Leadership Theories. The researcher found a need to create a synergy between the 5. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION two theories and the qualitative approach The basis of these findings is the analysed as the overarching research methodology data which were generated through the (Hofstee, 2010: 115). Msina (2015: 24) notes that with both the Critical and the Com- plexity Leadership theories underpinning

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 5 document study and the interviewing cedures and processes. The South African technique. Furthermore, paying attention Schools Act 84 of 1996 proclaims that doing only on those sampled schools ought not such is the competency of the school gov- create an impression that they are worse- ernors (Brunton, 2003: B-11). Superior perfor- off as regards inefficacious governance. mance of secondary schools owes its origin Suffice to disclose that the choice of those to sound governance. School Principal I three public secondary schools, was on of School A advises that “there is no gain- the basis of the researcher having familia- saying the fact and reality that a visionary rised himself with issues of governance in SGB which is constituted by tried and test- those institutions, down the years. Some of ed governors could be more than helpful the documents containing valuable data to a school principal in terms of formulat- that emerged helpful as regards sound ing policies, systems and structures like no governance in the sampled schools in- other for a principal to operate within when cluded various policies used to manage leading and managing a school”. Teach- those schools as well as reports and min- er 2 of school C shares that “I was more utes of gatherings held. The Critical and than privileged to serve in a primary school the Complexity Leadership theories were whose policies, structures and systems were instrumental in the analysis of data to ulti- simply matchless because of having being mately emerge with these findings. Findings prepared by governors who knew exact- for discussion in this paper are the follow- ly what was best for that school”. School ing: Mistaking satisfactory performance to governing body chairperson 2 of school A good governance prevents schools from asserts that “without a sound governance knowing how the two are not synonymous. which is based on functional policies, sys- Secondly, dearth of awareness that good tems and structures, any school irrespective governance thrives where there are sys- of the unequalled competency of a princi- tems and structures, contributes to its ab- pal, would always pull hard to perpetually sence in some schools. Thirdly, a mismatch produce praise-worthy learner results”. The between leadership styles and contexts of utterances of the research respondents their implementation, hamper noticing the call for the taking seriously of strong gover- benefit of good governance in schools. nance by schools for the sake of salvaging The discussion of the findings would confirm the future of its learners. The validity of the that good governance is one of the sourc- expressed views are found in the review es of superior performance by learning in- of literature. For instance both Tsheola, stitutions. A detailed discussion of each 2002, Mbeki, 2003, Madue, 2013 & Zwane, finding follows. 2015:10) emphasise that efficacious governance is what 21st century organisations so 5.1 Systems and structures as part of good much require and demand for the sake of governance their smooth operations. Exquisite execution of governance func- 5.2 Mistaking satisfactory performance for tions in the context of a school occurs with good governance much ease after the establishment of the necessary structures, systems, policies, pro- As regards schools mistaking their continu-

6 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ous satisfactory performance for good gov- in schools, matching it to the context and ernance, that can only be declared and the leadership style practised in a school is labelled unfortunate (Macha, 2016:23). On necessary. Teacher 1 of School A empha- this challenge School Principal 3 of school sises that “despite having less than 15 years C cautions that “my experience of hav- teaching experience, I have personally ing being a principal for no less than two witnessed good intentions in schools fail- decades keeps on reminding me, that it is ing because of ignorance of the context good governance and only good gover- of operation and incumbents’ preferred nance which could guarantee the stability leadership style there”. School principal 3 of the institutional performance of a school of school C reasons that “attempts to oper- for long”. Teacher 3 of the same school ationalise ideas however noble they could agrees when stating that “show me a sin- be, to the total disregard of the context of gle school whose learner performance is implementation and the leadership style annually excellent, which is not producing required, would make one taste an instant those mouth-watering pupil results being failure”. School governing body chairper- helped by a sound governance”. School son 1 of school A reminds that “the school governing body chairperson 2 of School context, just like any other institutional envi- B accentuates that “having noticed what ronment as well as a particular leadership a sound governance does for this school, pattern, are as strong as the governance it will not be soon for me and my SGB to which every school requires”. Responses of abandon it”. The researcher fully aligns participants are spot-on in disclosing that himself with the observation by the re- disregarding the context or environment search respondents about scholastic learn- where a school operates within and the er achievement being ascribed to sound preferred leadership style by incumbents, governance. Literature reviewed confirms are a recipe for an institutional failure. This is in no uncertain terms the expressed views. vindicated by countless literature reviewed For instance, Gobillot (2008) and Cunha, such as (Omano, 2005, Kouzes & Posner, Filho & Goncalvers (2010) advocate for the 2007, Thornhill & Van Dijk, 2010, Sebola, indispensability of a sound governance sys- 2012, Qwabe, 2013 & Tisdall, 2005:15). tem towards the functionality of schools. 6. CONCLUSION 5.3 Mismatch of leadership styles to con- African public secondary schools need to text of their implementation deal with lack of sound governance sooner Allen (2014: 9) remarks that as long as the rather than later. This will enable them to im- creation of efficacious governance is not prove their scholastic learner performance. taken as a priority by many public second- It is immaterial whether governance-hur- ary schools, then matching governance dles experienced by schools are internally to leadership styles practised there, could generated or externally imposed. The ques- remain an unabated challenge. Apart tion to ask has to be: what is it that every from governance relying on the creation individual African school is doing to craft of appropriate systems, structures, policies, governance structures that enable it to op- procedures and processes for its success erate differently? School governors have to

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 7 put their schools’ interests in a trajectory of forward development and movement. This terms of generating unabated institution- is possible with sound governance that is al performance everybody would have a well-tailored to incumbents and institution- reason to identify himself or herself with at al conditions. Such a healthy governance school. system needs to be free from euro-centric There is a need by public secondary schools models and general institutional rigidity. to embrace awareness that sound gov- Postponing to create sound governance ernance, requires structures, systems and by African public secondary schools, could processes through which it would flourish allow learner underachievement, instability and thrive and remain impactful and ever and general institutional dysfunctionality to well-meaning to the sterling performance soar. There are copious examples visible in of a school. That could first occur through some public secondary schools, confirming the creation of governance ethos that pro- that brilliant governance enables a school motes a school’s exquisite and maverick to produce first class learner performance. learner results. 7. RECOMMENDATIONS Lastly, there is a need to reconcile good The bases of these recommendations are governance in secondary schools with the discussed findings which are as follow: leadership styles practised there as well as the nature of the school environment to There is a need for public secondary schools enable the success of the practised lead- to fathom why sound governance is being ership style. underrated; despite its known efficacy in

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10 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 HOLDING THE EXECUTIVE ACCOUNTABLE: PARLIAMENT AS THE BEACON OF HOPE TO THE PEOPLE A Malapane Gauteng Legislature

Abstract

In recent times, the work of Parliament has been receiving attention on the public domain and discourse. This however does not necessarily mean that it successfully fulfils its mandate to hold the executive accountable. Parliament has been faced with various challenges that have placed doubt in its ability to oversee the executive. Hence, this paper examines whether the South African Parliament has a potential and capability to hold the executive to account for its actions or inactions. This is done through inter alia revisiting the systems, procedures, and mechanisms as well as the environment were oversight is performed. In addition, this takes into consideration the theme of Parliament for 2016 which is: “following up on our commitments to the people”. Shija (2012) argues that the true test of a maturing democracy should be determined by the extent of the government’s response to the needs of the people. In this regard, the paper argues that Parliament should be the beacon of hope to the people, and be in a position to hold the executive accountable for its activities.

1. INTRODUCTION country’s democracy through assessing institutions of democracy. In this instance, Parliament is an institution of democracy Parliament is one of the most important in- responsible for law-making, conducting stitutions of democracy (Shija, 2012), which oversight over the executive and facilitat- is regarded as a representative body of the ing public participation among others (Ma- people. due, 2012:431). It is mandated to ensure that government delivers to the needs of It is for this reason, among others, that or- communities. This refers to the constitutional ganisations such the World Bank Institute obligation to hold the executive account- and Inter-Parliamentary Union have direct- able (Shija, 2012:5). Conversely, the South ed their efforts in strengthening the ability African Parliament has been facing pub- of Parliament to perform its roles effectively lic scrutiny in a time wherein the country is (Stapenhurst & Pelizzo, 2006). This particu- relishing over 21 years of democracy (See- larly relates to the ability to oversee the ex- dat & Naidoo, 2015:3). This is a significant ecutive. It is the contention of this paper time and milestone in the country wherein that recent events and discourse affecting scorecards and reviews are released with Parliament have placed doubt in its abili- the aim to consider the performance of the ty to hold the executive accountable. For

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 11 example, the landmark judgement by the government and any organs of state. The Constitutional Court (Cases CCT 143/15 Oversight and Accountability Model of the and CCT 171/15) on how Parliament poor- South African Parliament (2009) also ac- ly dealt with the Nkandla issue in response knowledges that legislative organs of state to the Public Protector’s findings raises sev- are mandated by the Constitution of the eral questions in the public discourse and Republic of South Africa, 1996 to scrutinise domain (Business day Live, 2016). Then one and oversee executive action and any or- of the central questions is: does Parliament gan of state inter alia State-Owned Enter- has a potential and capability to hold the prises (SOEs). This forms the basis of what executive accountable? oversight entails; however, various scholars have outlined their views on what the con- From the foregoing, Stapenhurst and Peliz- cept of oversight pertains. zo (2002) underline that for Parliament to effectively hold the executive to account In consideration of the literature review, it needs to understand the significance of Schick (1976) cited in Pelizzo, Stapenhurst its roles. This is in part assuming that Parlia- and Olson (2006:8) asserts that oversight ment as an institution and Members of Par- comprises of the supervision of policies and liament (MPs) as legislators know their roles, programs ratified by the executive. - John hence understanding the importance of son and Nakamura (1999:4) are also of their roles is a crucial facet. It is interesting the opinion that oversight happens subse- that in recent times the public is continu- quent to the enacting of legislation. Over- ously engaged with the work of Parliament; sight consists of scrutinizing the correctness however, this in-turn has not made its work and efficiency of policies and programmes easy as each step it take is under public implemented. These denotations support scrutiny. Therefore, taking into account di- the long held view that Parliament is a re- rect or indirect positive connotations of the active institution because its function tran- new theme of Parliament for 2016, which spires after an event has taken place. Con- is coined as “following up on our commit- trariwise, Pelizzo et al. (2006:8) agree with ments to the people”, the paper examines the delineation provided by Maffio (2002) whether Parliament has a potential and that oversight also comprises of the super- capability to oversee the executive. vision of government’s plans before their implemented by the government and any As a point of departure, it is important to organs of state. put assumption aside and provide a clear conceptualisation of the term oversight. This infers that oversight can be conducted ex ante- before and during the imple- 2. CONCEPTUALISATION OF OVERSIGHT mentation of a programme – as well as In the conceptualisation of the term over- ex post, after its implementation (Pelizzo & sight which is the bone of contention in the Stapenhurst, 2004: 3-4; Pelizzo et al., 2006; paper, the premise is founded in Section Stapenhurst & Pelizzo, 2002 in Madue, 2012: 55(2) of the Constitution of the Republic 434). This is in contradiction to the orthodox of South Africa, 1996. It stipulates the roles that Parliament respond to the activities of of Parliament to oversee the activities of government to determine value for money

12 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 which for this reason is mostly criticised of 3. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PARLIAMENTARY being reactive than proactive institution. OVERSIGHT Moreover, Zvoma (2010:3) is of the opinion Parliamentary oversight is good for the that oversight is not the same as supervi- proper running of a democratic system of sion. This is not a contrary view to the prior government (West & Copper, 1989; Pelizzo explanations of oversight; but the author & Stapenhurst, 2006; Shenga, 2007; Madue, argues against the use of the concept su- 2012). These scholars elaborate that for a pervision, which is justified as to respect the democratic government to operate effec- separation of powers. tively, MPs who are elected representatives Madue (2013:39) observes that oversight is need to closely monitor the activities of the a vehicle to hold the executive account- executive. West and Cooper (1989) cited able in realising the programmes enacted in Pelizzo et al., (2006:8) emphasise that and adequate spending by the executive. amongst the benefits of effective -over Lees (1977:193) defines oversight as “the sight in a democratic system is to ensure behaviour by legislators and their staffs, inthat government improves its programmes dividually or collectively, which results in an and Parliaments’ enact policies. This makes impact, intended or not, on bureaucratic oversight an important feature in a political behaviour”. On the other hand, it is argued system (Nijzink & Piombo, 2004: 3). Its sig- that oversight is a process that should be nificance is to safeguard the constitution- discussed in the framework of democracy al obligation of the separation of powers. (Shija, 2012:1). Particularly, oversight should This separation of powers is between the ensure that the policies of the government legislature, executive and judiciary which represent the needs of the people (Yama- is aimed at maintaining transparency and moto, 2007:9). The oversight role of Parlia- accountability amongst others. Johnson ment should be to the benefit of all citizens (2005:3) argues that this is to uphold the of the country and this should be empha- systematic checks and balances between sised. Parliament and the executive, and it has several interconnected purposes and ob- Furthermore, Oversight Model of the South jectives. African Legislative Sector (2012:4) defines the concept of oversight as “the proactive Simmonds (2002:3) and Zvoma (2010:3) interaction initiated by a legislature with the spell out those purposes and objectives executive and administrative organ that of oversight as to improve the efficiency, encourages compliance with the constitu- economy and effectiveness of government tional obligation on the executive and ad- operations; evaluate programmes and per- ministration to ensure delivery on agreed-to formance; investigate and prevent poor objectives for achievement of government administration, waste, abuse, arbitrary and priorities”. It is crucial to note that this defini- illegal and unconstitutional conduct; pro- tion attempts to capture both ex-ante and tect civil liberties and constitutional rights; ex-post events, and further asserts the sig- inform the general public and ensure that nificance of parliamentary oversight which executive policies reflect public interests; is a constitutional obligation. gather information to develop new legislative proposals or amend existing statutes; Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 13 and ensure administrative compliance on the two branches influence effective over- legislative authority and prerogatives. sight. This is in reference to the existing and emerging literature defining the power re- The purposes and objectives of oversight lations. stress the significance of oversight in holding the executive to account for its actions Cheibub and Limongi (2011:21) are of the or inactions. These facets among others opinion that politicians across all systems stress the obligation of Parliament to uphold have the same motivation regardless of and defend the constitution. This is essential the form of government. This pertains to and it underscores the significance of the the reference to presidential, semi-presi- existence of a democratic Parliament. In dential and parliamentary system which performing its constitutional mandate, the is not discussed in detail in the paper yet relations between Parliament and the ex- the latter is underscored. This paper argues ecutive is fundamental as defined through that the role played by the form of gov- the separation of powers. Thus, the com- ernment cannot be easily discarded. For plexity of this relation is outlined in the next example, Friedberg (2011:526) states that section as power relations. in a parliamentary system, the government emerges from Parliament. Although, 4. POWER RELATIONS BETWEEN THE EXECU- Ahmed (2011:15) is of the opinion that there TIVE AND LEGISLATURE IN PARLIAMENTARY is a strong relation between the legislative SYSTEM and executive branch in the parliamentary Scholars of legislative studies state that form of government, this creates ambigui- over the years the executive had endued ty with regard to the separation of powers criticism for Parliament’s inability to effec- as the members of the executive are also tively hold the executive accountable, MPs. Musavengana (2012:2) writes that: yet recognising the weaknesses of Parlia- “the Westminster-inspired systems of gov- ment (Shenga, 2007; Musavengana, 2012; ernment that are prevalent in most coun- Malapane, 2015). For example, Rapoo tries of Southern Africa tend to compromise (2004:5) asserts that inadequate resourc- the principle of separation of powers. Un- es and weak institutional capacity create der these systems, ministers are most often the over dependence of the legislative drawn from MPs, which, ironically, should branch to the executive. This takes place oversee their performance”. regardless of the clearly defined constitu- It is fair to point fingers to the nature of the tional mandate of Parliament to conduct political systems which include among oth- oversight over the executive. In the South ers electoral rules, constitution and nature African context, this is defined throughsec - of political parties for the dominance of tion 55(2) of the Constitution of the Repub- the executive and marginalisation of Par- lic of South Africa, 1996. Khmelko and Beers liament (Hudson & Wren, 2007:4). This plac- (2011:501) concede that effective over- es Parliament in a difficult situation as de- sight is required to maintain the balance of fined by Salih (2005:252) that in the process power between the executive and legis- were Parliament endeavours to perform its lative branch; however, the paper argues oversight function, the executive fights to that the nature of the relations between

14 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 dominate it. The emphasis is that both the sion of enquiry and Ombudsman (Public two parties compete to influence policy Protector in the case of South Africa). The making and in-turn its outcomes. Johnson tools have been broadly studied to investi- (2005:1) however argues that this should gate the potential of oversight depending not be the case as “modern democracies on the number of tools employed (Pelizzo & are characterised by shared decision mak- Stapenhurst, 2004). Countries such as Ger- ing between the legislative and executive many and Sweden using the parliamen- branch of the state”. tary form of government have more tools than the others, and South Africa as one of The foregoing entails that the two branches them has 5 out of 7 available tools. Pelizzo of the state should be able to compromise et al. (2006:8) however highlight that effec- in fulfilling their constitutional mandates. For tive oversight should not be determined by instance, the legislative branch of the state only the number of tools in effect, because should have capacity to conduct over- it also depends on other conditions such as sight and in-turn the executive should be amongst others the information to conduct keen to conform to its requests. With regard oversight and powers allocated to the leg- to the example provided in the paper, this islative branch of government. compromise is obscured. Thus, it is crucial that going beyond the complexities of the executive-legislative relations, Parliament Yamamoto (2007:11) states that the ab- should have capacity to be in a position to sence of one tool in a parliament does not utilise its mechanisms to promote effective make it less powerful than the other. For ex- oversight, such as questions and commit- ample, before modern political parties tools tees of Parliament whether ad hoc or per- such as question time and questions have manent among others. been perceived as ineffective by how they are utilised. Payne (2009:22) writes that al- 5. PARLIAMENTARY OVERSIGHT TOOLS AND though questions time remains important CAPACITY wherein MPs are afforded the opportunity to raise questions, it has vast weaknesses Scholars have identified and studied sever- such as irrelevant responses. Regardless al tools utilised to oversee the activities of of irrelevant responses provided, which is government (Pelizzo & Stapenhurst, 2002; the case for most questions asked by op- Simmonds, 2002; Rapoo, 2004; Yamamoto, position MPs; the executive utilises fewer 2007). These studies were conducted utilis- time replying to questions, and more time ing the data collected by the World Bank making lengthy speeches. This has been Institute and Inter-Parliamentary Union playing out in the South African Parliament, through a survey of 82 countries in the more importantly with the contentious issue early 2000s to determine the presence of of Nkandla. In addition, Nijzink and Piom- oversight tools in various parliaments. The bo (2004:6) stress that committees have a oversight tools identified as utilised in - var primary role in parliamentary democracy ious countries include but are not limited and the functioning of Parliament. Com- to Committee Hearing; Hearing in plenary mittees become representative in partisan sitting, Questions, Question time, Commis- composition and perform their roles bet-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 15 ter (Ahmed, 2011:11). This is relevant in this Parliament’s independence, expertise and country that has espoused multi-party de- resources. In borrowing from the parame- mocracy although it has been dominated ters that are utilised by Yamamoto (2007) to by the African National Congress (ANC), measure the potential of both Committees and in-turn reduced to be a dominant and questions, information and expertise party system. Thus, the ad hoc Committee are emphasised as important factors in the which dealt with the contested issue of Nk- effectiveness of oversight tools. Simmonds andla was dominated by the ANC and in- (2002:6) asserts that information is vital to turn partisanship prevailed. effective oversight; this entails Parliament possessing knowledgeable staff and mem- Regardless of the above, the role of oppo- bers. Moreover, one cannot over-empha- sition parties or opposition MPs should not sise internal research offices as important be excluded. The opposition continues to assets. Generally, the staff compliment sup- play a pivotal role in Parliament; although, porting committees of Parliament is broad its role is more prevalent in some parliamen- comprising of Researchers, Content Advis- tary tools of oversight than others. For Ex- ers, Legal Advisers and Information Officers ample, Proksch and Slapin (2010:68) argue among others (Oversight and Accountabil- that opposition parties are dominant during ity Model, 2009). The details could not be question time, and they ask more questions discussed further in this paper; however, than the governing parties. Although, the expertise is expected to be the case in the reasons for opposition parties’ dominance South African Parliament which considers may vary, question time presents an oppor- itself to be a modern legislature. tunity to opposition MPs to challenge the executive over policy or personal conduct Furthermore, the time available is also im- (Saalfeld, 2011:272). In addition, Salmond portant, this entails the time MPs have to (2004:77) states that “it is the only time the attend to their assignments as well as the opposition can force government to ad- time to do such assignments. Although, dress issues it would rather ignore. The op- time is a grave issue that parliaments in position is able to set the agenda for large general struggle with, in particular when part of the proceedings in question time, dealing with budget and quarterly reports something it rarely do in other parliamen- from the executive, for other matters out- tary tools”. The Nkandla debacle remains a side this scope wherein external tools of good example wherein the opposition re- oversight such as Public Protector are em- mained persistent to get answers from the ployed, time should not be a justification. executive. According to the Oversight Model of South African Legislative Sector (2012:43) “Parlia- As stated in the discussion, among others, ment conducts Oversight visits, and such powers and technical capacity to a cer- visits take place whenever a committee tain extent determines the ability of Parlia- decides to produce one”. This is one of the ment to conduct oversight (Shenga, 2007; tools that were utilised for the Nkandla is- Musavengana, 2012). Powers and capaci- sue wherein the MPs undertook a visit to Nk- ty may be vested in various aspects such as andla to inspect the President’s compound (Business Day Live, 2016). Despite this effort, 16 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 the contribution that the visit made is elu- Heller and Mershon (2008:911) argue that sive judging by how the overall issue was discipline is one of the approaches political resolved. parties use to maintain party unity, and also control negative agendas, and cohesion. Thus, if the argument presented in the fore- The link between party discipline and party going discussion is to be carried forward; unity infers that MPs should uphold the par- since Parliament possesses the necessary ty line. These are some of the main reasons tools of oversight, with the constitutional why there is a need for party discipline. The powers and capacity to hold the executive absence of party discipline may lead to accountable, then what influences the de- party disunity – a threat to political stabili- cisions of the majority of MPs? It is important ty and democratic accountability. Since in to discuss what motivates individual legis- parliamentary system, the electorate gives lators’ decisions in the oversight activities an electoral mandate to a political party, used to oversee the executive. This is done not individual MPs, hence party unity is es- through focusing on party discipline and sential for the effectiveness of parliamenta- unity discourse in parliamentary oversight. ry government (Heller & Mershon, 2008). On the other hand, the manifestations of party 6. INFLUENCE OF PARTY DISCIPLINE AND UNI- disunity may include among others leader- TY IN OVERSIGHT ship challenges, party splits, party switch- This section pertains to the role or rather ing, and branches clashing with the cen- influence of politics, in particular parties tral party line as well as speaking against on the oversight role of Parliament. Mick- party line in the press (Field, 2013:361). This ler (2013:423) denotes that partisan theory is somewhat relevant to the South African supports the role of political parties in Par- discourse. Then a question arises: is this liament. Political parties in this theory are what the country’s maturing yet fragile de- the key actors, which makes MPs account- mocracy needs to survive? able to their own parties. On the one hand, Brierley (2012:420) studying party unity in Fredriksson and Wollscheid (2014:54) define the African perspective with specific -at party discipline as “the degree to which tention to Ghana’s Parliament in compar- elected legislators keep their party’s cam- ison to Kenya National Assembly (KNA) in paign promises after being elected”. This part holds a contrary view about the sig- points out that MPs are required to safe- nificance of party unity in Parliament. The guard the interests of their political par- author notes that strong party unity among ties in the process of delivering to its elec- others is held responsible for the restricted toral mandate. On the other hand, party development in Ghananian Parliament, unity “means that individual legislators of and on the other hand, claims that weak the same party votes as a bloc” (Field, party unity turned the KNA to be among 2013:362). It implies that MPs of one party the sturdiest African Parliaments. This is maintains unity when it comes to matters because MPs are caught between serv- before Parliament or voting whether there ing their party or electorates; however, are agreements or disagreements. The Nk- based on the parliamentary system, this andla debacle remains an example. line becomes clear as parties are elected

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 17 to Parliament, not individual legislators. The 7. PARLIAMENTARY OVERSIGHT SETTING foregoing stresses that systems have a di- Parliament is the representative body of rect role in either improving or hampering the people (Section 42(3) of the Constitu- both oversight and accountability (Obiyo, tion of the Republic of South Africa, 1996). 2013:106). This is mainly a mandate which is defined Taking this African perspective and relating by how it is established as an institution of it to South Africa, stable party identities is democracy (Malapane, 2015). It has been the motive for MPs of the governing party discussed in this paper that MPs are elect- to vote in line or adopt a similar position ed representatives which represent the in- (Brierley, 2012; Obiyo, 2013). It entails that terests of the electorate and to a certain the ruling party utilises the whip system to degree the mandate of their political par- maintain strong discipline and unity among ties. This underscores the political context in its MPs who are a majority in Parliament. This which parliamentary oversight takes place particularly, relates to the country where- (Wohlstetter, 1989; Aberbach, 2002). Sa- in the ANC has been in majority, since the lih (2005:3) asserts that Parliament is faced advent of democracy in 1994. Stressing the with competing roles as it is part of the importance of the whip system lead by a machinery that confers legitimacy on the Chief Whip of a political party which is not executive, yet it is constitutionally mandat- discussed in detail in this paper; the recent ed to hold the executive to account for its resignation of Mr Stone Sizani the 11th Chief actions to safeguard the public interests. whip of the ruling party after the Nkandla As stated, in the parliamentary system the debacle underscores this position (Business executive is created from Parliament who Day Live, 2016). Instilling discipline and unity are expected to play the principal role in Parliament may not come as an easy job over the agent, which is the executive in to do; it takes a lot of compromises. terms of the Principal-Agent theory (Bashe- ka & Mubangizi, 2012:6; Madue, 2012:862). Based on the above argument, the MPs of While the complex nature of the environ- the ruling party in Parliament have been ment is recognized, this should not be the supporting the executive whether there motive to neglect oversight. is an agreement or not. Regardless of the manifestations of signs of disunity when It is noted that oversight used to be linked some broke ranks, when the time comes to opposition parties in most democrat- to defend the executive and the President ic Parliaments (Malapane, 2015). It is be- party unity is maintained, which is pro- cause the executive is established from fessed as defending their political party. a majority in Parliament. In the South Afri- This stresses the influence of party discipline can context, the ANC still enjoys an unin- and unity in oversight. The former relating terrupted majority. This however does not to defending their political parties is dis- suggest that the governing party’s majority cussed below as the environment in which has been inactive in oversight. Moreover, oversight is taking place. Johnson (2005:8) states that the electoral system also contribute to lack of effective oversight. The author states that in pro-

18 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 portional representation (PR) system es- tive in their work is a hindrance. This insin- poused, MPs will tend to be most respon- uates that MPs may know the difference sive to their parties’ leaders who determine between right and wrong, yet they decide whether and where a candidate will be to do the latter as they are perpetually placed on the party list in the next election. caught between serving the interests of the This is because candidates are placed on electorate and the mandate of their polit- a list, and citizens vote for parties than for ical parties. candidate directly”. On the one hand, it 8. ANALYSIS is for the above reasons among others that oversight encounters political opposition, It is clear that while oversight is a constitu- and becomes constrained to protective tional mandate of Parliament, it is faced relationship between Parliament and the with various challenges. The challenges executive (Ethridge, 1984:341). Deducting are wide encompassing political opposi- from the reviewed literature, this paper ar- tion, partisanship, political competition and gues that this should not be the case. Aber- the power relations between the executive bach (2002:62) stress that oversight should and Parliament, resulting to reluctance of be bi-partisan. In other words, it should be the executive to cooperate. The systems an institutional activity, putting aside petty and environment weere oversight takes political motives. This will make oversight place contribute to lack of effective over- constructive, systematic and objective sight. For example, the PR system makes enough. On the other hand, recognising it easier to recall an MP. In addition, while the ever presence of partisanship, low level Parliament attempts to hold the executive of partisanship is a contextual factor in de- accountable, the executive fights to influ- termining the success of Parliament (Rock- ence policy. This is the root of the power man, 1984). relations as NiJzink and Piombo (2004:3) stress that the executive has occupied From the foregoing, Malapane (2015) ar- the responsibility to make laws, and it cre- gues that it takes the willingness of Parlia- ates most of the bills. It has reduced Parlia- ment to attain effective oversight, and also ment in its main mandate to merely rubber the possible influence of the available in- stamping as most bills are prepared and centives or lack thereof. This is stressed as drafted by the executive and presented to political will yet it requires positive incen- Parliament for approval. tives to be nurtured (Pelizzo & Stapenhurst, 2014:259). Ethridge (1984:342) earlier stat- On the other hand, it is noted that oversight ed that the absence of positive incentives is dependent on the willingness of the MPs. for MPs is a systematic impediment in pro- This point out to the environment parlia- moting effectiveness. Effective oversight mentary oversight is taking place wherein is lacking in an environment wherein the legislators are continually caught between cost of conducting oversight outweigh the responding to the interests of the elector- benefits. For example, Malapane (2015) arate or their political parties. Regardless of gues that MPs may know what is expected the South African Parliament’s commit- to them, but the fear of losing their seats ment that MPs should be accountable to in Parliament if they become more objec- the people or electorate, the foregoing is

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 19 a reality. This is because the nature of the sight. This includes the capacity to gen- parliamentary form of government results erate its own independent information, in protective relationships between Parlia- and it is pointed out that the South Afri- ment’s majority and the executive. This is can Parliament has such capacity. It is the case with regard to the South African also stressed in the paper that oversight Parliament, as the ANC continuously inflicts tools have been studied focusing on its majority, and with the view that it will still oversight potential based on the num- maintain its majority in the next election. ber of tools utilised by Parliament. Thus, This highlights that the cost for oversight to the South African Parliament uses most individual MPs overweigh the incentives, so of the oversight tools, and this in part there is a leeway for the influence of party highlights its potential. discipline and unity to succeed. 9. CONCLUSION Furthermore, there is a notion that capacity This paper concludes that Parliament as is fundamental for effective oversight. It has an institution of democracy has a po- been acknowledged that the executive is tential and capability to hold the exec- generally dominant over Parliament; how- utive to account for its actions or inac- ever, Shija (2012:7) has maintained that tions, and it could effectively follow-up Parliaments have been fighting to be inde- on the commitments made to the peo- pendent and diverge from the influence ple. As discussed, this is depended on of the executive. This relates to Parliament various issues which have either nega- building its own capacity to support over- tive or positive connotations. This makes oversight appears to be weak or strong in Basheka, B.C. & Mubanginzi, B.C., 2012. certain instances. It is however important to Evoking citizens in fighting procurement in Uganda: Loyolo Journal of Social Scienc- emphasize that the setting in which over- es. 27(1): 56-80 sight takes place has an influence on oversight. This includes party politics, discipline Brierley, S., 2012. Party Unity and Presiden- tial dominance: Parliamentary develop- and the executive-legislative power rela- ment in the fourth Republic of Ghana: tions. Therefore, for oversight to be effec- Journal of Contemporary African Studies. tive it should be viewed as an institutional 3 (3): 419- 439 activity, and this may minimise petty party Cheibub, J.A. & Limongi, F., 2011. From political motives amongst others. conflict to coordination: Perspectives on the study of executive-legislative relation: List of References Latin American RIEL-Magazine of Legisla- tive Studies. 1(1). 38-53 Aberbach, J.D., 2002. Improving Oversight: The endless task of congress: Society Trans- Ethridge, M.E., 1984. A political-institution- action publishers. 40(1): 60-63 al interpretation of legislative oversight mechanisms and behaviour: Palgrave Ahmed, A., 2011. Parliamentary oversight Macmillan Journals. 17(2): 340-359 and its role in ensuring constitutionalism and accountability under FDRE Constitu- Field, B.N., 2013. Resolute Leaders and tion. Unpublished Masters dissertation. Ad- ‘Cardboard Deputies’: Parliamentary Par- dis Ababa: University of Addis Ababa ty Unity in the New Spanish Democracy:

20 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 South European Society and Politics. 18 (3): government in comparative perspective: 355 – 374 Quaderni di Scienza Politica . 9(2): 333-383 Fredriksson, P.G & Wollscheid, J.R., 2014. Mickler, T.A., 2013. Standing Committee As- Political Institutions, Political Careers and signments in the German Bundestag – Who Environment Policy: KYKLOS. 67 (1): 54-73 Gets What in Within-Party Negotiations? German Politics. 22 (4): 421-440 Friedberg, C., 2011.From a Top-Down to a Bottom-Up approach to legislative over- Mubangizi, B.C. & Tshishonga, N., 2013. Po- sight: Journal of Legislative Studies. 17(4): litical and Community Oversight for Good 525-544 Governance in South Africa: Journal of Public Administration. 48(2): 299-320 Heller, W.B & Mershon, C., 2008. Dealing in Discipline: Party Switching and Legislative Musavengana,T., 2012. Benchmarks for Voting in the Italian Chamber of Deputies, Democratic Legislatures: Also available on- 1988-2000: American Journal of Political http://www.osisa.org/other/hrdb/regional/ Science. 52(4): 910-924 benchmarks-democratic-legislatures. Hudson, A & Wren, C., 2007. Parliamenta- Nijzink, L. & Piombo, J., 2004.The Institutions ry strengthening in developing countries: of Representatives Democracy: Centre United Kingdom: Overseas Development for Social Science Research: University of Institute Cape Town

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22 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 THE NEXUS BETWEEN GOVERNMENT EFFECTIVENESS AND CORRUPTION IN SOUTH AFRICA

T.S. Masipa University of Limpopo, South Africa

ABSTRACT

The contemporary South Africa has been epitomised with scourges of corruption and lack of and poor services delivery which is mainly centred on corruption. It is within this context this paper aims to determine the nexus between government effectiveness and corruption in South Africa. For this purpose, two econometric techniques are employed, thus granger-causality and cointegration test. Granger-causality test confirmed a bi-directional causality from both regulatory quality and rule of law to government effectiveness. However, no causal-link was found between corruption control and government effectiveness and thus implies lack of corruption control in South Africa. Cointegration test ascertained the existence of a long run relationship between government effectiveness and corruption. From the analysis, it is evident that corruption adversely affects good governance. The paper therefore argues that to achieve practices of good governance, there is a need to fight and end corruption and this however requires a political will and commitment. More importantly, it is also imperative to ensure that the anti-corruption agencies are not beholden to the government of the day, as this undermines their independence, objectivity and effectiveness.

Keywords: Government Effectiveness, Corruption, Granger-causality test, Cointegration test

1. INTRODUCTION the nature and extent of corruption has deprived the government to achieve prin- The recent upsurge in corruption cases and ciples and practices of good governance reports calls for an urgent need to scrutinise and this usually leads to poor and lack of the relationship between government ef- service delivery. As a result, the ultimate fectiveness and corruption in South Africa. victims of corruption which are mostly the This is because the role and commitment poor often resort to social protests against to good and clean governance remains a the government of the day. top priority of the democratic South Africa. This can be understood from the central Though it is widely accepted that the costs role the government plays in the formula- of corruption are calamitous, due to its tion and implementation of anti-corrup- secretive nature, it has however become tion strategies to the role of governing and more difficult to curb the scourges of cor- providing services to its citizens. However, ruption. Kaufmann, (2004) elaborates this

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 23 view as he argues that what makes it more ruption, its underlying consequences and difficult is that corrupt activities and cul- possible measures to combat it. We now prits are not homogenous and if a policy understand what corruption is and why it for combating corruption fails to take into is difficult to curb it. This section therefore account the magnitudes and ranks within seek advance the existing body of knowl- corrupt activities, the policy might not be edge by identifying and discussing the ty- realistic enough to eradicate corruption. pologies of corruption. De Graff (2007) cited in Manyaka & Nku- 2.1 Bureaucratic and Economic Corruption na (2014:1573) also concede that though there has been an increase in public in- According to Jose & Hernandez (2011) terest and concern over corruption, the bureaucratic corruption occurs at the im- phenomenon still remains problematic and plementation of law, regulation or policy, challenging for most developing nations, and because of it, the system in place be- including South Africa. comes slow and inefficient and that leads to some officials soliciting the public funds. The Council for the Advancement of the Jose & Hernandez (2011) further noted South African Constitution (CASAC) (2011) that bureaucratic corruption also involves views corruption as an antithesis to democ- embezzlement, which is the conversion racy and the rule of law because it diverts of public resources for personal use. This resources that are needed to improve the may entail huge sums of money. Another lives of citizens to enrich a few at a greater common type of bureaucratic corruption cost to many. The CASAC (2011) further not- is ‘kickbacks’, which involves public official ed that corruption prevents the state from sharing misappropriated funds for his or her fulfilling its constitutional obligations and own private use. erodes the legitimacy of the democratic government by subverting the rule of law. Thornhill, (2012) argues that political de- In short, corruption if not addressed it be- ployments and absence of meritocratic comes a clog to achieve the principles of systems exacerbate bureaucratic corrup- good governance. Hence, this paper aims tion. On the economic front, Mbeki (2005) to determine the nexus between govern- in Mapuva (2014:164) posits that economic ment effectiveness and corruption in South corruption creates inefficiencies in the mar- Africa. Other variables which are incorpo- kets. According to Mbeki (2005), econom- rated in the model includes; the regulatory ic corruption affects emerging entrepre- quality and rule of law. neurs who cannot afford the cost of bribes than large corporations who often budget 2. CONCEPTUALISING CORRUPTION AND for bribes for government tenders. This in- GOVERNANCE: A GENERIC VIEW volves the rewarding of tenders to relatives There is a universal concern over corruption and friends by those entrusted with power. and its consequences. This has resulted in Sometimes secret deals are entered with a large number of scholarly researches on multinational companies and in some cas- the debate. Theoretical and empirical re- es bilateral agreements are signed which searches have been conducted and thus far yielding important insights about cor-

24 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 are skewed in favour of the investor in ex- organisation participate in and share the change for a ‘kickback’. gains from the routine of corrupt practices. Disorganized corruption on the other hand, 2.2 Administrative and Political Corruption takes place on a case by case basis and In the administrative corruption, Joze & Her- each case is unique. Partakers to such type nandez (2011) explain that the behaviours of corruption usually do not share a com- of public agents neglect the principles of mon vision and operate individually (Isaac: efficiency, truthfulness and rightfulness. 2002:22). Hence, corruption, results in the transfer 2.5 Petty and Grand Corruption of public to private gain, taking advantage of the entrusted power. On the other According to Isaac, (2002:23), these two hand, political corruption occurs as results forms of corruption involve the size or the of gaining political power. The public offi- extent of the corrupt activities. Grand cor- cials deviate from the principles that guide ruption refers to a large scale abuse and policies. Political influence also allows indi- misuse of power while petty corruption viduals to shape the public law and deci- is characterised by small scale abuse of sions are taken for private interest (Joze & power. Similarly, Swamy (2011:39) states Hernandez, 2011). This has been the case in that petty corruption involves small bribes most African states, when political execu- demanded or offered to ensure delivery tives, particularly the president manipulate of a service which may either be accord- the policies to prolong his or her stay in the ing to the rule or against the rule. On the office. other hand, he defines grand corruption as large bribes and commissions offered or paid by businesses or government officials 2.3 Systematic and Sporadic Corruption in quest for orders, for example, public procurement such as building a new hospital. Mapuva (2014:165) claims that systematic Cited in Manyaka & Nkuna (2014:1573), the corruption manifest in a situation where the Australian Agency for International Devel- corruption has entrenched its roots deep opment (AUSAID) of 2007 also concede into a system such that it has become an that the spectrum of corruption behaviour accepted normal behaviour. Such hap- exists and ranges from petty corruption pens when corrupt practices becomes which may include bribes or illicit pay- embedded within individuals and is viewed ments for routine bureaucratic processes, as normal practice. Sporadic on the oth- to grand corruption which involves leaders, er hand, refers to irregular form of corrup- politician and senior officials diverting pub- tion which is not an everyday practice but lic resources on a larger scale to serve their manifest itself as an exception (Mapuva, private interest. Another important aspect (2014:165). that brings about corruption is the poor su- 2.4 Organised and Disorganized Corruption pervision and monitoring of the functions of government. Pillay (2004: 589) argues that Isaac (2002:22) argues that in an organised where there is weak supervision, public offi- corruption, a number of officials within an cials are likely to behave corruptly because

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 25 they know nothing will happen to them. Accountability: It is the process The Department of Public Service of South whereby public entities and officials Africa (DPSA) (2002) identifies dimensions within them are responsible for their which corruption is likely to manifest itself decision and actions, including stew- in. These include bribery, embezzlement, ardship of public funds and all as- fraud, extortion, abuse of power, conflict of pects of performance. interest, favouritism as well as nepotism. Participation: it is based on the prin- Given the above discussion, one can con- ciple that the public should have clude that corruption is an antithesis of a voice in decision making, either good governance and that is a universal through people’s forum or directly. challenge cutting across all aspects of life. Such a broad participation is built on Is it however, worth noting that the above human rights, like freedom of speech discussed typologies and manifestations and association. It also acknowledg- of corruption are by no means complete es that the public is able and capa- or exhaustive and that corruption mani- ble of participating constructively on fests in various degrees of intensity. Thus im- matters of governance or in policy plies that, if it is left unattended, it creates formulation. a much bigger to challenge to address. Rule of law: It is based on the princi- Taking into account the costs of corruption ple that the legal frameworks should on a democratic state and the economy, be fair and enforced impartially. we may then want to ask, what it will take to end corruption in order to ensure good governance. The International Federation Transparency: It is built on the free of Accountants of 2001 provides the follow- flow of information. It means that the ing principles of governance in the public processes and information is directly sector; accessible to those concerned with them. Openness: Openness through meaningful consultation with stakeholders, provision of full, accurate and clear information that leads to effective 3. CORRUPTION AND GOVERNANCE IN and timely actions and stands up to SOUTH AFRICA necessary scrutiny. The changing milieu of the South Afri- Integrity: it is based upon honesty can public sector developed increasingly and objectivity, and high standards complex over the years characterised by of propriety and probity in the stew- scourges of corruption. According to Pil- ardship of public funds and resourc- lay (2004:589), the causes of corruption in es. This is reflected both in the entity’s South Africa are contextual, rooted in the decision-making processes and in country’s bureaucratic traditions, politi- the quality of its financial and perfor- cal development, and social history. Pillay mance reporting. (2004) reveals that corruption has flour- ished as a result of institutional weakness-

26 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 es. Similarly, Lodge (2001:161) argues that legislature and policy frameworks for com- non-merit processes of bureaucratic re- bating corruption in the public sector. Ac- cruitment and nepotism which arises from cording to Manyaka & Nkuna (2014:1574), political solidarity are the main sources of the provision of the legislature and strate- corruption in a democratic South Africa. gy is important, however the challenges Cited in Madonsela (2010), the Nation- is that there are no disciplinary measures al Union of Metalworkers of South Africa for non-compliance and the ultimate end (Numsa) (2004), stated that corruption in is that most departments do not submit government departments thrives as a re- their corruption reports to the Department sult of lack of skills to investigate corruption of Public service Administration (DPSA) as within the law enforcement agencies and required by the anti-corruption Strategy lack of synergy between departmental in- of 2002. This makes it difficult for the DPSA vestigative unit, internal audit units and law to monitor and track the cases of unethi- enforcement agencies. In addition, Ristei cal behaviour in the South African Public (2010:350) posits that corruption in South Service. According to the Public Service Africa undermines the ethos of democrat- Anti-Corruption Strategy (2002), the ac- ic which ultimately results in the erosion of counting officers who are the heads of de- public confidence and trust in the demo- partments take the responsibility in making cratic processes, hence the rule of law is sure that their respective departments re- undermined and ultimately fallouts in cit- port all corruption cases to the DPSA. izens unwilling to co-operate with govern- Despite all these advances and efforts ment. by the government to curb corruption, Mahlaba (2004:86) claims that in South Af- Manyaka & Sebola (2013) contends that rica, investigated cases of corruption re- corruption in the South African public sec- main low and some unattended due to tor is still a major challenge. Hence, De the weaknesses in the internal control sys- Graaf (2007) cited in Manyaka & Nkuna tems, bad management and lenient pen- (2014:1574) argues that the complexity of alties by presiding officers on misconduct the phenomenon makes it impossible to enquiries and this according to Mahlaba provide a comprehensive account of the (2004: 86) leads to lack of performance in causes and manifestations of corruption institutions and adequate action not taken within the political landscape and public for poor performance, hence the motiva- sector. Manyaka & Nkuna (2014:1577) rection of the public sector employees to work ommend that the approach to fight cor- productively has been deteriorating, un- ruption in the South African public sector dermined by promotion of public servants needs to be guided by a clear understand- regardless of their performance. ing of what enables corruption to thrive and equally on the best practises both locally In its quest to combat corruption, Kroukamp and across the globe. They further reiterate (2006) in Manyaka & Nkuna (2014:1572) ar- that lessons must also be learned from suc- gues that that since the advent of dem- cessful departments and other countries ocratic dispensation, the South African government implemented a number of

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 27 with low corruption should offer great ex- part of human element is critical for pro- perience on what should possibly be done moting good governance and this involves to combat corruption in South Africa. the values of the community within which we seek to fight corruption. These are the Madonsela (2010) believes that a huge values of each individual, the community and the political will at all levels of leader- motion of a high standard of professional ship. Since democracy, South Africa has ethics. According to Giorgi (1999:18), the become an open society and has created Constitution of South Africa provides an in- more platforms for exposing and prosecut- dispensable mechanism for South African ing corruption. The legal frameworks and public servants to address the corruption. legislation established to fight corruption This is reflective of an overall commitment are discussed below; to greater openness and transparency in government as opposed to the secretive 3.1 The Constitution of the Republic of South and unresponsive culture that character- Africa Act, 1996 ised public administration during the apart- Chapter 10 of the Constitution sets out the heid regime. basic values and principles that govern 3.2 The Prevention and Combating of Cor- public administration in all spheres of gov- rupt Activities Act, 2004 ernment, organs of state and the public enterprises. These values and principles in- The Act provides inter alia for the following: clude that: • creates the offence of corruption; • a high standard of professional ethics • authorises the National Directorate of must be promoted and maintained; Public Prosecutions to investigate any in- • the efficient, economic and effective dividual with unexplained wealth, or any use of resources must be promoted; property suspected to be used in the

• public administration must be develop- commission of a crime prior to instituting ment-oriented; asset forfeiture or criminal proceedings;

• services should be provided impartially, • the creation of a Register for Tender De- fairly, equally ad without bias; faulters within six months by the Ministers of Finance; • public administration must be accountable and; • places a duty in any person who holds a position of authority to report transac- • transparency must be fostered by pro- tions and ; viding the public with timely, accessible and accurate information. • grants the courts extraterritorial jurisdiction in respect of corrupt offences com- Section 195 (1) sets out the basic principles mitted outside South Africa in certain cir- for governing public administration. These cumstances, for example, if the person include an accountable public adminis- who committed the crime is a citizen of tration, public participation and the pro-

28 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 South Africa or ordinarily resides in the anti-corruption mandates. Republic Consideration 3: focuses on reporting Section 34 of the Act provides for the obli- wrong doing and protecting whistle-blow- gation to report corrupt transactions of any ers by institutions as well as reviewing anti- person who holds a position and suspected corruption hotlines. to have committed an offense of corrup- Consideration 4: is concerned with prohibi- tion. tion of corrupt individuals and businesses. 3.3 National Anti-corruption Programme of The intention is to establish mechanisms to 2005 prohibit corrupt employees in the government from doing business with the public In March 2005, the National Anti-corruption sector. Forum convened the 2nd National Anti-corruption Summit (Madonsela, 2010). The Consideration 5: deals with improving man- Summit adopted the programme with the agement policies and practices. Manag- aim to achieve at least four main objec- ers in organs of the state are required to tives, namely; sign performance agreements that hold them accountable and following proper • to improve national consensus and procurement and employment practices. leadership against corruption; Consideration 6: focuses on management • to promote the rights, obligations and of professional ethics in the fight against protection offered by the national an- corruption. It provides for the development ti-corruption framework; of codes of conduct for various sectors • to promote ethical practices in all Consideration 7: recognises the role of the sectors of government and; society in the fight against corruption- an • to provide sufficient platforms for de- dencourages partnership with them. bate on issues of corruption in all sector of Consideration 8: encourages the society government. particularly organisations to undertake on- 3.4 The Public Service Anti-corruption Strat- going research on corruption. egy of 2002 Consideration 9: aims at awareness, train- The South African Cabinet adopted the ing and education to support many initia- Public Service strategy in 2002. The strate- tives on corruption. gy has nine considerations; 3.5 The Anti-corruption Coordinating Com- mittee (ACCC) Consideration 1: deals with the review and consolidation of the legislative framework. The ACCC was established in terms of Stra- tegic consideration 2 of the Public Service Anti-corruption Strategy to coordinate the Consideration 2: deals with increased insti- implementation of the strategy and to in- tutional capacity and thus improving the tegrate anticorruption work in the country. functioning of existing institutions that have

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 29 The ACCC also offers a platform where in- Apart from the efforts taken by South Afri- formation on anticorruption can be shared can government to combat the scourges amongst the departments and agencies of corruption, there is however a growing to better equip them to fight corruption evidence in the media and reports that (Madonsela, 2010). The objectives of the corruption has tightened its grip and root- ACCC include to: ed deep almost in all spheres of the government. The main challenge seems to be • ensure full coordination and integration on the implementation and monitoring of anticorruption initiatives in the public of the anti-corruption strategies. This goes services; back to what Brynard (2007) stated, “The • ensure that there is no duplication of existence of a policy or legislation does not initiatives and efforts in the fight against necessarily imply its effective implemen- corruption in the public services; tation”. Hence, one can safely say that in South Africa, there is little connection be- • provide a platform where information tween what the policy says and its actual on anticorruption initiatives, including implementation. Having established the prevention, detection and investigation theoretical underpinnings of corruption can be shared amongst the depart- and governance, it is now apposite to in- ments troduce the methodological framework • oversee and monitor the implementa- adopted in the paper. tion of the Public Service Anticorruption 4. METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK Strategy; and In response to the various shortcomings in • ensure an enriched process of imple- the theoretical and empirical underpin- mentation of the Public Service Anticor- nings, this paper aims to develop a model ruption Strategy. of good governance that explicitly includes 3.6 The Auditor General government effectiveness as a function of corruption control, regulatory quality and The Auditor General was established in rule of law. Thus, implies that our theoretical terms of the Constitution to audit and re- model assumes that to ensure good gov- port on the accounts, financial statements ernance, corruption must be effectively and financial management of all national controlled, there must quality in regulation and provincial departments, municipali- and that the rule of law must be adhered ties or any other institutions required by the to. The table below outlines the description national legislation. As the supreme audit of data used in the paper. institution, it enables oversight, accountability and good governance in the pub- 4.1 Model specification lic sector (Madonsela, 2010). According Klitgaard (1998) developed a model for to Madonsela (2010), the Auditor General corruption and described the equation as can also conduct investigations or special follows; audits whenever it considers it to be in the public interest on receipt of a compliant or C = R + D – A (1) request.

30 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 51

effective implementation”. Hence, one can safely say that in South Africa, there is little connection between what the policy says and its actual implementation. Having established the theoretical underpinnings of corruption and governance, it is now apposite to introduce the methodological framework adopted in the paper.

4. METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK

In response to the various shortcomings in the theoretical and empirical underpinnings, this paper aims to develop a model of good governance that explicitly includes government effectiveness as a function of corruption control, regulatory quality and rule of law. Thus, implies that our theoretical model assumes that to ensure good governance, corruption must be effectively controlled, there must quality in regulation and that the rule of law must be adhered to. The table below outlines the description of data used in the paper.

Where, C stands for corruption, R for economic rent, D for discretionary powers and A for accountability. The equation demonstrates that high opportunities for economic rent52 (R), corruption is likely to rise. The more the discretionary powers (D) by public officials, the 4.1 Model specification Table 1: Description of Data KlitgaardVariable (1998) developed a Descriptionmodel for corruption and described the equation as follows;GEI Government Effective Index CCI Corruption Control Index C = R + D – A (1) RQI Regulatory Quality Index Where,RLI C stands for corruption,Rule R offor Law economic Index rent, D for discretionary powers Source:and A for Global accountability. Economy Index The equation (2016) demonstrates that high opportunities for highereconomic the chances rent (R), for corruption corruption is to likely thrive. to rise.the The dependent more the variable discretionary and independent powers Equally if public officials are not held- ac variables. Thus, government effectiveness (D) by public officials, the higher the chances for corruption to thrive. Equally if countable (A) for their action, corruption depends on corruption control, regulatory ispublic likely officialsto increase. are notHence, held (A) accountable has a mi- (A)quality for their and action, rule of corruption law. Hence, is likelywe assume to nusincrease. sign. In theHence, context (A) of has this paper,a minus good sign. Inthat the any context change of in thisgovernment paper, effectivegood - governance, measured by government ness can be explained by changes in cor- governance, measured by government effectiveness is analysed as a function of effectiveness is analysed as a function of ruption control, regulatory quality and rule corruptioncorruption control; control; regulatory regulatory quality quality and and ruleof oflaw. law. The These regression variables equation are viewedis therefore ruleas pillars of law. to Theseensure variables good governance; are viewed henceas expressed the model as of follows this paper is developed pillars to ensure good governance; hence as follows; GEI= β_0+β_1 CCI+β_2 RQI+ β_(3 ) the model of this paper is developed as fol- RLI+ε_t lows;

The regression estimates of this paper attempts to explain the relationship between

Government Corruption Regulatory Rule of Law Effectiveness Control + Quality +

Source: (Klitgaard, 1998) (2)Testing for causality conclude by rejecting the null hy- The regressionupholds the estimates standard procedureof this paper out- attemptspotheses to explain and accept the relationship the alternative betweenlined theby dependentGujarati and variable Porter (2009). and independent hypotheses. variables. Thus, government Thus, if the F-statistics are greater effectiveness depends on corruption control,4.3 regulatory Cointegration quality test and rule of law. than the probability values, we then Hence, we assume that any change in government effectiveness can be According to Gujarati & Porter (2009), if two series appear to be moving together over time, it indicates a long run equilibrium relationship between the series. If the null hypoth-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 31 Index Index Index 53

explained by changes in corruption control, regulatory quality and rule of law. The regression equation is therefore expressed as follows

GEI=

(2) 𝛽𝛽0 + 𝛽𝛽1𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝛽𝛽2𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝛽𝛽3 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝜀𝜀𝑡𝑡

Where, GEI is the estimation of government effectiveness due to changes in Corruption Control Index (CCI), Regulatory Quality Index (RQI) and Rule of Law Index (RLI). denotes the constant term, , and represent the rate of

change of the𝛽𝛽0 selected variables. The error term𝛽𝛽1 𝛽𝛽 2( ) is included𝛽𝛽3 in the model to cater for omitted variables which also affect government𝜀𝜀𝑡𝑡 effectiveness.

The overall significance of this model is that it contributes to a greater understanding of how corruption control, regulatory quality and rule of law affects government effectives which ultimately leads to good governance. Hence, we believe that in absence this, corruption is likely to thrive. The paper aims to determine the nexus between government effectiveness and corruption in South Africa for the period of 25 years, thus from 1990 to 2015. For this purpose, two econometric tests are employed, and thus Granger-causality and Cointegration tests.

4.2 Granger-causality test

The Granger-causality test is a statistical hypothesis used to determine whether time series X granger-cause Y. Using t-tests and F-tests, the values of X can provide information about the future values of Y (Gujarati & Porter, 2009). For the purpose of this purpose, the null hypotheses for granger-causality are expressed as follows;

H01: CCI does not granger-cause GEI (3)

H02: RQI does not granger-cause GEI (4)

H03: RLI does not granger-cause GEI (5)

esis of no cointegration is rejected, we therefore conclude by accepting the alternative hypothesis of long run relationship amongst the variables.

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Testing for causality upholds the standard procedure outlined by Gujarati and Porter (2009). Thus, if the F-statistics are greater than the probability values, we then conclude by rejecting the null hypotheses and accept the alternative hypotheses.

4.3 Cointegration test 5. RESEARCH FINDINGS Source: Author’s own computation

ThisAccording section present to Gujarati the results & Porter of the (2009), econo if two- seriesThe table appear above to bedemonstrates moving together the causal metricover time, techniques it indicates employed a long in run the equilibrium paper, relationshiprelationship betweenamongst thethe series.variables. If the From thus,null hypothesisGranger-causality of no andcointegration cointegration is rejected,the results, we it thereforecan be deduced conclude there by is no tests. These techniques were employed causality between corruption control and accepting the alternative hypothesis of long run relationship amongst the solely to determine the direction of causal- government effectiveness. Thus, for H01, the ityvariables. and the existence of a long run relation- F-statistic of 0.5072 is less than the p value of ship amongst the variables, respectively. 0.8437. Hence the null hypothesis (H01) was 5. RESEARCH FINDINGS not rejected and the probability value was

5.1 Table 2: Granger-causality test Date: 21/03/2016 Time: 11:15 Sample: 1990 2015 Series: GEI; CCI; RQI; RLI

Null Hypothesis (H0) Obs F-stat P-Value Decision

H01: CCI does not granger-cause 25 0.5072 0.8437 Do not reject H0 GEI

H02: RQI does not granger-cause 25 0.1989 0.0762* Reject H0 GEI

H03: RLI does not granger-cause 25 2.4978 0.0023* Reject H0 GEI * Note: * (**) indicate the rejection of null hypothesis at 10% (5%) level of significance found insignificant. For H02, the F-statistic of Table 3 established the existence of long 0.1989 is greater than the probability value run relationship amongst the variables us- of 0.0762*, hence we reject the null hypoth- ing the Johansen cointegration approach. esis at 10% level of significance. This implies The trace statistic and critical value are the that the regulatory quality causes or leads two measures used for cointegration test. to government effectiveness in South Afri- The results demonstrate the presence of ca. For H03, the F-statistic of 2.4978 is great- cointegration vectors at equation which er than the probability value of 0.023** and thus led to the rejection of the null hypothesis at 5% level of significance.

Source: Author’s own Computation

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 33 55

H03: RLI does not granger-cause 25 2.4978 0.0023* Reject H0 GEI * Note: * (**) indicate the rejection of null hypothesis at 10% (5%) level of significance Source: Author’s own computation The table above demonstrates the causal relationship amongst the variables. From the results, it can be deduced there is no causality between corruption

control and government effectiveness. Thus, for H01, the F-statistic of 0.5072 is less

than the p value of 0.8437. Hence the null hypothesis (H01) was not rejected and

the probability value was found insignificant. For H02, the F-statistic of 0.1989 is greater than the probability value of 0.0762*, hence we reject the null hypothesis at 10% level of significance. This implies that the regulatory quality causes or leads

to government effectiveness in South Africa. For H03, the F-statistic of 2.4978 is greater than the probability value of 0.023** and thus led to the rejection of the null hypothesis at 5% level of significance.

5.2 Table 3: Cointegration test Date: 21/03/2016 Time: 13:18 Sample: 1990 2015 Series: GEI; CCI; RQI; RLI Hypothesized Eigen value Trace Stat Critical Value Probability No of CE (s) (0.05) value None * 0.950726 90.55069 47.85613 0.0003** At most 1 0.899497 15.39525 29.79707 0.6907 56 At most 2 0.452066 10.93180 15.49471 0.2157 : ** indicates the rejection of H0 at 5% level of significance showsSNote:ource: theTrace Author’s existence statistic own andof Computation a Eigenlung runvalue relationship indicates at1 cointegration 5% level of significance. equation Therefore, the null hypothesis of no cointegration is rejected because the trace statistic of 90.55069 is Table 3 established the existence of long run relationship amongst the variables greater than the critical value of 47.85613 atusing 5% the level Johansen of significance. cointegration We approach. therefore The trace statistic and critical value the graph, it can be deduced that there concludeare the two that measures there is evidence used for ofcointegration a long test. The results demonstrate the is a downward trends of government ef- relationship amongst the variables. presence of cointegration vectors at equationfectiveness which shows for thethe pastexistence 15 years, of a thus from :lung Data run collected relationship from at The 5% Global level ofEconomy significance. 2001 Therefore, to 2015. the In 2003null hypothesis (year 3) the of regula- Index (2016) no cointegration is rejected because the tracetory statistic quality of 90.55069 index reached is greater its peakthan ranking Figure 1 shows trends of government ef- at about 0.8% and the government effec- the critical value of 47.85613 at 5% level of significance. We therefore conclude fectiveness in terms of rule of law, corrup- tiveness index was at about 0.7%. Similarly, that there is evidence of a long run relationship amongst the variables. tion control and regulatory quality. From in 2006 (years 6), RQI was over 0.6 and the

1 Figure 1: Governance in South Africa: 2001-2015 0,8

0,6 RLI

0,4 GEI

Rankings 0,2 CCI

0 RQI 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 -0,2

-0,4 Years government effectiveness was peaking up at around 0.5%. However, since 2008, (years 8) Source: Author’s own computation

34 : DataConference collected Proceedings from of the The International Global Conference Economy on Public Index Administration (2016) and Development Alternatives 2016 Figure 1 shows trends of government effectiveness in terms of rule of law, corruption control and regulatory quality. From the graph, it can be deduced that there is a downward trends of government effectiveness for the past 15 years, thus from 2001 to 2015. In 2003 (year 3) the regulatory quality index reached its peak ranking at about 0.8% and the government effectiveness index was at there has been a downward trend for all Figure 2 above simply illustrates the portion the variables. shared for government effectiveness, corruption control, regulatory quality and rule The downward trend supports the findings of law. Government effectiveness shares of both granger-causality and cointegra- 36%, rule of law shares 13%, corruption tion tests as it illustrates that government control shares 22% and regulatory quality effectiveness is deteriorating and this may portions 29%. The figure also support the possibly be explained by lack of corruption findings of the paper, as it demonstrates a control, lack of quality in regulation and need to control corruption, quality in reg- public official undermining the rule of law. ulation and to ensure that the rule of law The figure below demonstrates the portion is not undermined by the public officials in each variable shares. South Africa. Therefore to strengthen government effectiveness there is a need to

urgently control corruption, improve the thrive in government. quality of regulation and ensure that pub- 6.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS lic officials adheres to the rule of rule. Such a commitment will assure that corruption The purpose of this paper was to provide doesn’t thrive in government sphere. an empirical analysis of the nexus between government effectiveness and corruption. To the best knowledge of the author, this For this purpose, corruption controls, reg- paper is one of the few, if not first to em- ulatory quality, rule of law were analysed ploy econometric techniques to establish using granger causality and cointegration the relationship between government ef- tests. The results of granger-causality test fectiveness and corruption in South Africa. confirmed a bi-directional causal relation- Hence the paper ought to add insights the ship from both regulatory quality and rule of existing body of knowledge by foreground- law to government effectiveness. Hence, ing aspects such a corruption control, regulatory quality and rule of law which needs to be strengthened for corruption not to

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 35 the null hypotheses for H01 and H02 were re- culture that is intolerant of corruption and jected at 10% and 5% level of significance that has a sense of duty to expose acts of respectively. corruption.

However, for H01, the null hypothesis was Though national anti-corruption have their not rejected, thus implying no causal rela- challenges regarding coordination and tionship between corruption control and monitoring, there is however a need to de- government effectiveness in South Africa velop a multipronged approach to fight for the period reviewed, thus from 1990 to corruption. This is also emphasised by CA- 2015. The conitegration test results ascer- SAC, (2011) as it suggests that South Africa tained the existence of a long run relation- needs to develop and entrench the funda- ship between amongst the variables and mental values of a National Integrity System thus led to the rejection of the null hypoth- in all spheres of society as a foundation to esis (no long-run relationship) at 5% level of prevent and combat corruption and en- significance. The nature of this relationship trench the fundamental values of a Nation- should be of great concern to the govern- al Integrity System in all spheres of society as ment in a sense that they imply that if cor- a foundation to prevent and combat corruption is not urgently curbed, its effects on ruption. It is also important to ensure that governance have long term effects. The anti-corruption agencies are not beholden graphical trends (see figure 1 and 2) also to the government of the day as this under- confirms the findings of the paper as they mines their independence, objectivity and demonstrate a deteriorating trends for effectiveness. Lastly, since corruption is the government effectiveness, corruption con- relationship between “the giver-and-the trol, regulatory quality and rule of law. receiver” both must be harshly persecuted.

Looking at the mounting cases and reports LIST OF REFERENCES of corruption, one would perhaps validate Brynard, D.J. 2007. Supporting Constitution- the findings of this paper. Hence, contem- al Democracy in South Africa: An Assess- porary South Africa has been epitomised ment of the Public Protector (Ombuds- with scourges of corruption and lack of and man). SAIPA. 34(1): 7-24. poor services delivery. The paper therefore recommends that the government should CASAC. 2011. Corruption: Towards a Com- strengthen its machinery to fight corrup- prehensive Societal Response. Available tion in all spheres of government and this at http://www.casac.org.za/wpcontent/. should be enforced from the highest to the Accessed 18/03/2016. lowest office in all public entities. This- re quires a commitment and political will from Department of Public Service and Ad- all government officials to declare a war ministration (DPSA). 2002. Public Service against corruption. Once this commitment Anti-Corruption Strategy of 2002. Pretoria: is achieved, there is no doubt that the bat- DPSA tle against corruption can be won. Another Giorgi, B. 1999. “The open democracy bill: challenge relates to the awareness of the a preliminary investigation into its pro- society. This has to do with entrenching a visions and their implications for public

36 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 administration”, Parliamentary Monitoring Manyaka. R.K & Nkuna N.W. 2014. The Group. 18 (3):18-34. Phenomenon of Corruption in the South African public Sector: Challenges and Gujarati, D.N. & Porter, D.C. 2009. Basic Opportunities. Mediterranean Journal of Econometrics . New York: McGraw-Hill/ Social Sciences. 27 (5):1572-1580 Irwin. Mapuva. J. 2014. The Debilitating Impact International Federation of Accountants of Corruption on Democracy and Good (2001). Public Sector Committee March Governance: A Critical Analysis. Interna- 2004 Meeting. New York: International Fed- tional Journal of Political Sciences and eration of Accountants Development. 2 (8):164-174 Kaufmann, D. 2004. “Six Questions on the National Anti-Corruption Forum. 2006. Cost of Corruption”, www.worldbank.org, Understanding the Prevention and Com- April 8, 2004. Accessed 19/02/2016 bating of Corrupt Activities Act, Pretoria. Kiltgaard, R. 1998. “International Coopera- Available on http://www.nacf.org.za/ tion against Corruption”, IMF/World Bank, guide-prevention-combating corrupt-ac- Finance and Development, 35(1): 3 tivities/index.html accessed 05/03/2016.

Kroukamp, H., 2006. Corruption in the Phiri, I., 2011. Evolution of anti-corruption South Africa with particular reference to journalism in Africa: lessons from Zambia. Public sector institutions: The evil of all evils. Global Media Journal: African Edition, 2 Journal of Public Administration. 41(2.1): (1) 206 217 Pillay, S. 2004. Corruption - the challenge Lodge. 2001. Countering public corruption to good governance: A South African Per- in South Africa. Transformation. 46 spective. The International Journal of Pub- lic Sector Management. 17(7): 587-605. Madonsela, T.N., 2010. Corruption and governance challenges: the South African ex- Republic of South Africa 1996. The Con- perience. Internet: http://www. pprotect. stitution of the Republic of South Africa of org/media_gallery/2010/PP% 20Speach% 1996. Pretoria: Government Printers. 20Nigeria% 20Corruption% 20and% 20Gov- Republic of South Africa. 2004. Prevention ernance% 20Challenges% 20final. pdf. Ac- and Combating of Corrupt Activities Act 9 cessed 13 June 2013 0f 2004. Pretoria: Government Printers. Mahlaba. P.J. 2004. Fraud and Corruption Ristei. M. 2010. The Politics Of Corruption: in the Public Sector. An Audit Perspective. The Political Will And The Rule Of Law Service Delivery Review. 3 (2): 84-87 In Post-Communist Romania. Journal of Manyaka, R., K. & Sebola, M.P. 2013. Eth- Communist Studies & Transition Politics. 26 ical training for effective anti-corruption (3):341-362. systems in the South African public service. Swamy. M. R. K. 2011. Financial Manage- Journal of Public Administration. 48(1): 75- ment Analysis Of Money Laundering, Cor- 88 ruption And Unethical Business Practices:

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 37 Case Studies Of India, Nigeria And Russia. Rankings and Country Profiles. World Eco- Journal of Financial Management & Anal- nomic Forum. Accessed 15/03/2016. ysis. 24 (1):39-51. Thornhill, C. 2012. Improving Local Govern- The Global Economy Index. 2016. Country ment Transformation In South Africa. Ad- ministratio Publica. 20(3): 128-143.

38 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENTS PRIORITIES IN RURAL AREAS: A CASE OF GOOD GOVERNANCE AS SUSTAINABILITY AND NOT OPPORTUNISM

MS Mitileni University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

A challenge of a good water governance system in municipalities is relatively due to major water insecurities most of which are aggravated due to rapid population growth, hazard development and climatic changes. South Africa’s constitution states that every person has a right to access basic water and sanitation services. Water is the origin of every form of life. Water is a natural resource that is multifunctional and multidimensional and water problems in most rural areas are results of issues that are prompted by challenges encountered by water resource management such include socio-economic, structural, institutional and political factors that create problems in communities. Purpose of the paper described (outlined) the water resource development and management in water supply problems of rural areas. The paper employed qualitative approach in which data was collected through desktop and informal interviews. The paper is based on a case study of Greater Giyani and Makhado municipalities in Limpopo Province. This case study compared and contrasted the water provision challenges within the two municipalities. Fourteen (14) respondents comprising of one (1) village in both municipalities, thus consisting of three (3) respondents each from both Muyexe and Ha-Mandiwana villages, municipal managers/officials, ward councillors, traditional leaders and two (2) water service providers were selected purposively for the study. The paper conclude that sustainable development in water resources supplements for adequate supply of safe and clean drinking water; adequate sanitation and more important for environmental sustainability to preserve human society and moreover, that water resources management is the solution to water conservation and use; including being a process that offers flexible framework for sustainable water supply and management.

Keywords: Development, Equitable, Governance and management, Limpopo Province, Municipalities, Rural areas, Water resources, Water scarcity.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 39 1. INTRODUCTION infrastructure, and fragile institutions play a significant in water management in all African countries including Nigeria, South spheres. In undertaking such an explora- Africa, Tanzania and Zimbabwe are con- tion, the paper present the purpose of the fronted by water scarcity challenges study, water governance, water resources caused by quantitative and qualitative management and challenges, integrated destruction of freshwater resources (Sebo- water resources management, sustainable la, 2000; Nkuna, 2012). In rural communities development, highlight the findings, rec- around South Africa particularly in Limpopo ommendations and conclude by outlining Province, water scarcity is a growing phe- issues for new possible research. The paper nomenon. To address this challenge water intends to fulfil the following objectives: resource management in such areas should • Identify persistent challenges of water be based upon sustainable strategies such resource management to access sus- as Integrated Water Resource Manage- tainable water ment (IWRM) (Nkuna, 2012). This means fewer benefits, less life support and more • Highlight sustainable development as water-related risks and hazards if such mea- a tool for efficient water governance sures are not implemented, Clearly, factors mechanism such as population growth, demograph- 2. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOY ic changes, economic development and climate change have a negative impact 2.1 Area of Study on water resources (Dlamini, 2008). Equally, The study areas are local Municipalities in water resources have a significant impact Limpopo Province which are Greater Gi- on production and economic growth, on yani and Makhado Local Municipalities. health and livelihoods, and on national se- In both municipalities, there are selected curity (Bila, 2013). As the pressures on wa- areas chosen as case studies, thus include ter resources grow, it is vital that continuous Muyexe village (40km north-east of Giyani management of renewable freshwaters is town and made up of 900 households with done properly. But, managing water is be- approximately 1100 residents (Matheb- coming increasingly complex and conten- ula, 2014) in Greater Giyani Municipality tious. In many regions, managing water has and Ha-Mandiwana village (37km south- always been a major problem because of west of Makhado town and made up 500 the natural variability and uncertainty in households and 980 residents (Ralushai, weather patterns. But in comparison to this 2012) in Makhado Local Municipality. Pierre (2000) notes that in poor rural areas and communities such as the study areas 2.1 Research design and methodology of the paper, the major problem also con- The paper followed a qualitative research sists of bad hydrology, more frequent floods approach. Two study areas were selected and droughts, higher levels of uncertainties from two local municipalities in Limpopo , dependency on agriculture, and hence Province. The municipalities were iden- irrigation, rapid population growth. Wa- tified through a desktop study on areas ter demands, small endowments of water that are most vulnerable to water gover-

40 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 nance problems or challenges. Data was (IWRM) is an empirical concept which gathered using desktop (IDP’s, WSDP’s, was built up from the on-the-ground ex- DWA) and informal interviews were used perience of practitioners. Although many for both ordinary community members, parts of the concept have been around councillors and traditional leaders of the for several decade, in fact since the first selected communities within the relevant Global Water Conference in Mar del Plata municipalities; and this was mainly to get in 1977 (Massunganhle, 2008), and it was views on the issues concerning access to not until after Agenda 21 and the World safe and clean water and sanitation, and Summit on Sustainable Development in challenges that communities are faced 1992 in Rio that the concept was made with regarding water resource develop- the object of extensive discussions as to ment and management. what it means in practice. The Global Wa- ter Partnership’s (GWP, 2005) definition 2.3 Population and sampling of Integrated Water Resources Manage- Sample was selected using purposive sam- ment (IWRM) is widely accepted. It states: pling and participants were selected on ‘IWRM is a process which promotes the basis of prior knowledge and informa- the co-ordinated development and tion that can be discussed to the research- management of water, land and er and sample size purposively selected to related resources, in order to max- participate in the study consisted of four- imize the resultant economic and teen (14) participants from a pool of or- social welfare in an equitable man- dinary community members, traditional ner without compromising the sus- leaders, ward councillors, water services tainability of vital ecosystems.’ providers, municipal managers/officials from both villages and municipalities.

The Integrated Water Resource Manage- ment (IWRM) approach helps to manage 2.4 Data Analysis and develop water resources in a sustain- Analysis of data was employed through able and balanced way, taking account Thematic Content Analysis on data col- of social, economic and environmental lected under themes and identifying com- interests. It recognises the many different mon themes in it. This allowed the research- and competing interest groups, the sectors er to use the data collected to review the that use and abuse water, and the needs findings and make recommendations to of the environment (Pietila, 2010 and Shaw be able to effectively revise the water re- &Kidd, 2007). In both study areas, IWRM source managements within their borders approach co-ordinates water resources to help with supplying water to the villages. management across sectors and interest groups, and at different scales, from local to national. It emphasises involvement in 3.INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGE- national policy and law making process- MENT (IWRM) APPROACH es, establishing good governance in mu- Integrated Water Resources Management nicipality level, traditional authorities and

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 41 water services provider by creating effective institutional and regulatory arrangements as routes to more equitable and sustainable decisions. A range of tools, such as social and environmental assessments, economic instruments, and information and monitoring systems, support this process (Saleth & Dinar, 2005).

Figure 2: Stages in IWRM planning and implementation

Source ( UNDESA, 2005)

3.1 Sustainable development Brundtland Commission in 1987 focused on three pillars of human wellbeing: econom- Sustainable development was explicit- ic, socio-political and ecological/environ- ly popularized and contextualized by the mental conditions (Levite et al., 2003). The Brundtland Commission in the document basic concept endorses putting in place “Our Common Future” where it was defined strong measures to spur economic and so- as “development that meets the needs of cial development, particularly for people in the present without compromising the abil- developing countries, while ensuring that ity of future generations to meet their own environmental integrity is sustained for fu- needs” (UN, 1987 cited in Lemos, 2000). The ture generations (UNEP, 2012).

42 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 In this study sustainable development is that maintains stable resource base, avoid- terms of the availability of water in ade- ing over-exploitation of renewable systems, quate quantity and quality. The growing and depleting non-renewable resources awareness of water crisis and challeng- and socially (desirable) sustainable system es of water resources managements are attains distributional equity and adequate drawn to the essence of traditional devel- provision of social services including health opment, which has led to the increasingly and education, gender equity, and polit- wide notion of sustainability. Sustainable ical accountability and participation in- development attests to the effective gov- cluding equal provision of clean and safe ernance at which development protects drinking water and sanitation. the environment, development which advances social justice, thus economic development. The overall goal of sustainable 4. WATER GOVERNANCE development (SD) in these communities Government is at the central, regional or lo- is the long-term stability of the economy cal level and henceforth, the primary actor and environment; this is only achievable in a country’s system of governance. Civil through integration and acknowledgment society composed of non-governmental of economic, environmental (ecologically) and community based organisation (NGO’s and social concerns throughout the deci- and CBO’s), donors, research institutes, reli- sion making process (Rogers & Hall, 2003). gious groups, media, lobbyists and individ- Figure 3 illustrates the integration of SD. uals among others also play an important Figure 3 : Three points of Sustainable Devel- role in water governance (Pierre, 2000). This opment relates to the broad social system of governing which include but is not restricted to Source: (UNESCO, 2006) the narrow perspective of government as the main decision-making political entity. Those concerned with governance focus on the match and mismatch between the politico-administrative systems or with the operation and management of services (Boge, 2006).

Public policies and institutional frameworks are compounding factors of water governance, and GWP (2005) illustrates that water governance is a range of political, so- In relation to the study the three points of cial, economic and administrative systems sustainable development can be artic- that are in placed to develop and man- ulated as an economically (viable) sus- age water resources, and delivery of water tainable system that enables continuous services, at different levels of society. Wa- production, by maintaining water man- ter governance in the study areas aspects agement levels of government and civil overlap with technical and economic as- society; an ecological sustainable system

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 43 pects but are generally a subset of a coun- sector management, accountability, leg- try’s physical, institutional infrastructure and islation, corruption, financial management social cooperation; and in contrary to that and internal conflict. governance of water applies at both the 5. WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT macro (country level) and micro (international level) (GWP, 2005), thus for the pur- Plummer & Slaymakers (2007) points out pose of this study governance at macro that water resources management around levels is of importance which refers to the the world consists of three general systems: exercise of economic, political and admin- natural water system, human activity sys- istrative authority to manage a communi- tem and water resources management ties affairs at all levels and focus on spe- system. cific subsets of governance that relate to democracy, human rights, policies, public

AW - Ambient water; IMQ - Improved water Quality; WD – Water Demand; WHU – Water for Human Uses

Figure 1: Water Resources Management: Proposed framework (UNESCO, 2003)

Water resources management system consists of the activities and relationships in the public and private sectors concerned with harmonizing the supply and demand side of water resources. Thus, the essential support to water resources management system is institutional framework for management, consisting of organisations, rules, and codes governing the use and control of water resources (Savage, 2003). 6. WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENTS CHALLENGES

44 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Managing water sustainably and effective- cates that water as an infinite resource in ly is fundamental for human societies. Ef- the universe should be managed at the fective water resources management must lowest appropriate level (UNDESA, 2005). be underpinned by knowledge and under- IWRM requires cooperation between vari- standing of the availability of the resource ous government agencies, and others, with itself, the uses to which water is put and the a stake in water. One of the most common challenges facing the managers at all lev- practical issues arising from the ground is els of government (Mbazira, 2013). Water the challenge of integration whether it is resources management are mostly based reluctance to share information, increase on the multiplicity of uses and threats on joint decision making at both national and deep rooted decisions-making policies over local level and facilitate management at common water and use of scarce financial water basin level in both municipalities and and human resources (Caton & Orlove, communities (Mukheibir, 2003). 2010). In the study areas the most hoard- ing challenges consists of failures attributed to insufficient numbers of skilled personnel De Soto (2000) & GWP (2002) posits that and ineffective institutions. In other cases a central philosophy of an integrated ap- water service institutions specifically blame proach to water resources management is water service failures on a complete lack that water should be managed at the low- of skilled personnel, a lack of funds and a est appropriate level. In terms of this, de- lack of ability of poor people to pay for wa- centralisation relates on the decision mak- ter services. In comparison, other Water ing process that usually increases inputs resource management challenges in both and role of various stakeholders (e.g. Water Greater Giyani and Makhado include the Boards, Community Members, Community following;Poor policy implementation; lack Based Organisations, Free Basic Water Poli- of popular participation; failure to include cy) with an interest on how water resources traditional leaders in municipality; decision are allocated and management decision making processes and insufficient funding are taken. An integrated water approach (Greater Giyani IDP, 2012/2013 and Makha- is necessary for both the role of taking into do IDP, 2012). account different interests, concerns and experience in water resources management, and to improve the efficiency in in- 7. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION vestment decisions (Bruns & Meinzen-Dick, The findings and the discussion is dis- 2000). In Muyexe and Ha-Mandiwana re- cussed on basis of the following: spectively, mechanisms such as water resources commissions and councils should be placed to envision the apex bodies to 7.1 Institutional frameworks facilitate the cutting-cross sector inputs to water resources managements. Three Integrated approach to water resources of the respondents attested that the insti- management or integrated water resourc- tutional frameworks for water resources es management (IWRM) in rural areas indi- management are in place but the coordi-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 45 nation between the organizations (govern- cation, upstreaming and down streaming, ment, civil society and the private sector) communicating and policing themselves needs to be strengthened, supported by and that a number of protests are reported the availability of expertise and resources to have decreased. And in comparison to to pursue effective integration. the above statement furthermore one municipal official attested that in Greater Gi- yani Municipality members of the commu- 7.2 Stakeholder participation nities are prepared to participate and take responsibility for their water and sanitation Stakeholder participation refers to the pro- problems through their Community based cedures and methods designed to con- organisations (CBO) which include the wa- sult, involve, and inform the communities ter committee, community development and citizens (public) about basin manage- forum and ward committee is an indication ment plans in improving the quality and of the extent of change of attitude among accountability of water and sanitation ser- individuals and institutions. Water resource vices (Harris, 2003; Kashyap, 2004). Further- managements in rural areas are mostly more, goes beyond civil society and end based upon implementing a decentralized users and reaches out to different groups and participatory governance system re- of actors, within and outside the water sec- quires consistent strategies to promote ef- tor management, in activities relating to fective and knowledgeable participation planning, decision-making, monitoring and of communities’ representatives. evaluation (Moss & Newig, 2010). Partici- pation in water management involves the individuals and groups in the design, imple- 7.3 Capacity building or constraints mentation and evaluation of a project undertaken. Managing water (stakeholders) Capacity development is a long and com- involves a plethora of public, private and plex process made more so by the greater not-for-profit actors, thus from local, (sub) involvement of stakeholders in an integrat- basin, regional, national to international ed approach to water resources manage- levels (Qureshi et al., 2010). Governments, ment (Caton & Orlove, 2010; Kauffman et citizens, end-users, private actors, donors al., 2008) Five respondents from both mu- and financial institutions, as well as - infra nicipalities attest that one of the major structure and service providers, all have constraints in the development of water re- a stake in the outcomes of water gover- sources within their communities especially nance, policy and projects (Gumbo, 2015). in Muyexe village (GGM) and Ha-Mandi- wana (MLM) has to be identified as inad- Petts (2010) & Hammer et al. (2011) states equate human and institutional capacity that the process of empowering the users for the IRWM. Sustainable management of to participate effectively in the manage- water resources will not be achieved until ment has just started, in the two water ba- the required capacity is available among sins that are ahead of others there is al- the various actors responsible. Capacity ready general awareness on many issues constraints emerge repeatedly from the in- such as people are demanding fair allo- terview responses (Muyexe and Ha-Mand-

46 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 iwana) and while capacity building is a part of most programmes it is clear that ca- Progress on capacity building(including pacity development is a slow process and assessment of capacity needs) need to needs to be better linked to performance. be evaluated, monitored and assessed so as to implement programs for capacity development, programs for training, edu- Miranda (2011) & Savage (2003) points out cation and research. Gumbo (2015) sup- that in many instances most communities ports the above statement by stating that recognize that rolling out new institutions, the need for capacity to implement an establishing new/ improved management integrated approach on all water sectors systems, and empowering stakeholders so as achieve the capacity development with the knowledge to make effective programmes are being fully implemented. contribution to water management. One Thus, integrated water resource manage- respondent (water service provider) attest- ment requires cooperation between varied that in most cases all that needs to be ous government agencies, and others, with done to curb the constraints is to be able a stake in water. One of the most common to manage water process in a manner practical issues arising from the ground is that is consistent with development of the the challenge of integration whether it is re- necessary capacity. Other respondents luctance to share information between all suggested, that rather than taking a step- involved stakeholders or the tendency for wise approach, aim to implement chang- resource management and planning sec- es more rapidly with the expectation that tor driven a municipal official eluded. performance will gradually improve over time. Two respondents from the MLM, and 7.4 Management constraints one of the respondents from GGM posited Many communities across the country re- that implementing a rather complex gov- ported the management constraints such ernance system such as the one imposed as mandates; coordination and coopera- by the Department of Water and Sanita- tion; capacity; and participation relating tion requires continuous capacity building to establishment of governance and insti- and strong coordination with emphasis tutional frameworks (Nkuna & Nemutan- that “Without sufficient capacity to ensure zhela, 2012). enforcement and compliance, it is difficult to ascertain the extent to which the man- Problems with management mandates agement instruments are being effective.” related to overlapping or unclear respon- However, one respondent stated that the sibilities between various management or- involvement of stakeholders in executing ganizations (e.g. Nkuri, Xikukwani, Dzanani, some of the management instruments (e.g. Vleifontein) due to institute supply-side ef- monitoring and implementation of Wa- ficiency measures such as desalination, ter Management Areas and Catchment repairing leaks rather than focussing on ef- Management Areas) has shown success in fective governance and management de- some cases” (e.g Vondo in Thulumela Mu- mands (Gumbi & Rangongo, 2015). Munic- nicipality). ipal official suggested that management

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 47 constraint can be diverted by initiating controlling demand as it has the potential 8.1 Prioritization of water resource manage- to deliver far greater water efficiency. In ment in rural areas contrast, Maluleke, Cousins & Smith (2003) and Pretorious & Schunick (2007) are of the Water is a source of life and given the in- view that demand management obsta- termittent supply to Muyexe and Ha-Mand- cles are the hindering factors of manage- iwana, as such GGM and MLM should en- ment constraints thus include; heavy sub- sure that consumers receive it regularly. It is sidisation of irrigation for agriculture, lack the mandate of that municipality to do so. of financial incentives for water efficiency, The quality and quantity of water supplied production of water intensive goods in wa- should be clean and affordable as well. ter scarce areas lack of capacity for im- Whilst addressing the long term constraints, plementation of modern agricultural tech- both municipalities should also have short niques for enhancing efficiency and lack term strategies to improve water supply. of water recycling. More boreholes should be opened to augment supply from the water management areas (WMA) and catchment manage- In view of the above statement two comment areas (CMA). GGM and MLM should munity members from both villages point- ensure that there is proper control and reg- ed out that issues of management con- ular maintenance of all water infrastruc- straints are due to pro-poor coordination tures. and cooperation that occur for a number of reasons, such as inadequate planning, insufficient resources, a lack of awareness, 8.2 Community consultation and participa- and the conflicting stakeholder agendas, tion which may lead to the prevalence of partisan or sectoral approaches, and one of Improved consultation can only contribute the respondent (traditional leader) pointed towards effective communication and en- that lack of coordination and cooperation gagement with and by consumers (Jury&. in other communities is reported as frag- Vaux, 2007). Promoting greater collabo- mented approaches to water resources ration to build understanding and coordi- management, lack of capacity is the in- nate action, thus government-led efforts to ability to regulate and enforce law, lack of encourage participation by actors through sufficient or appropriate equipment, and multi-stakeholder processes are key to pro- several mentioned the need for advanced moting collaboration, and by instituting a technology transfer. process that brings together development agencies, civil society groups, and private sector to define water-related goals and potential actions (Pahl-Wost et al., 2008; 8. RECOMMENDATIONS Roy, 2011). In this regard, civil society Based on the study findings, the following groups at every level need to be engaged recommendations are made: and included in the process; and facilitate

48 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 effective communication and coordina- the study outlined possible future research tion strategies across all scales, empower in the similar field, particularly on issues of poor and disadvantaged communities, building blocks for good water governance and effectively monitor progress. Finally, in rural areas. promote better understanding that can LIST OF REFERENCES lead to more coordinated action. Bakker, K & Furlong, K .2011. Gover- nance and Sustainability at a Municipal 8.3 Addressing capacity constraints Scale: The Challenge of Water Conserva- tion,37(2),219-237 Both municipalities have to address the capacity constraints which have been out- http://www.jstor.org/sta- lined in the study. Thus, effective engage- ble/23050174/20/04/2016. ment with all stakeholders, donors, actors and civil society (members of the community) is essential to facilitate implemen- Berkoff, J,. .2003. “World water issues: the tation and provide sustainable and stable south-north water transfer project-is it justi- funding source. fied?” in Water Policy, 5:1–29

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52 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY: A CAPABILITY APPROACH IN CRIME PREVENTION METHODS

MS Mitileni ,AM Letsoalo , J Sebake and TP Mpapane University of Limpopo OJ David University of Zululand

ABSTRACT

Local government is designed to promote the realisation of human rights, socio-economic development and cultural, civil and political rights for the betterment of communities. Using the capability approach, this study analyses sustainable local government in crime prevention within the Mankweng community with the view of promoting community safety. Capability approach intertwined with local government attest developing of tools and measures of success to involve the community in recognising crime and safety as a quality of life issue. Local governments have a crucial role to play in creating safe environment for communities, especially by ensuring sustainable human development as a pathway towards the attainment of community safety. This discourse derives from the perspective that local government and community safety should form a joint venture in the quest to eliminate poverty, promote human dignity and rights, while providing equitable opportunities for all. The study will employ the qualitative research methodology. It employs semi-structured interviews with open-ended questionnaires as data collection instruments. Seven (7) respondents comprising of two (2) Crime Investigative Unit members in Mankweng Police Station, two (2) community forum members within the community (Mankweng) supported by the ward councillor with the involvement of the mayor and two (2) victims /community members were purposively selected for the study. Our findings pivots on the relevance of the capability approach towards promoting sustainable development with reference to crime prevention in the Mankweng community. The development of human capabilities by the local government apparatus is shown as quintessential to crime prevention and community safety.

Keywords: Capability approach, Crime prevention, Community safety, Local Government.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 53 1. INTRODUCTION and social upliftment (Nussbaum, 2001). This is not surprising since it is recognised As an integral sphere of government clos- that much of South Africa’s population live est to the people, credible and effective in extremely difficult socio-economic con- local governments (LGs) are an important ditions in rural areas of which Mankweng part of a well-governed and responsive community is no exception. There is a public sector in economically successful two-way relationship between community countries. However, in developing coun- safety and local government as far as ru- tries, ineffective LGs, poses a serious threat ral development is concerned. On the one to the development. LGs, however, are hand, where there is crime and insecurity, not automatically well-governed and re- development is hampered. On the other, sponsive. In fact, for LGs in many places where there is crime, under-development in the world, it is a day-to-day struggle to and insecurity set (Davey, 2011). In the face perform at a minimum standard (Cunneen, of the prevalent socio-economic and de- 2004). Some of the implications of poor lo- velopmental challenges in rural areas, a lot cal governance in rural communities in de- needs to be done to reduce the alarming veloping countries include their proneness criminal acts committed within the commu- to crime relative to their counterparts in the nity (Nussbaum, 2003; Nussbaum, 2004). Ev- developed countries (Grote & Neubach- idently it goes without saying that an over- er, 2016). Among the reasons adduced for all reduction of rural poverty and inequality this reality include poverty and deprivation will, as a matter of course, result in a qual- that characterised the rural communities. ity of life that will reduce numerous safety According to International Fund for Agri- challenges which rural dwellers face at the cultural Development (IFAD) (2011), over moment (Davey, 2011). For example, if girls 55 % of people in developing countries live and women in the community had running in rural areas; and 70 of these are extreme- water in their homes, they would not be ly poor. As the sphere of government that vulnerable to the victimisations which they brings basic services directly to the people, experience while travelling to and from riv- a vibrant local government, performing ers and communal water sources (Maditsi, optimally can mitigate crime by addressing 2001; Pogge & Pogge, 2002) the developmental challenges including poverty and food security, amongst others, which sometimes predisposes people Though, local government is faced with to crime and violence in a given commu- enormous problems the most prevalent nity (Van Kesteren et al., 2013). However, to challenge currently faced by most rural achieve a consistent level of performance, areas like Mankweng is safety. The South and to remain vibrant, let alone to increase African government has long prioritised their vitality, local governments have to en- rural development by launching initiatives hance their capacities continuously (Man- such as the Integrated Rural Development ning et al., 2006). Plan (IRDP) which co-ordinates the efforts Rural areas in South Africa are a continu- of various departments in improving rural al and recurring priority for development areas (Randolph & Judd, 2000). Current-

54 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ly, rural development remains a priority for (Maditsi, 2001). government with emphasis being placed Incidents within the community and the sur- on land and agrarian reform, food securi- rounding areas including tragedies like that ty and the targeted renewal of rural towns within the University premises have demon- through grants such as the recently an- strated that crime, insecurity and violence nounced Neighbourhood Development are no longer just the problem of inner-cities Grant programme (NDGP). Unfortunately, and large urban areas. Increasingly crime, less emphasis on community safety and violence and insecurity have also affected crime reduction methods which can be many other communities across the coun- implemented also in South African rural tries including the Mankweng area. In re- communities (Kang, 2015). More recent- sponse, the local government has tighten ly, local governments across the country their legal and justice systems, increasing have prioritised community safety. Indeed, policing capacities and penalties, with the the safety of rural areas is of key concern view to deter and repress crime and vio- for the envisaged national socio-econom- lence (Brent, 2000). Expenditures on law en- ic development and growth (Randolph & forcement have increased massively. Sen- Judd, 2000). It is against this backdrop that tences have become tougher (Brighouse, this study focuses on the role of local gov- 2004). The number of offenders prosecuted ernment in community safety with regard and incarcerated has risen dramatically, to crime prevention methods, emphasizing and private security personnel have out- how safety and security interface with ca- stripped official law enforcement (Craw- pability approach in Mankweng area. ford, 2009). The costs of maintaining criminal justice and correctional systems have similarly risen to unprecedented levels (Watts 2. CRIME DYNAMICS et al., 2008). Throughout this period crime South African Police Service (SAPS) in Mank- prevention, rather than repression, has weng, community members and Ward generally played a very minor role. Further, councillor throughout the Mankweng area crime prevention has been seen as largely and surrounding communities have been the responsibility of the police (Brent, 2000). confronted with increasing criminal prob- Most crime risks aspects that are major lems that has affected community safety threats to the livelihood of Mankweng com- over the past ten years. Disorder, crime, munity are based on some of the risk fac- drugs and guns have been daily reminders tors for crime and victimization. As Waller of the difficulties of living in safety and secu- (2006) rightly observes in this regard, two rity. In the 1990’s, however, these problems phenomena are fundamental to the issues multiplied to levels not seen before, and of community safety. These include: [1] in- with a major impact on children and ado- come inequalities issues, which affects the lescents (Jain, 2010). Young people have sense of security of population and [2] the increasingly been the victims of violence, problem of corruption and abuses commu- including homicides, and their involvement nity by institutional authorities. in serious crime and violence has also risen

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 55 2.1 Rural areas, and crime uncertain cor- slums of cities in South Africa. Various rea- relations sons have been adduced for the reality. They include, but not limited to, protests National crime rates often mask wide vari- against failed policies of public housing, ations across regions, cities and rural areas poor living conditions, rising food prices or (Gould et al., 2002). It is often assumed an influx of external migrants (UN Habitat that large cities are likely to have higher (Bourguignon, 2000; Fajnzlber et al., 2002; levels of crime and victimization, but this is Fajnzylber et al., 2002; Un-Habitat, 2004). not necessarily the case as rural areas are faced with the similar phenomena (Stew- 2.2 Crime levels link to inequality and equi- art & Deneulin, 2002). For example, there ty is no clear correlation between the size of In the case of Mankweng community in- a rural population and levels of rural rape, equality and inequity levels, rather than theft, assault and murder. The UN Survey on poverty itself, are of most explanatory effi- Crime Trends UNODC (2008) and Dalgleish cacy. Inequality is one of the most import- and Myhill (2004) found that, globally, there ant factors associated with crime rates in is a considerable variation with regard to both rural and urban areas. Previous stud- the correlation between crime and the ies conducted such as those by Grogger size of a number of large rural areas. This (1998) in similar communities with criminal can be somewhat asserted of Mankweng. activities as high as Mankweng situated Consistent with above view, we found that the causal factor within the strong relation- rape, assault and murder rates are high- ship between measures of income inequal- er in Mankweng community than the rest ity and property crime. This was also found of the neighbouring communities. Higher to be true both across time and when crime rates are found in smaller towns and comparing countries (Ekblom & Tilley, 2000; cities, which are growing at a faster rate Farrington, 2000). The negative sway of than larger urban communities. The growth crime on the economic growth of the local of urban areas in the world varies signifi- community are not mild. It effect a range cantly from one continent to another, and of economic indicators from wage level, within a region or a country (Cherney & GDP, and the collective perception of cur- Sutton, 2007). However, the UN estimates rent or anticipated economic perception that a third of the world’s urban popula- (Ekblom & Tilley, 2000). As Dalgleish and tion live in slums (Arvanites & Defina, 2006). Myhill (2004) corroborate, acquisitive crime While slums vary greatly in terms of the lev- increases during economic downturns, el of poverty, quality of health, education, and falls with improvements in the econo- and environmental conditions, their lack of my (see also Rosenfeld & Fornango, 2007). services and infrastructure is a major factor increasing the vulnerability of their inhabitants to crime and victimization. Violence, 2.3 Community development, social capi- including gang violence, racist attacks on tal and community capacity building inhabitants, murder, assault and rape oc- The need for local community responses curs in Mankweng as they occur in various and local preventative strategies to ad-

56 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 dress the problems of crime and antisocial structural change so that the whole of the behaviours is increasingly being accord- community is utilised to support crime pre- ed its due important by international pub- vention (Midford, 2004). lic health and social wellbeing agencies (WHO, 2008). The key focus is to incorporate the concepts of community development, 2.5 From Crime Prevention to Community social capital and community capacity Safety building into crime prevention policy and program implementation (Morgan, 1991) . According to Holloway et al. (2008), local government officials have played a major 2.4 Community development and commu- role in the evolution of community safety nity engagement since the post-apartheid in South African rural communities. Increasing numbers of Much of the community development lit- initiatives target crime, victimization, and erature concerning crime concentrates the social exclusion of individuals, minori- on drug and alcohol-related crime and ty groups, and neighbourhoods (Cohen, youth offending. In view of the complexi- 1993; Chomsky, 1999). The links between ty and the multifaceted nature of factors poverty and social disadvantage and that contribute to crime, the principles of crime and victimization have shown that community development that the fac- many agencies need to need to work to- tors that contribute to crime are complex gether to prevent crime (Graham & Homel, and multifaceted, it has been observed 2008). Encouragingly, local officials such that there is no single solution can be pre- as ward councillors, local SAPS and many scribed. Rather, communities themselves community members have come to see have to address the broader societal and community safety as a basic human right cultural issues that contribute to the various and an important aspect of the quality of forms of crime. Hence the importance of life in their communities (Brantingham et al., the principle of community development 2005). They have mobilized local partner- as a preventative strategy for efficacious ships with key actors; the police, govern- crime prevention rather than repression ment agencies, community organizations, (Crawford, 2009; WHO, 2009b). Indeed, as and residents to develop safe, secure, and Homel and Homel (2012) aptly observed, vibrant communities in rural areas as well the mobilisation of community action to as in metropolitan areas. These partner- address issues of concern to local commu- ships have made significant gains in how nities is not novel. However, what possibly crime prevention is viewed (Fleming, 2005). has changed is the recognition that individ- For instance, the narrow focus on crime ual based law enforcement approaches, prevention has shifted to the broader issue whilst sometimes necessary, are not going of community safety and security as a pub- to change criminal behaviour at a popula- lic good. In addition, consensus has de- tion level. From this perspective community veloped about the need to work for com- based development strategies are about munity safety by tackling the social and more than punishing criminal individuals; economic conditions that foster crime and they are concerned with systemic and

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 57 victimization. Essentially, the common pub- crime prevention. They argue that a pre- lic view that community safety is the sole occupation with crime can result in inter- responsibility of the police has changed ventions that are too narrowly focused and and people now recognizing that govern- perceived as the sole province of the po- ments, communities, and partnerships at all lice (Sen, 2004b). In relation to this, Homel levels must be actively engaged (Smith & (2009) lamented the fact that ‘for too long, Cornish, 2003). crime prevention has been approached as an activity that is an adjunct to the “main game” of investigating, prosecuting and 3. CAPABILITY APPROACH punishing crime’. Moreover, in an attempt to differentiate anti-crime initiative from Alkire (2002) Considers capability approach strategies to address other harms (Crook, as a moral framework, which basically pro- 2003); such as substance dependence or poses that social arrangements should be child abuse there’s a need for dealing with primarily evaluated according to the ex- these issues separately to avoid community tent of freedom people have to promote instability and other social exclusions prob- or achieve functioning’s they value. This is lems (Sutton et al., 2013) an evaluative approach (Boex, 2003). Sim- ilar to social or developmental approach, capability approach on community safety and crime prevention is based upon issues 4. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY that attest that whereby risk and protective factors relating to particular citizens in com- 4.1. Study area munities including the young people are Mankweng is a township in Capricorn largely identified with the criminality and vi- District Municipality in the Limpopo Prov- olence (Killias & Ribeaud, 1999; Alkire, 2002; ince. It is commonly known as Turfloop, Homel, 2009)). Thus, early intervention and as a university township, though relatively developmental strategies capable of re- small. Mankweng is a rural area about 30 dressing these situations before they oc- km from Polokwane on the Tzaneen road. cur should be implemented to amend the Based on the 2011 Census, Frith puts the underlying social and economic causes of overall population at 33 738 with about such crimes (Alkire, 2002). Moreover, capa- 10 303 households, 99% of which African, bility approach is underscores socio devel- with 94% Northern Sotho speakers (Frith, opmental programs that can be initiated n.d). The population is predominantly Se- to improve education, employment, social pedi speaking, with the exception to Xit- cohesion, health and living and housing songa and Venda language speakers who standards (Sen, 2004a; Morgan & Homel, settled in the area either for educational 2011). and or employment opportunities (Frith,

Robeyns (2005) states that in reviewed doc- n.d). Mankweng community’s economic uments by other theorists and practitioners development strives and collapses due to have a preference for the term ‘commu- the rate of unemployment which is alarm- nity safety’ in place of or in addition to ing and high crime rate. Due to the demographics the community is situated in an 58 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 area wherein there are no equal economic munity and the stakeholders. Sample was opportunities. To redress the past injustices selected employing purposively sampling and inequalities local government, devel- strategy, on the basis that it is used when oped small macro-economic businesses participants are selected on the basis of but that has not reduced the crime rate prior knowledge and information that can levels within the communities. be conferred to the researcher. This study purposively selected Seven (7) respondents comprising of two (2) Crime Investigative 4.2 Research Design Unit members in Mankweng Police Station, two (2) community forum members within Qualitative case study methodology was the community (Mankweng) supported by employed in this study to collect data on the ward counsellor with the involvement the role of local government on communi- of the mayor and two (2) victims /commu- ty safety. Qualitative methodology assisted nity members for the study. the researchers to conceptualise complex root causes of Crime especially with refer- 4.4 Data collection ence to the shortcomings of local govern- In this study, data was collected using ment as community safety and security in semi-structured interview questionnaires Mankweng community is concerned. This which comprised of open ended question- approach provides the researchers the op- naires as to allow the respondents to further portunity for an in-depth assessment of the articulate on their responses. research objectives. In other words, assessing the role of local government in commu- 4.5 Data Analysis nity safety, using the capability approach, in crime prevention methods required de- Thematic content analysis (TCA) was em- scriptive deduction for the purpose of gen- ployed to analyse the collected data. It is erating results for this study. a method of gathering the collected data under themes and identifying common themes in it (Boeijie, 2011: 96). This allowed the researcher to use the data collected to 4.3 Research population and sample size review the findings and make recommen- Mankweng community has an estimated dations on how Mankweng village in Polok- 10 303 households. However, there is no wane Local Municipality can efficaciously conclusive evidence indicating exactly revise the capability approach towards how many residents institute these house- crime prevention and reduce the statistics holds. Polokwane Local Municipality at- of all various of criminal acts within its bor- tests that the Integrated Development Plan ders to help with community safety the vil- (IDP) conclusively alludes that the ward, in lage and other surrounding areas. which Mankweng is situated have inequal- Polokwane Local Municipality and Mank- ity in terms of fair distribution of both males weng SAPS policy documents, related (15 667) and females (18 072). For the pur- academic literature, relevant journal and pose of the study the population consisted newspapers articles, internet and other of ordinary victims of crimes within the com- sources will be perused and scrutinised to Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 59 inform the analysis. such this proportion is expected to increase to around 40% by 2020 and the distance 5. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS to acquire accommodation too which increase the risk of huge crimes by 5%. Many neighbouring communities such as Ma- From the 7 respondents sampled to partic- montitane, in spite of the increase students ipate in this study, only 5 responses were and overall wealth, are still underdevel- returned; thus, the finding of this study only oped and the levels of poverty has risen depends on the responses given by the 5 and so has criminal offences such as rape, respondents. murder, theft, assault and burglary. 5.1 Local Government’s Challenges on Community Safety One of the respondents attested that some 5.1.1 Increasing poverty and income dis- community members are living in poverty parity threat to safety and income disparities and safety and se- Mankweng community is faced with huge curity issues are an enormous concern and challenges but the most common one is women and children are the most vulner- the growth in population. This is compound- able, as they are faced with greater probed by migration, which is quite noticeable lems of discrimination in jobs markets and in the area. According to a respondent, mi- housing than men. Minority and immigrant gration is growing very rapidly, and the lev- populations are also far more likely to be els of poverty and disparities are increasing living in poverty than the majority popu- as well between the rich and poor. Con- lation, partly because of systemic racism sequently, two of the respondents are of and discrimination. With that said, the most the view that with these developments is problematic issue that concedes crime is impacting considerably on community in unsupervised young people, litter and di- Mankweng. The nearness of the communi- lapidation, pollution, lack of transport and ty to the Legendary and Iconic University of services, all add to the inequalities and lack Limpopo wherein many students and staff of safety and security in their lives. from various backgrounds flock in further is a contributory factor. By implication, the communities normally become targets of 5.1.2 Unemployment and drug abuse various crime. Notably however, the prog- The researchers wanted to find out from ress of the community has already had a the respondents at Mankweng on wheth- significant impact on safety and security in er unemployment and drug abuse were many communities that surrounds it and is the main cause of criminal activities within likely to continue. the area. Majority of the respondents have shown certainty that both this socio-economic problems were the main contribu- Currently, between 10% and 25% of the tory factors to criminal activities within the community population has resorted to cre- area; while only two of the respondents ating accommodation for students and as

60 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 disagreed stating that the unemployment and drug abuse do not influence criminal behaviour but nonetheless plays a nega- 5.1.3 Social Exclusion tive impact on society. Only one of the re- Four of the respondents stated that in this spondents stated that unemployment and community area and its neighbouring drug abuse are negative and positive con- communities, the concentration of poverty tributors to society. This is on the basis that and social and economic problems in par- South Africa is facing difficult economic ticular areas has led to talk about social ex- climate, lack of unemployment, changing clusion. In Ga-Makanye, Toronto (Unit D-E), and unevenly trade/labour markets, daily and Mamontitane, for example, increasing advancement in technological develop- income disparity and concentration of pov- ments and high brain drain as well as loss erty have been restricted to certain areas of unskilled jobs in many parts of the coun- of the local municipality. Most families who try has a major influence on the unemploy- live in these areas are often the poorest ment rate. The increase in unemployment and include many immigrants and minori- rate and lack of jobs to sustain the skills the ties. They often live in shacks, one bedroom youth have acquired plays a role in fuelling house or areas in the worst housing and the abuse of substances. This has especial- environmental conditions. People in such ly affected young people, increasing their areas are excluded from taking part in the vulnerability to drugs and gangsterism, ill- employment, health, safety, and prosperity ness and crime. Growing numbers of ado- enjoyed by the rest of the population one lescents and young adults are now out of of the respondents indicated. For these school, job training or work. For example, residents, poor health, crime, vandalism, Mankweng and surrounding communities’ drugs, unsupervised young people, litter, youth unemployment rate rose from 5% to pollution, and lack of services add to the 15% for both young men and women be- lack of safety and security in their lives. tween 2001 and 2007 (Frith n.d. & Census 2011). 5.2.1 Crime and Policing in Mankweng Ar- eas Following the high rate of drop outs from high school and university drop, many of 5.2.1 Safety, Security and Legal Issues the youth within Mankweng resorted to The researchers wanted to find out from the drug use and the mixing of different drugs respondents the conditions of a safe and and alcohol, which have become much secure environment is a critical precondi- more prevalent among young people action for Mankweng communities’ devel- cording to three of the respondents. This has opment. Two of the respondents pointed been also adduced of other rural commu- out that generally poor rural people have nities locally, nationally and internationally great difficulty exercising their recourse to especially in most European countries over the legal system. They remain vulnerable the past ten years, but especially in areas to being exploited by employers and land- of high unemployment (WHO, 2009a). owners. The poor are also more readily ex-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 61 posed to inter-communal conflict due to 5.2.4 Crime Reporting in Mankweng Police their limited resources to seek alternatives Station to negative communal conditions. All five Two of the respondents identified that in respondents stated that there have been most cases especially in Mankweng, there appeals to extend legal services to Mank- are a variety of reasons for people not re- weng Magistrate court but this remains a porting their cases and their victimisation financial and logistical challenge. Organ- to the police. Other reason adduced were isation(s) such as the Legal Aid is provid- consistent with Fleming (2005) study, ac- ing essential legal and paralegal support cording to which the following were iden- to some rural communities with limited re- tified as challenges to crime reporting. [1] sources. An assessment of these rural legal difficulty of access to police station;[2] lack advisory offices is needed to determine of confidence in the ability of police to how to increase their reach and efficiency. deal with the issue; [3] preference to rather report to traditional authorities; and [4] other personal reasons such as a fear of 5.2.2 Crime in Mankweng community retribution and feelings of personal blame-

Four of the respondents stated that high worthiness. Hence, according to one of the levels of crime pose a serious threat to respondents, in some incidents of rape in- Mankweng and other communities. Apart volving a perpetrator who is a member of from tragic loss of life, crimes such as rob- the family or a lover, some victims experi- bery, theft and hijacking deprive Mank- ence difficulty in divulging the matter. Con- weng dwellers of their meagre possessions. versely, these communities experience dif- Consequently, economic developments ficulty in accessing police station and court are tarnished, thus depriving socio-eco- due to cost and travel distances. nomic growth and at a more macro level, Furthermore, respondents also stated that rural crime impacts on food security cre- they face difficulty in policing the - Mank ating a risk for the overall developmental weng area due to the geographic isolation prospects of the country. Two of the re- of Mankweng communities and communi- spondents pointed out that crime increases ties surrounding Mankweng Police station. most changes occurring within the commu- Three of the respondents maintained that nity affect entire families. Often they result police rarely respond on time to matters in a lack of guidance and communication such as Housebreaking and Domestic Vio- between family members, and crime be- lence, and are also slow to respond to very comes a likely outcome. Children, espe- serious and sensitive cases such as the rape cially boys, need positive adult role-models. of children. Many children live with grandparents who find it difficult to exercise authority and administer discipline. Due to lack of entertainment and job opportunities, Mankweng has led young people to engage in crime as a result of boredom and peer pressure.

62 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 5.2.5 Police Responses 6. RECOMMENDATIONS

Police continuously bemoan the fact that they have difficulty policing Mankweng sur- This paper recommends the following: rounding areas because of the poor road • Reduce crime events by modify the conditions and rough terrain mentioned by physical and/or social environment two of the respondents. Other reasons for the non-attendance of police to those a • Identify at risk populations and po- crime reports include: the nature and seri- tential criminals and address the causal risk ousness of the incident – that is, whether or factors not the incident warrants investigation and • Recognising community safety follow-up at the actual scene of the crime; through the capability approach as a right and the successful resolution or media- and issue of quality of life in rural communi- tion of the issue at the police station which ties would not require follow-up. Three of the respondents stated that usually in practice, • Adapt crucial strategies to assist on only the most serious cases are responded community safety and also on crime pre- to and less serious cases are either dealt vention initiatives with when time and resources allow or they • Building capacity for the assistance are dispensed with without much attention. of communities across the board (Mank- weng area and neighbouring communities) 5.2.6 Community Policing Forums (CPFs) • Develop mechanisms that assist on Like in other types of communities, well rep- developing and measuring success of the resented Community Policing Forums (CPFs) strategies of the policies initiated by local in Mankweng should provide a vital link be- government tween Mankweng police station and the communities they serve. The Department of Justice has capacity to intervene where there are breakdowns in relationships be- 7. Conclusion tween communities and the police. For example, one of the respondents pointed out Crime prevention takes place at all levels of that the Mankweng Police stations and de- government and society. However, much partment intervened in the Community of crime prevention theory and research in- Mankweng Unit A to Unit G in mid-February dicates that initiatives developed and im- 2016 when there were severe tensions be- plemented at a local level are some of the tween certain sections of the community best ways of reducing crime and antisocial and the municipality on the price hike and behaviour. Local government solely re- water bill issue and police were called to intervene in the matter.

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Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 67 RE-EVALUATING THE EU’S EXTERNAL HUMAN RIGHTS AND DEMOCRATIZATION POLICY: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS ON ZIMBABWE

M.G. Raphala and K.B. Shai

University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

The European Union (EU) adopts the use of sanctions as an instrument to ensure good human rights record and promote the democratic principles globally. As such, the EU has resorted to unilateral sanctions (that which fall outside the scope of the United Nations mandate) in Zimbabwe because of the violations of human rights and democratic principles and disrespect for the rule of law. These sanctions came in a form of assets freeze, arms embargo and travel ban and trade restrictions on companies associated with President Mugabe and the Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF). Therefore, Mugabe’s led government holds a perception that the EU’s sanctions are a neo-colonial coercive measure intended to replace ZANU-PF with the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) through imposition of economic hardships on ordinary Zimbabweans, ultimately making them dissatisfied with Mugabe’s regime and vote for change. On the contrary, the EU maintains that it imposed sanctions because of human rights violations, lack of respect for law and failure to follow democratic principles. However, it has been over a decade and the sanctions are still in place, which then brings into question the efficacy of this foreign policy instrument. With this in mind, this paper employs discourse and document analysis in their broadest form in order to evaluate the efficacy of EU sanctions in Zimba- bwe and touches on their legal implementations given their unilateral nature.

Keywords: European Union, Zimbabwe, sanctions, human rights, democracy.

1. INTRODUCTION safeguard peace and security internationally. Basically, rather than the use of armed As part of the strategy to ensure promotion force, this strategy is used as a peaceful of human rights and democracy global- means to settle violation of human rights, ly, the European Union (EU) has adopted ensure respect for international law and sanctions as a foreign policy instrument. promote democratic principles. The EU re- Sanctions are imposed to ensure that tar- fers to this strategy as “restrictive measures” gets comply and change their behaviour. that set out to pressure targeted individu- In fact, they are crucial instruments to pro- als and nation states to abide by interna- mote human rights and democracy and tional law and change their behaviour to

68 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 be in line with the standards and prescripts punitive measures as targeted sanctions, laid by the United Nations (UN). Hence, the this paper argues that they have affected UN is the custodian for the promotion and the entire country (Raphala, 2013; Nkadi- maintenance of international law (Shai meng, 2016). It has been over a decade & Mothibi, 2015). However, empirical re- since the sanctions have been in place and search shows that sanctions (targeted or this leads to a question in respect of their comprehensive) are affecting and harm- efficacy. The foregoing problemitisation of ing ordinary citizens and institutions which the EU sanctions against Zimbabwe should are crucial for the survival and continuity be understood within the context that the of human security of poor majority (Mediel, negative implications of these sanctions 2012). In the Zimbabwean question, sanc- have largely affected the ordinary majority tions are alleged to have contributed vast- at the expense of the political elite. There ly to the current socio-economic quagmire is no clear evidence that the sanctions in (Raphala, 2013). Nevertheless, it is worth question have had any measurable effect noting that Harare’s (administrative capital on the state of governance in Zimbabwe. of Zimbabwe) ill-conceived economic pol- Additionally, sanctions as a policy tool dif- icies such as unbudgeted and expensive fer from other foreign policy instruments compensation to the war veterans have given that they are regulated through le- also contributed to this debacle (Mediel, gal provisions (Ogbonna, 2015). However, 2012). Following the 2000 land reform pro- Harare has continuously argued that the gramme and the violence on opposition EU sanctions are illegitimate because they activists and restrictions on the media, ZA- fall outside of the scope of the UN. NU-PF was accused of violating human Against this backdrop, this paper seeks to rights and democratic principles. As a re- evaluate the efficacy of EU targeted sanc- sult, the EU had to respond to Harare’s al- tions and their legal implementation pro- leged perpetuation of gross human rights cess. Zimbabwe is chosen as a case study violations because failure to act would in this paper to determine the success of have made Brussels (headquarters of the EU negative measures to exhort countries EU) lose credibility in its human rights and to promote human rights and democratic democratisation policy. Moreover, given its principles. The first section touches on the importance as a global actor, Brussels is set theoretical framework which will guide this to utilize its collective weight to promote study in evaluating the EU’s policy position democracy and respect for human rights in Zimbabwe. The ensuing part discuss- globally (Hague, 2012). es the imposition of sanctions, grounded Notably, the EU has tied all trade and de- in the EU’s external human rights and development cooperation with human rights mocratisation policy, and their legitimacy and democratisation issues thus impose on Zimbabwe. Given the long period since sanctions for their breaches. Under Article the sanctions under review have been in 96 of the Cotonou Agreement (2000-2020), place, the third section expatiates their ef- the EU suspended its partnership agreement ficacy. Finally, this paper closes with- con and further imposed targeted sanctions on cluding remarks and sums up the research Zimbabwe. Although the EU labelled these findings.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 69 2. CONCEPTUALISING AND CONTEXTUALIS- ism. Within this context, the ZANU-PF and its ING ‘FOREIGN POLICY’ government have argued through the tactical use of the anti-imperialist rhetoric that It is instructive to highlight that for the pur- the West is angry over the country’s radi- pose of this paper policy denotes foreign cal land reform programme and is trying policy. This phenomenon is also known and to impose the MDC regime which will con- interchangeably used in this paper as ex- form to the EU’s policies. In this sense, sanc- ternal/ international relations policy (Shai, tions can serve as a policy tool to project 2016). To this end, this paper embraces a regime change if the prevailing govern- Shai’s (2015:212) definition of foreign -poli ment is a threat to the West’s interests. As cy. He explains it as a principles and rules post-colonial theorists posit, the West often driven official framework on the “nature resort to punitive measures to preserve their of practice and conduct of one nation interests which they built during the colo- state’s international affairs in the political, nisation period (Shai, 2010; Raphala, 2013; security and socio-economic arena with Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2013). In the same vein, intent to protect and preserve its national the EU has resorted to sanctions to punish interests”. Regardless of this explanation, it President Robert Mugabe and his adminis- is important to highlight that in this paper tration for interrupting the white-commer- the focus will be on the foreign policy of EU cial farmers’ profitable businesses by grab- as an inter-governmental organisation and bing the land forcefully. Ndakaripa (2014) not necessarily on the foreign policies of its maintains that sanctions are an instrument individual member states. for the West to perpetuate their dominance of developing countries by inter- fering in decision making processes or by 3. SETTING THE SCENE FOR A POST-COLO- effecting regime change. This means that NIAL PERSPECTIVE sanctions can be used as a tool to interfere This paper is broadly underpinned by the in the internal affairs of another sovereign post-colonial theory as advocated by state as an alternative to conducting any scholars such as Rai (2005) and Ndlovu-Gat- military force. For instance, ZANU-PF asserts sheni (2013). It also draws from the works of that the sanctions on Zimbabwe represent Asante (1990, 2003). The focal point of this a neo-colonial agenda in Africa looking to theory is the persistence of colonial forms set up client states (Ndakaripa, 2014). This of power (Baylis, Smith and Owens, 2013). suggests that there is a new version of co- When ex-colonies were given indepen- lonialism in Africa which is also known as dence, colonialism did not really disappear “the new scramble for Africa” (Shai, 2010) as new forms of subjugation particularly and according to Rai (2005) post-colonial within economic dimension resurfaced. Ac- theory seeks emancipation from all types cording to Tepeciklioglu (2012) new elites in of subjugation. Therefore, the value of this the independent states emerged and sus- theory in this paper is its focal point of the tained the rule based on the exploitation existence of neo-colonialism in the third of certain classes and colonialism revital- world countries. ised itself under the name of neo-colonial-

70 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 4. EU’S POLICY TOWARDS ZIMBABWE could not effect regime change in Zimba- bwe they decided to put the country un- The EU’s policy in Zimbabwe has entailed a der sanctions. This view is closely tied to the variety of tools which includes humanitar- perspective of post-colonial theorists. This ian aid and remaining the second largest is because when Harare adopted a land trading partner after South Africa. Since reform strategy that threatened the West’s the controversial political developments of interests; they used their economic muscle early 2000s in Zimbabwe, Brussels has sus- to punish President Mugabe and his co- pended government-to-government sup- horts (administration, family and friends). port. However, it directs its support straight On the other hand, the EU maintains that to population and civil society formations it imposed sanctions because of human especially in the areas of health, educa- rights violations, lack of respect for law and tion and community development. It is failure to follow democratic principles (The worth noting that the EU has been the main Council of the EU, 2002). source of development assistance for Zim- babwe (Chigora, 2011). Relations between Recognising that international organisa- the EU and Zimbabwe took a U-turn when tions are nothing more than their constit- Harare forcefully executed the land grab uents parts, it is the well-considered view from largely white-commercial farmers. of this paper that the EU could have been Therefore, the section below examines the (ab)used by Britain and its allies as an instru- EU sanctions in Zimbabwe and evaluates ment to advance their selfish and narrow their legitimacy. interests of their countries. In this context, it is fathomable that the West may be using 5. IMPOSITION OF SANCTIONS: NORMS OR the political clout of the EU for the purpose INTERESTS (PUNISHMENT)? of sympathising and pledging solidarity The year 2002 marked the start of unfriend- with the former-Zimbabwean white farm- ly relations between the EU and Zimba- ers; who happen to trace their ancestral bwe. This is when the EU imposed sanctions roots from Britain. Based on the common which include assets freeze, arms embargo social history of the whites (farmers in par- and travel ban. There are two contend- ticular) in Zimbabwe and their counterparts ing views over these restrictive measures. in the West; and the historic tendency of ZANU-PF holds a perception that the EU’s London (administrative capital of Britain) sanctions are a neo-colonial coercive and Washington, DC (administrative cap- measure intended to replace ZANU-PF ital of the United States of America, USA); with the MDC through imposing econom- their (including their associate international ic hardships on ordinary Zimbabweans, organisations such as EU) commitment to ultimately making them dissatisfied with democracy and the rule of law is question- Mugabe’s regime and vote for change able (Shai, 2010; Shai & Iroanya, 2014; Shai (Shai & Mothibi, 2015). According to Nda- & Mothibi, 2015). karipa (2014) ZANU-PF claims that when Worth noting is that sanctions are perceived the EU and other sanctions senders (Unit- as a punishment for undesired actions and ed States of America; United Kingdom of they are designed to punish the targets Britain, UK; and Australia) realised that they

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 71 and safeguard the economic interests of human rights and democracy objectives the imposer (Mediel, 2012). Within this con- in the absence of UNSC mandate (Portela, text, it is unequivocal that the imposition of 2014). However, the EU can implement and the European sanctions is in retaliation for decide its own sanctions in the absence of the 2000 ZANU-PF led government’s force- UNSC mandate and this is referred to as ful land grab. Harare’s decision to carry EU’s autonomous sanctions. In essence, out the fast track land reform programme the EU implements autonomous sanctions is seen as a vehicle that drove the EU to as a result of the UNSC’s inability to reach a impose sanctions. This argument can be consensus due to opposition by its Perma- supported by Askari, Forrer, Teegan & Yang nent Members, particularly China and Rus- (2003) who postulate that sanctions are a sia (Biersteker & Portela, 2015). Neverthe- measure to punish a country for failure to less, it also implements the UNSC sanctions concur with a sender country’s policy and which are mandatory. President Mugabe overturning a policy in the target country has often labelled EU sanctions as a foreign found unpopular in the sender country. policy tool to achieve regime change and However, Brussels try to circumvent directly that they violate the fundamental princi- linking the imposition of sanctions to Zim- ples of the UN Charter. It is worth noting babwe’s 2000 violent and chaotic land re- that instead of the sanctions to produce form program; instead, it cites human rights the desired results; they provide the targets violations, lack of respect for the rule of law with the anti-imperialist rhetoric to justify and economic mismanagement as a jus- their stay in power and the Zimbabwean tification for the sanctions (Masaka, 2012). case demonstrates this fact.

6. THE LEGITIMACY OF THE EU’S TARGETED The EU as a global actor acted in response SANCTIONS to the 2002 alleged human rights violations; otherwise failure to act would have com- The legitimacy of EU’s sanctions has been promised its credibility in the eyes of the condemned mainly by the targets in Zim- international community (Giumelli, 2013). babwe because they fall out of the scope The Treaty on EU (TEU) gives legitimacy to of the UN mandate. Brussels and other Brussels’ unilateral sanctions as restrictive Western actors have imposed the restric- measures are included as one of the tools tive measures to Zimbabwe unilaterally. that can be used to pursue the Common Since the imposition of the sanctions, ZA- Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) goals NU-PF has continuously labelled them ille- set out in the Article 21 of TEU. In terms of gal. The ruling party (ZANU-PF) argues that this Article 21, the EU can advance the uni- the sanctions were introduced without versality of the human rights and funda- any legal basis (Bell, 2014). The strength mental freedom, democracy, respect for of the foregoing argument is furthered by the rule of law, human dignity, the princi- the fact that it is the United Nations Secu- ples of solidarity and equality and respect rity Council (UNSC) that has the power to for the UN Charter and international law. impose sanctions on Zimbabwe. This posi- Moreover, the agreements signed by the tion should be understood within the locutis EU and African, Caribbean and Pacific that the EU wielded measures in support of (ACP) countries give authority to the EU to

72 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 suspend humanitarian aid and to change their political survival such as leaving pow- the conditions of the agreements when er. Over time, targets would refute to do so. signatory states have poor human rights re- Therefore, sanctions are imposed with the cord (Giumelli, 2013). This is provided under intention of making a target’s life difficult. Article 9 of the Cotonou Agreement which The Euro-American narrative that the ac- is referred to as human rights clause. Basic tion of the ZANU-PF led government to grab principles on the use of the restrictive mea- the land from white farmers and redistrib- sures also allow the EU to act autonomously ute to its indigenous owners (Blacks) is nei- when necessary. Basically, in line with these ther balanced nor sober. The land reform principles, the EU seeks to fight terrorism, programme in Zimbabwe and calls for it to the proliferation of weapons of mass de- see light in other countries in Southern Afri- struction (WMD) and maintain respect for ca has an ethical and moral standing be- the rule of law, human rights, good gov- cause most of the contemporary whites (in- ernance and democracy (Grieger, 2013). cluding farmers) have acquired their land In short, TEU, Cotonou Agreement and the possessions through dodgy methods. As basic principles on the use of restrictive such, the use of shallow arguments based measures are the legal mechanisms for the on neo-liberal clauses including the right to EU to impose unilateral sanctions. private property is dismissive of hard-core historical facts (Raphala, 2013). 7. THE EFFICACY OF EU’S SANCTIONS AS A POLICY INSTRUMENT According to Portela (2014) assessing the efficacy of sanctions depends on their na- Sanctions are a foreign policy tool of the ture. In the case of Zimbabwe, sanctions EU to coerce targeted countries to change predominantly in the form of assets freeze, problematique behaviour (Esfandiary, arms embargo and travel bans were im- 2013). At times, military action is too difficult posed. Arguably, the EU’s asset freeze was and costly to carry out. However, sanctions compromised by the slow implementation are an alternative for policy makers (Shai, which gave Zimbabwean listed individuals 2016). They are directed at changing the more time to move their assets and resourc- behaviour of the targets and bring about es out of the European accounts. With the a change in activities such as human rights arms embargo, they proved to be ineffec- violations and policies that do not respect tive because Zimbabwe has been receiv- democratic principles. As such, the EU has ing arms allegedly from China, Democratic used sanctions to persuade President Mug- Republic of Congo (DRC) and other African abe and his cronies to change their “outra- countries. This suggests that targets often geous behaviour” and prevent them from look elsewhere for resources and econom- performing actions that could undermine ic assistance (Shai, 2009; Esfandiary, 2013). the political and socio-economic stability Consequently, sanctions do not achieve of Zimbabwe and worsen the economy their goals as targets can always avoid and deteriorate the human rights record. their impact (Shai, 2009). In fact, they can Nonetheless, as Giumelli (2013, 18) has in- precipitate a behavioural change if they dicated, targets are sometimes required to are consistently enforced. Nevertheless, as perform actions which would undermine a reaction to isolation by Western partners

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 73 over human rights record in Zimbabwe, Ha- of ZANU-PF government by both the local rare has adopted a “look to East policy” and international media should be under- forming alliance with Eastern Asian coun- stood within the context that this sector is tries. With many Chinese investors seeking largely owned by the Western companies access to Zimbabwe’s diamond wealth, and therefore, tend to avail themselves Mugabe’s regime could continue with his as propaganda/ public diplomacy tools “iron rule” regardless of whether the EU and exploited for the purpose of causing legit- West like it or not (Nkadimeng, 2016). On imacy crisis against the enemies of West- the contrary, it has been over a decade ern states. This is achieved through shaping since the imposition of the sanctions and public opinion tide to wave towards the Zimbabwe is still swimming in an ocean of demonization and criminalisation of gov- poverty which indicates that China is not ernments who are not receptive to the for- able to replace the relative weight of the eign policies of their countries (Shai, 2012). sanctioners’ economies in the Southern Af- Erickson (2011) asserts that several multilat- rican country (Giumelli & Krulis, 2012). eral institutions have been blocked from having any contact with Zimbabwe, espe- The EU’s enlargement of the list of targeted cially as the UK and the USA have decisive individuals and entities in 2009 indicated influence in these institutions and this have that the list was supposed to include any led to massive impact on the political and government official regardless of their indi- budgetary situation in Zimbabwe, ultimate- vidual action. In fact, this aimed at creating ly causing hardship to ordinary people. obstacles to the functioning of a regime or political ruling class than coercing them into Empirical studies indicate that multilateral doing something (Giumelli & Krulis, 2012). sanctions can be effective if there is a co- However, this hurt the economy further as alition of countries. For example, Chigora Brussels also included the companies. It is (2011) stated that the collapse of Harare worth noting that these are the compa- as a result of sanctions was not impending nies that employ ordinary people, produce because it cooperated with other power- goods needed by the society and over- ful actors in the global system to the extent all, contribute to the country’s economy. that even a UNSC resolution that was sup- As such, targeted or comprehensive, the posed to punish Zimbabwe failed to pass EU’s restrictive measures which are aimed as it was vetoed by Russia and China. This at Mugabe’s inner circle had negative im- implies that although the EU can impose pact on the entire individuals in Zimbabwe. autonomous sanctions, it also seeks co- Therefore, the idea that they are targeted operation with regional organisations and sanctions is defeated. The move to also other countries to enhance their efficacy. target companies was condemned by However, the lack of support from South- the opposition MDC, a party which the EU ern African regional body, Southern Afri- wants in power (Shai & Mothibi, 2015). The can Development Community (SADC) and Zimbabwean picture portrayed by western South Africa’s adoption of what has been media have also scared off investors and dubbed by the media as “quiet diploma- ultimately had an effect on the entire coun- cy” towards Zimbabwe weakens the EU’s try. The exaggerated negative portrayal sanctions to precipitate a behavioural

74 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 change in Harare. In fact, SADC has been 8. CONCLUSION calling for the complete removal of sanc- The primary purpose of this paper was to tions as they are hurting the Zimbabwean employ the post-colonial theory for the economy ultimately affecting the entire re- purpose of re-evaluating the efficacy of gion in a form of the influx of Zimbabwean EU sanctions and their legal implementa- refugees. Essentially, the reluctance of the tion process in Zimbabwe. This paper found African elites and China to criticise Mug- that the EU wields sanctions in the absence abe’s indigenisation policies compromises of the UN mandate and this caused the the EU’s measures to achieve their primary ZANU-PF and its government to continuous- objective. To this end, these measures also ly label the EU restrictive measures illegal. aggravate the suffering of Zimbabwean However, the authors of this paper have citizens while failing to exhort the targets to learnt that Brussels can implement and de- change their political behaviour (Ogbon- cide its own sanctions and these are called na, 2015). It is within this context that these autonomous sanctions. Moreover, the TEU negative impacts, lead to the ineffective- gives legitimacy to EU sanctions because ness of EU sanctions because they yield in terms of Article 21, Brussels can advance counter results instead of achieving their the universality of human rights and funda- principal goals. As such, it can be argued mental freedom, democracy, respect for that the restrictive measures are ineffective the rule of law, human dignity, the princi- as Brussels still maintains them and Harare ples of solidarity and equality and respect still holds the post-colonial perspective that for UN Charter and international law. Arti- the EU and other sanctions senders are try- cle 9 (human rights clause) of the Cotonou ing to interfere in the domestic affairs of agreement also gives the authority to EU Zimbabwe. Therefore, Mugabe’s adminis- to act when signatory states are violating tration remains adamant that it won’t allow human rights by suspending humanitarian the West to impose the western democra- aid. To add, basic principles on the use of cy or policies that are contrary to African restrictive measures also allow the EU to norms and values and the ideals of pan-Af- act unilaterally when necessary, especial- ricanism. It is not farfetched to submit that ly when the UNSC is unable to reach an President Mugabe’s effective exploitation agreement because of opposing positions of the anti-colonial rhetoric has won him by other permanent members particularly many friends in Africa and the South due to China and Russia. In sum, these are legal the historic dent in the face of Britain and mechanisms that legitimise the EU’s unilat- the EU at large in relation to their direct and eral sanctions. indirect role in the most hated systems in the world including apartheid, colonialism and This paper has also established that the imperialism. In this sense, the EU’s sanctions EU uses sanctions as a foreign policy tool remain an insignificant leverage to stimu- to promote human rights and democratic late reform in Harare and their weakness is principles because military action is too dif- germane to this organisation colonial leg- ficult and costly to carry out. Therefore, the acies. EU has used sanctions to constrain Mugabe and his inner circle. However, there are

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78 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 INSTABILITY AND CORRUPTION IN STUDENT GOVERNANCE CAUSED BY TENDER SYSTEM IN UNIVERSITIES IN SOUTH AFRICA: SELECTED CASES FROM UNIVERSITIES OF TECHNOLOGY

BK Sebake

University of Mpumalanga

ABSTRACT

The landscape of Higher Education in South Africa has made a significant move to recognise the “voice of the voiceless” and embraced democracy at all cost. This argument is attested by the establishment of the Student Representative Councils (SRC’s) in all Univer- sities to embrace inclusive governance through representation in statutory committees as determined by the Higher Education Act: 101 of 1997 as amended and the statutes of Uni- versities respectively. The current analysis of the role of student leaders in the supply chain committees of Universities in South Africa has been contested as having a personal enrichment on individual student leaders themselves, and it can stifled progress in some parts of the Universities. This paper examines tendencies of self-enrichment and how they impact on student governance. This paper also calls for and examines ethical consideration in supply-chain and its relations to the experiences of the student leaders in Universities student governance. The sample is conducted on selected Universities of Technologies in three provinces inter alia: - Western Cape, Free State and Gauteng respectively. The study then include the overview of the role of student governance, the potential corrupt tendencies, and the theoretical analysis of the good governance, which is used to assess how Student Leadership embraces it. The study is then concluded and possible solutions to the current issues and problems will be identified in order to provide a scientific solution oriented study to improve the university governance.

Keywords: Corruption, Good Governance, Democracy, Accountability, and responsibility

1. INTRODUCTION space for co-operative governance. Over the past decades, higher education insti- Student governance of any public higher tutions have faced increasing complexity education institution reflects the current related to governance (Berhal, 1991; Birn- democratic policy imperatives, which the baum, 1988; Kezar, 2000; Leslie & Fretwell, rationale for its existence being to provide

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 79 1996) as cited by Kezar & Eckel (2004). processes. Is it a governance process or an Amongst the complexities, conflict of - in administrative process? Are student leaders terest and corruption have increasingly af- co-governing and/or co-administering the fected stability in operational activities of University supply chain process? This paper governance, which compromised the le- will then seek answers to these important gitimacy of the processes. One issue at the questions, and the alleged holding of uni- crossroads of formal provision and actual versity processes at ransom due to tempta- practice concerns how student represen- tions that may come with the involvement tatives are identified and elected (Bergan, of student leaders into supply chain com- 2003), and the understanding of repre- mittees in Universities. sentation manifest in student politics. The moral fabric of “Accountability” provides space for examining the extent to which 2. THE NATURE AND ROLE OF THE SRC this platform for students has been circumvented by the corrupt element of student It is understood that SRC’s are established leaders themselves. The major challenge of in conformity with the Higher Education Act student governance framework is the com- and also in terms of the Universities statutes peting nature of “Mandate” versus “Rep- respectively, and members are elected in resentation”, which often contribute to the terms of their respective institutional SRC overlooking of the university processes as constitutions. These student leaders rep- part of the conduct of student leaders in resent student constituencies in university statutory bodies of the universities. This was statutory bodies as established by their re- scholarly attested as Keeler (1993) who spective universities and their role in supply proclaimed that the mandate conception chain committees have been observed to of representation is wide spreading, and be problematic. There have been contin- scholars, journalists, and ordinary citizens re- uous talks about growing corruption and lay as if it were axiomatic. The fundamental little focus on student issues that created criticism of a mandate within the context instabilities in student governance activities of student governance is always whether in highly political hotspots universities. These the mandate is doable, and this always instabilities are agitated by the fragile con- find no expression in some student leaders, flict of interest with little recognition of the which the ultimately actions contribute to- negative culture that is being created. The wards-- “ethics hitting the snag”. Over the example of these was the observation of a past decade, the traditional purchasing quick accumulation of wealth by student and logistics functions have evolved into leaders immediately upon the assuming a broader strategic approach to materials office. SRC elections deployments being and distribution management known as contested heavily and threats being made supply chain management (Keah, 2001). against others who don’t agree on a specif- This provides space to always enquire with- ic deployment, which create an impression in the scholarly reflections fundamentally that there is more that slaving of serving stu- and critically as to whose responsibility in dents. The above reflect a snap short of the the university it is to perform supply chain crisis of instability in student governance, which boil into embezzlement of resourc-

80 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 es in particular the supply chain processes view themselves as “members of the com- as a quick handsome payment for holding munity before they are students”, and the an office as always attributed by some stu- move was a reflection of a joint efforts to dent leaders. transform the society first before the universities. The post-apartheid period requested 3. THE ROLE OF STUDENT GOVERNANCE AND a different approach from the students’ HISTORICAL OVERVIEW movement in South Africa. The ultimate The concept “governance” may in its im- focus of which was to transform the edu- plications reflect a very complex concept cation system and university campuses in which requires continues self-reflection. South Africa as a whole. Some of the burn- While there are many others who re- ing issues includes Financial and academic searched on the history of student gover- exclusion; admission policy transformation; nance and its evolution, there are still more student rights and life re-curriculating with- lessons to be learnt. Student activism has in the context of inclusive education; and also been generally ineffectual in the ac- democratization of the universities gover- ademic and political life of universities (Alt- nance structures. bach; 1997: 5), therefore it reflects that very All these burning issues above demand- rarely have student organisations taken on ed a strategic shift from liberation strategies interest in the University reform, curriculum, to transformative strategy, which can be or governance. The Higher Education sys- cited that students have lost battle for stu- tem exists as part and parcel of the society dent movements particularly on the call for and is characterised by the socio-political “free education”. The loss is the manifesta- and economic interactions (Thobakgale; tion of the neo-liberal policies that did not 2001). Therefore, the SRC represent the mi- transform the economy to suite the working crocosm of the establishment of the trans- class and the poor that are bulk majority formed higher education in South Africa. that pays fees for the students in Universi- The historic highlight of the evolution of the ties, and the example is the enforcement political overview of students in South Africa of “GEAR” which students’ movement re- was in the period before democracy char- jected with other civil societies with no luck acterised by youth activism, through the of success. The ideological orientation of established students’ movement. The char- the society particularly the left wing forces, acter of these student movements was to which for some reasons, students move- look into transformation of the entire coun- ments were behind the struggle and de- try, and little attention was given to Univer- fined it as a neoliberal economic agenda sities transformation. The above was dictat- of the capitalists forces. Narsiah (2002), pro- ed by the politics of the time. Thobakgale claim that neoliberalism is a doctrine which (2001) argues that the emergence of stu- has philosophical roots in Adam Smith’s free dent movement in South Africa was linked market school of economics. Neoliberalism directly to the country’s struggle against also stems from a reaction to the Keynesian oppression and exploitation in the quest economic programmes of the post-World to resolve the national question. The fo- War II era up to the 1970s. The argument cus then provided the notion that students that the rot of corruption is deep among

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 81 student leaders may have arisen from pov- • Economic power: - takes the form of erty among student leaders as a result of channels of influence, and therefore - pro economic pressures with aspirations to vides space for manipulation that collaps- change the lifestyle, however corruption is es governance; 131 not justified lawful activity. • Corporate power: - may be used as 4.proclaimed CORPORATE by GOVERNANCE Johnn; Hendrikse AND PUBLICand Hefer an-Handrikse instrument (2012); within whichwhich supply are listed of goods ENTITIESbelow: or services and decide on the price to charge, therefore this is the power that the The issue Economic of corporate powe governancer: - takes the relate form of channels of influence, and therefore service providers have within the supply largely to the monitoring and accountabil- provides space for manipulation that collapseschain process; governance; and ity as proclaimed by R.I Tricker (author of  Corporate power: - may be used as an instrument within which supply of Corporate Governance Gower; 1984) that • Customer power: - the power of the twogoods key elements or services of governance and decide con on- the voiceprice tothat charge, makes thereforeitself heard th andis is thethe op- cern supervisionpower that or monitoringthe service of providers manage have- tionwithin to theconsume supply or chain not to process; consume and a par - ment performanceCustomer power: and ensuring - the power account of- voiceticular that product. makes Theitself argument heard and of thethe third ability of management to stakeholders element may be assumed to refer to stu- option to consume or not to consume a particular product. The argument and other stakeholders. The supply chain, dents as end-users of most of the supply in termsof of the the third implication element mayof corporate be assumed chain to refer products to students in universities. as end -users of governance reflects three key aspects that most of the supply chain products in universities.These key elements may reflect demarca- were proclaimed by Johnn; Hendrikse and These key elements may reflect demarcationtion of of responsibility responsibility in governancegovernance of of the Hefer-Handrikse (2012); which are listed be- supply chain at the universities below as low:the supply chain at the universities below asfollows follows as as indicated indicated in in figure figure 1: 1:

Accounting officer of the University

Executive Management Corporate power holders Service Providers End-Users and consumer Student Representatives Power

Source: Author Source: Author Figure 1 illustrates the stakeholder relations for the University supply chain as a Figure 1 illustrates the stakeholder relations for the University supply chain as a scientific scientific analysis of the corporate and stakeholders’ power on the supply chain analysis of the corporate and stakeholders’ power on the supply chain management. The analysismanagement. which further The analysis gives significance which further of thegives challenge significance at hand of themakes challenge one to imagineat thehand end-user makes as one “consumer to imagine power” the end holder-user trying as “consumer to play a rolepower” of a holder “Corporate trying power”to holder persistently, which gives raise to the selfish compromise of the ethical values of ac- play a role of a “Corporate power” holder persistently, which gives raise to the countability. selfish compromise of the ethical values of accountability.

82 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 The Institutional governance reflects sup- ing student movement in South Africa that ply chain as not one of the statutory com- share ideological context with the ruling mittees of the university, but the University party (ANC), South African Student Con- Governing Council as a statutory body, gress (SASCO) observed a rot in its cycles which then provides an administrative and that the most sensitive discussions in the or- managerial support to the University Exec- ganization for both good and bad reasons. utive Management. This is attested by the On the good, comrades (SASCO deploy- “King Report” that (code 2.1.1.) reflect that ees) fight around this because it involves “The Board” is ultimately accountable and the framework that guides the manner in responsible for the performance and affairs which the organization deploys cadres of the company, also that code (2.1.7.) re- advance its objectives in strategic areas affirms that the board has to adopt a strate- such as Councils and Senates of Universi- gic plan. This then condemn any reference ties (Buku; 2010) also observed on the bad of the supply chain as the statutory require- side that the fight is about the fact that be- ment, but a managerial and administrative ing deployed involves a change in one’s tool of reaching the objectives. lifestyle and thus to one’s friendship clique on campus, and therefore recommended that SASCO deployees must not sit in ten- 5. SHIFTING FORM REPRESENTATION TO TEN- der committees. The above reflect the ad- DERPRENEURS mission from the political trenches that the rot is changing the ideological character The intention of the existence and estab- of the student movement into that of the lishment of Student Representative Coun- “tenderpreneurship”, which has no interest cils in universities is to represent the views of of the students but that of self-enrichment. students, in which Mashele & Qobo (2014: 83) reflect that the role of politicians should therefore be to advance the well-be- 6. RELATIONS BETWEEN CORRUPTER AND ing of the society, rather than self-enrich- CORRUPTEES ment. This kind of approach thrives better in democratic societies, where the nor- The scientific question to always ask is the mative framework of the political system impact of corruption the society, which pro- is constructed around enhancing the ca- vides space to interrogate the relationship pacities of citizens, as well as promoting between the corrupter and corruptee. Most transparency and accountability of those people claim that they are against crime who govern. The argument may be a crit- and that corruption should be classed as a ical question: are student leaders them- crime (Senior; 2004). However, the problem selves embracing the values of account- with crime, corruption and many other acts ability and transparency in their activities is that criminality frequently is in the eye of within the supply chain committee where the beholder. Huisman & Vande (2010) at- they are serving in the midst of the grow- test that when corruption was researched, ing trends of corruption? It is hoped this it was mostly in the context of broader con- study will answer this fundamental. Citing cepts of crime, such as organized crime. This the important observation of the dominat- is rather strange because other concepts

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 83 are perfectly suitable for a criminological in the society. analysis of corruption. From the context of the argument, it can easily be concluded that the relationship between the corrupt- 7. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY er and the corruptee is based on unlawful arrangement, which constitutes a criminal act and must be classified as such. The research method constitute a scientific qualitative orientation of gathering information; Popper (2002: 16) states that in The fundamental question is whether these order to make this idea a little more pre- corrupt activities have been accepted as cise, we may distinguish three requirements part of the society. Mashele (2011) asks this which our empirical theoretical system will critical question: how does the society lib- have to satisfy. First, it must be synthetic, so erate itself from the belief that there is no that it may represent a non-contradictory, alternative to the corrupt, incompetent, a possible world. Secondly, it must satisfy arrogant and unaccountable government the criterion of demarcation, and it must under whose weight the rest of the soci- not be metaphysical, but must represent ety is collapsing? This scholarly argument a world of experience. The study draws reflects the cracks in student governance, a particular theoretical context on “good which also agrees that corruption may then governance” and creates space for quali- reflect non-creativity to participate lawful- tative nature of the experience of a sample ly to the economic trenches of the univer- of three (3) University officials, one (1) from sities or society as a whole, and therefore each and twelve (12) student leaders, four elements of incompetence and persistent (4) from each Universities of Technologies in arrogance to stifle the University gover- Western Cape, Free State and Gauteng as nance compromises the governance and a selected sample. The standard questions administrative values. are developed to relate experience of the sample and quality information will be an- The relationship between the “corrupter alysed and interpreted. and the corruptee” does not have any consideration of transparency and accountability, it is always questionable as the country as a whole and universities as 8. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS well have the policy framework that deals with corruption. This creates space for asking if leaders of our country and student This section of the paper reflects the narra- leaders in universities have the political tive experience of current and former stu- will to deal decisively with corruption. The dent leaders and officials in student - gov argument is informed by the realities that ernance of the universities of responded. all these policies need political leadership Summaries are provided in tables 1 to 8. that is willing and not observe corruption The following naming are used to represent silently and babysit it, which reflect what the names of the institutions that participat- Mashele (2011) refers to as the political rot ed in the study below respectively, and not

84 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 use actual name for ethical purposes:

• University A (Western Cape)

• University B (Free State)

• University C (Gauteng)

Question 1: Are student leaders’ part of the supply chain in your respective University and what the experience of the involvement is?

UNIVERSITY A The Student Representative Council (SRC) members were sitting on the supply chain committee before 2013. Given the service providers lobbying students for their support in exchange for “kickbacks”, and the university withdrew their membership. UNIVERSITY B The respondents indicated that the University had to take a decision to exclude SRC members as they used to fundraise in exchange for putting in a word on behalf of preferred suppliers. UNIVERSITY C The experience is that before 2011, SRC was participating during evaluation. After that period, the university decided to remove the SRC from this committee.

Question 2: Are there any procedures around declaration of conflict of interest and how it was handled by student leaders?

UNIVERSTITY A At the time SRC members were part of the supply chain committee, there was a form for declaration of conflict of interest, but often they were not informed of its implications. UNIVERSTITY B There was always an indication that each member of the committee who is conflicted can recuse him/herself, but SRC were not and, at times, they will even leaked information. UNIVERSTITY C The university had a conflict of interest form, which was issued with the agenda in the meeting. Question 3: Do the student leaders make decisions to select the service provider or are they sitting at an observer level? Relate the experience?

UNIVERSTITY A At the time, the SRC members had full voting powers such that it could even stop the meeting if it was not happy with the service provider chosen. UNIVERSTITY B Before the University take decision to exclude the SRC, its members were able to make decisions to influence the process, even to bring service providers to the institution.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 85 UNIVERSTITY C The SRC at the time were regarded as full members with decision making rights, as such they were not regarded as observ- ers. Question 4: Is it the correct practice to involve student leaders in this field and why?

UNIVERSTITY A The experience shared by respondents shows that the SRC’s views are necessary not at the stage of decision making, but only on making inputs on service standards. UNIVERSTITY B The respondents feel that involving SRC in such processes is a tantamount to exposing them to the danger of the under- world and corruption. UNIVERSTITY C An understanding of SRC is that there is nothing wrong to involve SRC members, but teach them to act in accordance with the rules of the committee and also it will assist in career development.

Question 5: What is the reaction of the University Executive towards student leaders’ involvement in the supply chain committee?

UNIVERSTITY A The University Executive always looked at the interest of protecting the image of student leadership given the past experience of alleged corruption. UNIVERSTITY B The University Executive always views the SRC as an important component of the university, but given the bad experience of their involvement in supply chain committee, the SRC be removed. UNIVERSTITY C The SRC were always used as a tool to support management decision, given the allegations of corruption by student leaders. There is still corruption reported even when they are no longer seating on the committee.

Question 6: Are student leaders often corrupted by this system and does student governance become dysfunctional based the system?

UNIVERSTITY A The respondents agreed that the system has made student leaders corrupt and those deployed always saw SRC as an advancement to a gravy train. UNIVERSTITY B The respondents reflected that once a commitment is made with the service provider privately, if the move is objected and nothing must function. These tendencies led to majority of student leaders being charged and suspended.

86 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 UNIVERSTITY C The respondents also provided an indication that student leaders are often corrupted by the system, as the service providers also corrupt them by providing “kickbacks”. The corruption is not only caused by tenders, but by the political ideological system. Question 7: Do student leaders account to students openly on their role in supply chain committee? If not why? If yes, relate the experience?

UNIVERSTITY A In most cases, student leaders are not accounting openly to students on the activities of the supply chain committee. The only area of accountability is on mandatory issues such as financial aid. UNIVERSTITY B It was said that student leaders are not accounting on activities of this nature at all and if they sense that there are those who are going to ask questions about corruption and SRC interest on service providers, they would then send students to disrupt such a meeting so that it does not conclude its business. UNIVERSTITY C SRC is not accounting to the students on matters of supply chain committee, unless they lost the debate in the committee and need support of students.

Question 8: What do you recommend to be done to improve?

UNIVERSTITY A Believe that no SRC members should be involved on supply chain committee and further student affairs put processes for student leaders to account. UNIVERSTITY B There is a need to caution the SRC members of the rot of corruption and its unintended consequences. The need to emphasis on public accountability as one of the pillars of democracy. UNIVERSTITY C The respondents believe that the SRC must be included on the committee, but feel the conflict of interest be investigated and taken to the disciplinary process if they transgress.

9. IMPLICATIONS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE of what is the character of “good governance”. This concept has been argued Governance has become a “hot” topic as by many scholars as (Maserumule; 2011) evidence mounts on the critical role it plays proclaimed in his thesis that good gover- in determining societal well-being (Gra- nance is a conceptual problematique. It ham, Amos & Plumptre; 2003). The concept means different things to different people also gives rise to a fundamental question

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 87 depending on the context from which it is the transformative role to that of self-liber- used. Good governance is a complex con- ation through “corruption” have created cept. It therefore cannot simply and only danger of democracy in the space occu- be understood from a positivist or realist pies by student governance in Universities. epistemology. The reflection of good“ gov- The conclusion of the paper is that, as at- ernance” is the ability to abide by a set of tested by the respondents, student leaders rules that govern the environment, there- often get corrupted by the process such fore quote of good practice constitutes that they view being deployed in the SRC that framework. It is therefore implies that as “gravy train” and consequently their ex- the implication for student governance is clusion was a wise move, which supported the ability by elected leaders to follow the the conclusion that students must be ex- provision in their constitution and abide cluded from the committee as it falls out- by the University rule in adhering to their side their scope. Given the narrative expe- responsibilities e.g. resist corruption when rience and in a quest to ensure that SRCs’ seating in supply chain committees and focus on their role of representing students stick to rules to avoid what Saint Paul at- in statutory bodies, the study recommends tested that “My own behaviour baffles me. that drawing of specifications and services For I find myself not doing what I really want standard student leaders as end users be to do but doing what I really loathe.” consulted. This constitutes an initial and internal stage of determining service standards, which will then use supply chain as 10. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDA- an administrative tool. TIONS

The paper has demonstrated the rot of cor- LIST OF REFERENCES ruption emanating from the involvement of student leaders in the supply chain management committees of universities as per Altbach, P.G., 1997. Student Politics in the selected sample. The point of departure America: A historic analysis. McGraw-Hill: was to unpack corporative governance as New york an important governance transformative move that necessitated the inclusion of Bergan, S. 2003. Student Participation in student leaders in the form of SRC on the Higher Education Governance.http:// statutory committee. The second point of www.coe.int/t/dg4/highereducation/Gov- departure was to critically analyse wheth- ernance/SB_student_participation_EN.pdf. er the supply chain committee is a statu- (Accessed 11th April 2016) tory body that needs representation of all stakeholders or is it a management tool. Buku, L. 2010. Purpose of the National Po- The third point of departure was that the litical School within the context of SASCO research demonstrated that the historical Resolutions, www.sasco.org.za/event/ th evolution of student movement which was buku, (Accessed 11 April 2016) of a character of reforming society as a whole, and the emergence of shifting from

88 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Dekel, E., B.L. Lipman, and A. Rustichini. Maserumule, H.M. 2011. Good Gover- 2009. Temptation-driven preferences. nance in the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD): A Public Admin- Review of Economic Studies. 76 (3), 937–971 istration Perspective. Thesis- www.unisa. Graham, J., Amos, B. & Plumptre, T. 2003. ac.za (Accessed 12th April 2016) Principle of Good Governance in the 21st Narsiah, S. 2002. Neoliberalism and pri- Century. Policy brief no: 15. www.iog.co. vatisation in South Africa. Department of (Accessed 12th April 2016) Geography. University of Natal: Pieter- Handrikse, J.W; & Hefer-Handrikse, L. 2012. maritzburg. Corporate Governance Handbook: Princi- Przeworski, A.; Stokes, S.C. & Manin, B. 1999. ples and Practice. Juta & Co: Pretoria Democracy, Accountability, & Represen- Huisman, W.; & Vande, W.G. 2010. The tation. Cambridge University Press Criminology of Corruption. Hogent.be. Senior, I. 2004. Corruption, The Government (Accessed 09th April 2016) and The Private Sector: Why it matters and Keah, C.T. 2001. A Framework of Supply what can be done. Economic Affairs. 24( Chain Management Literature. Europe- 2):22-29 an Journal of Purchasing & Supply Chain Thobakgale, S. 2001. Transformation in High- Management.7( 1):39-48. er Education: Global Pressures and Local Kezer, A.J.; & Eckel, P.D. 2004. Meeting To- Realities in South Africa. Centre for Higher day’s Governance Challenges: A Synthe- Education Transformation. www.chet. sis of the Literature and Examination of a org.za (Accessed 10th April 2016) Future Agenda for Scholarship. The Journal of Higher Education. 75( 4):371-399

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 89 THE PORTRAYAL OF WOMEN IN SOUTH AFRICAN MUSIC VIDEOS

FD Mabasa and E Mabasa University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

The portrayal of women in music videos has changed drastically over the past years. Mu- sic videos have moved from telling a story and the meaning of the song to heavy sexual content. Currently, it is highly rear to watch music video without experiencing sexuality dis- played in the visual imagery, more especially women half naked. Women are often used as decorative model of almost all music videos, not only in South Africa, but in most parts of the world. The main function of women on music videos is to look sexually attractive at a role which they seem to enjoy, inviting the viewer to pay more attention on the music video. It is supposed to attract male viewers. Women are regarded as passive things or objects that can be used and explored at will. They are admired, not for their individual qualities or for their uniqueness as people, but for their physical attributes. This study aims to explore the portrayal of women in the South African music videos. Content analysis, as part of qualitative research, is the main methods of this study.

Keywords: Portrayal, Music Videos, Women, Sexual contents

1. INTRODUCTION

In South Africa, music videos have always popular and important as the music it por- been a way of reaching out to music lov- trays (Andsager & Roe, 2003). However, in ers, but that has changed over the years. this era, music videos are centred on being In other words, music videos have archa- “male gaze”. In most music videos, wom- ic their main purpose to serve as public- en are mostly portrayed as sexual objects. ity strategy for singers and currently im- Most music videos which are released in pact and reflect much of young culture. South Africa features half naked women. According to Leeds (2002), music videos As such, music videos have high sexual production is viewed as part of marketing content across genres specification. -Ac strategy by artists and record companies. cording to Orhon (2006), many women in Nevertheless the visual imagery, itself, in the society are tired of disturbing images of music videos has increasingly become as television, especially middle aged women.

90 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Therefore, music videos are portraying a part of “male gaze” which is produced by negative image of women which may re- music video’s images. Music videos are sults into societies (mostly men) developing mostly centred on attracting males’ atten- negative perceptions towards women. This tion through revealing women’s body. Ac- is done through images that include main- cording to Ward, Hansbrough and Walker ly sexual aspects of women, revealing their (2005), most music videos are highly satu- bodies. rated with sexual content that exceedingly focuses on the masculine perspective and The clothes that women wear on the mu- male pursuit of sexual satisfaction. Wom- sic videos are fantasy clothes such as short en’s bodies are often used as decorative dresses, lingerie or bikinis, crop tops with props or trophies to illustrate masculine sex- mini skates, tight and revealing dresses. ual desire or his power over a sexual situ- In relations to their clothing, Orhon (2006) ation. Carstarphen (1999) claims that the concurs that roles of women in the music women most often portrayed in music vid- videos are sometimes described as exot- eos as the ‘conventional woman’. ‘Con- ic dancers, prostitutes, strippers and dirty ventional Woman’ in which the empha- dancers. As such, it can be concluded that sis was on physical appearance and the women’s role in music videos is mostly to woman’s role was merely to satisfy a man’s appear sexy and attractive. desire” (Carstarphen, 1999, p.229). Addi- tionally, Ward, Merriwether and Caruthers (2006) women’s bodies are hyper sexual- According to literature, since the emerg- ized far more than males’ bodies as a result ing in the mainstream in the early eighties, of the music videos’ primary focus, which the music video format has generated a is to display a masculine sexual drive and fair amount of scholarly attention, with re- mainstream male sexual preferences. search focusing especially on the harmful imagery found in many music videos and the potential influence of such imagery on Other than numerous sorts of TV programs youth audiences (Smith & Boyson, 2002; projects, music recordings or videos play Wallis, 2011). Such imagery are now even one of the key parts in representing gender more characterised by heavy sexual con- roles. In the meantime, there are likewise tent. Thus, it will results into greater poten- numerous sorts of music videos. In some tial influence on the audiences, especially music videos, men are in the lead roles and youth audiences. in some other, women are in lead roles; or they it can be both. Be that as it may, what continues being depicted in music record- Music videos objectify women and use ings are brutality against women, and sexu- them as decorative models (Alfonseca, ally delineating and depicting women (Or- 1986). Overemphasize actions can also hon,). In a large portion of the music videos be experienced, such as women taking women seem generally as dancers and a shower or even dancing on the water, posers. mostly in the swimming pool wearing a bi- kini showing off her entire body. Goldman (1992) is of the opinion that women become

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 91 South African teenagers are constantly ex- those significant parts of women to appear posed to music videos that portrays women attractive and sexy in the music videos. This as sexual objects and view their body parts conveys the message that the women are with the single faceted motivation behind just an object for the male gaze. This often pleasuring men. Rivadeneyra, Ward and raises the issues of societal norms, especial- Gordon (2007) in their study, found that ly in the South African context. The way in teenagers had a viewing mean of 33.3 which women are depicted in the music hours that they use in music videos daily. videos is highly questioned by the issues Similarly Ward, Hansbrough and Walker of the way societal norms and the way in (2005) found that teenagers had a viewing which the society perceives and analyse mean 0f 3 hours used watching music vid- standards of women in the community. eos. As such, there is an increasing demand 2. TOP TEN MOST RECENT MUSIC VIDEOS IN and accessibility of videos through cable SOUTH AFRICA channels and internet with high music video content such Channele O, Trace, MTV All music videos regardless of genre, play which are accessed in South Africa, guar- in Mzansi Magic Music, Trace urban, Chan- antees and ensures that youthful people or nel O and MTV base throughout the day. teenagers are always recovering confused For the purpose of the study, top ten of the and misguided information about the ways most played music videos in Channel O will in which women are perceived in the soci- be analysed; eties. As they gain exposure to music videos with half naked women, there is a greater demand for researches and scholars to fur- Number one: Ricky Rick - Sondela ft Zano ther study the effects and the amount of exposure which music videos might hold, (Male singer) both physically and psychological. Subse- • There is a female character in the video quently, it is critical to track the propagat- ing cycle of music videos of both teenagers She is happy and unhappy and young adults, in which it advises them She is posing about sex and gender, which they disguise as truths, and use to react to the public. She looks sexy

Often women in music videos look directly She is on the bed at viewers as if they are looking at them- Number two: L-Tido - Dlala ka yona selves on the mirror. By looking directly at the camera, they invite great intention of (Male singer, fully dressed) the viewers. They seem to enjoy being on display as they are even comfortable with There are female characters they are the way they are dressed and the way the wearing too revealing clothes display themselves to the public. The cam- They are half naked, in some parts era focuses on specific parts, the bodies they are wearing lingerie and hills, are fragmented (Orhon, 2006). Therefore, “twerking” camera is similar to a specialist to locate

92 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 They are being portrayed as pole They are wearing lingerie, some are dancers and stripers wearing shorts and bras

They “look” sexy and attractive They all “look” sexy

Number three: AKA - All eyes on me ft Boy, Number six: DJ Spectacular and DJ Naves - Deles, JR KOTW ANTHEM ft Professor

(Male singers) (Male singers)

There are female characters There are female characters on the music video They are posing with heavy make up They are dancing half naked in the They are swimming half naked, wear- swimming pool, wearing lingerie ing bikinis Some were in shorts, revealing their Some are on the bed thighs They look happy They all appear sexy and attractive They are dressed in minis and shorts

They “look” sexy and attractive Number seven: DJ Maphorisa- Soweto babe ft Wiz Kid and Halfbudd

Number four: DJ Milkshake - My own ft Ana- (Male singers) ti and Cassper Nyovest There are female characters on the (Two male singers and one female) music video,

There are female characters Dancing wearing shorts and tight clothes They are wearing lingerie They all appear sexy and attractive They undress throughout the video They all “look” sexy Men with their hands all over them

They are wearing minis

Number five: K.O - Ding Dong Number eight: Lvovo Derrango- Next better man ft Mampitsha (Male singer) (Male singers) There are female characters on the music video There are female characters on the music video

Appearing as servant of men

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 93 They are swimming half naked, wear- vant of men, ing bikinis

They look happy Furthermore, in the selected music videos, They are dressed in minis and shorts women most of the time are half naked, they appear “sexy”. Lingerie is a trend in They all appear sexy and attractive most music videos. As singers, women are Number nine: Big Nuz- Phaqa in heavy makeup and still appear sexy; for example, Nadia Nakai’s music video titled (Male singer, fully dressed) “Saka” the woman (singer) is appearing There are female characters sexy in bikinis and heavy makeup.

They a dressed in bikinis and shorts re- However, when men are singers, wom- vealing their bodies en are in sexy appearances. Thus, there are many women around them with sexy They are swimming in the beach half clothing and heavy makeup. For instance, naked Lvovo Derrango featuring Mampitsha in the music video titled “Next better man”, features lot of women in sexy clothing and Number ten: Nadia Nakai – Saka ft Ice heavy makeup, appearing as servants. Prince In addition, women are represented as cheaters, partners, servants of male char- (Female singer) acters, dancers and else. She is dressed in bikinis, shorts reveal- Based on the selected music videos, wom- ing their bodies en are in active roles for eye catching, they She is dancing half naked are often used as objects to decorate the music videos. Regardless of the fact that She is in heavy makeup they are in secondary role, they often have There is a male character, fully the potential to attract much attention as dressed the primary role players, sometimes even more. 3. FINDINGS In South Africa, it is interesting to note that According to selected music videos, it is in the last decade the portrayal of wom- apparent that women are portrayed as en in music videos is too different from the being sexual objects. Thus, women are be- way women are now portrayed. For exam- ing used as a centre of attraction which is ple, Mandoza’s music video titled “Nka- mostly male gazed. A question which one lakatha” and Malaika “destiny” portrayed can ask is “are males the only target mar- women differently from the way now mu- ket in terms of selling the music”? These music videos portray women. However, in the sic videos are characterised by common United States of America, the way women pattern. They all portray women the same, a portrayed in music videos is heavy (sexu- as half naked dancers, sex object and ser-

94 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 al content) then the way South African mu- videos depends largely on sexual content sic videos portray women. It is significant to to attract the attention of potential con- question the issue of norms both in the Unit- sumers. Even though, the question which ed States of America and South Africa be- can arise into the surface is that why does cause both countries hold different norms it have to be female characters that are because both countries are driven by dif- mostly half naked? Therefore, it is subjec- ferent norms. tive to conclude that most music videos are male gazed. Currently, music vidoes raises the issues of sexism. However, it is vital to understand the Based on the definition of sexist, the- por concept “sexist”. Royo, Aldás, Küster and trayal of women in music clearly shows that Vila (2011) claim that there is no unequivo- men are superior to women because wom- cal definition of what must be regarded as en are mostly used as decors, sex objects sex discrimination, because it all depends (half naked), dancers, being more passive on the ethical and social values applied than men, the use of women in purely dec- in the respective community. However, in orative, non-functional capacities and un- terms of music videos, all those who have reciprocated serving of men. expressed their views on this matter, would The use of women in high sexism levels appear to have realised that any music might also contribute to the depersonalisa- video which clearly expresses the view that tion of women and, less directly, men (Pol- men and women do not possess the same lay & Lysonski, 1993). To conclude, accord- value or should not enjoy the same rights, ing to these literature, women are shown in or which otherwise is grossly insulting to ei- an inferior dominated role (Fullerton, 2000), ther sex, must be regarded as discrimina- given that they are presented as attracting tory (Utterström, 1977). Therefore, the por- and attaining a man, and then serving him trayal of women in music clearly depicts (Courtney & Whipple, 1983). women as less superior to men. Therefore, such music videos are sexist. LIST OF REFERENCES

4. CONCLUSION Andsager, J. & K. Roe. 2003. What’s your definition of dirty, baby?: Sex in music vid- Music videos should not only be dominat- eo. Sexuality and Culture. 7(3), 79-97 ed by beats and lyrics but the story behind the song. Thus music videos convey mes- Aufderheide, P. 1986. Music Videos: The sages better than the lyrics of the song. Look of Sound. Journal of Communication. Music videos add more on visuals than lyr- 36(1) 57–78 ics and beats. As such music videos holds significant impact on the larger audiences. Carstarphen, M. 1999. Sexual Rhetoric. Therefore, portrayal of women in music vid- Westport: Greenwood Press eos is being interpreted differently by the Courtney, A. E. & Whipple, T. W. 1983. Sex some larger audience, both young and old stereotyping in advertising. Westport: Free audience. Press.

Orhon (2006) is of the opinion that music Fullerton, J. 2000. Images in post sovietic ad-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 95 vertising: an analysis of gender por- Smith, S. L., & A. R Boyson. 2002. Violence trayal in Uzbekistan television com- in music videos: Examining the prev- mercials. Proceedings of the 2000 alence and context of physical ag- Conference of the American Acade- gression. Journal of Communication, my of Advertising, Shaver, M.A. (Eds.), 52(1), 61-83. 126-135. Venkatesan, M. and J .Losco 1975. “Women Goldman, R. 2011. Reading Ads Socially. in magazine ads: 1959-1971. Journal New York: Routledge of Advertising Research.15(1) 49-54.

Leeds, J. 2002, December 18. MTV’s playlist Wallis, C. 2011. Performing gender: A con- to focus more on popular acts. Los Ange- tent analysis of gender display in mu- les Times sic videos. Sex Roles. 64(3-4), 160-172.

Orhon, E.N. 2006. Portrayal of women in Ward, L. M., Hansbrough, E., & E .Walker. music videos case study: How Kral TV cre- 2005. Contributions of music video ates the dream world. Anadolu Univer- exposure to black adolescents’ gen- sity: Turkey der and sexual schemas. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20(2), 143-166. Pollay, R. W., & , S. Lysonski. 1993. In the eye of the beholder: International differ- Ward, L. M., Merriwether, A., & Caruthers, ences in ad sexism perceptions and A. 2006. Breasts are for men: Media, reactions. Journal of International masculinity ideologies, and men’s Consumer Marketing, 6(2), 25-43 beliefs about women’s bodies. Sex Roles, 55(9-10), 703-714. Rivadeneyra, R., Ward, L. M., & M .Gordon. 2007. Distorted reflections: Media exposure and Latino adolescents’ conceptions of self. Media Psychology, 9(2), 261-290.

96 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 THE IMPLICATIONS OF SECTION 19 (1) (b) OF THE CONSTITU- TION OF THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA (RSA), 1996 ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POLITICAL PARTIES AND THEIR CON- STITUTENCIES

PR Msaule

University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (hereinafter the Constitution) does not per se protect the existence of political parties, instead section 19 (1)(b) of the Con- stitution guarantees the right of every citizen to form and to participate in the activities of a political party. To buttress the importance of political parties in our nascent democracy, the Constitution provides that the Republic of South Africa is founded on, among others, universal adult suffrage, national voters roll, regular elections and a multi-party system of democratic government. Despite the centrality of the political parties in South Africa’s democracy, the law does not govern the relationship between political parties and their constituencies. This arms-length approach of law towards this relationship may be detrimental to the well-being of our democracy. This is so because there is a possibility that the constitutions and/or conduct of political parties may fall foul of the Constitution. It shall be noted that the relationship between the political parties and their members are voluntary in nature. Therefore, political parties are free to determine their principles and values as well as processes relating to disciplinary and other measures. Theoretically, political parties may be free to oust the jurisdiction of the courts in their internal matters. This raises a question whether such ousting can be found to be in keeping with the Constitution of the country. The African National Congress (ANC), for instance, has on a number of occasions posited that members who take it to court “expel themselves” from that party. If this is the case, then, what is/would be the efficacy of the remedy that the court may order if the disgruntled member/s are/would be dismissed afterwards? Is such a stance competent in a democratic society in which political parties plays such a crucial role? In other words, is it constitutionally competent for the party to limit disputes within such party to internal party processes without the opportunity of the aggrieved member approaching courts for relief? Is such limitation a breach of section 19 of the Constitution of Republic of South Africa, 1996 right, if so, is it justifiable?

Keywords: Courts, Constitution, political parties, rules of natural justice, voluntary association

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 97 1. 0INTRODUCTION litical parties or expressly protects political rights. The US is not alone in this phenome- The founding fathers of the American nation non. Even countries that adopted constitu- were not avid supporters of political parties tions long after the US do not deal with po- (Gardner, 1999; O’Regan, 2010). In Federal- litical parties in their constitutions or at least ist number 10 (a series of essays arguing for not in any meaningful manner (O’Regan, the rectification of the United States Consti- 2010). tution) Madison warned against “factions”. The term faction has been equated to the South Africa is no exception. This is despite modern political party (see for instance Is- the fact that during the apartheid era po- sacharoff, 2001; Gardner, 1999; O’Regan, litical parties were declared unlawful and 2010). According to Madison, factions were therefore prohibited to operate within the likely to undermine the greater good for country (O’Regan, 2010). Failure by the selfish interests. He stated “[b]y a faction, Constitution to protect political parties, as I understand a number of citizens, wheth- opposed to individual political rights can er amounting to a majority or a minority of be regarded as surprising given the cen- the whole, who are united and actuated trality of political parties to our democratic by some common impulse of passion, or enterprise. In terms of section 1 (d) of the of interest, adversed to the rights of other Constitution the founding values of this citizens, or to the permanent and aggre- country include “universal adult suffrage, a gate interests of the community” (In short national voter’s roll, regular elections and Madison was of the view that the diversity a multi-party system of democratic govern- of opinion that political parties were likely ment, to ensure accountability, responsive- to bring to the fore would hamper agree- ness and openness.” ments over fundamental issues facing the The South African electoral system has nascent nation. This view was premised on been designed in such a way that no per- the belief that “once in possession of pow- son can compete for political office at er, factions [political parties] could be ex- national and provincial level without affil- pected to use it to pursue their own private iation to a political party. The electorate self-interest at the expense of the common vote for political parties which in turn deter- good…” (Gardner, 1999: 2).The goal of the mine who represents the electorate at the US Constitution is said to be “to abolish fac- national and provincial governments. The tions and to unite all parties for the general President and the Premier are then elect- welfare” (Gardner, 1999: 1). Thomas Jeffer- ed among the members of national or son regarded affiliation to political parties provincial parliaments respectively. They in as eroding the “free and moral agent.” turn appoint members of the national and Political parties were denounced as being provincial executives respectively. De Vos baneful. However, when Madison, one of (2015) submits that the electorate has no the founding fathers of the US Constitution, say as to who their representatives in the became her fourth president, he did so un- national and provincial parliaments are. der a banner of a political party (Gardner, This is so because of the so-called “closed 1999). It is therefore not surprising that the list” (containing names and the order in US Constitution makes no reference to po-

98 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 which those names appear of the mem- South African democratic landscape bers whom a political party wishes repre- is ambivalent at best (see Hofmeister & sent it at the national and provincial legis- Grabow, 2011). There exists disagreement latures) that political parties submit to the among political scientists as to the defini- Independent Electorate Commission. In tion of what political parties are or what the words of de Vos (2015: 40-41): they stand or ought to stand for. However, one thing the political scientists are agreed “Voters have no direct say on who ap- on is the centrality of political parties to a pears on the electoral lists of political functioning democratic polity. For instance, parties, on the order in which names James Bryce commented in 1888 that: appear on these lists or on the order according to which candidates who “[Political] parties are inevitable. No appear on individual party lists will be free country has been without them. dispatched to the various legislatures No-one has shown how representa- according to the percentage of vot- tive government could be worked ers garnered by that specific political without them. They bring order out of party.” chaos to a multitude of votes” (quoted by White, 2009: 7). The voters do not even elect the President indirectly as the majority party in parliament This sentiment has been echoed over the elect, amongst its members, who becomes years since (see for instance Dalton, Far- the President. This feature of the electoral rell & McAllister, 2011). EE Schattschneider system has been criticised by many a po- echoed this sentiment by asserting that: litical commentator and it underscores the “political parties created democracy and central role played by the political parties … modern democracy is unthinkable save in our polity (see Tiry, 2012; February, 2014). in terms of parties … [Political] parties are Despite this, South African law does not not therefore merely appendages of mod- govern political parties on the one hand ern government: they are in the centre of nor does it regulate the relationship be- it and play a determinative role and cre- tween political parties and their members ative role in it” (quoted by O’Reagan, 2010: on the other. In order to definitively -de 6; See also White, 2009: 7; Orr, 2014: 332). termine this relationship the legal status of In the similar vein, Clinton Rossiter posited political parties need to be determined. that: “No America without democracy, no In other words, the legal status of political democracy without politics, and no politics parties would determine the contours of without parties” (quoted by White, 2009: 7; the relationship between political parties Orr, 2014: 332). The legal status of political and their members, and therefore the le- parties remain elusive however. gal duties (if any) that political parties owe Some political scientists regard political to these members. This is the question that parties as unincorporated associations is considered in turn. (Orr, 2014) whereas others compare them 2. 0 THE STATUS OF POLITICAL PARTIES IN SOUTH AFRICA to “quasi-government agencies that were akin to regulated public utilities” (White, The legal status of political parties in the 2009: 8). According to Issacharoff (2001:

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 99 280): 1967: 78).

“[i]t is better to conceive of political An association, in this context, is distin- parties as occupying a contested guished from other enterprises that have rights terrain falling between the high the making of profit as their objective. level of protection owed to individu- There are some associations that do not fit als and the family, at one pole, and the description of a legal person but none- the limited protection offered to de theless conduct themselves as though they facto agents of the state, at the oth- are clothed with legal personality. Silber- er.” berg (1967: 81) posits in this regard that:

In this regard Japhta AJP held in Mafongo- “to ignore the realities of such situa- si v United Democratic Movement (2002) tion might preserve the symmetry of le- that where conduct impinges on the right gal concepts, but would often violate protected under section 33 of the Consti- the concept of justice. This antinomy tution the same set of principles applies accounts for the extension of the at- whether the power was exercised by gov- tributes of legal personality to associ- ernment functionaries or non-government ations whose existence the law does functionaries like political parties. not acknowledge in terms of legal concepts. It is, in the terminology of Generally, at least in South Africa, polit- constitutional and international law, a ical parties are regarded as voluntary as- process of de facto recognition of the sociations founded on mutual consensus realities of life for the legal recognition (Silberberg, 1967; O’Regan, 2010; Hofmeis- of which the courts thus pave the way. ter & Grabow, 2011). The upshot of this is The legal concept is left intact, but in that members of political parties volun- practice it is circumvented.” tarily associate with each other and form an agreement on the fundamental char- Do political parties fit this description? The acteristics and objectives of their associa- importance of this question is to determine tion. Members agree on the organisation whether political parties “are rights-bear- of the internal affairs of the party (Silber- ing entities entitled to protection from state berg, 1967). This agreement is contained in incursion” (Issacharoff, 2001: 278) or are the political party’s constitution. Generally themselves agents of the state. If political this relationship fell outside the purview of parties are agents of the state then their courts’ jurisdiction (Mcoyi v Inkatha Free- conduct will be subjected to the dictates dom Party 2010; Tiry, 2012). Silberberg de- of public law. In African National Congress fines an association as an aggregate of v Lombo (1997) the Supreme Court of Ap- persons pursuing a common good. It is a peal held that political parties constituted universitas personarum, “i.e an artificial or “legal relationship which arises from juristic person constituting a legal entity an agreement between two or more apart from the natural persons (members) persons to achieve a common, lawful composing it, having the capacity to ac- object, primarily other than the mak- quire rights and incur obligations and to ing and division of profits” (Silberberg, own property apart from its members and

100 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 to sue and be sued, and having perpetu- the Constitution of such association to al succession.” In other words they are not specify that: agents of state. However, in Ramakatsa v • The organisation will continue to exist Magashule (2013) the Constitutional Court despite changes in its membership; and held that political parties are voluntary association, a contractual relationship. The • The assets and liabilities of the organ- distinction is not merely semantic but goes isation will be held separately from those of to the heart of defining the status of polit- its members.” ical parties in our legal landscape on the one hand and the relationship between From the above definition it is, at least the- political parties and their members on the oretically, possible that a political party other. O’Reagan (2010), the former justice could be either an universitas or voluntary of that august institution, the Constitutional association. Devenish (1999) asserts that the Court of South Africa, writing extra-judicial- right to make political choices and to par- ly, reminds us that there are number of vol- ticipate in political activities is not confined untary associations and voluntary corpora- to formal politics. An universitas must not be tions that do not have their legal personality confused with other forms of incorporations separate from their members. She mentions registered it terms of statutory law. The basis among others churches, trade unions and of an universitas is not to make profit and it jockeys clubs. Thus the definition of political is established in terms of common law. On party espoused in Ramakatsa v Magashule the same vein, an universitas should not be (2013) is open to being read as regarding confused with the Non-Profit Organisation political parties as universitas personarum which must be statutorily incorporated in or as mere voluntary association. Therefore terms of the Non-Profit Organisation Act 71 the status of a body is not necessarily de- of 1997. termined by its label but by its constitution. In Wilken v Brebner (1935) the Appellate The difference between (unincorporated) Division found that the constitution of a voluntary associations and voluntary incor- voluntary association is its most important porations is the following: document; it not only determines the na- “An unincorporated association is a ture and character of the association but voluntary association existing under also determine the scope of the rights and the common law. It is not a juristic per- duties of the members of the association. son and cannot own immovable prop- Although it has been alluded to that a po- erty for its own benefit because legal- litical party may take a form of an universi- ly it has no separate existence apart tas or an unincorporated voluntary associ- from its members. ation, if a political party intends to contest in the elections such a party must take the An universitas is also a voluntary as- form an universitas. Section 15 of the Elec- sociation existing under the common toral Commission Act 51 of 1996 provides law, however, in order for a voluntary for the registration of political parties (see association to be recognised as an de Vos, 2015). In terms of regulation 2 (2) universitas, the common law requires promulgated in terms of section 23 of the

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 101 Electoral Commission Act 51 of 1996 the ited the freedom that a political party en- Constitution of a party to be registered joyed at common law with regard to cer- must contain the following features: tain specific aspects. Devenish (1999: 279) states that “[p]olitical parties do not have (a) The executive structure of the party; complete freedom to operate within” as (b) The election procedure for the execu- they are enjoined to “conduct their activi- tive of the party; ties within the provisions of the Constitution and all other relevant laws”. In other words, (c) The decision making process and func- the workings of political parties may be tions of the office bearers within the party; limited in terms of section 36 of the Con- (d) The minimum requirements for mem- stitution. According to de Waal, Currie & bership of the party; Erasmus (1999) section 19 of the Constitu- tion will enable applicants for membership (e) The internal disciplinary procedures of of a political party to challenge the criteria the party; and adopted to recruit members. This would be (f) The requirements for audited financial the case where such criteria fall foul of sec- statements. (General Notice 1204 of 22 tion 9 of the Constitution. On the same vein September 2008) section 19 of the Constitution does not en- title members of a political party to partic- Although the regulations does not expressly ipate in each and every activity within the require the ability of the party to own prop- political party that the member feels like erty or its perpetual existence, this seems participating in. This will surely depend on implicit from the requirements of regulation the constitution of that party with regard to who must participate in what activity and the attendant qualifications. 3. THE (DIS)LOYALTY, PARTY MEMBERSHIP However, once admitted into a party, po- AND THE COURTS’ litical parties are not at liberty to limit the At common law the relationship between citizens right to participate in the (basic) political parties and its members was gov- activities of, or recruit members for and erned by the terms of the parties’ consti- campaign for a political party or cause tution. In other words, political party was without a justifiable reason. Surely, partic- free to determine its destiny within the four ipation in the activities of a political party corners of its constitution (Silberberg, 1967). must narrowly be read to relate to mem- The constitution exclusively prescribed the bers of the political party concerned but rights and duties of its members, the struc- the same cannot be said about campaign- ture of the party, who may join the party, ing for a political party. Strange as it might disciplinary issues, termination of mem- sound, a person who a particular political bership e.tc. (Wilken v Brebner, 1935; Ra- party finds to be a liability, who is even not makatsa v Magashule, 2013). Is this position a member of that political party has a right extant under the Constitution? Although to campaign for that political party. An ex- by and large the position remains the same ample might be a member of an extrem- the Constitution has to a certain extent lim- ist Afrikaner political party whose party is

102 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 not registered for particular elections has a haemorrhaging of their members a right to campaign for, say, the Demo- and floor-crossers assert their love of cratic Alliance. Despite the fact that the their political party and hence insist Democratic Alliance may be embarrassed on compliance with the principle of by such a person, if that person does not natural justice only to enable them misstate the policy position of the Demo- to desert to another party during cratic Alliance then the latter would have floor-crossing period.” no choice but to bear the embarrassment. This was the case in Mafongosi v United It is submitted that it is very unlikely that a Democratic Movement (2003). The brief court would uphold a restraint applica- facts of the case were that the applicant’s tion against such a person because should (members of the respondent and munici- such an application be granted it would pal councillors under the banner of the re- be impinging on the respondent’s right of spondent) had been charged with miscon- freedom of expression. Same could be said duct by the respondent (a political party). about a member who has been expelled They were subsequently found guilty and or suspended from political party activities expelled by the disciplinary committee. but still holds dear the objectives of his or Subsequent to the guilty verdict they noted her party. Finding otherwise would be at- an appeal. The appeal automatically sus- tributing an unnecessarily narrow reading pended their expulsion. Whilst awaiting the to section 19 (1) (c) of the Constitution. appeal process to unfold the applicants re- It is in this regard that the members of a po- signed from the party. Despite the resigna- litical party who have been fired by their tion the respondent considered the appeal parties after disciplinary proceedings, from and confirmed the disciplinary committee time to time, approach courts to review findings. The applicants took the matter their expulsion. Although political parties on review on the ground that the proce- are voluntary associations, rules of natural dure followed by the disciplinary commit- justice must be followed when dealing with tee in finding them guilty was procedurally members, especially where disciplinary flawed (surely on the legal, as opposed to matters are concerned. In some instances, political, counsel). The court agreed with especially during the operation of the so- them and ordered that they be reinstated. called floor-crossing (since discarded in our It is quite clear from this case that at one political-constitutional system), members stage the applicants no longer identified could steadfastly fight their expulsion- de themselves with the political party (at one spite no longer being loyal to their political stage they had resigned) but for the reason party. These disputes played themselves that they were likely to lose their livelihood out in the courts of this land. In the words (their seats as municipal councillors) they of Davis J in Harding v Independent Demo- fought their expulsion tooth and nail. This, crats (2008: 524-525) to a certain extend violates a political parties right to have members in their fold that “[c]ourts have now been drawn into truly identify with the objectives of party. In this season of mass political dances, this case, unlike in Sibiya v Inkatha Freedom as political parties seek to prevent Party (2006) (discussed below) the court’s

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 103 decision seem to have precluded the par- doing in reviewing the termination of mem- ty from correcting the procedural missteps bership of their members is to hold the po- it had taken in disciplining the applicants. litical party to its word (see Currie, 2005). However, even if the court in Mafongosi v Political parties are forced to fulfil their side United Democratic Party (2003) afforded of the bargain. the respondent an opportunity to correct In the cases cited above the courts re- the procedural defects that would not lied on the rules of natural justice to over- have assisted in any manner as the appli- turn the political parties’ dismissals of their cants would have already defected to an- members. This was apposite in line with the other political party with their seats in the terms of the contract that the parties and council. the individuals have concluded. However, In Sibiya v Inkatha Freedom Party (2006) the in Van Zyl v New National Party (2000) the applicants were members of Inkatha Free- court relied on the provisions of Promotion dom Party and were municipal councillors of Administrative Justice Act 03 of 2000 under the banner of their political party. The (henceforth PAJA) to set aside the decision applicants were expelled from the party for of the respondent, a political party. In this failing to follow the party’s mandate when case the applicant was recalled as a per- they voted on certain issue in the municipal manent member of the National Council of council. The applicants took the expulsion Provinces (the NCOP) pursuant to the moon review on the basis that their disciplinary tion of no confidence on the applicant by hearing was procedurally unfair. Although the respondent and the subsequent mo- the court upheld their claim, it expressly tion to recall her. The first respondent nom- stated that the party was not precluded inated the sixth respondent in her stead. from reinstituting the misconduct enquiry The applicant took this decision on review against the applicants (see as well Shun- in terms PAJA because her recall “affected mugan v National Democratic Convention, her rights adversely.” 2008). In principle the judgement of Sibiya v The respondents contended that the nomi- Inkatha Freedom Party (2006) is preferable nation of candidates to the NCOP was the compared to that of Mafongosi v United prerogative of political parties so that they Democratic Party (2003). The Mafongosi v can be able to give effect to the mandate United Democratic Party (2003) judgement of their constituencies and therefore did has (had?) the potential to guarantee in- not amount to an administrative action in dividuals membership of a political party terms of PAJA. PAJA defines administrative whilst the individual does (did?) no longer act as: entirely identify with the political party. This seems to violate the political party’s right “any decision taken, or any failure to to associate freely (see Currie et al, 2005). take a decision, by – However, when political parties admit individuals into their fold they, at the very least, (a) an organ of state, when – assure them that they will be treated fairly (i) exercising a power in terms of the in all party matters, including disciplinary Constitution or a provincial constitution; or matters. In other words, what courts are

104 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 (ii) exercising a public power or perform- delegate in terms of section 62(4)(c) ing a public function in terms of any legisla- of the Constitution amounts to the tion; or exercise of a public power or the performing of a public function, it has to (b) a natural or juristic person, other than be borne in mind that the authority an organ of state, when exercising a pub- to do so arises only after the adop- lic power or performing a public function in tion of a motion of no confidence by terms of an empowering provision, a provincial legislature and that the which adversely affects the rights of party that nominated such a person any person and which has a direct, is under no obligation to recall him or external legal effect…” her” (para 71).

The court found, in relation to the re- What the court meant is that the source for spondents’ claim that the applicant had recall of the applicant from the NCOP was failed to exhaust the internal appeal pro- the Constitution and such recall constitutes vided for in the respondents’ constitution, the exercise of public power. After outlining that an internal appeal under the circum- the effects such recall would have on the stances would provide the applicant with NCOP the court concluded that such a re- inadequate remedy. The court based this call had a strong public component. assertion on the basis that an internal ap- The climate under which these cases were peal would only consider the resolution to decided was hazy. At the time the smaller recall the applicant and not the decision parties were at the risk of losing their mem- to nominate the sixth respondent. With re- bers to other political parties due to the gard to whether the resolution to recall of so-called floor-crossing. As a result of the the applicant from the NCOP amounted danger of losing their members and their to an the exercise of administrative action seats in different legislative bodies and the under PAJA, the court held that it has to be monies that came with those seat parties considered that the respondent is a juris- were under pressure to act swiftly in dis- tic person and whether it exercised public missing those suspected of having been power or performed a public function that “poached”. In other words, political parties adversely affected the rights of the appli- who stood to lose were due to lose more cant. The court found that on the facts than just membership. Anecdotal evidence of this case the respondents’ satisfied the suggests that there was a proliferation of test for administrative action. This was be- cases involving the dismissal of members cause, according to the court, the appli- by political parties during the operation of cant could only be recalled in terms of sec- the so-called floor-crossing (for instance in tion 62 (4) (c) of the Constitution and not Andrews v Democratic Alliance Mansingh in terms of the respondents’ constitution. In AJ (2012)cites about nine cases directly on expatiating its reasoning the court had this this point). In most cases parties about to to say: lose members only became aware when “In considering whether the exercise the so-called window period was excruci- of the authority to recall a permanent atingly close (see for example Diko v No-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 105 bongoza, 2006). As a result, political par- the summary expulsion of the applicant ties tended to flout the rules of justice. In by the respondent. The summary expulsion essence, the members of these political was based on a clause of the first respon- parties who were expelled were not real- dent’s constitution which provided that ly concerned about the protection of their “any member who joins another political right to participate in the activities of their party or is proved to have assisted in the political parties but were rather influenced formation of another political party may be by the desire to safe their own skin. In some summarily expelled from the party by the of the cases this protection was to last for party leader.” The applicant was accused just a while until the window period for floor of intending to form a new party and failed crossing opened. to disprove the allegations but instead approached the court for relief. Courts found themselves in an unenviable position. The law required political parties to 3. SECTION 19 AND INTRA-PARTY DEMOC- conform to the rules of natural justice (such RACY as following fair procedure in expelling its The preceding discussion does not impli- members and affording them a fair hear- cate any of the right protected in section ing) before they could expel them. At the 19 and in particular section 19 (1) (b) or at same time following these rules of natural least directly. What is clear from that dis- justice meant that in the meantime mem- cussion is that individual members of po- bers could defect to other parties (Max v litical parties were hell bent on protecting Independent Democrats, 2005; Diko v No- their membership of the parties in order to bongoza, 2005; cf Harding v Independent cling to the political office that their mem- Democrats, 2008). Unfortunately there bership to these party afforded them. In was nothing political parties could do as short, the approach adopted by the courts the floor-crossing legislation had been de- in the cases discussed above does not declared to be constitutional by the Consti- fine the relationship between political par- tutional Court in the of United Democratic ties and their members. However, a recent Alliance v President, Republic of South Afri- Constitutional Court case deals with the im- ca (2003) and protected those who wished plications of section 19 of the Constitution to cross the floor during the window - peri for political parties. Unlike the common law od. These cases therefore denied political position where the relationship between parties the right to disassociate with indi- political parties and its members was ex- viduals they deemed disloyal. It is obvious clusively governed by the contract, under that at the time the parties concluded their the Constitution, in addition to parties abid- agreement it was done in good faith. But ing by the contract they also have to con- what should a political party do if it discov- form to the rights protected under the Bill ers, on the eve of the opening of the win- of Rights, and in particular section 19 (Ra- dow-crossing period, a member has signed makatsa v Magashule, 2013). In this case, an agreement with another party to cross- the appellants had sought the setting aside floor? Diko v Nobongoza (2005) is a case of the Free State Provincial Conference of in point. However, in Harding v Indepen- the African National Congress on the basis dent Democrats (2008) the court upheld

106 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 that their constitutional right to participate litical parties may not adopt constitutions in the activities of their political party were and rules that are inimical to the Constitu- infringed. According to the appellants, a tion. The Court basically confirmed the pro- number of irregularities took place prior to visions of section 2 of the Constitution which the challenged conference taking place. provides that “[t]his Constitution is the su- For instance, the appellants argued that in preme law of the Republic; law or conduct some instances members who qualified to inconsistent with it is invalid, and the obliga- participate in branch and regional elections imposed by it must be fulfilled.” Politi- tions were denied that right whereas those cal parties must act lawfully. According to who did not qualify were allowed. This, in de Vos (2015: 48): view of the appellants, vitiated the pro- “From a Constitutional Law perspec- ceedings of the entire Provincial Confer- tive the judgement is important as it ence. The Constitutional Court concurred affirms the strong link between inter- with them. nal party democracy and the right In outlining its reasoning the Constitutional of citizens to take part in the political Court began by restating the centrality of process and to vote in elections…” political parties in our democratic dispen- In short political rights are not limited to the sation. The participation in the activities of right to vote in an election but extends to political parties is the life blood sustaining participation in political activities. In ad- our democracy. The Court confirmed the dition to ensuring that the rules of natural justiciability of the relationship between justice are adhered to in matters relating political parties and their members were to political parties, the rights protected in the latter’s constitution or rules have been the Bill of Rights must also be considered. breached. The constitution In terms of the Constitutional Court the po- “[g]uarantees freedom to make political parties’ constitutions must be consti- litical choices and once a choice tutional. Although the Constitutional Court is made, the section safeguards a did not rule on the constitutionality of the member’s participation in the activ- constitution of the ANC as that issue was ities of the party concerned. In this not before it, the Court hinted that the in- case the appellants and other mem- vestigation whether the political parties’ bers of the ANC enjoy a constitution- constitution accorded with the constitu- al guarantee that entitles them to tion was not beyond the jurisdiction of the participate in its activities. It protects courts. Section 19 of the Constitution su- the right not only against external in- persedes the political parties’ constitutions. terference but also against interfer- Where there is conflict between the section ence arising from within” (Ramakatsa 19 of the Constitution and a political par- v Magashule para 71). ties’ constitution the latter is invalid to the extent of the inconsistencies. Most importantly, the Court held that po-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 107 4. 0 CONCLUSION Kenwyn

Political parties are voluntary associations Diko v Nobongoza 2006 (3) SA 126 (C); and are therefore free to determine the re- February J, 2014. Why South Africa’s elec- lationship between itself and its members. toral system needs to be reviewed. https:// At common law the constitution of a politi- www.issafrica.org/iss-today/why-south- cal party determined the four corners with- africas-electoral-system-needs-to-be-rein which this relationship should exist. The viewed. Accessed 09 June 2016; Constitution was the basis of this relationship. Non-adherence to the provisions of Gardner, JA. 2000. Can Party Politics be the constitution the conduct of a political Virtuous?: Columbia Law Review. 100 (3): party was susceptible to be set aside. Sec- 667 -701; tion 19 makes it clear that the Constitution of a political party needs to adhere to the Harding v Independent Democrats 2008 prescripts of the Constitution. Therefore the (5) BCLR 523 (C); freedom the political parties have is limited Hofmeister W & Grabow K. 2011. Politi- to within the four corners of the Constitu- cal Parties: Functions and Organisation tion. in Democratic Societies. http://www. LIST OF REFERENCES kas.de/wf/doc/kas_7671-1442-2-30. pdf?120920114650. Accessed 09 June 2016; African National Congress v Lombo 1997 (3) SA 187 (A); Issacharoff S, 2001. Private Parties with Pub- lic Parties, Associational Freedoms, and Ahmadiyya Anjuman Ishaati-Islam Lahore Partisan Competition: Columbia Law Re- (South Africa) v Muslim Judicial Council view. Vol 101 (2): 274-313; 1983 (4) 850 (C); Mafongosi v United Democratic Movement Andrews v Democratic Alliance Case No: [2002] 3 All SA 271 (Tk); 17633/12 delivered on 13 November 2012 (CPD); Mafongosi v United Democratic Movement [2003] JOL 10607 (Tk); Currie I & De Waal J, 2005. The Bill of Righs Handbook. Juta & Co Ltd: Lansdowne Max v Independent Democrats 2006 (3) SA 112 (C); Devenish G.E, 1999. A Commentary on the South African Bill of Rights. Butterworths: Mcoyi v Inkatha Freedom Party Case No: Durban 5449/10 delivered 12 November 2010 (KZN);

De Vos P,. 2015. It’s My Party (And I’ll Do O’Regan K, 2010. Political Parties in South What I Want To)?: Internal Party Democ- Africa: The Interface Between Law & Pol- racy And Section 19 of The South African itics. Speech delivered at Political Par- Constitution: SAJHR. 31 (2): 30-55; ties: The Missing Link in our Constitution? Conference 27 August 2010, Cape Town. De Waal J, Currie I & Erasmus G, 1999. The http://www.law.uct.ac.za/sites/default/ Bill of Righs Handbook. Juta & Co Ltd: files/image_tool/images/99/Political-Par- ties-in-the-Constitution-address-27-Au- 108 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 gust-2015.pdf. Accessed 22 April 2016. The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (RSA), 1996. Pretoria: Government Orr G, 2014. Private Association and Public Printers. Brand: The Dualistic Conception of Political Parties in the Common Law World. Critical The Federalist No. 10: The Utility of the Union Review of International Social and Political as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction Philosophy. 17 (3): 332-349; and Insurrection (continued). http://www. Ramakatsa v Magashule 2013 (2) BCLR 202 constitution.org/fed/federa10.htm ac- (CC); cessed 09 June 2016; Tiry Z, 2012. Political Parties in South Africa. Rosenblum NL, 2000. Primus Inter Pares: Po- Unpublished LLM Mini dissertation.Nelson litical Parties as Membership Groups. Co- Mandela Metropolitan University: Port Eliz- lumbia Law Review. 100 (3): 813-844; abeth Russell JD, Farrell DM & McAllister I, 2011. Po- United Democratic Alliance v President, Re- litical Parties & Democratic Linkage: How public of South Africa 2003 (1) SA 495 (CC); Parties Organize Democracy. Oxford:Great Claredon Street Van Zyl v New National Party Case No: 2000/2002 delivered on 22 May 2003 (CPD); Sibiya v Inkatha Freedom Party [2006] JOL 17118N (N); White, JK. What is a Political Party? In Katz RS & Crotty W., (eds.)2009. Handbook of Silberberg H, 1968. Co-ownership, partner- Party Politics Sage: Los Angeles ship or unincorporated association? South African Law Journal: 1: 70-92 Wilken v Brebner 1935 AD 175.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 109 THE WELFARIST APPROACH IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: A NEED FOR A PARADIGM SHIFT TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE RURAL SOUTH AFRICA

MM Mashamaite

University of South Africa

ABSTRACT

The paper argues that educating and training rural women is a better approach for sustainable rural development than empowering rural women through various projects and funds without education and training. Therefore there is a need for a paradigm shift from a welfarist approach to developmental and sustainable approach. Rural women play a pivotal role in supporting and taking care of their families and communities and they contribute largely in agriculture and rural enterprise. The paper provides a conceptual argument to the effect of education and training of rural women for a sustainable rural development in South Africa. The methodology will include but not limited to literature on women empowerment, education and rural development sustainability in South African context. This paper concludes that the adopted welfare approach in empowering women through freebies and funding unmonitored projects is not sustainable and cost effective, rather educate and train then fund their projects.

Keywords: Education, Poverty, Women, Rural, Sustainability, Development, Welfarist.

1. 0 INTRODUCTION

Education is important for everyone, but it but the most critical issue is that most poli- is especially significant for women because cies considered gender as a tack on sub- women can have ripple effects within the ject. The same applies to education; edu- family and the society as a whole. Accord- cation is important in reducing poverty and ing to the Gender Equity Index, there is “no empowers individuals and communities, nation in the world today in which women especially in countries that are considered have the same opportunities as men, wom- to be developing like South Africa. en are still disadvantaged in economic Rural women in South Africa have histori- and political life around the world” (Social cally played a crucial role in agriculture, as Watch, 2005). Cunha-Jacana (2006) states food producers who constitute more than that there are numerous reasons behind half of the agricultural labour (Kehler, 2001). the failure of developmental interventions,

110 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Women have historically used agriculture 2. 0 EDUCATION AND RURAL WOMEN DEVEL- as one of the strategies to address poverty OPMENT and improve livelihoods, and to maintain The Freedom Charter boldly proclaims that the stability and sustainability of their fami- the doors of learning and culture should be lies, culture, villages, towns and communi- opened to all (African National Congress ties (Aliber, 2000). To this date, rural women Policy Framework, 1995). Women empow- are still the key agents for achieving trans- erment through education according to formational social changes necessary for The World Bank Source book (2002) may sustainable development in their respective build on poor people’s strengths to: communities. The South African rural areas are faced with poverty as a result of the • solve problem; way apartheid shaped access to econom- • be initiative and manage resources; ic opportunities and government services through rigidly enforced tenure, settlement • gain knowledge, skills and values and; and labour policies, and women suffered • to rise out of poverty most and had more limitations especially on education, but the newly democratic Education is a socio-economic resource South African government has made signif- that is critical in the livelihoods of rural peo- icant efforts to address poverty and devel- ple, as Atchchoarena and Sedel (2003: 36) opment of rural areas by adopting a wel- put it contribution of education towards farist approach. This paper is of the opinion rural development extends far beyond the that the approach is not sustainable and context of school. Hence, the interface promotes the dependency syndrome. The of education and rural development is in- approach is more of freebies and it is finan- clusive of non-formal education as well as cially costly to the government. In many adult literacy programmes. Despite this re- countries, gender-based stereotypes and ality, rural women in South Africa continue discrimination deny rural women equita- to be marginalised in policy formulation, ble access to and control over land and implementation and other education re- other productive resources, opportunities lated processes. Fundamentally, devel- for employment and income-generating opment is the creation of wealth – wealth activities, access to education and health meaning the things people value (Shaffer, care, and opportunities for participation in 1989). That should involve ongoing educa- public life. tion and training improvement - sustaining a desirable development; having a vital This paper argues that the welfarist ap- educational and training system that fos- proach is not sustainable for rural devel- ters capacity of rural women and a vital opment; economic growth will therefore education that is diverse, competitive and continue to be relatively slow. The empha- sustainable for rural development. sis of this paper is on a developmental and sustainable approach whereby education Education increases choices, sustains pos- for rural women becomes a mechanism to itive attitudes, improves the function of ensure sustainability in development. institutions and enhances quality-of-life (Cavaye, 2001). Rural women need to be

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 111 equipped with such qualities since they like Australia, South Africa and Zimbabwe are the key pillars of development in their show low representation of women in ed- areas and are at the forefront of pover- ucation system, both higher and lower ed- ty, therefore they will be better positioned ucational institutions. This lack of represen- to fight poverty and sustain an improved tation of women in education raises issues standard of living. Despite attention to ru- of sustainable development, particularly ral women in the Millennium Development rural development (Mapolisa & Madziyire, Goals (which were not achieved), which 2012). Although the reasons for gender in- recognize their contributions, rural wom- equalities vary somewhat across national, en continue to face serious challenges in cultural and occupational contexts, Nani effectively carrying out their multiple roles (2011) argues that the obstacles to wom- within their families and communities (Unit- en’s education, includes the choices wom- ed Nations, 2006). Their rights and priorities en make and gender bias opportunities are often insufficiently addressed by- na as well as gender differences in family re- tional development strategies and gender sponsibilities. Sentsho (2013) asserts that the equality policies. For instance the Nation- South African socio-economic land-scape al Development Plan (2010) only indicates reveals that rural women are not empow- that prioritising education and rural devel- ered economically, the low level of educa- opment will have an impact on rural wom- tion among rural women plight worse since en. This statement is said without emphasis- they cannot be competitive for job oppor- ing an action plan, hence this paper finds tunities. Education is a critical mechanism this statement very hallow. The NDP ap- for women’s empowerment especially proaches issues around rural development considering its potential for a multidimen- holistically, which is not ideal for sustaining sional impact on improved income, partic- and improving livelihoods of rural women ipation and reduced vulnerability. since they are not prioritised. Furthermore, Education is a key element for sustainable the NDP acknowledges the persistency of development (Mapolisa & Madziyire, 2012.) poor access to quality education for rural since it has potential to shape the world’s people. Yet, no effective action plan in future, equip individuals and communi- place to address this. The now Sustainable ties with skills, knowledge and values to development Goals only promise to have live and work sustainably. Lack of educa- women empowerment and gender equal- tion greatly hinders economic and social ity improved, but nothing about educating development and contributes to poverty, the rural women, either formally or infor- while access to education can lead to a mally. virtuous cycle, improving livelihood strate- Gender equality is a state where access gies of the rural poor. According to McKay to rights and opportunities is not gender (2000) a literate woman will be able to un- based. Gender equality has been an issue derstand the importance of political edu- in a number of countries, and studies re- cation and see the necessity of engaging veal that gender differences have been a herself in community matters, where some research focus for a number of years (Spe- of her problems may be solved. Education randio, 2011). Studies in various countries, will unleash the productive potential of ru-

112 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ral women and enable them to participate adopting a system of freebies and funding more equitably in the growth process of projects without oversight on the bene- the country. ficiaries as this injects a dependency syndrome onto the community. According to 3. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN CON- the very old saying, attributed to Lao Tseu TEXT “If you give a man a fish, you feed him for a The “Brundtland Report” (2012) definition day. If you teach him how to fish, you feed of sustainable development – “Sustainable him for a lifetime”. Green (2005) states that development is...development that meets this man or woman must have rights to fish the needs of the present without compro- in the first place. He quotes a village lead- mising the ability of future generations to er from Cambodia: “That woman already meet their own needs.” has been the most knows how to fish. She does not want char- commonly used or cited definition since ity. She would prefer respect for her basic 1987 when the world community gathered rights”. The welfare approach is the oppo- to address this critical issue (World Com- site of this argument as discussed below. mission on Environment and Development, 4. WELFARE APPROACH 1987). Sustainable development is a noble and necessary aspiration, a visionary The welfare approach addresses women development paradigm. The theoretical “almost solely in their roles as wives and framework for sustainable development mothers, policies for women restricted to evolved between 1972 and 1992 through social welfare concerns such as nutritional a series of international conferences and education and home economics” (Raza- initiatives. The United Nations (UN) Confer- vi and Miller, 1995). This approach is con- ence on the Human Environment, held in cerned with the development efforts but Stockholm in 1972, was the first major inter- it is rooted in the social welfare of colonial national gathering to discuss sustainability administration. The welfare approach is the at the global scale. Drexhage and Murphy earliest approach concerned with devel- (2010) state that sustainable development opment efforts in the Third World. It is rooted has transitioned from being an interesting in the social welfare model of the colonial yet at times contested ideal, to a concept administration and post-war development that enjoys widespread endorsement by in- agencies (Tasli, 2007). Hence, its policies ternational institutions, governments, busi- are restricted to social welfare concerns nesses, and civil society. such as agriculture and home economics. The welfare approach makes women to be Human capital is mostly built up through passive recipients and not be active partic- education or training that increases a per- ipants in the process of development. The son’s economic productivity—that is, en- implementation method of the welfare ap- ables him or her to produce more valu- proach is to distribute free goods and ser- able goods and services and thus to earn a vices such as child grant and free clinic ser- higher income. Governments should invest vices just to mention the few. Moser (1993) in human capital by devoting money and argues that the welfare approach remains time to education and training to accu- popular since it is “politically safe”, imply- mulating knowledge and skills, rather than

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 113 ing that, it does not question or attempt to success and not sustainable. Hip hoping of change the traditional role of women. macro policies in South Africa has proven to be not working because there is no con- In terms of women’s multiple role, the wel- sensus on the working or appropriate one. fare approach addresses women solely This reflects lack of sustainability. The fact in their reproductive role as mothers and that the South African government has wives, and ignores women’s productive placed the need to address poverty and and community managing roles entirely. inequality firmly at the centre of its devel- As regards women’s gender needs, the opment agenda is reflected in the various welfare approach meets women’s practi- development policy documents and strat- cal gender needs which arise from being egies that have been developed in the wives and mothers. However it does not few years that the government has been address their strategic gender needs at all. in power. Increased demand for welfare services has raised concerns about the effectiveness of 5.1. Reconstruction Development Plan welfare services provision. Development (1994) Goal no. 3 (MDG: 3) is to promote gender The Constitution of the Republic of South equality and empowerment of women, Africa 1996 provides for a common South (UNDP, 2010). The South African govern- African citizenship, with all citizens having ment has adopted the welfarist approach equal access to the rights, privileges and in empowering women and that is not sus- benefits. South Africa is also one of the few tainable or cost-effective because they countries on the continent with a constitu- (women) rely on freebies and that is not tion which entrenches democracy, elimi- developmental. In effort to address pover- nates all forms of discrimination, promotes ty and gender inequality the South African and protects human rights but also strives government has introduced and imple- to attain socio-economic rights for all. The mented number of policies, but none seem South African government attempted to to be successful and sustainable. put together a policy framework that could 5. 0 MACRO POLICIES address the variety of problems being The South African government since 1994 faced both economically and otherwise has introduced macro-policies in order to by establishing the Reconstruction and De- fight poverty, programme such as Recon- velopment Programme (RDP) (Hall 2005, struction Development Plan (RDP), Growth, Gumede 2007, Madzivhandila, 2013). The Employment and Redistribution (GEAR), government development strategy was first Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative articulated in the 1994 Reconstruction and for South Africa (ASGISA), New Growth Path Development Programme document (Afri- South Africa (NGP) and National Develop- can National Congress 1994) in which the ment Plan (NDP) were established shortly government aimed to mobilize all people after each other consecutively as mecha- and country’s resources towards the final nisms to combat poverty. The attempt of eradication of apartheid and the building these programmes to develop the country of a democratic, non-racial and non-sex- and fight poverty has not been much of a ist future. The programme sought to attain

114 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 socio-economic growth and basic needs stabilise inflation and give effect to the so- delivery, while at the same time addressing cio-economic rights in the Constitution. To the legacy of injustice. The programme put increase employment and lessen pover- emphasis on people centred and sustain- ty, the new South African government in able development that is democratic and 1994 made it a priority to foster econom- participatory. ic growth. The path to long-run economic growth was ensured by introducing macro- In terms of the RDP White Paper (1994), RDP economic policies in 1996 aimed at reduc- puts emphasis on programmes to meet ba- ing fiscal deficits, lowering inflation, main- sic needs and enhance human resource taining exchange rate stability, decreasing development, placed a major emphasis barriers to trade and liberalizing capital on social infrastructure and development flows. These macroeconomic policies were programmes that address poverty and in- steered by a strategy to promote Growth, equality. While the government appeared Employment and redistribution (GEAR). to have been content with the RDP’s broad thrusts, problems began to surface from Growth, Employment and Redistribution 1995. The RDP made repeated reference (GEAR) is a macroeconomic strategy ad- to the need for a special focus on devel- opted by the Department of Finance in oping rural areas, little emerged. The econ- June 1996 as a five year plans aimed at omy, in particular, was not growing at the strengthening economic development, expected rates. The orientations of the pro- broadening of employment, and redistribu- gramme also came under critical scrutiny tion of income and socioeconomic oppor- as investors and international financial in- tunities in favor of the poor. The key goals stitutions began demanding greater clarity of the policy as originally outlined amongst on national economic policy. This contrib- others were economic growth of 6% in uted to the birth of GEAR and the hosting the year 2000, inflation less than 10% and of the Growth and Development Summit employment growth above the increase that resulted in agreements between var- in economically active population. The ious stakeholders. strategy aimed at creating a ‘competitive fast-growing economy’ which would pro- 5.2. Growth, Employment and Redistribu- vide 400 000 jobs per annum (South Africa tion (1996) 1996). The GEAR strategy, has failed at the The Macro-economic Policy Framework macro-economic level. Aldezadeh (1999) known as GEAR, released in June 1996, was argues that since 1996, the real growth rate somewhat more firmly rooted in a neo-lib- has been steadily declining and was at 0, eral economic paradigm. The objectives 3% at the end of 1998. These macro-eco- of GEAR were to provide basic services nomic policies and strategies are, howev- to the poor, to alleviate poverty, achieve er, contradicted by the speed of delivery. economic growth, reduce national debt, This has been noted mostly with respect to housing, education and health. Moreover,

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 115 government debt is not declining but rising. specific growth-enhancing projects. It is The challenges of poverty and unemploy- important to note however, that in many ment remain deeply rooted and largely senses, ASGISA is a continuation of the unresolved in South Africa. The question GEAR strategy. ASGISA did not achieve the is, can a ‘better life for all’ be achieved set objectives and it was soon replaced by through ASGISA? the New Growth Path South Africa.

5.3. Accelerated and Shared Growth 5.4. New Growth Path South Africa Initiative for South Africa (2005) (2009)

ASGISA was approved by cabinet in July The South African government employed 2005. In the 2006 budget speech the Min- three official economic programmes- be ister of Finance announced an allocation tween 1994 and 2009 – the Reconstruction of funds to ASGISA programmes. Mbeki and Development Programme (RDP), the (2002), argues that the challenge facing Growth Employment and Redistribution South African government is not to change Programme (GEAR) and the Accelerated government policies but to ensure that and Shared Growth Initiative of South Afri- they were effectively implemented. Policy ca (ASGISA)–in its attempt to address pov- implementation refers to the accomplish- erty and gender inequality. However, as ment of policy objectives through the plan- these programmes failed to achieve their ning and programming of operations and objectives the government announced a projects so that set objectives and desired fourth programme, The New Growth Path impacts are achieved. This is what ASGISA (NGP). For South Africa to achieve a more aimed at, improving policy implementation inclusive and equitable economic future, and economic growth by dealing with the rapid progress is needed on several fronts. following challenges such as: lack of skilled According to the Department of Econom- and committed staff in the public service ic Development (2009) government has set ,lack of human resource to implement pol- out five priorities: education, health care, icies, inadequate financial resources, -cor fighting crime, rural development and ruption and mismanagement of funds, lack creating jobs. Education and skills devel- of people-driven development, lack of opment are the first priority in government proper co-ordination between institutions expenditure allocations, boosted over and barriers to entry, limits to competition the medium-term expenditure framework and limited new investment opportunities. (MTEF) period through additional allocations for further education colleges, student In 2005, government released its econom- financial assistance, school buildings and ic policy programme captured formally as facilities, and learner support materials. the Accelerated and Shared Growth Initia- The programme is established to make job tive for South Africa (ASGISA) (The Presiden- creation a priority, unsurprisingly the pro- cy, 2005). ASGISA is distinguished, relative gramme was not much of a success as the to its two predecessors, GEAR and the RDP, unemployment rate was reported by Statis- by its strong emphasis on defined, and very tics South Africa (2010) to have increased by 0.9% of a percentage point to 25.2%.

116 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 5.5. National Development Plan (2011) cess of economic development. It focuses on integrating economic and social de- National Development Plan (NDP) reveals velopment for the benefit of all commu- the old Gear paradigm of macro-econom- nity members. This paper understands de- ic stability, and fiscal restraint, within liber- velopmental approach as a combination alised financial markets. The NDP made or integrated approach of or to increase provision for older people who wish to de- on what the community members already velop their skills as well as adults who had have, together with their resources and as- no access to education. It stipulates that sets to which they have access. Thus, sus- there should be designed curricula to re- tained development will take place within spond to the specific learning and training a coordinated as well as availability of indi- needs of different groups in order to help viduals with relevant skills for development develop them and their life opportunities. and a passion for development. Fitzgerald, Van der Berg, Taylor, Gustafsson, Spaull & McLennan and Munslow (1997:289-290) Armstrong (2011) indicate that despite the assert that sustainable development is de- positive impacts of this programme, the pendent on the empowerment of commu- legacy of low-quality education in rural ar- nities to sustain their own development in eas school system persists. This hampers the order to be the sustainers of development education system to provide an escape in their communities. In a community, de- route out of poverty for the rural poor. It is velopment can only be sustained if the therefore argued that the impacts of these community members concerned have the policies are very minimal (Clote & de Con- capacity and the will to use that capacity ing, 2011; Gumede, 2012). Rural people are to manage their development. Sustainable still trapped in poverty life and the level of development promotes lifestyles and ethics education particularly for rural women is that take the limits of the natural environ- still low. ment into account. Individuals and com- 6. DEVELOPMENTAL AND SUSTAINABLE munities should be capacitated enough APPROACH with knowledge, skills and thorough techniques on how to handle different situa- A developmental approach to an integrat- tions, with that information or knowledge ed socio-economic development is based in their disposal community members can on the strengths of the individual, group perform as expected and that knowledge or the community to embark on activities acquired will benefit them for the rest of that contribute meaningful to planned so- their lives (future), what better way to do cio-economic development initiatives. Thus that than education. the communities promote capacity development of institutions, programmes and Ndou & Sebola (2013) attest that rural de- processes (Department of Social Develop- velopment should be contextualised in a ment, 2009: 13). Midgley (1995:25) defines human centred socio-economic develop- a developmental approach as a process ment, the focus being the improvement of of planned social change designed to quality of life with non-farming methods. promote the wellbeing of population as a Effective education and training of rural whole in conjunction with a dynamic pro- women may result in investment decisions

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 117 and establishment of sustainable business- rural people and enable them to generate es. The government of the day should use their own incomes. The decade which has social policies and programmes to promote just elapsed has been mostly dominat- education and enhance human capital. ed by the Millennium Development Goals Mkadawire (2001) argues that social poli- (MDGS), gathering efforts of the entire inter- cies and programmes should act as a driv- national community with around 8 defined ing force to enhance social development. goals. Then currently the focus is on the Sus- If rural women are educated and trained tainable Development Goals (SDGs) which they stand a better chance to undertake is viewed as an improvement of the MDGs. their own micro-projects with the financial Although non explicitly, in the light of their support provided by government. Already intent, MDGS and SDGs directly relate to a large number of women are running their human rights. Yet their implementation has small medium businesses; however, they been more combining core aid-, needs- or have to frequently face uncertainty with livelihood approaches than a right-based their businesses, which may emerge as a approach. The past decade and the cur- great threat to the viability and sustainabili- rent one will see a combination of different ty of their development in the long run. The approaches to development. The recent major deficiency of the rural poor women financial crisis currently tends to push the in this regard is the lack of entrepreneur- international community to favour more of ial skill. They suffer a lot for this deficiency a sustainable approach, it has also shown when they run their business. In most cases, how supporting poor people, who dispro- the rural women move by ‘learning by-do- portionately felt the crisis, to secure their ing’ principle, which is sometimes costly for livelihoods and rights, is paramount to get them. them sustainably out of hunger and poverty. It is up to everyone to help finding and 7. CONCLUSION applying the right balances. Achieving the required change transformation in empowering rural women requires a developmental and sustainable approach 8. LIST OF REFERENCES that can systematically transform the eco- Aldezadeh, A. 1999. The Costs of Staying nomic and social systems that keep rural the Course. Ngqo, 1 (1):1-6. communities in a poverty trap and move them to an improved quality of life. In the African National Congress 1994. The Recon- short term, it is easier to improve the lives of struction and Development Programme: A rural people, through training and educat- Policy Framework. Umanyano Publications: ing rural women as key pillars of their fami- Johannesburg. lies expand educational schemes as a way to improve incomes and enhance social African National Congress, 1995. A Poli- cohesion. In the long term, the critical com- cy Framework for education and training. ponents of education and training com- Macmillan Boleswa Publishers (pty) Ltd: bined with the development of new eco- Swaziland. nomic production systems must empower Atchchoarena, D. and Sedel, C. 2003. Edu-

118 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 cation and rural development: setting the McKay, V. 2000. Development studies mod- framework. ule for ABET Diploma and B.Ed (Hons). Uni- versity of South Africa: Pretoria. Brundtland to Rio .2012. Sustainable Devel- opment: From Brundtland to Rio 2012. Unit- Moser, C.O.N. 1993. Gender Planning and ed Nation: New York. Development: Theory, Practice and Train- ing. London: Routledge. Cavaye, J.M. 2001. Rural Community De- velopment – New Challenges and Endur- Nani, G.V. 2011. Challenges faced by ur- ing Dilemmas. Journal of region analysis ban Zimbabwean women entrepreneurs. and policy. 31:2. 109-124 University of the Free State: Bloemfontein.

Department of Social Development. .2009. Ndou, S.D & Sebola, M.P. 2013. Transport Integrated Service Delivery Model towards Infrastructure Development as a Take-off improved social services. Government for Rural Socio-Economic Development in Printers: Pretoria. South Africa. International conference on Development and Transformation. 1. (1) Drexhage, J. & Murphy, D. 2010. Sustainable 259-270. Development: From Brundtland to Rio 2012. United Nations Headquarters: New York. Razavi, S. & Miller, C. 1995. From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shifts in the Women and Enderle, G. n.d. The Focus on Wealth Cre- Development Discourse. United Nations ation: Need, Clarifications, and Challeng- Research Institute for Social Development es. Available at www3.nd.edu/~ethics/wc- (UNRISD): Switzerland Conference/presentations/.../Wealth%20 Focus Accessed on 13/02/2014. Sentsho, L. 2013. The global recession: A case for economic transformation in rural Fitzgerald, P., McLennan, A. & Munslow, B. areas. International conference on Devel- 1997. Managing Sustainable Development opment and Transformation. 1. (1) 34-45. in South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford Univer- sity Press Southern Africa. Sandys, E. Rural Women in a Changing World: Opportunities and Challenges. De- Gwanya; T.T. 2010. A Model for the partment of Economic and Social Affairs: Comprehensive Rural Development Pro- Pretoria. gramme: South Africa Position Paper on Rural Development. Department of Rural Shaffer, R.E. 1989. Community Economics: Development and Land Reform: Pretoria. Economic Structure and Change in Smaller Communities. Ames: Iowa State University Mapolisa, T. & Madziyire, N.C. 2012. Female Press. leadership dilemmas in primary schools: A case study of 18 primary schools in Kambu- Social Watch, 2005. “No country treats its zuma, Warren Park and Kuwadzana Areas women the same as its men: The Gender of Harare Province in Zimbabwe. Interna- Equity Index - a new perspective”, in Social tional Journal of Social Science and Edu- Watch August 2005. Available at: http:// cation, 2(3), 447-460. www.socialwatch.org/en/informeImpre- so/pdfs/gei2005_eng.pdf accessed on

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 119 13/02/2014. The World Bank Source book. 2002. Empow- erment and Poverty Reduction. The World South Africa. 1996. Growth Employment Bank: Washington, DC. and Redistribution – A Macro-economic Strategy. Government Printer: Pretoria. United Nations. 2006b. The Millennium De- velopment Goals Report. New York: United Sperandio, J. 2011. Creating and support- Nations. ing women’s leadership in education: Charting the effects of international, na- Van der Berg, S; Taylor, S; Gustafsson, M; tional and organizational cultures. An IIEP Spaull, N; & P. Armstrong. 2011. Improving Evidence- based Forum, 3 -4 October 2011, Education Quality in South Africa. Report Paris. Retrieved December 12, 2013 from for the National Planning Commission. De- http://doc.iiep.unesco.org/wwwisis/rep- partment of Economics: Stellenbosch Uni- doc/SEM313/SEM313_18_eng.pdf. versity.

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120 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ALIGNING INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT PLAN, SERVICE DELIV- ERY AND BUDGET IMPLEMENTATION PLAN AND BUDGETING: AN ATTEMPT TO ENFORCE SERVICE DELIVERY MONITORING IN SOUTH AFRICA’S LOCAL MUNICIPALITIES

KA Mashamaite University of Limpopo KR Moloto

Mogalakwena Local Municipality

ABSTRACT

The South African apartheid legacy has left many rural areas dispersed, underdeveloped and largely un-serviced. In an attempt to address this challenge, the post 1994 local sphere of government identified the need to render services of a local nature in an integrated, democratic and fiscally responsible manner. The process includes the inception of Inte- grated Development Plan (IDP) which obtains its mandate from Local Government Mu- nicipal Systems Act 32 of 2000. The IDP serve as strategic plan for a prescribed five year period at municipal-based jurisdictions. Although it is enshrined in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996 for the IDP to perform its intended functions, the truth is that IDP is failing to conquer its developmental mandate. As a result, the Local Government Municipal Finance Management Act 56 of 2003 introduced the Service Delivery and Bud- get Implementation Plan (SDBIP). The rationale is to ensure that the IDPs are consistent with budgetary constraints and also to ensure that service delivery projects are linked to the achievement of the objectives set out in the IDP. Previously, service delivery projects aimed at addressing massive service delivery backlogs did not find expression in both the IDP and SDBIP which serve as a hindrance for delivering services at municipal level. The paper argues that most South African local municipalities are still faced with huge and perpetuating service delivery backlogs due to non-alignment of IDP, SDBIP and Budgeting. The paper however, argues that the alignment between IDP and SBDIP does not guarantee effective service delivery. Therefore, it is within this context that this paper seeks to investigate the alignment and challenges that exist in aligning the IDP and SDBIP at South Africa’s local municipalities for effective service delivery. The paper concludes that in order to accomplish synergy and alignment between IDP, SDBIP and budgeting, service delivery monitoring must be conducted prior and subsequent service delivery.

Keywords: Integrated Development Plan, Service Delivery and Budget Implementation Plan, service delivery backlogs

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 121 1. INTRODUCTION meet such needs. Thus, it is imperative for municipalities to ensure that their budgets The Constitution of the Republic of South are output-driven and that their intended Africa Act 108 of 1996 makes provision in outcomes are in line with their service deliv- Section 153 for a municipality to structure ery strategies and objectives. Explicitly, the and manage its administration, budgeting budget is first and foremost the practical -fi and planning processes to give priority to nancial strategy for implementing the IDP the community’s basic needs, as well as to in municipalities. Accordingly, the munici- promote the community’s social and eco- pal annual budget must be drafted before nomic development. This process can only the operating budget and must be aligned be possible if the IDP and Service Delivery with the priorities of the approved IDP. In Budget and Implementation Plan (SDBIP) other words, the IDP must form the basis are fully aligned. The SDBIP is a detailed for formulating a municipality’s budget, as plan for implementing the municipality’s well as the policy framework on which an- delivery of services and its annual budget. nual budgets rests. The municipal budget The integrated approach to development must complement and be aligned with the at local government requires, in terms of IDP. Aligning the operating budget with the Section 25 of the Local Government: Mu- IDP means that the municipality must look nicipal Systems Act (MSA) 32 of 2000, that carefully at the projects and priorities en- municipalities’ Integrated Development visaged in its IDP and structure its budget Plans (IDPs) and budgets be linked in order accordingly. The problem that may be ex- to give effect to addressing actual needs perienced is that the budget may not ac- of local communities (Du Plesis, 2012). Fur- commodate all the priorities and projects thermore, the effectiveness of municipali- in the IDP. This strategic plan should link, ties to deliver on their developmental man- integrate and coordinate plans and con- date is heavily dependent on their ability sider proposals for the development of the to plan and allocate resources in a devel- municipality. Significantly, the plan should opmental and sustainable manner. Hence, align the municipality’s resources and ca- significantly, municipalities must ensure pacity with the implementation of the plan that needs of communities are integrat- and should form the framework on which ed in their development plans and when annual budgets must be based. Impor- allocating budget. Du Plesis (2012: 19) in- tantly, the alignment however must take dicates that “municipal key performance place in an interactive, participatory and indicators must contain performance tar- symbiotic manner. In doing this, munici- gets that are practical and realistic, in line palities can achieve their developmental with the municipality’s IDP and take into mandate successfully. Therefore, it is within account the municipality’s budget”. this context that the article recognises the need to enforce service delivery monitoring in order to reinforce and integrate the According to Fourie & Opperman (2007:95), IDPs and budgets in line with the SDBIPs the municipal budget is notably the most and address the persisting service delivery important mechanism to give effect to backlogs and challenges within municipal- municipality’s service delivery strategies to

122 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ities. Consequently, the synergy between towards integrated approach to service budgeting and the IDP will ensure effective, delivery planning at local level. According efficient and economical service delivery to the White Paper on Local Government within municipalities. The article consists of of 1998, local governments, in particular six sections including the introduction. The local municipalities, must find sustainable second section provides a brief overview ways to meet social, economic and ma- of the integrated approach to service de- terial needs of the people and improve livery planning and its application and rel- their quality of lives (Ministry for Provincial evance at grass-root level. This is followed and Constitutional Development, 1998). To by a synopsis of the challenges facing lo- achieve this, according to section 25 of the cal governments in the provision of services Local Government: MSA (32 0f 2000) local to communities in section three. Then, the municipalities are required to undertake article investigates the alignment between the integrated development planning to IDPs, SDBIP and budgeting in comprehen- assist municipalities realize their develop- sion of their interrelatedness in section four. mental mandate. Integrated development Section five conceptualizes the service de- planning is a process in which municipali- livery audit as a tool for monitoring munici- ties develop a coherent, long-term plan pal projects and programme implementa- for the co-ordination of all development tion. The article then concludes in section and delivery in their area of jurisdiction six that service delivery monitoring should (Mautjana & Mtapuri, 2014). Additionally, be conduct prior and subsequent service the integrated development planning is a delivery to accomplish synergy between method through which municipalities pre- IDPs, SDBIP and Budgeting. pare a strategic plan intended to fast-track service delivery at local level (Mashamba, 2008). Therefore, the integrated develop- 2. INTEGRATED APPROACH TO SERVICE DE- ment planning is used by municipalities to LIVERY PLANNING AT LOCAL LEVEL plan present and future development of all communities within the municipality area The democratic government of South Af- of jurisdiction. It is an approach to planning rica adopted an integrated approach to where municipal officials and communities development in order to address socio-eco- work together within their municipalities nomic dilemmas facing local government to find better solutions to achieve positive as well as the prejudice of apartheid (Fuo, long-term socio-economic development, 2013). Currently, local governments are which acknowledges people as ones characterized by deteriorating socio-eco- knowing best what they need. The Consti- nomic environments less conducive for tution of the Republic of South Africa Act communities to cope with widespread 108 of 1996 assigns a clear developmental poverty, deepening inequalities and high role to local government in terms of Sec- levels of unemployment (Idasa, 2010; tions 152 and 153. Explicitly, the Constitution Maloka, Mashamaite & Ledwaba, 2014). awarded municipalities with major devel- As such, the most significant service deliv- opmental responsibilities to ensure that the ery mechanism to address these challeng- quality of life for all citizens is improved and es has arguably been the shift in paradigm

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 123 sustainable. The Local Government: MSA vice delivery protests which flowed across 32 of 2000 avers that all municipalities have the country since 2004. The widespread to undertake an integrated development service delivery protests are an indication planning process and produce integrated of the enormous challenges facing local development plans (IDPs) which are re- municipalities in the country. Local com- garded as the primary instruments to guide munities express their frustrations, anger and inform budgeting, management and and disillusionment with the level or lack of decision-making related to service delivery basic service delivery such as water, hous- and development in a municipality (Mafu- ing, sanitation and employment by their nisa & Maphunye, 2008; Valeta & Walton, municipalities (Mashamaite, 2014). Recent 2008; Phago, 2009). Therefore, the IDPs service delivery protests and accompany- should supposedly enable municipalities to ing negative reporting on the state of lo- manage the process of fulfilling the devel- cal government, on the other hand, further opmental mandate as articulated in sec- depict serious concerns over the ability of tion 152 and 153 of the Constitution of the municipalities to satisfy community expec- Republic of South Africa Act 108 of 1996 tations. and White Paper on Local Government (1998). Undeniably, an informed, visionary and strategic integrated development ap- According to Idasa (2010), despite signifi- proach is required in order to maintain de- cant and positive stride towards develop- velopmental local government and ensure mental local government, most municipali- sustainable service delivery within munici- ties around the country are still plagued by palities. numerous challenges of service delivery. Tsatsire (2008:6) stated that “municipalities

are confronted by numerous challenges 3. CHALLENGES OF SERVICE PROVISION in all five key performance areas of the FACING LOCAL MUNICIPALITIES local government transformation agenda, namely: municipal transformation and Local municipalities in South Africa are institutional development; basic service faced with many challenges and enor- delivery and infrastructure development; mous backlogs which are hindrances to- local economic development; municipal wards effective provision of services to financial viability and management; and communities and citizens within their mu- good governance and public participa- nicipalities (Maloka, Mashamaite & Led- tion, which are threatening its develop- waba, 2014). Recent academic studies mental agenda”. But most importantly, the and reports on South African local gov- enduring facts of poverty, inequality and ernment posits a growing concern over underdevelopment underscore the need this sphere of government’s ability to fulfil for government to address issues of social its constitutional mandate of rendering ser- and economic development at local level vices to local communities and promoting (Idasa, 2010). local development (Du Plesis, 2012). This is further strengthened and worsened by the unprecedented wave of violent ser-

124 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Additionally, other concerns are lack of re- quences of poor or lack thereof linkage sponsiveness by the municipal leadership between the IDPs, SDBIP and Budgeting at to issues raised by communities, incompe- municipal level. tence, corruption and high degree of disregard for the communities. The other factor undermining the ability of municipalities to 4. UNDERSTANDING THE ALIGNMENT BE- render services to communities is the avail- TWEEN IDP, SDBIP AND BUDGETING ability and shortage of skills. A significant number of municipalities do not have the “Apartheid regime in South Africa was managerial, administrative, financial and characterized by unrepresentative de- institutional capacity to meet the rising cision-making process and a system of needs and expectations of local communi- government that favoured the previously ties. This situation is exacerbated by the de- advantaged ‘whites’ community” (Pha- cline of municipal professionals and poor go & Netswera, 2009: 703; Tau, 2013: 152). linkages between local government and This left many rural communities spatially tertiary education sector (Department of fragmented, underdeveloped and largely Cooperative Governance and Traditional un-serviced. In an attempt to address this Affairs, 2009). The skills deficit within munic- challenge, the post 1994 government iden- ipalities remains a major challenge to ef- tified the need to render services of a local fectively provide services to communities. nature in an integrated manner. The Local Government: MSA (32 of 2000) was then promulgated as the core legislative pre- script to enhance integrated planning. The As a result of these challenges, most mu- purpose of this act is to deal with internal nicipalities are left dysfunctional and com- systems and administration of municipal- munities’ getting frustrated and losing ities. Importantly, the Local Government: hope and trust in local municipalities due MSA (32 of 2000) states that municipalities to their failures to respond to their persist- must develop integrated development ing and deteriorating poor service delivery. plans (IDPs) through the process of integrat- The service delivery backlogs that exist in ed development planning. “The idea of local communities are often underestimat- IDPs was first introduced in 1996 through the ed and limited resource base further poses amendment of Local Government Transi- a fundamental challenge to municipalities. tion Act 209 of 1993 which represent an era With municipalities struggling to fulfill their were the attention of the ANC-led govern- mandate of service delivery and with these ment shifted from the reconstruction of Na- persisting trends, municipalities would find it tional and Provincial governments towards difficult to spearhead social and economic the establishment of a new local govern- transformation and development of local ment system” (Tau, 2013: 323). As the end communities. These challenges cannot be product for integrated development plan- totally ignored, otherwise municipalities run ning, IDP must strategize, agglomerate and the risk of ensuing further civil unrests and synchronize the functioning of the three revolution. Some of these are the conse- spheres of government, the private sector and all non-governmental stakeholders in

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 125 the society. Imperatively, devolution of ample, (Madzivhandila & Asha, 2012) assert power was based on the premise that lo- that municipal functionaries lack commit- cal government will use IDPs to achieve the ment to enforce community participation following set objectives as outlined in sec- in the integrated development process. tion 152 of the Constitution of the Republic Another challenge which is a key hindrance South Africa Act 108 of 1996: to municipal service delivery is patronage • To provide a democratic and account- (Kitchen, 2005). “Municipalities are increas- able government for local communities; ingly vulnerable to allegations of political cronyism, that is, practices of nepotism • To ensure the provision of services to and patronage that favour those who are communities in a sustainable manner; powerful or influential within the party rath- • To promote social and economic devel- er than those with proven leadership ability opment; or professional competence” (Department of Provincial and Local Government, 2005: • To promote a safe and healthy environ- 31). This problem defies the notion of- de ment; and velopment determinism, probabilism and • To encourage the involvement of com- possibilism because most politicians who munities and community organizations are deployed to various strategic planning in the matters of national and provincial positions such as municipal integrated de- government. velopment planning and strategic planning are tabula-rasa. If one considers patronage as a problem for municipal service The purpose of these objectives is to serve delivery, it becomes vivid that Integrated as a guideline for municipal strategic Development Planning is a complex pro- planning. Unequivocally, they need to be cess that requires understanding the sig- linked and enshrined in every local munic- nificance of linking planning, budgeting, ipality’s IDP. Although this is a prerequisite implementation, monitoring and reporting. in terms of the Constitution of the Republic The apparent truth is that, IDP solely is failing of South Africa, many local municipalities to conquer its developmental legal man- are still struggling to achieve these objec- date, hence the Local Government: Mu- tives. For this reason, one would therefore nicipal Finance Management Act (MFMA) assume that decentralization of power did 56 of 2003 introduced the Service Delivery not augment municipal service delivery. and Budget Implementation Plan (SDBIP) In this respect, it is important to note that to assist municipalities to implement their devolution of power in South Africa has not IDPs and fast track service delivery in line yet transformed the stance of delivering with the budget. The Local Government: services to communities. This is mainly be- MFMA (56 of 2003) requires that municipal- cause most local municipalities are expe- ities prepare SDBIP as a strategic financial rience perpetuating service delivery pro- management tool to ensure that budget- tests. The problem of service delivery has ary decisions of municipalities are aligned been dealt with by various authors. For ex- with their IDPs.

126 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 The purpose of the SDBIP is to expedite nicipalities are facing difficulties in terms the achievement of strategic objectives of acquiring planning and budgeting in- as stated in the municipality’s Integrated formation from sector departments. This Development Plan. The SDBIP is a detailed obviously causes a struggle in planning plan for implementing the municipality’s and implementation of development pro- delivery of services and its annual budget grammes and projects, especially those (MFMA, 2003). According to the Local Gov- related to poverty alleviation and service ernment: MFMA (2003), SDBIP must include delivery (Madzivhandila & Asha, 2012). projections for each month of revenue to These inter-related challenges indicate the be collected by source and operational state of local government were planning and capital expenditure by vote as well as is fragmented. The alignment between service delivery targets and performance IDP and SBDIP is a prerequisite for munici- indicators for each quarter; and any oth- palities in terms of the Local Government: er matters that maybe prescribed and in- MSA (32 of 2000) and MFMA (56 0f 2003). cludes any revisions of such plan. The SD- The significance of aligning IDP and SDBIP BIP is a management, implementation and is to strategize how the municipality’s vision monitoring tool that aim to ensure execu- and delivery of services can be achieved; tion of the budget, performance of senior therefore, aligning IDP and SDBIP is a key management and the achievement of ser- prerequisite for achieving service delivery. vice delivery objectives of the municipality However, achieving such alignment does (MFMA, 2003). The SDBIP serves as a con- not guarantee effective delivery of services tract between the administration, council in municipalities. Most local municipalities and community, expressing the goals and can manage to align their IDP and SDBIP objectives set by council as quantifiable but service delivery remaining still in sham- outcomes that can be implemented by ble. This situation is further exacerbated by the administration over a one-year period lack of transparency at municipal level. (Moloto, 2013). Accountability is another pivotal element which is neglected by municipal functionaries; hence development projects and The processes of IDP and SDBIP must occur programmes are partially implemented. If concomitantly, this is to achieve the align- one looks at South African historical per- ment and implementation of service de- spective, it becomes vivid that service delivery projects and programmes. Previous- livery is brought through projects and pro- ly municipal officials were oblivious about grammes; hence this article argues that in the significance of aligning IDP and SDBIP. order for local municipalities to attain their Moreover, these plans were neither viewed service delivery mandate, a service deliv- as tantamount in terms of projects imple- ery audit/monitoring must be conducted mentation and execution of the annual prior and subsequent the municipality’s budget. The challenge of aligning and in- delivery of services. Importantly, the service tegrating municipal and sectoral plans is also noted by Pieterse, Parnell, Swilling & van Donk (2008) who indicate that mu-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 127 delivery audit must comprehend and take political and administrative conflict -be into cognizance the processes of Integrat- tween tribal authorities and municipalities ed Development Plan and Service Delivery as an issue that affect the design and ef- and Budget Implementation Plan as pre- fectiveness of service delivery. It may well liminary development planning processes. be asked how this situation came into being. As far as (Nyalungu, 2006) is concerned, legislative guidelines sought to 5. SERVICE DELIVERY MONITORING AS A ensure transparency and accountability TOOL FOR MONITORING MUNICIPAL PROJ- in the management of local government ECTS AND PROGRAMME IMPLEMENTATION have been inadequate in practice due to party politicization of development and The Batho-Pele Principles were developed participatory structures, lack of commit- to serve as regulatory framework regarding ment towards prioritizing public consulta- service delivery in the public service. These tion by municipalities, general lack of ca- principles are aligned with the constitution- pacity among stakeholders, poor access al ideals of: to information and failure for municipalities • Promoting and maintaining high stan- to work closely with community-based or- dards of professional ethics; ganizations are crucial elements which contradicts with integrated development • Providing service impartially, fairly, equi- planning. This indicates that Integrated tably and without bias; Development Planning is a complex and • Utilizing resources efficiently and effec- diverse process which requires agglomera- tively; tion and participation of all stakeholders of development and planning. • Responding to people’s needs; the citizens are encouraged to participate in policy-making; and Many local municipalities in South Africa • Rendering an accountable, transparent have not attained Outcome 9 of the 12 and development-oriented public ad- Government Outcomes which were insti- ministration (Republic of South Africa, gated by the National Planning Commis- Independent Police Investigative Direc- sion in 2010. Outcome 9 states that mu- torate, 2014) nicipalities must provide a responsible, accountable, efficient and effective local government system. However, many local municipalities have not provided a respon- These ideals give effect to the provision of sible and accountable local government services in the South African public sector, system; this is indicated by service delivery particularly at local government because protests which are mounting in most rural this is where service delivery challenges local municipalities. Ghutto (2007) asserts are profound. However, the principles of that accountability is a hallmark of modern accountability and transparency are still democratic governance. However, the vague in many local municipalities, hence position in which most local municipalities (Madzivhandila & Asha, 2012) emphasize

128 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 find themselves in defies the premise of a ditor must report the discrepancies that are democratic society which was envisaged found during the process of service deliv- by the first democratic president of South ery monitoring. Essentially, the auditor must Africa. The article argues that the align- monitor the programmes and projects of ment between IDP and SDBIP is paramount; Provincial priorities, interact with relevant however achieving the alignment of these Provincial Government Departments and two plans does not guarantee effective Municipalities to confirm their understand- municipal service delivery. Accordingly, ing of the tools and monitoring approach, service delivery monitoring must be initiat- engage with the Directors of Departments ed in all South African local municipalities. at Regional level as part of verification and The significance of a service delivery audit gathering details, be the face of Office of is to deal with partial implementation of the Premier at district level, interface with development projects and programmes in Municipal Managers, hold coordination local municipalities. Additionally, it will en- meetings at the district Municipal offices force accountability at local government to ensure participation of Government De- and also assist to fast-track development in partments, visit all relevant sites to confirm local municipalities. Mafunisa (2007) asserts Service Delivery, make use of the verifica- that the Public Protector has the power to tion tool and engage with beneficiaries investigate any conduct of the state of af- and relevant stakeholders. fairs in any spheres of government that is Unequivocally, a comprehensive audit- alleged or suspected to be improper or to ing and monitoring must be based on ser- result in any impropriety or prejudice. vice delivery failure, incomplete service provision, bottlenecks on service delivery projects and programmes, project speci- Hussain (2011) on the other hand stated fications and the quality of material used. that the office of the Auditor-General is These defects must be reported to the Au- an important mechanism for improving ditor-General for intervention. The Service accountability in government, including Delivery Auditor/Monitor must be based at local government. Therefore, the office of the office of the Auditor-General and must the Public Protector and Auditor-General report directly to the Auditor-General. This are viable institutions to enhance account- is to avoid biasness and political influence ability and a strong deterrent unaccount- by the municipal officials. The premise for able tendency in this regard (Mashamaite, undertaking a service delivery monitoring 2013). Although the office of the -Audi in South African local municipalities is to tor-General is more concerned with finan- accelerate service delivery to municipal- cial and performance accountability, it is ities. Local government in South Africa is through this office that the function of Ser- required by the supreme law of the coun- vice Delivery Monitoring can be extended try to promote sustainable development, and implemented. The service delivery au- poverty reduction, employment creation ditor/monitor must guide and support mu- and transformation of space economy nicipalities prior and subsequent provision through implementation of development of services. Inter-alia a service delivery au- projects and programmes. This can only be

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 129 achieved through the alignment of stra- eral, Public Protector and Office of the Pre- tegic planning instrument (IDP), a plan for mier are key institutions which can opera- implementing the municipality’s delivery of tionalize this function, thus, it is important services and its annual budget (SDBIP) and for the service delivery monitor to report di- a full service delivery monitoring and mon- rectly to these institutions. The service deliv- itoring. This will ensure accountability and ery monitor must be proficient with IDP and transparency in local municipalities and it SDBIP processes; this is to avoid discrepan- will restore trust between communities and cies and oversights that might arise during their municipalities. the process of service delivery monitoring. The alignment between IDP and SDBIP 6. CONCLUSION must be perceived as leeway for project Despite the fact that intergenerational re- implementation. Moreover, they must oc- search papers and multi-country reports cur concomitantly in order for municipali- expressed the alignment between IDP and ties to incorporate service delivery projects SDBIP as key, many South African local mu- and programmes in their annual budget. nicipalities are still experiencing perpetuat- However, there is a need to understand ing service delivery challenges. This is main- the close and mutually reinforcing relation- ly because municipal officials and service ship between planning, implementation providers lack transparency and account- and monitoring. Therefore, it is important to ability when delivering services to com- carry out a service delivery monitoring as munities. Service provision in the contem- a monitoring tool for enhancing legitimate porary society is profit driven rather than provision of municipal services in South Afri- results oriented. This problem is increased ca because the objectives and priorities for by failure to align IDP and SDBIP; hence the National and Provincial governments can article suggests a service delivery monitor- be achieved through credible IDPs, SDBIP ing as a vital mechanism to deal with this and a service delivery monitoring. challenge. The office of the Auditor-Gen-

LIST OF REFERENCES Du Plesis L.M., 2012. Dimensions of local governance: Guidelines for consider- Department of Cooperative Gover- ation in the management of South African nance and Traditional Affairs, 2009. State municipalities. Administratio Publica, 20(1): of Local Government in South Africa, an 10-26. Overview Report: National State of Local Government Assessments. Pretoria: Gov- Fourie, M., & Opperman, L. (2007). ernment Printers. Municipal Finance and Accounting. Preto- ria: Department of Cooperative Gover- nance and Traditional Affairs, 2009. State of Van Schaik Publishers. Local Department of Provincial and Local Fuo, O.N. 2013. A critical investi- Government, A handbook for Ward Com- gation of the relevance and potential of mittees: Having your say. Pretoria: Govern- IDPs as a local governance instrument for ment Printers.

130 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 pursuing social justice in South Africa. PER: Mafunisa, M.J., 2007. Safeguarding Potchefstroomse Elektroniese Regsblad, Ethics and Accountability in the Public Sec- 16(5): 01-69. tor’, In Moeti K., (eds.) Public Finance Fun- damentals. Cape Town Juta & Co. Ghutto, S., 2007, ‘Enhancing the status, role, image and positioning of the Par- Maloka, C.M, Mashamaite, K.A. & liament of the Republic of South Africa’, Ledwaba, M.D., 2014. Local economic de- International Consultative Seminar, Parlia- velopment: Linking theory and practice in ment, Cape Town. South Africa’s local municipalities. Medi- terranean Journal of Social Science, 5(20): Hussain, Z., 2011, ‘Effectiveness of the 218-223. Office of the Controller and Auditor-Gener- al of Bangladesh in Ensuring Accountabili- Manyaka, R.K. & Madzivhandila, T.S. ty of Auditee Organizations: A Case Study 2013. The implementation of integrated of an MTBF Ministry’, North South University, development plan for service delivery pur- Bangladesh. pose in South African Municipalities: Are we there yet? In Sebola M.P., Tsheola J.P., Idasa, 2010, ‘The state of local gov- Phago K.G & Balkaran S., (eds) Challeng- ernment and service delivery in South Af- es of Local Government in South Africa. rica: Issues, challenges and solutions’. Re- Polokwane: SAAPAM Limpopo Chapter, port submitted to the Portfolio Committee pp.174-185. on Co-operative Governance and Tradi- tional Affairs (COGTA) for public hearings: Maphunye, K.J. & Mafunisa, M.J., Co-ordinated service delivery, Idasa, Local 2008. Public participation and integrated Governance Unit. development processes in South Africa. Journal of Public Administration, 43(3.2): Kitchen, H. 2005. Delivering local/ 461-472. municipal services. In Shah, A. ed. Public Sector Governance and Accountability Mashamba, N.S., 2008. The state of Series: Public service delivery. Washington IDP in the Limpopo Province. Journal of DC: The International Bank for Reconstruc- Public Administration, 43(3.2): 421-435. tion and Development/The World Bank. Mashamaite, K.A., 2014. Public ser- Madue, S.M. 2015. The role of local vice delivery protests in a democratic South government in service delivery. In Sebola Africa: A dilemma for local municipalities. M.P., (eds) Local government administra- Mediterranean Journal of Social Science, tionin post-apartheid South Africa: Some 5(25): 231-237. critical perspectives. Polokwane: Batalea Mashamaite, M.M., 2013. Improving Publishers. accountability in South African local gov- Madzivhandila, T.S. & Asha, A.A., ernment: elements for effective local gov- 2012. Integrated development planning ernment accountability. Journal of Public process and service delivery challenges for Administration, 101 (94). South Africa’s Local Municipalities. Journal Mautjana, H.M. & Mtapuri, O, 2014. of Public Administration, 47(1.1), 369-378.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 131 Integrated development plans without de- ca’. Pretoria: Government Printers. velopment indicators: Results from Capri- Republic of South Africa, 2000, ‘Local corn District Municipalities in South Africa. Government Municipal Systems Act 32 of Mediterranean Journal of Social- Sciences, 2000. Pretoria: Government Printers. 5(8): 474-483. Republic of South Africa, 2000, ‘Local Ministry for Provincial and Constitu- Government Municipal Finance Manage- tional Development, 1998. The White Paper ment Act 56 of 2003. Pretoria: Government on Local Government. Pretoria: Govern- Printers. ment Printers. Tau, S.F., 2013. Citizen participation Moloto, B., 2013, ‘Limpopo Provincial as an aspect of local governance in mu- Planning Forum’ Office of the Premier, 3rd nicipalities: A South African perspective. Floor Boardroom 341. Journal of Public Administration, 48(1): 152- Nyalungu, D., 2006. The revitilasation 160. of local government in South Africa. Inter- Tsatsire, I. 2008. A critical analysis of national NGO Journal, 1 (2): 15-20. challenges facing developmental local Phago, K., 2009. The integrated de- government: A case study of the Nelson velopment plan in South African local gov- Mandela Metropolitan Municipality. A the- ernment: The case of the City of Tshwane sis presented to the faculty of arts at the Metropolitan Municipality. Journal of Public Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University in Administration, 44(3): 483-491. fulfillment of the requirements for the- de gree: Doctor Philosophiae. Phago, K. & Netswera, F.G., 2009. From frameworks to implementation: Rural Valeta, L. & Walton, G.K., 2008. Inte- ward committee system in ‘Gauta’ Local grated development planning and bud- Municipality. Journal of Public Administra- geting at local government. Journal of tion, 44(3.1): 702-713. Public Administration, 43(3.1): 373-384.

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132 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 THE EFFECT OF MACROECONOMIC VARIABLES ON INFLA- TION: A CASE FOR SOUTH AFRICA.

PD Semosa and IP Mongale

University of Limpopo, South Africa

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this paper is to determine the effect of exchange rate, unemployment and economic growth on inflation in South Africa. The paper further analyses the performance of the selected macroeconomic variables before and after the adoption of inflation targeting framework in February 2000. The model is estimated by using the cointegration and causality analysis. The long-run equilibrium relationship between the variables will be captured by employing Johansen cointegration method and the vector error correction model (VECM) is employed to determine the short-run equilibrium relationship between the variables. The Engle-Granger causality test was used to analyse causality among the variables and the Impulse Response Function was also from exogenous shock in the economy. The results unveil the prevalence of a positive relationship between inflation and exchange rate. This implies that when the Rand depreciate against the US dollar in the foreign exchange market, inflation rate increases in the home country. The results further indicate that inflation is negatively related to unemployment and economic growth. This implies that policy makers in South Africa are been faced with the trade-off between inflation and unemployment.

Keywords: Inflation, Exchange rate, Unemployment, Economic Growth, Cointegration, Vector error correction model (VECM)

1. 0 INTRODUCTION

Economic growth of a country depends to dress the issue of unemployment and eco- a large extent on the nature and quality of nomic growth, but still the unemployment economic policy such as fiscal policy and level is very high and the economy is grow- monetary policy. South Africa as a devel- ing at a slower pace. South Africa formally oping country has the pursuit to achieve introduced inflation targeting framework in high level of economic growth, reduction February 2000, after announcing the inten- of the level of unemployment, equal dis- tion to adopt the framework in August 1999 tribution of income, stability on prices and (South African Reserve Bank, 2014). Before stable balance of payments. Policies have adopting inflation targeting framework, been suggested and implemented to ad- the South African Reserve Bank (SARB) had

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 133 adopted a number of frameworks. These The paper also pays attention on the per- include the exchange rate targeting, the formance of the selected variables before discretionary monetary policy, the mone- and after the adoption of inflation targeting tary-aggregate targeting and the eclectic framework. The paper has been structured approach (SARB, 2014). as follows: section 2 contains the literature review; section 3 contains the methodology applied in the paper; section 4 presents Statistics South Africa (Stats SA) reported the results and findings of the paper and that the unemployment rate for 2015 fourth lastly section 5 concludes the paper. quarter is 24.5% and the gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate is 0.6% (Stats SA, 2016). This proves the fact that the 2. 0 LITERATURE REVIEW economy is not responding very well when 2.1 Theoretical framework coming to the issue of unemployment and economic growth. In the case of inflation, Many economies have become more de- Stats SA reported that the consumer price pendent on exports due to slow domestic index (CPI) for January 2016 was 6.2% and growth and hoping that a relative, weaker the producer price index (PPI) was 7.6%. exchange rate would allow export goods The target for inflation in South Africa rang- to become more competitive (Kaiser and es between 3 to 6% and clearly both the Wroughton, 2010). Owen (2005) also agrees CPI and PPI for January 2016 were above that currency weakness is viewed as a pur- the target. It is acknowledged that mon- suant of a strategy of export-led growth etary policy cannot contribute directly to to many developing countries. This follows economic growth and job creation in the from the argument that a weaker home long-run, but the policy can play a very im- currency would reduce the price of exports portant role in the attainment of econom- making them cheaper in comparison to ic development (SARB, 2014). The Reserve competitors within the export market (Mus- Bank can achieve this by creating a stable sa & Rosen, 1978; Auer & Chaney, 2009). financial environment. It is with no doubt to According to Owen (2005), the economy acknowledge that various studies have ex- that grows as a result of greater demand of plored the relationship between exchange exports encourages higher domestic pro- rate, unemployment, economic growth duction and this boost employment level and inflation. However, majority of the in the domestic country. Todaro and Smith studies did not focus on the performance (2009) argued that a weak rand may have of the selected macroeconomic variables negative consequences on the economy. before and after the adoption of inflation The argument was based on the fact that targeting framework. aggregate demand for domestically produced goods may cause price inflation as a result of lower exports prices. According In essence, the ultimate aim of this paper to Rowbotham (2011), a weak currency is to determine the effect of macroeco- does not improve export performance and nomic variables on inflation in South Africa. economic growth. Rowbotham (2011) ar-

134 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 gued that exports growth is associated with ity in the economy, especially for countries a stronger, relative floating exchange rate such as South Africa in which the exchange in efficiency-driven economies rate fluctuates frequently. A study by Rodrik (2003) denote that if the exchange rate is preserved at a level competitive enough to Unemployment is one of the serious social encourage firms to participate in the glob- and economic problems faced by South al market, firms will invest more, hire more, Africa. The costs of unemployment in the and expand production. In South Africa, society are so obvious that everyone in the exports are a major source of demand for society can understand. The society as a domestically produced goods and there- whole loses from unemployment because fore also of production, income and em- total production in the country is below ployment in the domestic economy (Mohr its potential level (Dornbusch and Fish- & Fourie, 2005). Theoretically, it is accept- er, 1990). Inflation is been experienced in ed that a depreciated currency leads to each and every country in the world but a higher demand of the domestic goods the rates of inflation differs from country to and consequently a higher level of output country. The most common thing about this and employment in the economy. Howev- phenomenon is that it brings unpredictable er, a large portion of domestic spending in gains and losses to borrowers and lenders, South Africa is on imported goods and ser- workers and employers, and it also diverts vices, particularly on capital and intermedi- resources from producing goods and ser- ate goods required by domestic industries. vices to predicting inflation (Parkin et al, Meaning a strong Rand can provide an 1997). According to Hyman (1992) inflation added advantage when buying capital can make it difficult to plan for the future and intermediate goods from foreign firms. and can adversely affect the purchasing power of income and savings. The concept of a weak rand versus a strong rand has been a subject of debate from Economic growth is the most important 2011 by both the government, business measure of the performance of an econ- sector and the labour unions. However, the omy because generally it involves an in- debate on whether the South African gov- crease in the volume of goods and ser- ernment should take measures to devalue vices that the economy produces over the rand in order to improve its econom- a period of time (Nell, 2000). Usually the ic growth and the level of unemployment growth of an economy contributes posi- is another topic to be researched. There tively to economic development as well as can be favourable or unfavourable conse- improvement in the standard of living. The quences of the exchange rate fluctuations exchange rate plays a vital role in a coun- on macroeconomic variables of a country’s level of trade and other transactions try depending upon the shared relation- with economic agents in other countries. ship (Rehman, 2014). However, the perfor- The stability of the exchange rate is also important for economic growth and stabil-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 135 mance of macro economy also influences unemployment is positively related to infla- the exchange rate fluctuations. tion and interest rates in the low-frequency data. A study by Conway et al (1998) also reached a conclusion that if there is 2.2 Empirical evidence any change in exchange rate, it will bring a rapid change in the rate of inflation. Ezirim, Amuzie and Emenyonu (2012) used the vector autoregressive (VAR) model to research about the long-run equilibrium Herman (2010) studied inflation and unem- relationship between exchange rates and ployment in the Romanian economy. With inflation in Nigeria. The results estimated a the help of a Phillips curve relation type, long-run equilibrium relationship between the results on the evolution of inflation and the exchange rate and the CPI. Using unemployment in Romania between 1990 monthly data from November 2001 to No- and 2009 could not be noticed. However, vember 2010, Ziran, Qin, and Shouyang the results of the statistical analysis showed (2013) employed Cointegration tests and that between unemployment and inflation, vector error correction model (VECM) to one cannot identify a stable statistically capture the relationships among the Chi- significant relationship because the- eco nese RMB exchange rate, US-China bilater- nomic policies applied did not aim directly al trade, and the US unemployment rate. at the decrease of inflation rate based on The results indicated that the US unemploy- the increase in unemployment. Herman ment rate is negatively correlated with the (2010) further argued that in the short-run, Chinese Renminbi exchange rate. Kamin it does not mean that there is no trade-off (1997) compared the response of inflation between inflation and unemployment. The to changes in exchange rate competitive- results also suggested that there was a very ness in various regions of the world. The re- strong and direct correlation between in- sults also provided that an empirical rela- flation and unemployment between 2000 tionship exist between the rate of inflation and 2009. During this period, Romania ex- and the level of real exchange rate. Furou- perienced a decrease in unemployment ka (2008) used VECM to study the relation- as well as in inflation. The study concluded ship between unemployment and inflation by recommending that in order to main- and discovered that there is an existence tain inflation as well as unemployment at a of cointegration but no causal relationship low level, the fundamental economic rela- was found between the variables. tionship between salaries and productivity must be respected. This implies that pay rises should be based on the increase in the Berentsen, Menzio and Wright (2011) devel- labour productivity. oped a theory in which both labour market and goods market were modelled using the search and bargaining approach. The As it was already pointed out earlier, ma- study was aimed at determining the long- jority of the studies focused on the relation- run relation between unemployment and ship between the selected variables not monetary policy. The results indicated that

136 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 216 between 2000 and 2009. During this period, Romania experienced a decrease in unemployment as well as in inflation. The study concluded by recommending that in order to maintain inflation as well as unemployment at a low level, the fundamental economic relationship between salaries and productivity must be respected. This implies that pay rises should be based on the increase in the labour productivity.

As it was already pointed out earlier, majority of the studies focused on the relationship between the selected variables not the performance of the variables before and after the adoption of the inflation targeting framework. From the literature reviewed, evidence point out that there are mixed results from different thestudies performance with regard of theto the variables exchange before rate, and unemployment, after the adoption economic of the inflation growth andtargeting framework. From the literature reviewed, evidence point out that there are mixed results inflation from different studies with regard to the exchange rate, unemployment, economic growth and inflation 2.3 Trends of the variables before and after the adoption of inflation targeting framework

Economic growth 15 Inflation Unemployment 10 Exchange rate

-5

Source:Source: Author’s Author’s calculations calculations

Figure 1 shows the performance of the selected variables before and after the adoption of inflation targeting framework in South Africa. Economic growth started very well at a rate of 5% in 1984. Between 1985 and 1986 the growth of the economy went below zero. From 1986 to 1999, economic growth has been fluctuating between -2.14% and 4.3%. This was before the adoption of inflation targeting framework. South Africa experienced a very low growth rate in 1992, where the rate was estimated at -2.14%. From 1993 to 1999, the growth rate was above 0.5%, reaching the highest at 4.3% in 1996. From 2000 until 2013, the growth rate has been fluctuating between 2% and 5.59%, except in 2009 where the growth rate was -1.54%. After the adoption of inflation targeting framework (except in 2009), economic growth has been above 1%.

Inflation rate started at a rate of 11.5% in 1984. From 1984 to 1992, inflation rate has been above 10%. The rate went below 10% in 1993 until 1999, ranging between 6% and 10%. Af- ter the adoption of the framework, inflation was controllable in the country, except in 2002 and 2008, where the rates were 9.2% and 11.5% respectively.

From 1984 to 1990, the unemployment rate in South Africa has been ranging between 13.7% and 18.7%. However, the rate has been above 20% from 1991 until 2014 (except in 1995 where the rate was 16.9%). Before the announcement of the intentions to adopt inflation targeting framework, the exchange rate between South African Rand and US dollar

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 137 was less than R5 per $1. After the adoption Johansen cointegration test, VECM, the En- of the framework, the exchange rate be- gle-Granger causality test, Diagnostic tests, tween the two currencies has been fluctu- Stability tests and the Impulse Response ating above R6 per $1, reaching R10.85 per Function. $1 in 2014. 3.1 Data collection 3. METHODOLOGY The paper employed annual time series This paper employed Johansen cointegra- data covering the period 1984 to 2014. tion test and VECM to capture the relation- Data for economic growth has been ob- ship between the variables. The Augment- tained from the World Bank and data for ed Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test will be used to inflation and unemployment has been ob- check the unit root for time series data. tained from Stats SA. On the other hand, The Engle-Granger causality test is also em- data for exchange rate has been obtained ployed to determine the causality effect from the South African Reserve Bank. amongst the variables. Diagnostic tests will 3.2 Data analysis also be performed to check the existence of serial correlation and heteroscedasticity The model of the paper consists of four vari- in the time series. The paper will also per- ables with annual time series data, name- form stability tests to check whether the ly: inflation, economic growth, exchange model is correctly specified. In conclusion, rate and unemployment. In the model, in- the paper will carry out the impulse re- flation is been regarded as the dependent sponse function. variable, with unemployment, economic growth and exchange rate been regarded This section is structured as follows; Data as the independent variables. The equation collection will be discussed first. This will be of this model can be expressed as follows: followed by the discussion of Data analysis which includes the following: unit root tests,

138 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 3.2.1 Unit root test test, the main focus will be on the probability values, critical values and the t-statistics As the model contains economic variables values. If the critical values are lower than of a time series nature, the empirical anal- the values of the t-statistics at different lev- ysis will start by examining the statistical els of significance, the null hypothesis is not properties of these variables. The essence rejected. Meaning there is a unit root or the of analysing these properties is to deter- time series data is not stationery. But if the mine if the variables in the model are sta- critical values are greater than the t-statis- tionary, so as to avoid spurious regression tics at different levels of significance, the which might lead to a high R2 and thus, null hypothesis is rejected. Meaning there misleading results (Asteriou and Hall, 2011). is no unit root. If variables are stationary in There are various tests that can be utilised a model, they will tend to have a constant to declare as to whether a particular se- variance and some elements of autocor- ries is stationery or exhibits the incidence relation over time (Noula, 2012). The paper of unit root (Khumalo and Mongale, 2015). tests each time series individually to ensure This paper employed the Augmented Dick- non-stationarity at the levels of the data, ey-Fuller (ADF) to test for stationarity. The and also run the unit root tests on the first golden rule says the data become statio- differences to ensure I (1). The equation for nery if the probability value is lower than 5% ADF is given by: level of significance. When running the ADF

∆yt = α 0 + βt + γyt−1 +δ1∆yt−1 + ...+ δ p−1∆yt− p+1...... 3

where α is the constant, β , the coefficient on a time trend and P is the lag order of the autoregressive process. In order to select the optimal lag length for the model, the log-likelihood function must be maximised (Maggiora and Skerman, 2009).

3.2.2 Johansen cointegration test

The paper employed Johansen cointegration approach to determine the short-run and long-run relationship among the variables. According to Gujaratti (2004), Johansen’s method takes a starting point from the VAR representation of the variables:

p−1

∆Υ t = µ + ΠΥ t−1 + ∑ Γ j ∆Υ t−1 + ε 1...... 4 i=1 where is an vector of variables that are integrated of order of one-commonly denoted by I(1) and is an vector of innovations. If the coefficient. matrix has a reduced rank r

The Johansen cointegration approach depends on two different likelihood ratio tests of

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 139 the reduced rank of the matrix; namely, the trace test and the maximum eigenvalue test.

.The Trace test is given by:

n ^ λtrace (r) = − T ∑1n(1 − λ r+1 )...... 5 i=r+1 The maximum eigenvalue test is given by:

^ λmax (r,r +1) = − T1n(1 − λr+1 )...... 6

Λ where:T is the sample size, and λ is the ith largest canonical correlation. I

β 1 , represent the matrix of cointegrating vectors

α , represent the speed of adjustment coefficients r , represent the number of cointegrating relationships

Π , determines the extent to which the system is cointegrated and is called the impact.

3.2.3 The Vector Error Correction Model (VECM)

The purpose of the vector error correction model in this study is to determine the short-run relationship between the variables. The VECM will only be carried out if there is cointegration between the variables from the Johansen cointegration test.

Model specification:

1 2 x ∆X t = β x0 + β xx 1∆ t−1 + β x11 ∆P t−1 + β x21 ∆P t−1 +ν t ...... 7 1 1 2 1 ∆P t = β10 + β1x1∆ t−1 + β111∆P t−1 + β121∆P t−1 +ν t ...... 8 2 1 2 2 ∆P t = β 20 + β 2x1∆ t−1 + β 211∆P t−1 + β 221∆P t−1 +ν t ...... 9

1 Where: ∆X t represent the unemployment variable, ∆P t represent the exchange rate vari- 2 able and ∆P t represent the inflation variable. β Represent the coefficients of the vari-

x 1 2 ables, t−1 represent the tests for unit root, while (ν t ,ν t ,ν t ) represents the VECM error terms.

3.2.4 The Engle-Granger causality test

The concept of Granger causality starts with the premise that the future cannot cause the past. If event A occurs after event B, then A cannot cause B. Granger (1969) applied this concept to economic time series to determine whether one time series “causes” in the

140 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 sense of precedes another. However, merely because event A occurs before B does not mean that A causes B. Therefore the Granger causality test will also be used to determine if there is causality between the variables as well as which one actually causes or predicts the other. It is stated that, if the probability value is significant at 5%, then the null hypotheses can be rejected.

Model specification:

n n n n INFt = ∑α i INFt−i + ∑ β j EX t− j + ∑ β kUN t−k +∑ β m EG t−m +ut ……..………………… 10 i=1 j=1 k =1 m=1

n n n n EX t = ∑α i EX t−i + ∑ β j INFt− j + ∑ β kUN t−k +∑ β m EG t−m +ut ……..….……………… 11 i=1 j=1 k =1 m=1

n n n n UN t = ∑α iUN t−i + ∑ β j EX t− j + ∑ β k INFt−k +∑ β m EG t−m +ut ……..…………….…… 12 i=1 j=1 k =1 m=1

n n n n = α + β + β + β + EG t ∑ i EG t−i ∑ j EX t− j ∑ kUN t−k ∑ m INFt−m ut ……..…………….…… 13 i=1 j=1 k =1 m=1

where: INFt = Inflation Rate

EX t = Exchange Rate

UN t = Unemployment Rate

EG t = Economic Growth

U t = Error term

3.2.5 Diagnostic tests

In order to ensure that the results from the econometric models yield true estimates, the researcher will perform diagnostic tests. The paper will carry out the Jarque-Bera test to check if the residuals are normally distributed. This is followed by Breauch-Godfrey and Breauch- Pegan-Godfrey to test for serial correlation and heteroscedasticity respectively.

3.2.6 Stability test

For stability test, the study will employ both Ramsey RESET and the Cusum Test

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 141 3.2.7 The Impulse Response Function

The purpose of this test is to trace out the response of the current and future values of each of the variables to a one unit increase in the current value of one of the VAR errors. The impulse response function show the effects of an exogenous shock on the whole process over time.

4. EMPIRICAL RESULTS

4.1 Unit root test

All the variables are tested for stationarity using the ADF unit root test.

* denotes the rejection of the null hypotheses at 10% level of significance

** denotes the rejection of the null hypotheses at 5% level of significance

*** denotes the rejection of the null hypotheses at 1% level of significance

Source: Author’s calculations

142 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 The results from the ADF tests indicate that 4.2 Johansen cointegration test the null hypothesis of a unit root process for The Trace test and the Maximum Eigen- the series inflation, exchange rate and un- value are carried out to test for cointegra- employment cannot be rejected because tion amongst the variables. Table 2 and 3 they exhibit the presence of a unit root at presents the results from the Trace test and level form. However, unemployment reject- Maximum Eigenvalue respectively. The reed the null hypothesis at 10% level of signif- sults indicate that there is 1 cointegrating icance at intercept. Economic growth also equation at 5% level of significance, mean- rejected the null hypothesis at 5% and 10% ing the null hypothesis of no cointegration level of significance for intercept, trend and between the variables can be rejected. intercept, and none. All the series appears This provides more evidence that there is to be stationery at first difference, even a long-run relationship between inflation, though economic growth rejected the null exchange rate, economic growth and un- hypothesis only at 10% level of significance employment in South Africa. on trend and intercept.

Table 2: Unrestricted Cointegration Rank Test (Trace)

Trace test indicates 1 cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level

* denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level

** MacKinnon-Haug-Michelis (1999) p-values

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 143 Source: Author’s calculations

Inflation rate (IF) normalised to unity as endogenous variable of the regression. With the estimated cointegrated vector, the associated coefficients represent the long-run equilibrium relationship. The cointegrated vector is expressed as follows:

IF + EX + UN + EG= 0...... 14

Thus: IF -0.370251EX + 0.541868UN + 0.212113EG= 0...... 15

IF = 0.370251EX – 0.541868UN -0.212113EG...... 16

144 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Equation 16 indicates the existence of a long-run positive relationship between inflation and exchange rate. This implies that a 1% Rand depreciation against the US dollar will lead to 0.37% increase in the rate of inflation. In the same logic, a 1% decrease in inflation will appreciate the value of the Rand per US dollar by 0.37%. In line with economic theory, the positive relationship between inflation and exchange rate is associated with prise inflation in the economy. These support the idea that a weak Rand will affect the economy in a negative way. Equation 16 further indicates that economic growth and unemployment are negatively related to inflation. A 1% change in inflation will lead to 0.54% and 0.21% change in unemployment and economic growth respectively.

4.3 VECM

The results from VECM indicate that the variables are able to adjust back to equilibrium after an external shock. This is indicated by the value of the cointegrating coefficient, which is -0.250894. The estimated coefficient of -0.250894 indicates that about 29% of this disequi- librium is been corrected annually. The coefficient of correlation (R-squared of around 58%) of the series reveals that the VECM significantly translate short-term adjustments in all four variables and it explains adjustments in all series according to short run changes. Based on the complete VECM results, the error correction terms indicate that inflation rate, unemployment, economic growth and exchange rate substantially adjust to long run shocks affecting natural equilibrium.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 145 4.4 Engle-Granger causality test

The results from Engle-Granger causality test indicates that exchange rate Granger cause inflation but inflation does not Granger cause exchange rate. The results also indicate that unemployment Granger cause inflation but inflation does not Granger cause unemployment. Row 4 shows that economic growth does not cause inflation but inflation does Grang- er cause economic growth. The results further indicate that there is no causality between unemployment and exchange rate. This also applies to economic growth and exchange rate. On the issue of economic growth and unemployment, the results indicate that economic growth does not Granger cause unemployment but unemployment does Granger cause economic growth

146 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 4.5 Diagnostic tests

The diagnostic test in table 6 reveals that residuals are normally distributed. The results from Breusch-Godfrey and Breusch Pegan-Godfrey indicate that there is no serial correlation and heteroscedasticity. The Ramsey RESET test for stability also indicates that the model is correctly specified.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 147 4.6 Stability test

The CUSUM test on figure 1 illustrates that the model is fairly stable as the cumulative sum moves inside the critical lines. This movement between the lines of significance at 5% is therefore an indication of stability

4.7 The Impulse Response Function

Impulse response function shows how one variable responds over time to a single innovation in itself or another variable. The response of inflation to inflation is positive, while the response to unemployment becomes negative at period 2 and 3 until the end period. Inflation start by responding positively to exchange rate, reaches maximum at period 2, and then becomes negative at period 4 until the end period. It also respond negatively to economic growth.

Unemployment respond positively to a shock on inflation, unemployment and exchange rate. A response of unemployment to economic growth is negative at period 2, becomes positive at period 4 but hovers around zero untill the end of period. Exchange rate respond positively to a shock on unemployment and exchange rate. The response to economic growth is negative, while the response to inflation becomes negative at period 4, and then start hovering around zero until the end period. Economic growth respond negatively to inflation

148 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 5. 0 Concluding remarks

This paper determined the effect of macroeconomic variables on inflation in South Africa. The paper adopted the vector error correction model and the Engle-granger causality test. Johansen cointegration approach was also applied in the estimation of the model. The paper covered the period 1984-2014. The results from Johansen cointegration test indicate that there is 1 cointegrating equation between the variables. This confirms that there exist a long-run relationship between exchange rate, economic growth, unemployment and inflation in South Africa. The nature of the relationship was presented by the vector error correction model. The results from vector error correction model indicate a positive relationship between the exchange rate and inflation. This implies that a depreciation of the rand in the foreign exchange market leads to an increase in inflation. The results also indicate that inflation is negatively related to unemployment and economic growth. The implications of this results is that policy makers in South Africa are been faced with the challenge of the trade-off between unemployment and inflation.

Theory and empirical literature has proven that the exchange rate, unemployment and inflation play an important role on the level of GDP in the South African economy. The paper therefore makes recommendations to policy makers in South Africa to adopt policies that will balance the performance of these macroeconomic variables without compromising

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 149 anything. This can be achieved by imple- 10(2), 157-170. menting policies that are aimed at increas- Hyman, DN. 1992. MACROECONOMICS. ing the level of production in the country. USA: IRWIN Kaiser, E & Wroughton, L. 2010. Global Cur- rency War: Currency War Fears Tinge IMF LIST OF REFERENCES Meetings. Retrieved September 25, 2013, Asteriou, D & Hall, SG. 2011. Applied Econo- from Reuters: http://bit.ly/o725t8 metrics. Palgrave Macmillan. 234 Kamin, SB. 1997. A Multi-Country Compar- Auer, R. & Chaney, T (2009). Exchange ison of the linkages between Inflation and Rate Pass-Through in a Competitive Mod- Exchange Rate Competitiveness. Band for el of Pricing-to-Market. Journal of Money, International Settlement Working Papers, Credit and Banking, 41(1),151-175 45, 1-22 Berentsen, A, Menzio G & Wright R. 2011. Khumalo, ZZ & Mongale, IP. 2015. The im- Inflation and Unemployment in the long pact of Information Communication Tech- Run. American Economic Review 101. nology (ICT) on economic growth: A case 371-398. http://www.aeaweb.org/articles. for South Africa. South Africa. North West php?=10.1257/aer.101.1.371 (accessed 14 University July 2014). Maggiora, DD & Skerman, R. 2009. Johan- Conway, F, Drew A, Haunt, B & Scoff, A. sen cointegration analysis of American and 1998. Exchange Rate Effects and Inflation European Stock Market indices: An Empiri- Targeting in Small Economy: A Stochastic cal study. Lund University. Analysis using Fps Techniques. BIS Confer- Mohr, P, Fourie L & associates, 2005. Eco- ence Papers, vol 6. nomics for South African students: 3rd Edi- Dornbusch, R & Stanley, F. 1990. MACRO- tion. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. ECONOMICS. Singapore: McGraw-Hill Mussa, M & Rosen, S. 1978. Monopoly and Ezirim, CB, Amuzie, EA & Emenyonu, EN. Product quality. Journal of Economic Theo- 2012. Long-run equilibrium relationship bery, 18, 301-317 tween exchange rates and inflation in Ni- Noula, AG. 2012. Fiscal deficit and Nomi- geria. International Journal of Business, nal Interest Rate determination in Camer- Marketing and Decision Sciences. 5(1), p17 oon: An application of the loan able funds Furuoka, F. 2008. Unemployment and Infla- model. Global Advanced Reseach Journal tion in the Philippines: New evidence from of management and Business Studies. 1(1), Vector Error Correction Model. Philippine 006-029. Journal of development. 35(1), 93-106. Owen, JR. 2005. Currency Devaluation and th Gujarati, DN. 2004. Basic Econometrics. 4 Emerging Export Demand. London, En- Edition. Singapore, McGraw Hill. gland: Ashgate Publishing. Herman, E. 2010. Inflation and Unemploy- Parkin, M, Powell, M & Matthews, K. 1997. ment in the Romanian Economy. Annals ECONOMICS. 3rd edition. England: Addi- of the University of Petrosani Economics.

150 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 son-Wesley The rand: Weaker is not better. 2011 .Pol- Rehman, M. 2014. Analysis of Exchange iticsweb. From: http://www.politicsweb. rate fluctuations: A study of PKR vs USD. co.za/politicsweb/view/politicsweb/ Journal of Managerial Science. 8(1), 41-60. en/page71619?oid=273920&sn=De- tail&pid=71619 (accessed 23rd August Rodrik, D. 2003. Growth Strategies. NBER 2015). Working Paper. 10050. Todaro, M & Smith, S. 2009. Economic Rowbotham, N. 2011. Export rate policy Development. 6th edition. London: Addi- and export performance in efficiency-driv- son-Wesley en economies, Gordon institute of Business science. University of Pretoria Ziran, L, Qin, B, Shouyang, W & Siwei, C. 2013. An Empirical analysis of the Relation- ship between Chinese RMB fluctuations South African Reserve Bank, 2014. Ex- and overall Unemployment Rates in US. change rate in S.A. SARB Quarterly Bulletin, Review of Pacific Basin Financial Markets & (March) No. 242: S103. Policies. Stats SA. 2016. Government Household Sur- vey, Statistical Release. Pretoria: Govern- ment Printing. Available online: www.statssa.gov.za Accessed: 03rd April 2016

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 151 CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE MILITARY OMBUDSMAN ACT 4 of 2012

KI Theletsane

Stellenbosch University

ABSTRACT

Since 1994, the South African National Defence Force has gone through a number of reforms, some minor and others major. The SANDF has seen among others the amalgamation of statutory and non-statutory forces, unionisation, a march to the Union Building by uniformed members, the introduction of the Defence Commission and the introduction of the Military Ombudsman Bill which was later signed into an Act. The establishment of ombudsman institutions the world over is given credence by the need to foster improved performance and enhance governmental accountability to the public in a way that nur- tures the ideal of good governance. The origins of an ombudsman in the SANDF is found in the White Paper on Defence of 1996 and the Defence Review of 1998, which motivated for an Military Ombudsman to investigate complaints against the SANDF, inter alia, military personnel. It was envisaged that the ombudsman would address any military personnel matters which could not be resolved through other existing mechanisms. This paper examines the challenges in implementing the Military Ombudsman Act 2012, Act 4 of 2012, analyses available literature on ombudsman institutions, and explores available best practices to provide recommendations for the implementation of an Military Ombudsman in South Africa

Keywords : Ombudsman, Defence review, Military, Amalgamation.

1. INTRODUCTION ing and protecting the state, its territorial integrity and its people. The realisation of The National Defence Force (SANDF) has a democratic political system in South Af- gone through, and is still going through, rica has led to a new and very different various reforms since 1994. A recent reform national defence force. It is therefore; ap- that has entered the military discourse is propriate to say that more transparent and the Military Ombudsman Act 2012, Act 4 accountable administrative systems within of 2012, (Hereafter the Act). The Constitu- the SANDF need to be implemented should tion of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 defence in a democracy be at stake. (hereafter the Constitution) and the White Paper “Defence in a Democracy, 1996” One of the most important concepts of de- are unambiguous in defining the “primary” fence in a democracy can be derived from function of the SANDF as that of defend- 152 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 the White Paper on Defence, 1996 and the ers, accredited articles in journals, compar- Constitution, which provide the impera- ative literature in books and chapters in tive requirement to cultivate and nurture books, literature on military legal matters, mutual trust and confidence in the public peer-reviewed journals and material avail- service and in the SANDF. There are various able on websites. The above literature pro- systems which support democracy and, in vided a thorough basis for the arguments most cases, they address those questions presented here. which arise from the need to consolidate a 3. ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE OM- democratic political system. However, un- BUDSMAN easiness is often raised in connection with mutual trust and confidence in the SANDF. Ombudsman offices exist in many countries This uneasiness relates to: around the world. The ombudsman is an independent, impartial person with authority • Grievance handling mechanisms in the and responsibility to receive, investigate or SANDF; informally address complaints and, when • Control measures for maintaining and appropriate, make findings and recom- sustaining healthy civil-military relations mendations and publish reports. An om- in a democratic political system; budsman works for the resolution of particular issues and, where appropriate, makes • Relevant avenues available for use by recommendations for the improvement of individual military personnel, once the the general administration of the entities traditional avenues of the Military Dis- over which it has jurisdiction and also en- ciplinary Code and Defence Directives sures that corrective action is undertaken, are exhausted; and followed through and upheld. • Substitution of the traditional processes Ombudsmen have long existed in different once they fail. cultures throughout history – especially un- The aim of this paper is to highlight the der the Islamic, Roman, Chinese, and Span- challenges of a successful implementation ish systems. The modern roots of ombuds- of an Military Ombudsman in the South Af- man-like institutions are traceable to the rican context. Relevant to this aim is the Swedish Justitieombudsman (Ombudsman need to elaborate on the history, roles, for justice) established in 1809 (Seneviratne, functions and responsibilities of the Military 1994; Reif, 2004). Its primary role was to re- Ombudsman elsewhere in the world, in or- ceive complaints from the public regarding der to provide cardinal points for possible any alleged bureaucratic misdeeds. The implementation in South Africa. growing interest in ombudsman institutions over the years can be linked to the growth 2. LITERATURE CONSULTED of the welfare state, especially after World Apart from relevant reports in the media War II when there was a renewed concern and official documentation, the author for protecting human rights and the growth consulted a spectrum of literature on the of public education and participation (Sen- topic. The literature used was, among oth- eviratne, 1994). Some theorists argue that South Africa reflects strong elements of a

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 153 welfare state, although others argue that it the first countries to adopt such a system in is a developmental state. The author con- 1966 (Mokgobu, 1999). The term “ombuds- curs with the latter, since South Africa has man” should only be used if six key criteria shown a strong interventionist approach. are met. These criteria are: independence of the ombudsman from those whom the The introduction of an ombudsman has ombudsman has the power to investigate, suited the transition from autocratic and accessibility, fairness, public accountabil- military rule to democratic government ity, effectiveness and impartiality (Dirk, elsewhere, while many developing nations 2000:52). have succumbed to pressure from the neo-liberal and international donor agen- 4. LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK cies to institute an ombudsman as part of There is no statute directly applicable to the structural reforms to improve their gov- the establishment of an ombudsman in the ernance credentials (Kuye & Kakumba, SANDF except the White Paper on Defence 208:157). Similarly, the need to exercise and the Defence Amendment Act 997, Act effective control of public agencies has 4 of 1997 which does not say much about become increasingly acute in the wake of labour relations matters in the SANDF. The large and complex governmental systems provision of the Labour Relations Act 1995, that impinge more and more on the lives Act 66 of 1995 (LRA) expressly excludes and livelihoods of the people (Dirk, 2000). members of the SANDF from its operation. The rise of overgrown bureaucracies or However, section 23 (1) of the Bill of Rights “bloated” administrative systems that oper- of which the LRA is the principal legislative ate on the basis of an impersonal bureau- off-shoot, provides that “everyone has the cratic rationality has furthered the need for right to fair labour practice.” This includes ways to address grievances or oversights in defence force members. Section 23 of the terms of individuals and groups. Constitution provides states that: In the Commonwealth, the introduction of (1) Everyone has the right to fair laan ombudsman in the first common law bour practices. country, New Zealand, in 1962, sparked off a great deal of interest in the ombudsman (2) Every worker has the right– concept throughout the world. Most countries, including those that escaped colonial (a) to form and join a trade subservience, have tended to introduce union; some version of modern Western bureau- (b) to participate in the ac- cratic administration, usually modelled on tivities and programmes of a the administration of a particular colonial trade union; and administrative model. In these countries, the trigger for the acceptance of the om- (c) to strike. budsman concept in the early 1960 was a (3) Every employer has the right– series of discussions among scholars and ju- rists, as a result of which Guyana in the Ca- (a) to form and join an employ- ribbean, Tanzania and Israel were among ers’ organisation; and

154 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 (b) to participate in the activ- within the extended period consented to ities and programmes of an by the secretariat, after consultation with employers’ organisation. the aggrieved person;

(4) Every trade union and every em- • Formation Officer Commanding must ployers’ organisation has the right– finalise a grievance and inform the aggrieved person of the decision and the rea- (a) to determine its own ad- sons for the decision within 15 working days ministration, programmes and after it was received, or within the extend- activities; ed period consented to by the secretariat, (b) to organise; and after consultation with the aggrieved person; (c) to form and join a federation. • Chief of a Service or Division must cause a grievance to be finalised and en- Given the nature of the SANDF, some of sure that the aggrieved person is informed these constitutional obligations are not of the decision and the reasons for the de- tolerated. Complaints arising from the De- cision within 30 working days, or 15 work- fence Force are dealt with in terms of the ing days if a Formation Officer Command- Individual Grievance Regulation and by a ing had been approached first, or within military investigator situated in the office of the extended period consented to by the the Public Protector. Due to the uniqueness secretariat, after consultation with the ag- of the defence environment, the Depart- grieved person; and ment of Defence contended that this arrangement is insufficient and inefficient as • The Grievance Board must take a de- a complaints resolution mechanism. The cision with regard to a grievance and in- SANDF uses the Military Disciplinary Code form the aggrieved person of the decision (MDC) and military law to enforce disci- and the reasons for the decision within 30 pline. In terms of its members, grievance working days after it was received. procedures are used to voice concerns. According to Section 104(17) of the De- According to the grievance procedure, fence Act “Any person who undermines or an aggrieved member or employee must stifles, or seeks to undermine or stifle, any lodge a grievance with his or her Unit Of- procedure for the redress of grievances, is ficer Commanding within 90 working days guilty of an offence and liable on convic- after the occurrence of the act or omission tion to a fine or imprisonment for a period concerned. For the purposes of the expe- not exceeding five years.” This is evident ditious processing of grievances (Defence that the SANDF takes grievance seriously. Force Grievance Procedure): However, the grievance procedure is not • Unit Officer Commanding or immedi- without challenges. ate Director must finalise a grievance and This process can be lengthy and frustrat- inform the aggrieved person of the deci- ing and, in the end, numerous members sion and the reasons for the decision with- resort to joining unions. Unions were intro- in 30 working days after it was received, or

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 155 duced in the SANDF in 1995, but they were came on the heels of the establishment of only registered in 2000 (Mokgobu, 1999). the National Defence Force Service Com- Military unions are a subject of controver- mission, the aim of which is to advise the sy in the SANDF. There have been a num- minister on the conditions of service of mil- ber of court cases between the Ministry of itary personnel. The Military Ombudsman Defence and the defence unions and this will investigate complaints and serve as a has led to an unhealthy relationship be- neutral third party on matters related to the tween the two parties. As a result, unions Department of Defence and the South Af- are not seen as a constructive mechanism rican National Defence Force, acting inde- in the defence force, but rather a prob- pendently of the chain of command and lem. In 2009, for the first time in the -histo managers. The Department of Defence, ry of South Africa, soldiers marched to the through the White Paper, supports the cre- Union Building to express their unhappiness. ation of a post for Military Ombudsman The scene of protesting soldiers being fired whose main duties are to monitor adher- upon by police on 26 August 2009 in front ence to democratic civil-military relations, of the Union Buildings in Pretoria not only undertake investigations at the request of shocked the public, but tarnished the im- parliament, and investigate complaints age of the SANDF and the country at large against the SANDF by military personnel in the eyes of the international community and members of the public. The ombud- (Heinecken, 2009). A lot went through peo- sperson would be an independent official ple’s minds at that time, such as mutiny, the appointed by and reporting to the Minister influence this would have on the relation- of Defence. ship between the soldiers and the police, 5. INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON MILI- and why it had taken so long for the SANDF TARY OMBUDSMEN to address soldiers’ grievances, to mention but a few. The march created a national The ombudsman represents an additional outcry and the Minister was adamant that mechanism for monitoring the military, on unions should be banned in the SANDF – behalf of citizens and/or parliament. The banning the unions would be in contraven- main aim of the Military Ombudsman is to tion of the Constitution as the supreme law. investigate alleged arbitrary decision or Subsequent to this, the interim defence misdemeanours committed on behalf of commission was established to look at the the responsible minister(s) of the security, interests of SANDF members and later the notable the military. proposed bill for an Military Ombudsman which was later signed into an Act. Institutional embedding of the Military Om- budsman in the political system varies from The implied origins of the establishment of country to country. Defence ombudsmen an ombudsman in the SANDF are in the can be appointed by parliament and re- White Paper on Defence of 1996 and the port to parliament (Germany, Sweden) Defence Review of 1998 which motivated (Seneviratne, 1994) or can be appointed for an Military Ombudsman to investigate by the minister of defence (Israel, Cana- complaints, inter alia, of military personnel da and South Africa) (Stacey, 2006). Some against the SANDF. The Ombudsman Act ombudsman have their office within the

156 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 parliament precincts (as is the case of the man under the Ombudsman Act and the German Parliamentary Commissioner for position of Defence Force Ombudsman. A the Armed Forces) or it can be institution- new position of Deputy Ombudsman (De- ally located outside the parliament (Swe- fence Force) was also created and the first den) (Kuye, & Kakumba, 2008). appointment to this office took effect on 1 January 1984 (Rowat, 2000). The record of Military Ombudsman, for example in the case of Swedish Military Om- Given the adaptability and success of the budsman (created in 1915), shows that this office of the ombudsman in stable democ- institution has become a powerful tool in racies, the Namibian Constitution of 1990 enhancing public confidence in the- de provides a possible model for an all-em- fence sector. In addition, the ombudsman bracing ombudsman (Rowat, 2000). In Na- provides essential protection to individu- mibia, the Ombudsman is an independent al serviceman and woman against abuse office and subject only to the constitution treatment within the military. It may be ar- and the law. The office of the Namibian gued that the main achievement of the Ombudsman came into existence upon ombudsman with regard to the security the passing of the Ombudsman Act, 1990. sector is to contribute to increased trust In terms of Article 89(4) of the Namibian in the military sector by creating greater Constitution the Ombudsman must be a transparency in the entire administrative lawyer (Rowat, 2000). process, without challenging the military Besides the usual role of making recom- hierarchy or decreasing military readiness. mendations for actions to the head of state, The concept of a military ombudsman is the Namibian Ombudsman has other key not unique to South Africa, hence the im- powers. The ombudsman may take direct portance of an international perspective. action to bring proceedings for an interdict Many countries around the world have mil- or other suitable remedy duty and power itary ombudsmen. In this article some se- to take appropriate action to call for rem- lected cases will be discussed. edy, correction and reversal of instances of [mal-administration, abuse of power] in In order to cultivate and nurture mutual such means as are fair, proper and effec- trust and confidence of the public in the tive” (Gullace, 2002:96). Defence Force, some democracies such as Sweden, Finland, Norway, Germany, Namibia had ample reasons for imple- Portugal and Australia considered it neces- menting the post of an ombudsman. First- sary to establish an military ombudsman or ly, apartheid military occupation demon- a defence ombudsman. A good example strated that transgressions against the local is that of the Australian Defence Force Om- population occurred frequently and there budsman. The office of the Defence Force was little recourse to law (Braybon, 2006:5). Ombudsman came into existence on 5 De- Secondly, the South West African People’s cember 1983 after the amendment of the Organisation (SWAPO) leadership’s reac- Ombudsman Act of 1976 (Rowat, 2000). The tion to discontented cadres in the field in- individual appointed occupies both the cluded torture and human rights transgres- position of the Commonwealth Ombuds- sions, again with little recourse to law or

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 157 justice (Diana & Lidiard, 2000:20). Lastly, the sufficiently independent from political inter- integration process after independence ference because the Ombudsman will be caused some tension and the perception of appointed by the president and report to possible bias in the new National Defence the defence minister (Military Ombudsman Force. To ensure legitimacy and account- Act, section 5(1)). This is contrary to section ability amidst the fear of public distrust the nine of the White Paper on Defence which appointment of a body for complaint, res- states that “The DOD supports the creation olution and restitution was needed. of the post of Military Ombudsperson whose main duties are to monitor adherence to German and Canadians also welcomed democratic civil-military relations, under- the notion of military oversight. The Ger- take investigations at the request of Parlia- man Ombudsman, known as the Whehr- ment, and investigate complaints against beauftragter des Bu Bundestages (WB) or the SANDF by military personnel and mem- Parliamentary Commissioner of the Armed bers of the public. The ombudsperson Forces (PCOA), and the Canadian Military would be an independent official who is Ombudsman are among the most profiled appointed by, and reports to, Parliament.” military oversight mechanisms (Schwetzer, The section further states that the powers Karsten, Spencer, Cole, Kommers, & Nich- and functions of the Military Ombudsman olls, 1995). It is clear from the literature that would be spelt out in legislation. However, the German and Canadian models have those powers are not clear in the Act. been used as models by other countries, for example, the Irish Military Ombudsman During public hearings on the Military Om- and the Czech Republic Armed Forces budsman Bill, several organisations criti- Ombudsman. cised the Bill for failing to give the ombudsman power to compel the implementation In 1959, a decision was taken to recreate of his or her recommendations. the German armed forces which led to the establishment of the PCOA (Karl, 2001). Section 5(7) of the Act states that “The The Canadian Military Ombudsman’s of- President may remove the Ombudsman fice was established in 1998 following the or Deputy Ombudsman from office on investigation into the Somalia affair (Martin, the grounds of misconduct, incapacity or 1999). Both of these offices have approxi- incompetence.” This may create the per- mately 50 staff. ception that the ombudsman may act without independence and impartiality out 6. THE SOUTH AFRICAN MILITARY OMBUDS- of fear that the president will remove him/ MAN ACT her from office. In 2011 a Bill proposing the establishment of The Act also states that the Ombudsman an Military Ombudsman was published in report to the Minister of Defence (Section Government Gazette No. 33969 of 28 Jan- 11(2). There will be a problem with the Om- uary 2011 which was signed into law in 2012 budsman reporting to the Defence Minis- and become an Act. Both the proposed ter at any time when asked as this may be Bill and the Act were targets of much crit- construed as interference by the minister icism. The Military Ombudsman Act is not in the activities of the Military Ombudsman

158 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 and would affect the public’s impression of the office’s independence. The question may be asked, what if the minister is the subject of the investigation.

It is clear from this bill that the military will be performing oversight function on itself. This can create the potential for conflict of interests and undermine confidence in the recommendations of the oversight body.

Table 1: Overview of military ombudsman in selected countries

Key issues Canada’s MO German Wehr- South Africa’s MO Australia Norway beauftragter Legal sta- Negotiated The country’s Con- South African Defence Constitution Constitution tus of the mandate, but stitution. Review (1998). office no legal statute. White Paper on National Defence for the Repub- lic of South Africa (1996).

Military Ombudsman Bill. Appoint- By government By a majority vote By the State President for Appointed by the Appointed by the Min- ment of on the Defence of the Bundestag five years (non-renew- Ministerial decision isterial decision the MO Minister’s (DM) in secret ballot for able). recommenda- a five- year term tion for a five- (renewable). year term (renewable).

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 159 Who ini- Current and for- Members of the Not clear from the Bill Members of the Defence force mem- tiates in- mer members of armed forces and armed forces bers vestiga- the Canadian their families tions force. The Defence Com- The DM, the mittee. military chain of The Parliamentary command and Commissioner of parliament the Armed Forces at his discretion. Type of Any individual Any individual com- The Bill only refers to Individual complains cases to complaint. plaint or petition “complaint”. Human rights issues be ad- made by Bunde- Systematic dressed swehr personnel. issues.

160 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Precondi- The com- The members of the Not clear from the bill. None None tions to be plainant must Bundeswehr have fulfilled have attempt- the right to contact ed to resolve the Parliamentary the complaint Commissioner of by referring the Armed Forces to the chain directly, without of command going through or the military other bodies of the grievance sys- military grievance tem. system.

The MO can accept a complaint directly in compelling circumstances. Reporting To the Defence To the Parliamenta- To the Minister of De- To the Defence Min- Report to Parliament channel Minister. ry Commissioner of fence. ister. the Armed Forces.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 161 The nature The MO makes The Parliamentary The Ombudsman must Submit reports to the Make recommenda- of the om- recommenda- Commissioner of immediately after fi- Minister of Defence tions, assessments and budsman tions and can the Armed Forces nalisation of the inves- for presentation to criticism which rele- ruling follow up his makes recommen- tigation, and in writing, Parliament vant public bodies vol- recommenda- dations and can advise the complainant untarily comply with. tions with the follow up his rec- and any other affected relevant bodies ommendations with person of the outcome with the view of the relevant bodies of the investigation. monitoring im- with the view of Confirm or dismiss the plementation. monitoring imple- complaint, or issue an mentation. alternative resolution.

Recommend an alternative resolution to the Minister or refer the

complainant to the appropriate public institution for finalisation, if the matter falls outside his or her jurisdiction. Source: Author’s own compilation of information.

162 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Table 1 depicts key issues regarding the Defence’s budget. military ombudsman in five countries. In all • The office must be able to publish re- these countries the military ombudsman of- ports for the attention of Parliament fice is established through a legal system. In and the general public. terms of appointment, in Canada the government, advised by the minister, appoints 8. CONCLUSION the military ombudsman; the Germans rely on parliament for this appointment and in Based on the discussion, it can be strong- South Africa the President makes the ap- ly stated that the institution of an ombuds- pointment and in Australia and Norway is man has the potential to enhance constitu- appointed by the minister through parlia- tional democracy and good governance ment. In Canada and Germany it is clear across the political and socioeconomic who initiates an investigation, whereas in spectrum of many countries’ developmen- South Africa it is not clear. In South Africa tal agendas and this is evident in South and Canada the Ombudsman reports to Africa through the office of the Public Pro- the Minister of Defence but in Germany, tector. A thorough look at other cases may to the Parliamentary Commissioner of the benefit the SANDF. There is much to say Armed Forces, this make the ombudsman’s and learning from other experiences. The office truly independent. Military Ombudsman Act is modelled on a number of countries. There is no doubt 7. RECOMMENDATIONS that it will achieve its intended purpose if implemented and managed accordingly. In view of the discussion, the following rec- However, there are concerns on a num- ommendations are made: ber of issues as discussed in this paper. The • The Military Ombudsman to become a Military Ombudsman, if implemented cor- chapter nine institution, and be legally rectly, will ensure that the rights and duties defined in the Constitution as are other of military personnel, the defence industry chapter nine institutions. and civil society comply with the norms of democratic values. If the recommenda- • The Military Ombudsman to be actions are not taken into consideration, the countable to the National Assembly. It Military Ombudsman office will be a prob- is suggested that the Military Ombuds- lem; a line of discontent, instead of adding man should not report to the body that to functional relations in the military. it reviews. Reporting to the Minister of Defence may create a perception that The appointment of a Military Ombuds- the ombudsman is not independent man should serve to safeguard against any and may have a bias towards the ex- improper actions by the SANDF, the gov- ecutive. Therefore, it is also more appro- ernment or public administration. At the priate for parliament to have some role same time, in terms of the Constitution, it in the appointment process. will assist Parliament in exercising control. What should be emphasised is that an om- • This office to have its own budget and budsman is a form of redress and unable not to depend on the Department of to prevent wrongs from happening. Only

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 163 matters that come to its attention can be 09-09]. addressed. For the Military Ombudsman Kuye, J.O. & Kakumba, U. 2008. The ombuds- to be effective and prevent wrongs there man institutions in the procurement of must be an adaptive political and adminis- legal responsibilities in the common- trative system and strong legislative support wealth: an overview of Canada, South as well as an inculcated ethos of ensuring Africa and Uganda. Journal of Public quality relations within the military and be- Administration, 43 (3)1. tween the military and society in general. Martin, A. 2005. The way forward action plan for the office of the Ombudsman. LIST OF REFERENCES Report to the Minister of National De- fence for Canada. [Online] Available Braybon, C. 2006. Reforms in the Namibian from: www.bundesdag.de/htdocs _ Defence Force. London: Croom Helm. e/orga/03organs/06armforce.html. [Accessed: 012-09-09]. Diana, C. & Liddiard, J. 2000. The forgotten wars. London: Routledge and Kegan Mokgobu, P. 1999. Determining a role for a Paul. MO in the South African National De- fence Force. African Security Review, Dirk, B.J. 2000. South African Public Protec- (8)1. tor (Ombudsman) Institution. In Greg- ory and Giddings (eds). Righting the Reif, C.L. 2004. The Ombudsman, Good Wrongs: Ombudsman in Six Continents. Governance and the International Hu- Amsterdam: IOS Press. man Rights System. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. Gregory, Roy and Giddings, Phillip. 2000. Righting the Wrongs: Ombudsman in Republic of South Africa. 2012. Department Six Continents. Amsterdam: IOS Press. of Defence. Military Ombudsman Act 4 of 2012. Pretoria: Government Printer. Gullace, N.F. 2002. Government oversight in Namibia. New York and Houndsmills: Republic of South Africa. 1996. The Consti- Palgrave. tution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. Pretoria: Government Printer. Heinecken L. 2009. Ban military unions, they’re a threat to national security: so Republic of South Africa. 1996. White Paper where to from here? [Online] Available on National Defence for the Republic form: http://findarticles.com/p/arti- of South Africa. Pretoria: Government cles/mi_hb1402/is_2_31/ai_n55089500/ Printer. [Accessed: 2015-09-15]. Republic of South Africa. The Bill of Rights. Karl, G. 2001. The Parliamentary Commis- 1996. Pretoria: Government Printer. sioner of the Armed Forces. [Online] Available from http://www.bunde- Rowat, D. 2000. The Ombudsman Plan: The stag.de/htdocs_e/bundestag/com- Worldwide Spread of an Idea. New missioner./index.html. [Accessed: 015- York: Lanhan.

164 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Seneviratne, M. 1994. Ombudsman in the Public Sector. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Stacey, F. 2006. Ombudsman Compared. Clarendon: Oxford.

Schwetzer, C., Karsten, D., Spencer, R., Cole, R.T., Kommers, D.P. & A.JNicholls. 1995. Politics and government in Germany: 1944-1994. Oxford: Berghahn books.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 165 PROBING THE PHENOMENA OF “AFRICAN UNITY” AS THE PILLAR OF THE AFRICAN UNION

MS Maleka , SL Vuma and K.B. Shai

University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

The dawn of the 21st century has witnessed the transformation of the Organisation of Afri- can Unity (OAU) into the African Union (AU). Thabo Mbeki and other pioneers of this transformation were concerned about the failure of the OAU to adapt to the changes in the international system. They saw an urgent need for Africa’s continental body to shed its image of being seen internationally as the “dictator’s club”. As such, they envisaged that the newly born AU would elevate the promotion of unity and solidarity among African states from a political rhetoric into a principled action. It was also hoped that AU would tap into its unity and solidarity for the purpose of harnessing the notion of “African solutions for Afri- can problems”. It appears that since the pioneers of the AU’s transformation have left the presidency of their countries (South Africa, Nigeria and Burkina Faso), the AU is regressing towards the culture of the defunct OAU. If the response of the AU to the 2011 crisis in Lib- ya and the circumstances leading to the election of Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma as the AU Commission Chairperson is anything to go by, it is safe to state that “African Unity” remains a farfetched dream. Against this background, this Afrocentric paper uses discourse approach and document analysis in their broadest form to examine the road navigated by the AU to bring about “African Unity”.

Keywords: African Union, AU Commission, African Unity, Organisation of African Unity

1. INTRODUCTION

The post independent Africa saw the promotion of regional and continental integration through the formation of both economic and political institutions. The formation of the OAU in 1963 was the result of the awareness amongst the newly independent African states that their integration and self-reliance would be the foundation to counter dependence on former colonial powers such as Britain, France, Portugal and Belgium. African identity became an element of consciousness to ensure that colonialism does not repeat itself (Pep- petta, 2010). Consequently, OAU was underpinned by the tenets of African identity, decolonisation and the membership in the international society (Twinomugisha, 2013). Its charter called for transcendence of ethnic and national differences and respect of sovereignty and the territorial integrity of other states and for their right to self-determination. Therefore

166 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 the main purpose of the OAU was to ensure by the belief in certain circles that regional that African states are liberated from all integration is a prerequisite for continental forms of colonialism. This institution was to integration (Williams, 2007). guarantee that Africans became the own- Nevertheless, the AU became the main ers and drivers of their own natural resourc- continental body in Africa; with regional es, economic and political development. bodies such as SADC and ECOWAS as its Moreover, this main body was to maintain building blocks. It was hoped that the AU peace, security and protection for the sov- will effect meaningful promotion of unity ereignty of its member states (Peppetta, and solidarity in the continent. It is against 2010). However, 30 years down the line, the this background that this paper draws from relevance of the OAU begun to be ques- Afrocentricity as propagated by Asante tioned. It is within this context that the year (2003) to analyse the capacity of the AU 1991 witnessed Muammar Gaddafi’s pro- in the realisation of the envisioned “African posal to reform the OAU (Twinomugisha, unity”. Apart from the negatively viewed 2013). This proposal ignited the debate that response of AU towards the Libyan crises in later prevailed the birth of the AU in the 2011, South Africa’s vote of the Resolution year 2001. In other words, the AU succeed- 1973 serves as the litmus test for contextu- ed the OAU as the continental body for alising the overall objective of this paper the African states. It is worth noting that the (Matheba, 2011). This is based on the fact metamorphosis of the OAU into the AU was that both South Africa and Libya spear- mainly advocated by South Africa, Libya headed the transformation of the OAU to and Nigeria. The idea behind the transfor- the AU. The foregoing analysis highlights mation of the OAU into the AU was partly that the two countries along with Nigeria driven by the African leaders’ common un- had common vision and a fathomable di- derstanding that the former had outlived its version by any of them is worth probed. mission and vision. This is to say that with the introduction of majority rule in South Africa 2. THE CONTEXT AND RELEVANCE OF THE AU in the 1990s, the OAU was considered to TOWARDS THE AFRICAN AGENDA have achieved its historic mission. As such, there was an urgent need for a reformed Hengari and Turianskyi (2014) is of the view continental body, with a new focus on that due to the adherence to the principles the developing a robust socio-economic of sovereignty and non-interference in the and development agenda for Africa. Al- internal affairs of member states, the OAU though Gaddafi immediately envisioned has failed to contribute to peace and sta- for the United States of Africa (USA), Thabo bility and people centred development. Mbeki (the then South African President) These led to critics that the OAU was failing envisioned for a more gradual approach or unwilling to condemn its member states. that would start with the consolidation of Therefore, it was predicated to be fast de- regional cooperation frameworks such as clining into the “old boys club”. This position the Southern African Development Com- implies that the tendency of the leaders of munity (SADC) and the Economic Commu- Africa’s liberation movements-cum-ruling nity of West African States (ECOWAS). The parties to shield each other in the midst of latter model of integration was influenced social and economic injustice and at the Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 167 expense of the masses of they ought to by deepening the principles of democra- serve. It is against this backdrop that the cy, transparency, accountability, integrity transformation of the OAU into the AU in and respect for human rights amongst oth- the year 2001 had carried hopes for good ers. It is against the above sentiments and governance among the African masses. principles of the APRM that the paper begs The establishment of Peace and Security to differ by virtue of that, if the mechanism Council (PSC) in the year 2004 provided the was successful, African States would not be AU with essential peace and security archi- struggling with good governance in their tecture (Qobo, 2007). Of most importance, own self. Literature points that out of the according to the Constitutive Act of 2001 participating states of APRM, some such (as cited by Ikome, 2007), the AU devel- as South Africa, Nigeria, Ghana, Rwanda, oped several norms that forge for the pro- Kenya, Algeria and Benin, do not show im- motion of culture for peace, security and provement and therefore not really moti- stability. These include sovereignty, equali- vating to non- participating states (Qobo, ty of member states; condemnation of un- 2007; Peppetta, 2010). constitutional changes of government and For instance, if it is not a campaign against intervene in the member state where there heads of states (Jacob Zuma’s case in are grave circumstances (Maake, 2009). South Africa); it is a complaint about rigged The combination of all of the above steps elections (claims in Kenya 2013 elections) by the AU was geared towards the reali- Mouzayian (2014). The paper compre- sation of the African leaders’ quest to find hends that perhaps the problem lies on the “African solutions for African Problems”. fact that the mechanism is voluntarily and Flowing from the above, there are percep- therefore not really binding. These cause a tions that the AU has been successful since divide and erode the vision of African unity. its establishment (Hengari & Turianskyi, This is because the mechanism as it states, 2014). In relation to this, Hengari and Turian- only deepens the principles of democracy, skyi (2014) argue that “If there were over 70 transparency, accountability, integrity and successful coup d’états during the OAU’s respect for human rights with “participating tenure, only a paltry 12 occurred since the states”. Implying that authoritarian states establishment of the AU. This extrapolation such as Libya and Zimbabwe are not nec- suggests that the AU instruments such as the essarily bound by the APRM and therefore African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM), no review would serve as an aid towards “including norms that have been adopt- a continental mission of common gover- ed relating to governance, human rights nance (Raphala, 2013). and democracy have gained traction and 3. CONDEMNATION OF UNCONSTITUTIONAL started to bear fruit” (Hengari & Turianskyi, CHANGE OF GOVERNMENT 2014). According to Mouzayian (2014) the APRM is a voluntary assessment tool institut- According to Sturman (2012), Gaddafi’s ed by African heads of state in 2003, to pro- role in pushing the AU reform had ulteri- mote good governance and sustainable or motives of securing his regime and ulti- development on the continent. Most im- mately, elevating it to the continental sta- portantly it does this in participating states tus. Hence, his authoritarian regime was

168 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 against the AU principles of democracy submits that there is struggle to agree on and respect for human rights as articulat- what is “common”. This “common solution” ed in article 4(h) of Constitutive Act of AU is a key denominator for the united Africa. 2001. Sturman (2012) further argues that in Contextually, Corrigan (2011) points that 2003, Gaddafi convinced the AU Assembly there is no clear answer in terms of what to adopt the Amendment of article 4(h) of is “common”. He highlights that the prob- the AU Act, to extend to the right of AU to lem is that what may be necessary for one intervene in the cases of serious threat to le- country may not be the case for the other. gitimate order. The undertaking here is that Therefore, this situation hinders the necessi- this threat to legitimate order is actually the ty of “urgency” that requires integrated in- rebels against his regime and therefore the puts. Even though most African states may legitimacy of that order. On an opposing share common parallels due to the fact view, the uprisings in Libya caused a division that they were once colonised, countries within the AU as some perceived the cam- do not have common problems that need paign against Gaddafi as unconstitution- common solutions. However, each can al removal of government and therefore learn from the other’s problems and solu- should be condemned since constitutional tions (Shai, 2016). For instance, the disloca- removal only happens through elections tion caused by Rwanda’s 1994 genocide (Twinomugisha, 2013). However, it should may not have a direct parallel in another be understood that the above contested country. But the problems may be ‘com- AU principle was meant for challenges di- mon’ to the extent that other countries rected only to democratically elected gov- have had to deal with other ‘dislocation’ ernments. Therefore, such arguments may issues such as migration and refugees. be discarded since the regime change ri- Gazing from the Libyan situation in the re- ots were evidently against an authoritarian cent past, it is safe to posit that the AU re- regime. Since 1969 when Gaddafi came sponse to Gaddafi’s war to stay in power into power, Libya has never had any gen- contrast with the rejection of coups d’etat. eral elections. Therefore, as compared to The foregoing analysis is influenced by the its North Africa counterparts such as Egypt impressive evidence that the AU has acted where the rebels had a strong army that decisively in Mali, Niger and Madagascar consequently overthrew President Hosni in order to maintain its principle of reject Mubarack, it cannot qualify as unconstitu- of unconstitutional change of government tional removal of government. In this vein, (Twinomugisha, 2013). However, in the case it is this paper’s conviction that the division of Libya a divergence from the principle of in the approach of the AU during the year state sovereignty and non-interference in 2011’s Arab spring in relation to the North the internal affairs is observable. This can African crisis highlights the need for AU PSC be explained in the fact that, although Af- to clarify as when and why the civilian led rica is making inroads in terms of becom- uprising against a head of state should not ing a democratic continent, there are still be defined as an ‘unconstitutional change several states that are undemocratic, but of government’. they are represented in the AU Assembly. In the light of the above analysis, this paper These countries include Swaziland and

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 169 Cameroon, among others (Raphala, 2013; ultimately cause many problems. For ex- Maleka, 2014). Therefore, they are threat- ample, currently the Kingdom of Swaziland ened by this popularisation of democracy is the member of the AU in good standing in Africa and the international community and Swaziland government does not ad- (Shai & Iroanya, 2014). Contrasting gover- here to objective no (g) on the article 3 nance values that prevail within Africa cer- in the Constitutive Act of the AU which is tainly contradict with the commitment to to promote democratic principles and in- democracy, constitutionalism and human stitutions, popular participation and good rights as professed by the AU. This is high- governance (African Union, 2001). Such sit- lighted by Corrigan (2015) when he writes uations need to be addressed as soon as that AU incorporates states ranging from possible because they have the potential the freest on the earth to the most repres- to cause problems in future. The AU must sive. For instance, out the 54 states in the be honest to itself and compel its member continent, 11 are rated to be free, 18 are states to adhere to its founding principles partially free, and 25 are not free (Mouzay- and objectives. The reality is that there is ian, 2014). Therefore, it breeds doubts for more likelihood of seeing what happened continental order amid the divergence of in Libya happening in Swaziland in future. continental countries. So what is the AU doing in order to prevent that? Because prevention is better than There were mixed emotions amongst Afri- dealing with the real problem. can leaders about how the Libyan crisis was handled. Firstly, some African leaders such Some African leaders such as the President as then Prime Minister of Kenya Raila Odin- of Zimbabwe (Robert Mugabe) blame the ga, questioned the acceptance of Libyan western forces for threatening African Uni- membership under the authoritarian lead- ty. These forces are accused of perpetuat- er Gaddafi. He argued that “in terms of the ing the selfish agenda of Western countries AU Constitutive Act, Article 3(g), one of the by perpetuating divisions among the Afri- objectives of the Union shall be to promote cans and African states. In consideration democratic principles and institutions, pop- of this backdrop, Mugabe and like-minded ular participation and good governance” African statesmen often exploit the anti-co- (Olali, 2011). According to Odinga, Libyan lonial rhetoric to undermine the legitimate government was against this objective and struggles of the masses of the countries that by that it was supposed to be side-lined they lead. Mugabe goes to an extent of from the AU. He further stated that “African accusing some African leaders for dinning Unity must be based on the common posi- and wining with the western forces at the tion on the issues of interest to the continent expense of African people (Kimenyi, 2014). and its people” (Olali, 2011:06). This paper He accuses them of putting their narrow shares the same sentiment with Odinga on selfish interests first. Some scholars such as his analysis on the issue of Libya, because Owuoche (2013) have also made contri- the first leadership that the AU should have bution to the debate when he stated that provided was to ensure that all its mem- “the AU has failed to follow Dr Kwame Nkru- ber states adhere to its founding principles mah’s vision of an African continent which and objectives. The failure to do that will enjoys autonomy and sovereignty in both

170 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 material and intellectual terms. The AU and 4. THE ELECTION OF NKOSAZANA DLAMI- its member states have abdicated their in- NI-ZUMA AS THE CHAIRPERSON OF AU tellectual and ideological responsibilities to COMMISSION Western donors and to Non-Governmental In January 2012, Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma Organisations (NGOs) funded by the same was elected as the chairperson of the AU donors” (Olali, 2011:07). In relation to fore- Commission which opened a huge debate going analysis, it is argued that external in- about the issue of the AU leadership. The terests are at the lead of reversing the little issue of leadership is at the heart of the gains that have been made by the African effectiveness of the AU and is particularly individuals and organisations insofar as the timely given that the Assembly of Heads of realisation of African Unity is concerned. State will elect the Chairperson of the AU This position does not in any way apportion Commission in the near future. Hence, the whole innocence on the part of Africans term of office for the current chairperson and their institutions for the slow progress is coming to an end and she (Dlamini-Zu- towards African Unity. ma) has indicated that she is not available to serve another term. Regardless of this, The former AU Commission chairperson it is important to note that the 2012 elec- Jean Ping, argues that “the case of AU’s tions of the chairperson of the AU Commis- intervention in Libya is a classic example of sion were highly contested by the incum- how African efforts to solve the continent’s bent Jean Ping (Gabone) and Nkosazana challenges go unreported or are twisted Dlamini-Zuma (South African). This elec- to suit a hostile agenda” (Ping, 2011). He tion divided the African continent into further stated that, African issues have long two groups, those who support Jean Ping suffered from either a lack of exposure in the and those who support Dlamini-Zuma. The mainstream media, marginalisation and election of Dlamini-Zuma left the camp of misrepresentation or from outright silencing Ping bitter and as the defeated group. The (Ping, 2011). The biased reporting that puts emerging of two camps on the race to the emphasis on the negativities about Africa leadership of AU exposed the African con- and not the positive stories should be un- tinent to external forces. The external forc- derstood within the context that most of es saw the African continent as one divid- the international media is owned by com- ed continent. The fierce struggle for power panies from the West. As such, the editori- was against the founding principle of the al decisions of these media platforms are AU. The main priority of the AU is to unite often channelled to suit the foreign policy African states. Unfortunately the election agenda of their countries. Flowing from the of the leadership of the AU was now used above, the question remains that; did the to divide the African states. Some leaders AU do enough to contribute to the attain- such as Ping, went to an extent of accus- ment of the overall AU objective of consol- ing South Africa as the country that needs idating democracy in the continent? For to dominate continental politics. Certain the authors of this paper, the AU measures African states did not want to accept the for promoting good governance in the election of Dlamini-Zuma as the new lead- continent are commendable, but obvious- er of the AU. Such conducts make it safe ly the challenges abound. Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 171 to state that “African Unity” remain a far- to compromise African Unity, because ex- fetched dream. The rejection of her elec- ternal forces become happy when there is tion was based on regionalism and squab- a division amongst African states. They use bles that will only contribute in dragging such divisions on their advantage to fulfil the continent backwards. Despite this, it is their narrowish and selfish interests at the worth noting the division of Africa over the expense of African people. The 2012 elec- question of the leadership of the AU Com- tions of the leadership of AU has exposed mission was fuelled by the fact that western African continent to the world. It proved countries such as France had interests on without reasonable doubt that African Uni- the outcome of this election. The forego- ty remains a farfetched dream. ing narrative should be understood within 5. DECONSTRUCTING THE NOTION THAT AU the context of the desperate need of the IS EQUIVALENT TO OAU WITHOUT THE “O” big powers such as France and the United States of America (USA) to [ab]use estab- The AU has proved several times that, it lished international organisations such as failed to stand for what it has been estab- the AU and UN as the instruments to pro- lished for. The AU has failed to prove itself mote and entrench their national interests that it is not the same old OAU, which was (Matheba, 2012). well-known for its inability to deal with real problems facing the continent. For exam- It is the well-considered view of this pa- ple in 2014, the continent was faced by per that, for the African states to excel in the crisis of Ebola. But how the AU handled achieving African Unity there is a need to this crisis was not convincing and encour- put the end on the issue of regionalism and aging. A popular African newspaper car- national chauvinism. Africans need to learn ried an opinion piece entitled, “Where is to trust each other irrespective of their na- Africa?” (Ndemo, 2014). This question was tional or regional differences. If one African in reference to the fact that the AU which is given the responsibility to drive the African was expected by many Africans to lead agenda, it is important for him/ her to be the efforts against the epidemic was miss- given a chance, space and support to do ing in action. The author suggested that so. In other words, a judgement on a leader the AU should have immediately called must not be based on regionalism, but on for an “Ebola Summit” to discuss the crisis the leadership qualities that one has been and find ways to effectively deal with it. In- portraying in his/her previous and current stead, the AU was absent and left the job leadership responsibilities. Central to the to governments and organizations from weakness of the Africans is the propensity outside the continent (Kimenyi, 2015). The to allow external forces to infiltrate Africa “wait and see” attitude on the part of the and take decisions on its behalf; either di- AU support the fact that its inability to act rectly or indirectly. Most African leaders are on issues that are facing the African conti- captured; they continue to champion the nent opens a vacuum to foreign states to interest of external forces at the expense capitalise on that and step in to fill such a of African people. Such instances continue vacuum (Vines, 2013). The external forces fills the vacuum by absorbing most African

172 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 states to rely on them as donor sponsorship gain confidence from a man next door. and also formulate institutions which turn Secondly, your family will perceive you out to represent them and be African by as one useless man, because you do not names (Vines, 2013). have a meaningful role to play in their life. The point here is that, if the AU in many cas- The following analogy captures the depth es fails to intervene in many wanting cas- of the AU’s dilemma. That is, if you are a es, then its affiliated member states will lose man and you have a family and every time confidence on it. They will also perceive it when your family has a problem, the next as being a useless Union and the external door man comes in and resolves problems forces that always come in when the mem- on your behalf; then you must know that, ber states are faced with problems will be you are in a very serious problem. Firstly, cherished by the member states. If African your family will lose confidence in you and states start cherishing the external forces, it means there is a very serious problem and ing “democratic principles and institutions, this misnomer would prevail the crisis of rel- popular participation and governance;” evance for the AU. Regardless of the merits and promoting “peace, security, and sta- of the above analysis, this authors’ alterna- bility on the continent” calls for the partici- tive view is that the AU’s challenges must pation of a supranational organization such not be seen in isolation. Like other interna- as the African Union (African Union, 2001). tional organisations, the AU is nothing more But based on its progress, it is safe to state than its constituent parts. For it to be suc- that the AU is either not willing or not capa- cessful in enforcing African Unity and tap- ble of carrying out its objectives effectively ing into it to find continental problems, it is (Carin, 2014). necessary for political and socio-economic For a continent that is comprised of 54 changes within its member states and their countries which vary widely in terms of respective regions to be given due atten- land size, population, ethnic and religious tion without any fear or favour. diversity, and levels of development, the At other times, the AU has been willing to organisation that is expected to serve as act, but has been too slow in taking ac- the primary centralised coordinating insti- tion. Besides addressing crises, the AU is tution in uniting Africans and advancing also charged with the responsibility of co- their joint welfare and also enhancing their ordinating continent- wide development peaceful co-existence must be the one efforts and serving as the voice of Africans that fully understands the various problems in matters of global governance (Kimenyi, that currently confront the required policies 2015). The AU has the responsibility to tack- and also has the legal authority to do so le the most pressing issues on the continent (Kimenyi, 2015). Of course, the AU cannot including accelerating “the political and function effectively if it is riddled by incom- socio-economic integration of the conti- petence, limited resources, corruption and nent;” helping “promote and defend Afri- other bureaucratic inefficiencies. Thus, the can common positions on issues of interest key to making the AU a successful instru- to the continent and its peoples;” promot- ment and powerful voice is reconstructing

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 173 and reconstituting both the institution and modelled and experimented amongst Afri- its organs so as to create a political and can states before Pretoria can “look East” bureaucratic institution that functions ac- (Nkadimeng, 2016). cording to the rule of law and serves as a true representative of the wishes and aspirations of the broad cross-section of Afri- 7. PEACE AND SECURITY AS A FORCE TO can people (Nolan, 2013). It is only such an ACHIEVE AFRICAN UNITY efficiently run organisation that can deal effectively with various problems that are Africa still suffers from violent mobilization currently facing the continent. by various ethnic and religious groups (Mpe, 2016). This is the case in spite the fact 6. REGIONAL INTEGRATION AS A FORCE TO that, unlike the OAU, the AU has the man- AFRICAN UNITY date to intervene in these crises (Kimenyi, 2015). But it has been unable to deal direct- The AU is expected to spearhead the con- ly with this violence, as seen in intractable tinent’s regional integration effort and civil conflicts in the Eastern Democratic Re- help provide viable regional integration public of Congo (DRC) and South Sudan, units, which could serve as mechanisms as well as the increasing threat of terrorism for cooperation in investment, provision by groups such as Boko Haram, al-Shabab, of infrastructure, management of the en- the Lord’s Resistance Army, and al-Qaida vironment, and growth and development in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) (Ndemo, (Carin, 2014). Unfortunately, in reality, it is 2014; Mpe, 2016; Shai, 2016). Although unlikely that the proposed Continental Free there have been some notable successes Trade Area (CFTA) a carryover from the such as in the case of Somalia. In many re- Abuja Treaty will be realised by 2016 or any spects, it has been stated before; the AU time soon because a large number of issues has either been extremely slow to inter- at the regional economic level of Africans, vene in various conflicts in the continent or are Africa-specific (and hence, are unlikely has done so ineffectively. The launch of the to be lobbied for by other countries), and African Standby Force (ASF) has already are least likely to be rejected (Carin 2014). been delayed several times, even though The slow progress towards the regional inte- it was expected to have been established gration amongst African states contributes and made operational by 2010 but largely to the failure of the AU to improve the so- due to limited resources from the member cio-economic and political relations of Af- countries the targeted time frame was not rican states (Murithi, 2013). In concurrence reached (Dersso, 2014). with the popular adage that “charity begins at home”, the AU must open a plat- 8. CONCLUSION form for inter-trade amongst African states and also develop a mechanism that will This paper has mainly relied on document ensure that African states prioritise to assist study to probe the principle of “African each other before external forces come in. Unity” as a pillar of the AU. Parallel to the For example, the formation of economic problematique of this paper is the fact that associations like BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, previous studies on this subject have either China and South Africa) should have been aligned themselves to the neo-colonial 174 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 discourse or the anti-colonial rhetoric. As OAU to AU have since left the presidencies such, this paper sought to bridge the wid- of their countries and therefore have limit- ening gap between these two discourses ed opportunity (if there is any) in shaping in order to deconstruct an alternative Af- the agenda of the AU. In addition to the rocentric perspective. Based on selected slow pace of regional integration, there is test cases, this paper has confirmed that also an element of mistrust between lead- African Unity is essential if the developmen- ers from different regions in the continent. tal and socio-economic agenda of the AU Above all, there is no gainsaying that the is to be successful. Unfortunately, the ma- complexity and multiplicity of domestic jor finding of this study is that; due to both challenges facing the regional powers of internal pitfalls and their exacerbation by Africa such as South Africa and Nigeria are Western interests; it appears that the Afri- making it difficult for their leaders to pay can unity remains a far-fetched dream. adequate attention to African affairs and This dilemma is worsened by the fact that international relations as a whole. the champions of the transformation of the

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Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 177 GENDER DISCRIMINATION AND THE CAPITALIST ECONOMY IN POST-APARTHEID SOUTH AFRICA

M Masenya

University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

The purpose of the paper is to demonstrate that the majority of women are still relegated to inconsequential jobs in the farming and the domestic sectors of the economy. The paper argues that there is a continued democratisation of gender discrimination. The role of women in the capitalist economy has been underrated over the years due to a variety of discriminatory practices embedded with societal progress. The association of women with private household domain has meant that their economic contributions have remained unrewarded in the capitalist development. The will use theoretical data to show that the situation reached its extremes in the former colonial societies that have also experienced capitalist apartheid development such as that in South Africa. Post-1994, the hyperbol- ic pronouncements of societal transformation and gender equality have apparently remained national public stunt rhetoric, with negligible pragmatic effect. The paper concludes, therefore, that the trajectory of capitalist development pursued in a democratic South Africa is not amenable to women empowerment and that gender discrimination and exclusions in the economy will persist.

Keywords: Capitalist economy, Democ- and to deriver policy conclusions (Carola, ratization, Gender discrimination, Societal 2004). The transformation process has had transformation far-reaching consequences for institutions in South Africa. The new policy agenda, 1. INTRODUCTION with its focus on the eradication of all forms For a long time, the South African economy of discrimination, has forced institutions is characterized by peculiarities in many re- to re-think their current practices and ar- spects. With the official end of Apartheid rangements. In 1994, South Africa emerged in 1994, the new openness also reached from a long history of apartheid, the chief labour market issues and a number of pro- purpose of which was the legislated social found analyses have been conducted to exclusion of the indigenous black commu- arrive at a comprehensive picture of the nity (Greed, 2005). Apartheid policies and current constitution of the labour market laws enforced separation and disparities

178 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 between races. Other than through the de- but the specification of race in the proper- ployment of state repression in explicitly ra- ty section confuses the significance of gen- cially coded laws, oppressively segmented der inequality as a general, rather than an labour markets, and brutal policing, apart- auxiliary, concern with regard to economic heid’s enforcement can also be accom- rights. It also complicates the significance plished through subtler, covert means that of the intersection of race and gender dis- evade and disguise race while reproducing crimination for black women’s social, le- it nonetheless (Marks, Hassim, January-Bar- gal and economic status historically. It has dill, Khumalo & Olcker, 2000). These policies been observed there is a distinct division of and laws not only maintained an econom- work based on age, sex and race (Walker, ic, social, and political hierarchy based on 2001). This division of work is influenced by colour, but also regulated that hierarchy socio-cultural and economic factors and through a system of sanctions and discour- the physical nature of role involved. The agements in the public sphere, through or- analysis of gender is based on the fact that ganizational policy and procedure; in the specific participation of women, men and private sphere, through group segregation children in production is significant and var- and permit systems (Marks et al, 2000). The ies with the traditional gender division of la- basic elements of the post-apartheid cap- bour and other demographic and environ- italist economy programme were thrashed mental factors (Orloff, 2011). out in the constitutional negotiations be- 2. GLOBAL APARTHEID tween the apartheid government and the African National Congress (ANC) in the Global apartheid is a reality marked by early 1990s, making it possible for the tran- the operation of undemocratic institutions sition to formal democracy in 1994. This re- that systematically generate economic in- sulted in a core compromise between, on equality (Momsen, 2003). Momsen (2003) the one hand, constitutional protection for further defined it as an “institutional system existing property rights at the time, essen- of minority rule whose attributes include: tially those of the white minority and, on the differential access to basic human rights; other, a constitutional commitment to land wealth and power structured by race and reform to bring about equitable access to place; structural racism, embedded in all South Africa’s natural resources (Carola, global economic processes, political insti- 2004). tutions and cultural assumptions; and the international practice of double standards While the principle of gender equality is im- that assume inferior rights to be appropri- plicit in the provisions of the resulting proper- ate for certain others, defined by location, ty clause of the South African Constitution, origin, race or gender”. South Africa was the primary concern of this section of the certainly an ideal site for the UN-sponsored Constitution has always been to redress the human rights conference and antiracist deeply racialised inequalities in access, use pilgrimage; in all honesty, the country can and control over land that is deeply root- only be characterized as post-apartheid in ed in South Africa’s history (Heilman, 2012). the narrowest terms the justice has yet to Clearly, past racial discrimination has af- be achieved (Nzomo, 1995). Hence, the fected both black women and black men,

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 179 concerted struggle against apartheid must and maintain the apartheid policies of ex- continue in South Africa as well as in the clusion, segregation and oppression of the world at large. majority. Its institutions and leaders were not representative of all South Africa’s people The biggest threat to human rights, and (Speer, 2012). The apartheid state machin- to human life and life chances, particular- ery was incredibly cumbersome, stretching ly those of racially subjugated peoples, is from the central government in Pretoria to the structural violence that emanates from black local authorities and the Bantustan global apartheid. Structural violence is the system, as well as the various departments symbolic, psychological, and physical as- responsible for Coloured and Indian affairs saults against human psyches, physical (Anokye & Gupta, 2012). Although certain bodies, and sociocultural integrity that em- parts of the state were efficient, this much anate from situations and dominant insti- decentralised system of government was tutions (Peter & Drobic, 2012). This broader very inefficient. Furthermore, the workings range of symbolic, psychological, econom- of the government were not at all trans- ic, and environmental assaults is neglected parent, with little room for freedom of infor- because the conventional human rights mation, a free press or open debate. The system has mainly focused on liberal no- provision of and access to basic social ser- tions of individuals’ political and civil rights vices were skewed against the Black ma- within nation-states. Yet, ultimately and jority. The economy failed to provide for ironically, these structurally induced forms the basic needs of citizens; millions of peo- of violence set the stage for the very politi- ple were not supplied with accessible wa- cal abuses that have traditionally been the ter, adequate sanitation or electricity. The focus of human rights monitoring. A central same can be said about the state of the issue that has not gotten its due is the ques- educational and health systems on the eve tion of social and economic rights, which of 1994. are controversial in their potentially profound implications for income and wealth In labour market, South Africa was often redistribution (Lumumba, 2003). These rights devoted only to racial comparisons (Caro- are highly contested and effectively sabo- la, 2004). Apartheid was structured socially, taged by structures of power and privilege politically and economically along racial dictated primarily by transnational forces lines (Sen, 1993). Through the creation of such as the International Monetary Fund separate systems of operation, including (IMF), the World Bank, and the World Trade the structure of the economy, larger and Organisations (WTO), and U.S. foreign poli- wider income disparities existed and func- cy-entities. tioned in a way that served to racialise the South African society. This economic dis- 3. SOUTH AFRICA’S APARTHEID CAPITALISM parity between the races was further en- The South Africa inherited by the post-apart- trenched systemically through political and heid government in 1994 presented both legislative measures resulting in the black challenges and opportunities (Benjamin, majority of the population being ghet- 2001). At the political level, the apartheid toised, politically, socially and econom- state was not simply designed to service

180 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ically (Sen, 1993). Black townships were eas were no longer considered to be eco- increasingly marginalized in terms of infra- nomically productive, they were expected structural development, access to basic to return to their families in the reserves. services, inferior education, systems, lack of In sport, there was still segregation and in- housing development, and the availability equality among players. For example in of inferior jobs. swimming sport, almost 99 percent of South Africans people were not allowed to work Africa’s swimming pools were reserved for in urban areas (Mjoli, 1999). In order for Afri- white people only and most whites had cans to be employed in urban areas, they access to all the sporting amenities they had to carry a ‘pass’ (Identity document) desired while blacks only had token facil- from the age of 16 (Sivanandan, 1981; Ran- ities (Hargreaves, 1997). The government gan & Gilmartin, 2002). The pass had to be spent more on sport for the whites than for in black people’s possessions at all times as the blacks. The inequality and segrega- it indicated whether or not the bearer was tion also continued to other areas such as lawfully in a certain area. If blacks were beaches, hospitals, transport and others found without the pass, they were arrest- (Hargreaves, 1997). There have been some ed and these pass laws enabled the gov- changes in the statutory position of women ernment to control the flow of Africans into regarding marriage and divorce laws, but white areas. Even though the policies of these did not extend to women. Instead apartheid were meant to affect the whole the laws tortured them, for example, rape black population, women were the most laws and maintenance claims against un- affected. While men constituted the ma- married fathers continued to favor men jority of the cheap labour, women were ex- which resulted in the majority of women pected to support their families without the not laying charges in order to avoid the hu- help of their husbands (Kabeer, 2001). This miliation of cross-examination of the sexual created problems for women who already activities in court publicly and they were suffered discrimination based on their gen- also required to give impossible evidence der. in order to succeed (Rangan & Gilmartin, 2002). Although all forms of racism were of- The system of migrant labor and the estab- ficially ended with the historic 1994 election lishment of Bantustans or reserves for blacks of Nelson Mandela as South Africa’s presi- are the two most far-reaching aspects of dent, apartheid and gender discrimination apartheid (Hargreaves, 1997). Blacks were still persists. only allowed to live in white urban areas in order to sell their labour and their families were not allowed to come and live with Black South Africans have suffered a num- them but instead had to remain in the re- ber of inequalities. For instance, the whites serves. In most cases, women were the consumed 60 percent of the nation’s in- ones who stayed in the rural areas with their come, were eligible for free and compul- children while the men went to urban areas sory education, enjoyed extreme good to look for jobs (Rangan & Gilmartin, 2002). health and lived in luxurious homes with the When those who were working in urban ar- service of poorly paid domestic workers.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 181 On the other hand, Africans did not have and economic deprivation combined with access to free and compulsory education patriarchy had a staggering impact on the and the housing they were provided with lives of millions of black women. For many in towns was inadequate, lacking running poor black women it meant living on the water or electricity (Sivanandan, 1981). periphery: economically, politically and Furthermore, the gap between black and also in the labour market. The denial of white people in wages and social and wel- proper education through apartheid and fare services in South Africa had not de- being wrenched out of school to take care creased much. Discrimination theorists ar- of siblings or earn more money for their gued that female employment conditions poverty stricken family resulted in many are negatively affected by certain stereo- black women being pushed into unskilled, types with regard to their commitment to low paying work as domestic servants or their professional career (Nzomo, 1995). As working in a factory. a consequence, employing males is seen as a more secure choice than employing females whereas males in general receive 4. SOCIETAL CAPITALISM AND DISCRIMINA- better treatment in the labour market (Pe- TION ter & Drobic, 2012). The economy inherited by South Africa’s The old apartheid structure of the econo- first democratic government in 1994 had my had a direct impact on the structure been historically constructed on a founda- and workings of the labour market (Mom- tion of deliberate racial inequality (Haupt & sen, 2003). The creation of a steady sup- Fester, 2012). Colonial dispossession of the ply of cheap, unskilled labour into min- indigenous black majority had culminated ing, manufacturing and farming assisted in the passage of the Native Land Act of white owned industries in developing and 1913, which ultimately provided for some amassing large profits. It also allowed for 87% of the land area to be occupied and the creation of policies and legislation that owned by whites and their racially exclusive developed the architecture for the apart- state. The black population was subjected heid landscape. These policies and pieces to a despotic labour regime, centered on of legislation were designed to push black the circulation of contract migrant work- people onto the periphery of social, polit- ers between Native Reserves later home- ical and economic existence creating a lands and the mines and industries of white cesspool of poverty and at the same time South Africa, restrictions upon black move- creating an abundant flow of wealth to a ment and settlement in urban areas, and minority grouping of people (Lumumba, deliberate denial of educational oppor- 2003). tunities to all but a handful of the racially oppressed Africans, Coloured and Indians The insidious nature of apartheid and its (Yvonne, 2010). Although the industrialisa- objective of dehumanizing black people tion of South Africa was eventually to lead had an enormous impact, holistically on to the undermining of the classic notions the lives of black people (Speer, 2012; Tasli, of segregation, and although apartheid 2011 & Wallace, 2005). Racial segregation

182 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 was eventually to be undone in large mea- area which women dominate, and which sure, through the irreversible growth of an needs to be part of economic analysis is urbanized and industrially organised black an informal sector. In societies dominated working class the legacy of discrimination by patriarchal social relations, men have by 1994 was still one of systematised racial greater control over economic activities inequality, in which the advantages of the with higher earning potential, or over the economy redounded overwhelmingly to income derived from those activities, while the benefit of the white minority. women may be concentrated in activities with lower returns (Alford, 2007).

The racial disparities of apartheid were sys- Women were victims of injustice not be- tematically intertwined with gender discrim- cause of what society did to them, but be- ination. Black women, historically, were left cause of what society did not do to them behind in rural areas and homelands and meaning that if society does not change, the further reaches of the economy to en- then it is up to the women to change so- gage in the tasks of household reproduc- ciety. Because women continued to con- tion, and where they were able to secure form to the social and societal norms with industrial employment, encountered lower which they were brought up, society had wages and equally, if not more, autocrat- no reason to change (Rangan & Gilmartin, ic labour conditions than men (Akpotor, 2002). Only when a culture gives society a 2009). Indeed, apartheid was to foster sys- reason to change, will it finally be altered. tematic informal as well as formal discrim- Because of the norms of society, it was not ination against women of all races, and up to women to make their lives success- hence to enforce the contours of patriar- ful; rather it was up to their future husbands chy and inequality. The challenge of con- (Kabeer, 2001). fronting this legacy, which in the present era has concluded in appalling levels of 5. DEMOCRATIC SOUTH AFRICA AND LEGIS- physical and sexual violence against wom- LATION OF GENDER DISCRIMINATION en, remains one of the greatest challenges South Africa’s constitution, one of the most faced by government today. progressive in the world, prohibits discrimi- By and large, South Africa’s women are nation through an equity rights framework situated at home in a certain traditionally (Mafunisa, 2006). The National Assembly of female sectors of industry which is usually the Promotion of Equality and Prevention of at less skilled and labour income levels and Unfair Discrimination Bill illustrates the scope in the informal sector (Delphy, 1984). The of this framework. This legislation defines heart of the capitalist economy such as en- “unfair discrimination” as “an act of omis- ergy, mining, metal, engineering, transport, sion, including any condition, requirement, and petrol; and chemical is all but closed policy, situation, rule or practice, that has, to women. In South Africa, employers in or is likely to have, the direct or indirect ef- this sector unashamedly offer training op- fect of unjustly or unfairly causing disadvan- portunities and employment to males only tage to a person or persons on one or more (Manase, 2003). On the other hand, one of the prohibited grounds.” The “prohibited grounds” include “race, gender, sex, preg-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 183 nancy, marital status, ethnic or social origin, one on the basis of race, gender, sex etc. color, sexual orientation, age, disability, reli- Gender equality is therefore, enshrined in gion, conscience, belief, culture, language the Constitution as a fundamental princi- and birth or any other recognized ground.” ple. The Constitution provides specifical- The bill also makes discrimination based on ly for gender equality, affirmative action, class distinctions a punishable offense. The freedom and security of the person and so- legislation holds the “market economy” cio-economic rights. In this section of the Bill which “discriminates all the time against of Rights, emphasis is placed on the correc- those who cannot afford access to quality tive measures to be taken to promote the housing, health care services, credit and in- achievement of equality. Chapter 7 of the surance” accountable. constitution mandates local government to promote social and economic develop- 5.1 The Constitution of the Republic of South ment of communities and community par- Africa of 1996 ticipation in matters of local government. Constitution is the cornerstone of democra- 5.2 The White Paper on Affirmative Action cy in South Africa. In terms of Equality, the of 1998 Bill of Rights articulates that the state may not unfairly discriminate directly or indirect- The first overarching policy to be legislat- ly against anyone on one or more grounds, ed in South Africa to promote equality in including race, gender, sex, pregnancy, the Public Service was the White Paper on marital status, ethnic or social origin, colour, Affirmative Action of 1998. Affirmative ac- sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, tion can be defined as laws, programmes conscience, belief, culture, language and or activities designed to redress past imbal- birth. Act 108 of 1996, Chapter 2: Section 9 ances and to amend the conditions of indi- further emphasizes equality of mankind. It viduals and groups who have been disad- prohibits unfair discrimination against any- vantaged on the grounds of race, gender or disability. The goal of this policy was to and recognizes that these groups are poor- speed up the creation of a representative ly represented at decision-making levels and equitable Public Service and to build and in other technical occupational class- an environment that supports and enables es (Moagi, 2008). those who have been historically disadvan- 5.3 Employment Equity Act no 55 of 1998 taged by unfair discrimination to fulfill their (EEA) maximum potential within it so that the Public Service may derive the maximum The EEA is the principal legislation for pro- benefit of their diverse skills and talents to tecting and promoting the right to equal- improve service delivery. The White Paper ity in the workplace. It is designed to refers to women as one of the designated overcome the disadvantages that have groups race and disability being the other been endured by historically marginalized groups such as people with disabilities and women. The EEA aims to achieve equality in the workplace and the equitable repre-

184 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 sentation of disadvantaged groups in all erment Act No 53 of 2003 occupational categories and levels in the South Africa’s post-apartheid era was con- workforce. The aim of the EEA as stated fronted with challenges such as poverty, achieves a diverse workforce broadly rep- high inequality and marginalisation of black resentative of the people; and to promote people predominantly rural women with- economic development and efficiency in in the economic sector. The Broad-based the workforce. The EEA seeks to achieve Black Economic Empowerment (BBBEE) equity in employment through promoting is a form of economic empowerment by equal opportunities and fair employment the South African government in responds practices. To achieve this objective the to the criticism of the narrow nature of EEA requires employers to eliminate unfair empowerment in the country. The Broad- discrimination in their employment policies based Black Economic Empowerment Act, and practices, as is stated in Section 6 of 2003 was enacted to resolve the lack of the EEA that ‘no person may unfairly dis- representation of black people within the criminate, directly or indirectly, against an economic sector and promote communi- employee, in any employment policy or ty empowerment especially in rural areas. practice, on one or more grounds. Broad-based Black Economic Empower- 5.4 National Policy Framework on Women’s ment Act, 2003 established a legislative Empowerment and Gender Equality framework that promotes black economic empowerment in South Africa (Mafuni- The National Policy Framework on Wom- sa, 2006). The concept of BBBEE means the en’s Empowerment and Gender Equality empowerment of all black people includ- was formulated by the National Office on ing women, youth, and people with disabil- the Status of Women. This policy frame- ities and those living in rural areas (Broad- work was adopted by Parliament in 2000, based Black Economic Empowerment Act, and provides guidelines to spheres of gov- 2003). This demonstrates the importance of ernment with regards to the formulation of women within the economy and in resolv- gender policies. Gender Policy Framework ing the perpetuation of gender inequality was established to provide a clear vision in rural areas. and framework to guide the process of developing laws, policies, procedures and In the introduction of Broad-based Black practices which will serve to ensure equal Economic Empowerment Act, 2003, it is rights and opportunities for women and stated that South Africa’s economy has men in all spheres and structures of govern- excluded a vast majority of its people in ment as well as in the workplace, the com- the ownership of assets and possession of munity and the family. The Policy Frame- advanced skills. However, Broad-based work recommends gender mainstreaming Black Economic Empowerment Act, 2003 as an approach towards achieving gender promote equality and increasing participa- equality, and also stresses the importance tion of black people within economic sec- of Women’s Empowerment as a further re- tor. The participation of women within the quirement for achieving gender equality. economy has that potential to empower them and thus, could bring about gender 5.5 Broad-Based Black Economic Empow-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 185 inequality within the country. BBBEE tries to en to greater risks and livelihood vulnera- resolve the marginalisation and discrimina- bility and their little contribution to decision tion of black people within the economy. making limit their participation in communi- This shows the commitment of the South Af- ty development. Their higher time of work rican government to resolve the perpetua- indicates a higher workload, which has tion of poverty and thus, reduce the gen- implications for healthy living and nutrition dered discrimination within the country. of their children. The lack of control over resources and lower input into decision 6. GENDER MAINSTREAMING among women is suggestive of livelihood Mainstreaming is a process that brings what immobility, which may subject women to can be seen as marginal into the core busi- poverty. Their mobility is also limited by both ness and main decision-making process religion and culture implying they cannot of an institution (Yvonne, 2010). The term take advantage of nearby livelihood op- mainstreaming is derived from the objec- portunities. Therefore, it is essential that tive to prioritize gender equality as a de- there should be an increase of attention velopment activity. An important element placed in women rights and security on a in the mainstreaming strategy is to give at- gendered approach. Empowering women tention to gender equality by influencing will mean sustainable development, pov- goals, strategies and resource allocations, erty reduction, and conflict resolution and and thus bring about real changes in poli- mostly they will feel secured. Women em- cies, programmes and other activities. It is powerment and gender equality is central essential for good governance and is criti- to human security. Improved water supply cal if the Public Service wants to ensure that services in rural areas can in turn give wom- institutions, their policies and programmes en more time for productive endeavours, respond to the needs and interests of all adult education, empowerment activities employees, and distribute benefits equita- and leisure. Therefore, the promotion of bly between men and women. gender mainstreaming is pivotal for resolving all forms of discrimination and gender 7. CONCLUSION inequality that exist in societies and in the In rural society’s men play important role households. in allocating resources, decision making LIST OF REFERENCES and community regulatory activities. On the other hand women’s roles are domes- Alford, D. 2007. Right to work and access tic chores and processing. The roles of men to water: An assessment. Journal of Interna- are crucial in securing household liveli- tional Development 19: 511-526. hoods but the overbearing of men’s role Akpotor, J. 2009. Promotion of gender in rural areas overshadowed women’s po- equality and women empowerment: A mil- tentials. Women have less control over re- lennium development goal. Gender and sources despite their immense contribution Behaviour 7(2): 2504-2549. and ownership of resources. They also have less input into the household decision. Their Anokye, N. A., & Gupta, J. 2012. Reconcil- lack of control to resources exposes wom- ing IWRM and water delivery in Ghana: The

186 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 potential and the challenges. Physics and in integrated water resources manage- Chemistry of the Earth 47(48): 33-45. ment: The case of Zimbabwe. Physical and Chemistry of the Earth 28(20-27): 967-971. Benjamin, S. 2001. The masculinization of the state and the feminization of poverty. Marks, R., Shireen, H., January-Bardill, N., Agenda 48. Khumalo, B., & Olicker, L. 2000. Gender, race and class dynamics in post-apartheid Carola, G. 2004. Direct and indirect gen- South Africa. Commonwealth Avenue. Bos- der discrimination. International Journal of ton. USA. Manpower 25(4): 321-342. Mjoli, N. 1999. Democratising control of Delphy, F. 1984. Close to home: A mentalist water resources. Agenda Feminist Media analysis of women’s oppression. The Univer- 15(42): 60-65. sity Press: Amherst. Moagi, A. 2008. “A gendered perspective Greed, C. 2005. An investigation of the ef- on issues and challenges surrounding land fectiveness of gender mainstreaming as a tenure security in South Africa.” An Analysis means of integrating the needs of women of Critical Security Studies 3(12): 213-223. and men into spatial planning in the United Kingdom. Progress in Planning 64: 243-321. Momsen, J. H. 2004. Gender and development. Routledge. London and New York. Hargreaves, J. 1997. Women’s sport, development, and cultural diversity: the South Nzomo, M. 1995. Women and democrati- African experience. Women’s Studies Inter- zation struggles in Africa. What relevance national Forum 20(2): 191-209. to postmodernist discourse? Routledge. London and New York. 131-141. Haupt, T. & Fester, F. 2012. Women-owned construction enterprises: A South African Orloff, A. S. 2011. Gender and the social assessment. Journal of Engineering, Design rights of citizenship: The comparative anal- and technology 10(1): 52-71. ysis of gender relations and welfare states. American Sociological Review 58:303-348. Kabeer, N. 2001. Reflections on the - mea surement of empowerment. Discussing Peter, S., & Drobnic, S. 2013. Women and Women’s Empowerment Theory and Prac- their memberships: Gender gap in relation- tice. SIDA Studies No. 3. AB:Stockholm. al dimension of social inequality. Journal of Novum Grafiska. Economics 31:32-48.

Lumumba, N.D.S. 2003. African feminist dis- Rangan, H., & Gilmartin, M. 2002. Gender, course. A Review of Essay. New York Press. traditional authority, and the politics of ru- New York. ral reform in South Africa. Development and Change 33(4): 633-658. Mafunisa, M. J. 2006. Enhancing gender equity in the public service: The case of Sen, G. 1993. Women’s empowerment and Limpopo Province. Journal of Public Ad- human rights: The Challenge to Policy. Pa- ministration 41(2.1): 258-269. per presented at the Population Summit of the World’s Scientific Academies. Manase, G. 2003. Mainstreaming gender

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 187 Sivanandan, A. 1981. Race, class and caste Manpower 40(12): 2379-2398. in South Africa: an open letter to no sizwe. Yvonne, A. (2010). Equity, diversity and in- Race and Class 22: 293-301. clusion. International Journal of Economics Speer, J. 2012. Participatory Governance 29(1): 78-96. Reform: A good strategy for increasing governance responsiveness and improving public services. International Journal of

188 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 INFUSING RESEARCH ACTIVITIES INTO COMMUNITY ENGAGE- MENTS: A STUDY OF SOUTH AFRICA

J Gumbo

University of Venda

ABSTRACT

University academic is involved in four main activities namely teaching and learning of undergraduate and postgraduate students; research and fund raising and community engagements. The purpose of this paper is to review what is involved in community engagement by determining the factors that contribute to community engagement. The factors that underpin community engagement from my perspective are the following: teaching and learning of students, writing proposals to attract research funds (fund raising), then undertaking research as activity of knowledge generation and lastly carrying out the research in or with the community (community engagement). The research is mainly undertaken by postgraduate students after following a research concept developed by the supervisor/ promoter. The supervisor develops the research concept based on the University’s research thrust on niche and non-niche areas. The University develops these research niche areas based on its unique geographical location and thus be able to attract research funding from national and international sources. The aim of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) is to improve the access of communities to safe drinking water and thus reducing diarrheal diseases. One way of improving the drinking water quality of rural communities is the promotion of ceramic water filters (CWF). The traditional clay pot is now modernised by adding sawdust during its manufacture and is now called ceramic water filter. The CWF can filter out pathogens thus improving the physical-chemical and microbial quality of surface waters to drinking water standards. This results in reducing and preventing incidents of diarrhoea in rural communities. The manufacture of CWF can be done by promoting the traditional potter who is resident in the rural communities. The traditional potter is the natural person since they have accumulated wealth of knowledge and experience in making ordinary clay pots used for cooking and water storage. The postgraduate students would then take part in the research activities involving the ceramic water filters and clay material. The involvement of postgraduate students (PGS), the researchers and the potters is part of community engagement. This is part of the reducing diarrheal diseases in the community by use of simple ceramic water filter.

Keywords: Ceramic water filter, Community engagement, Rural communities, Safe drinking water

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 189 1. INTRODUCTION of this paper is to review what is involved in community engagement by determining A University academic is involved in four the factors that contribute to community main activities namely teaching and learn- engagement. The factors that underpin ing of undergraduate and postgraduate community engagement from my per- students; research and fund raising and spective are the following: the theoretical community engagements. The research is aspects of teaching and learning of stu- mainly undertaken by postgraduate students, writing proposals to attract research dents (Hons, Masters and PhD) students funds, then undertaking research as activi- after following a research concept devel- ty of knowledge generation and lastly car- oped by the supervisor/promoter. The su- rying out the research in or with the com- pervisor develops the research concept munity (community engagement). based on the University’s research thrust on niche and non-niche areas. The purpose

Figure 1: The interconnectedness of the research agenda 2. TEACHING AND LEARNING AT THE UNI- cal Sciences; the second order level is 1406 VERSITY OF VENDA Geology and Earth Sciences/Geosciences and the program in Hydrology and Water At the University of Venda I teach modules Resources falls on the third level in 140665 that contribute to a four year Bachelor of Hydrology and Water Resources Science Earth Science in Hydrology and Water Re- (CESM, 2008:153, 156-157). According to sources. The Bachelor program has a hi- Pathirana, Koster, de Jong, Uhlenbrook, erarchical classification according to the (2012) hydrology embraces a number of Department of Higher Education and Train- fields such as aquatic ecology, sanitary ing under the first order is CESM 14: -Physi engineering, water supply engineering, hy-

190 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 draulics, water resources management/ Thompson et al. (2012) requires higher or- governance and hydrological modelling. der, reflective, metacognitive and critical thinking skills. Then Neumann, Parry and Hydrology is defined as the water draining Becher (2002) add another dimension that a river basin involving surface waters and the students require skills for memory reten- underground (groundwater); an under- tion of facts and ability to logically solve standing of the elements and their interac- structured problems. Hydrology is classified tions of the terrestrial water cycle; and also as a hard applied discipline and the stu- involves the local geological features and dent must progressively acquire and add weather systems (Wagener, Kelleher, Wei- knowledge and techniques (from first year ler, McGlynn, Gooseff, Marshall, Meixner, to fourth year) in solving complex water re- McGuire, Gregg, Sharma, Zappe, 2012). A lated problems. student who graduates after studying the discipline is called a Hydrologist- a person My initial teaching and learning approach who deals with surface water flows or a is teacher centred as I understand myself hydrogeologist (geohydrologist)- a person as needing to deliver the content, the sub- who deals with groundwater flows (Wa- ject matter, and information to the student. gener et al., 2012). Thus the student is ex- However I will also review these teaching pected to learn the language of and other methods and strategies on being a good competences related to Hydrology. The teacher. Dessus, Mandin, Zampa (2008:50) drainage of the basin or catchment in its stated that teaching and learning are ba- natural state is a heterogeneous system sically one activity combined and called that involves complex forms of spatial and teaching, understanding the components temporal organisation. As a result students of teaching and the four underlying princi- must have an understanding of the funda- ples of teaching that translate to efficient mental physical laws, the conservation of learning. These four principles are: energy, mass and momentum as delim- • Cognitive diagnosis (how to infer the stu- ited by the natural environment (Thomp- dent’s cognitive state; son, Ngambeki, Troch, Sivapalan, Evange- lou, 2012). Knowledge in hydrology terms • Subject matter analysis (how to repre- counts as input and output in a catchment sent subject matter to be delivered); and the best analogy is the watering of flower pot model. From this simple illustra- • Teaching tactics (what is the set of in- tion the learner must be able to increase structional actions to choose from) and knowledge by first mastering the basic prin- • Teaching strategies (what is the most ciples and terminology of the discourse, so adequate teaching method, regarding that they will be to converse like expert hy- the previous questions). drologists from an early stage for their training (first year level). Thus, the student must comprehend, learn and contextualise hy- From the definition of Dessus et al. (2008) drological processes involved at the basic it can be implied that there are must be flower pot scenario and be able translate central figure (teacher) who is in a position this to natural systems. This according to

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 191 to interface between the context (infor- institutions (HEI) world-wide, in the past de- mation, knowledge, subject matter) and cade (Pathirana et al., 2012). However, the the student who must have a set frame of teacher-centred approach worked well in mind (cognitive state) to be receptive. The the past with small classes as the massifica- teacher must develop teaching schemes tion of students with a diverse background or tactics and plans or strategies in to en- means that there must be re-shift of theories sure maximum delivery of the subject mat- of teaching and learning (Jury and Vaux, ter. 2005; Pathirana et al., 2012; Seibert, Uhlen- brook, Wagener, 2013). However, the stu- Good teaching is best described by re- dent-centred approach is aimed at allow- search on conceptions of teaching (Biggs, ing students to adopt a deeper approach, 1999) who postulated on teacher centred a most desired mode based on the theory and student centred strategies. Teacher of active learning that is a more ‘construc- centred strategy, the focus is on knowledge tivist’ approach (Biggs, 1999), which in turn transmission from expert (teacher) to an in- promotes active student learning. Activities expert learner (student) and the teacher that build on facts (knowledge) exposes main task is ‘getting it’ across. The ‘it’’ is the the learner to various tools, methods and information, subject matter, knowledge. approaches that are based in practical The student centred strategy is based on work. The constructivist approaches entail student exploring and gathering informa- the student’s construction of new knowl- tion on his (her) own and the teacher is al- edge by referring to prior knowledge and most invisible but must be around to initiate memory. The new knowledge is then stored the process of teaching and learning. But in long term memory. The prior knowledge Northedge, (2003a) stated that the stu- may be shaped by current readings by the dents actual resent the idea of this self-ex- student and interactions with past experi- ploration exercise and they (students) want ences. Here the students carry out case value for money by having the teacher de- studies based on real world experiences liver the subject matter. and engage in groups (team work) to pro- The ‘old traditional’ way of students learn- vide a solution. This is akin to problem based ing through attending lectures, writing learning. The students therefore, become notes during the lecture and getting as- active in their learning as opposed to pas- signments to complete at home, is the ba- sive learning where that would be waiting sis of the teacher-centred approach or the for the teacher to hand out notes and the discipline-oriented studies. This approach ensuing social interaction within groups is encourages students to adopt a surface called socio-constructivism. approach, which promotes passive learning since the teacher/lecturer provides lecture notes. I use this teacher-centred The students are coached, in the discourse approach with my first and second year of Hydrology & Water Resources, to speak students. The teacher-centred approach and write the terms, ways of thinking and has been the cornerstone of teaching and other competencies competently (North- learning in Hydrology at higher education edge, 2003b). This is achieved in a num-

192 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ber of ways. These ways involve students attract research funding from national and working in group (encourage team work) international sources. For example the Uni- in which and the students select their own versity of Venda (Univen, 2015), the niche representative to deliver the report to the areas of research are: rest of the class. The final year students • “Developing and Managing Farming are also required to select a research top- and Agro forestry System for Improved ic, in consultation with the lecturer or my- Livelihood and Food Security in Rural self, upon which they carry out a research Communities”. study that leads to a mini-thesis. Here, the students are expected to construct ‘new • “Integrated Environmental Manage- knowledge’ by evaluating what other ex- ment, Settlement and Energy for Sus- perts have done on the research topic tainable Development”. in the past by engaging in a literature review and aligning this knowledge to their • “Combating Poverty and Illiteracy and research activity. The proposal, in the form Promotion of Gender Equality and So- of power point, is then presented before a cio Economic Rights”. panel of experts, fellow lecturers and an • “Indigenous Knowledge System”. audience of students. After carrying out the research (gathering data or informa- • “Socio-Economic and Health Related tion), the data is analysed and knowledge Aspects of HIV and AIDS”. constructed to achieve a certain desired • “Water Research for Improved Quality outcome (to achieve the research objec- of Life.” tives) in line with theory. The writing of the mini-thesis seeks to coach the students on • “Investigating Maternal, Child, Youth research writing skills and the use of correct and Women Health, Investing in Youth scientific language and other discourses and Reversing the Trends.” related to the discipline. The production of • “Entrepreneurship, Micro-finance, Inno- the mini-thesis is, therefore, a form of knowl- vation and Management of Human, edge generation that draws on a construc- financial and Heritage Resources to tivist epistemology. Thus in my teaching Bridge the gap between the First and and learning approaches I draw upon the Second Economy in South Africa”. theories of teaching and infuse them to become a better teacher. The students espe- These research niche areas have been de- cially the fourth year students must write a veloped based on the unique location of research proposal and carry out the study Univen. it is surrounded by a rural commu- with or within the community. nities and close to the former capital city Thohoyandou, of the defunct Venda Ban- tustan and is located in the Limpopo Prov- 3. INCLUDING THE RESEARCH AGENDA ince, one of resource rich (minerals and wildlife) province with a population of 5.631 The University of Venda develops these million with the majority of communities liv- research niche areas based on its unique ing in rural areas (Statistics SA, 2014; Limpo- geographical location and thus be able to

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 193 ucts) in freshwater bodies and reservoirs; of surface water sources (rivers, streams) without treatment (Bessong et al., 2009; • Using simple ceramic water filters Rananga & Gumbo, 2015). The health au- and defluoridation techniques in improving thorities have advised the communities to drinking waters in rural communities; treat the surface water sources by adding • Improving the access of water and ‘JIK’ or bleach (which contains chlorine, a sanitation in rural schools. powerful anti-microbial agent) (Lehloeas & Munyima, 2000). This is a welcome development but often the turbidity is high thus 4. CERAMIC WATER FILTERS IN RURAL COM- negating the benefits of chlorination (Sza- MUNITIES bo & Minamyer, 2014; Mohamed, Brown, Njee, Clasen, Malebo & Mbuligwe, 2015). One way of improving the drinking water The aim of the Millennium Development quality of rural communities is the promo- Goals (MDG) of 2015 and the Sustainable tion of ceramic water filters. Development Goals (SDG) is the improving the access of communities to safe drinking water and thus reducing diarrheal diseases Ceramic water filters (CWF) have been that account for 1 million per annum deaths promoted for use in developing countries in under-5 (U5) in developing countries (Sta- since these improve the drinking water tistics SA, 2013; UN, 2015; Chola, Michalow, quality at household level (Sobsey, Stau- Tugendhaft, & Hofman, 2015). In South Afri- ber, Casanova, Brown & Elliott, 2008). The ca, the urban communities have better ac- CWF are simple but unique in that sawdust cess to safe municipal drinking water being is adding during their manufacturing, cur- supplied by large water utilities such as the ing, sun drying and firing in an oven. The Rand Water (Gauteng province), Northern burning of sawdust create tiny pores in the Lepelle Water (Limpopo province), Umgeni matrix of the CWF which are invisible to the water (Pietermaritzburg and parts of Kwa- naked eye but allow the passage of wa- Zulu-Natal province) (National Treasury, ter molecules and trap microbial organ- 2011). Of late these water utilities have isms, suspended and colloidal materials. In been tasked by the Ms. Nomvula Mokon- order to improve the efficacy of the CWF, yane, Minister of Water and Sanitation, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and copper South Africa to improve the drinking water nanoparticles (CuNPs) have been add- supplies of rural communities after the reed during their manufacture (Smith, 2010). peatedly failure of district municipalities in Even in the absence of expensive inorgan- providing a safe and reliable water supply ic microbicides such as AgNPs, CuNPs) the (NCOP Social Services, 2015; South African CWF is still effective in reducing microbial Government, 2015). Thus in the absence of load (Van Halen D, van der Laan, Heijman, a reliable and safe drinking water supply van Dijk, Amy, 2009). Ceramic water filters rural communities resort to use of private are able to reduce high turbid waters to boreholes and purchase of drinking wa- less than 1 NTU and reducing the high mi- ter from private borehole owners and use crobial load associated with turbid waters

194 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 po Development Plan, 2015). Thus access rial soap). In South Africa, it was found that to a number of amenities are low such as 3.1% of total deaths were attributed to di- access to water borne sanitation (majority arrheal diseases and was the number three use pit and Ventilated Improved Pit) (Sibi- killer, 11% of all deaths among under chil- ya & Gumbo, 2013); low access to chem- dren under 5 in 2000 (Lewin, Norman, Nan- ically and microbial safe drinking water nan, Thomas, Bradshaw, & Collaboration, (Foss-Kankeu, Jagals, du Preez, 2008; Bes- 2007). song, Odiyo, Musekene, & Tessema, 2009; The use of recycled soap is gaining mo- Makhera, Gumbo, Chigayo, 2011) and or mentum as shown by the launch of Global the municipal drinking water supply if avail- Soap project that aims to collect used soap able is erratic and unreliable (Rananga & at hotels worldwide. In the United States of Gumbo, 2015). Thus based on these fac- America, hotels are known to discard ap- tors there is ample grounds to develop re- proximately 2.6 million bars of use soap per search concepts that target to reduce and day (Global Soap Project, 2011). Some of improve the rural societal challenges such this recycled soap has been donated to a as safe drinking water, sustainable use of rural school, St Kazito Primary school, locat- natural resources; improvement in access ed in Eastern province of Kenya this has led to water and sanitation in rural schools. to increased usage of soap and improve- The rural schools have been targeted main ment in sanitation and hygiene efforts due to use of ventilated pit latrines (VIP) among the 1320 students (Global Soap and a central water tap that is located at Project, 2011). the centre of the school (Sibiya & Gum- bo, 2013) and lack of hand washing facility within the VIP (Sibiya & Gumbo, 2013) and the lack of soap usage during the Thus horning on the research theme, ‘’Wa- hand washing process (Curtis & Cairncross, ter Research for Improved Quality of Life” 2003).The use of soap and clean water for I have developed research concepts hand washing has been known to reduce around here and my research activities diarrheal and respiratory diseases. A study are: by Curtis and Cairncross (2003) found that • Freshwater cyanobacteria species about there was 50% reduction in diarrhe- and their effect on rural water quality and al diseases was achieved and if this simple inland aquaculture and how to reduce cy- process was regularly used and a nearly 1 anotoxins in these ecosystems; million lives could be saved. Another study in Pakistan by Luby, Agboatwalla, Feikin, • Water quality issues related to pre- Painter, Billhimer, Altaf, Hoekstra, (2005) and post-mining activities and the man- demonstrated the effective hand washing agement of tailings dams and how to re- with plain or antibacterial soap and water duce contaminates originating from these also lead to 50% reduction in diarrheal and mine tailings; respiratory infections and also that there • Environmental risk assessment of was no significance differences in the types nanowaste (dealing with disposal of waste of soap that was used (plain or antibacte- originating from nanotechnological prod-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 195 (Brown, Sobsey, & Loomis, 2008; Sobsey et properties and their sources in the village. al., 2008). Thirdly the traditional potter has the market where they sell their clay pots either in the rural community or in urban areas. Lastly The manufacture of CWF can be done by the traditional potter has no knowledge on promoting the traditional potter that is resi- the incorporation of sawdust but is willing to dent in the rural community. The traditional learn as demonstrated by interaction of the potter is the natural person since they have author and traditional potters in Sese and accumulated wealth of knowledge and Chiwundura districts of Zimbabwe; Vhem- experience in making ordinary clay pots be and uMkhanyakude districts of South used for cooking and water storage (Zulu Africa. The traditional potters of Zimbabwe clay pot, 2016). Secondly the traditional and South Africa follow the same proce- potter has knowledge of clays and their dure of making the traditional clay pot. Figure 2: A variety of traditional clay pots found in Sese district, Masvingo Province, Zimba- bw

Source: (Author) then set alight on top of the zinc sheet and temperatures of above 800oC have been The clay material is obtained from a source recorded in the kiln (Chotoli, Quarcioni, known by the potter, collected and dried Lima, Ferreira, & Ferreira, 2015). The high and then pound to powder and ground temperatures are sufficient to harden the into fine clay particles using a grinding clay pot and make them strong. Also these stone. The clay material is then mixed with high temperatures are sufficient to burn the water to make dough from which the clay sawdust should these being added to the pot is shaped. The clay pot is then sun dried clay matrix. for at least seven days and fired in an underground oven. A large hole is dug in The postgraduate students would then par- the ground and the clay pots are packed take in the research activities involving the and a zinc sheet covers the hole. A fire is ceramic water filters and clay material. The

196 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 traditional potter would make the CWF by initially provide the sawdust to the potters trial first. Here the potter adds a certain per- and later there is a need to develop local centage (say one cup of sawdust to four combustible materials such as maize husks cups of clay) in order to manufacture the and other crop residues (Figure 4). CWF. The particle size of the sawdust is very important and is 250 µm as measure by tea strainer and or traditional beer strainer (Fig- ure 3).

Figure 4: The use of combustible materials such as (A) saw dust from saw milling company and (B) maize husks from a farmer’s field (Source by author)

Figure 3: A traditional beer strainer is suit- Once in the laboratory the PGS would sub- able for measuring the particle size of the ject the CWF to tests such as flow rates using sawdust (Source by author) deionised water; physical, chemical and microbial analysis using surface water from nearby rivers and streams (Figure 5). During After subsequent trials and testing if the the laboratory analysis the PGS learn to ap- CWF is able to filter water, the potter can preciate the efficacy of the CWF in improv- then provide a sample CWF to the re- ing and reducing the microbial quality of searcher, who in this case is the author. The drinking water. researcher would buy this pilot CWF for further testing and evaluation by postgraduate students (PGS). The researcher would

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 197 The dirty water is filtered into bucket which has a tap in order to draw the water and prevent further contamination. (Source by author).

The laboratory report is prepared and then communicated with traditional potter by the author on the efficacy of the CWF in reducing microbial load. If there are any adverse reports such as cracks and slow filter rates, these are immediately communicated to the potter so as to manufacture other CWF by adding more sawdust. This back and forth communication would result in a refined and effective CWF that can now be marketed. Again the PGS would be tasked with producing marketing material in order to assist the traditional potter to sell their CWF to wider community.

5. COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT IN PROMOT- ING CERAMIC WATER FILTERS

The involvement of PGS, the researchers and the traditional potters is part of community engagement (Figure 6). This is part of the reducing diarrheal diseases in the community by use of simple ceramic water filter. It is estimated that 1.1 billion of our fellow citizens lack access to safe drinking water and one in ten of the diarrheal deaths worldwide of children under-5 are due to this consumption of unsafe drinking water (Chola et al., 2015). . The traditional potter would now sell the CWF to the wider community as they sell the ordinary clay pots. The researcher would continue to work with the traditional potters in improving the quality of the CWF. Figure 5: (A) The finished ceramic water filter sitting on top of bucket and filtering of dirty river water and (B) is clean purified water.

198 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Figure 6: The interconnectedness of the research agenda

The PGS would benefit first by interacting with traditional potters they gain knowl- 6. CONCLUSION edge about clay materials and making of Community engagement is a complex en- clay pots (indigenous knowledge transfer tity. But by sharing of technology transfer and sharing) and secondly they graduate and indigenous knowledge can meet half with a Honours, Masters and or PhD qual- and thereby improving the drinking quality ification (output). Lastly the researchers of the local communities. The involvement would also benefit from the community en- of postgraduate students in the research gagement, firstly the student output (grad- removes the notion that universities are uation) and writing of peer reviewed man- ivory towers. The modernising of the tradi- uscripts for conferences and or submission tional clay pot to make it filter water for hu- in accredited journals and lastly the satis- man consumption is one way of enhancing faction that idea of promoting ceramic community engagement. water filters in communities works (reduced diarrheal diseases by monitoring clinical re- LIST OF REFERENCES cords). The traditional potter is able to reap financial rewards in selling CWF and also Bessong, P.O., Odiyo, J.O., Musekene, J.N. gaining knowledge (technology transfer) & Tessema, A. 2009. Spatial Distribution of about improved ceramic water filter and Diarrhoea and Microbial Quality of Domes- also sharing this knowledge with other tra- tic Water During the Outbreak of Diarrhoea ditional potters. in the Tshikuwi Community in Venda South Africa. Journal of Health Population and Nutrition, 25: 652-659.

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202 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE WARD BASED OUTREACH TEAMS PROGRAMME IN THE RURAL AREA OF KGETLENG SUB-DISTRICT, NORTH WEST PROVINCE

RA Mulelu Department of Health MX Lethoko University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

This paper investigates the implementation of ward Based Outreach Teams programme in the rural areas of the Kgetleng sub district, in the North West Province of South Africa. The Department of Health has set a long-term goal of establishing National Health Insurance in the country. This would provide equitable and universal coverage for a defined package of healthcare. One of the key pillars of NHI is the re-engineering of Primary Health Care, which has at its heart in the development of Ward-Based Outreach Teams who will take the responsibility for specific groups of households. In this regard, the South African Department of Health has considered re-engineering of the Primary Health Care model in the country in making sure health resources; technology and quality services are available, accessible and affordable to all communities. The North West province Department of Health is currently piloting the Primary Health Care re-engineering programme, which include the Ward Based Outreach Teams programme in all four Districts. Bojanala, Ngaka Modiri Molema, Dr. Kenneth Kaunda and Dr Ruth Segomotsi Mompati. In Bojanala District, the pilot site is in ward five in Kgetleng sub district. In this paper, the quantitative research design was used where self – administered questionnaires were provided to the Commu- nity Health Workers (CHW) and the Outreach team leaders (OTL) for data collection. The findings of the paper indicated that WBOTs contribute towards a better understanding of local health care needs, inform service priorities and build stronger relationships between service providers and users in the communities. The key elements to practise this service are person-centred comprehensive care, collaboration between people and practitioners, and continuity of health care. Keywords: Ward Based Outreach Teams (WBOT), Primary Health Care (PHC), Community Health Workers (CHW) and PHC re-engineering

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 203 1. INTRODUCTION inputs and to allow the delivery of a series of interventions or serviced actions in order According to Bam, Marcus and Hugo to improve the health condition of people (2013:3) South Africa has established ward- (Bhattacharyya, McGahan, Dunne, Sing- based Community Health Workers (CHW) er and Daar, 2008). This study investigated outreach teams, as part of a series of strate- the implementation of the Ward Based gies to strengthen primary health care. The Outreach Teams (WBOT) in a rural area in key elements to practice this service are the Kgetleng Sub-district, North West Prov- person-centered comprehensive care, col- ince. laboration between people, practitioners, and continuity of health care. This will be community-orientated primary healthcare (COPC) on a massive scale, and it is esti- According to Motsieng(2012:6-8), the MEC mated that 7 000 such teams all over the for the Department of Health in the North country (Community Health Workers and a West Province has indicated that in the nurse, supported by a doctor) need to be 2012/2013 financial year, the WBOT- pro established. They would provide basic pre- gramme will make the financial year a de- ventive care and health promotion, iden- fining moment in the history of the health tify people at risk, support adherence in service delivery in the North West Province. chronic care, offer home-based care and In addition, Outreach Teams (WBOT) will help integrate care at the community level soon be on the ground visiting patients in (Mash and Blitz, 2015:274). their homes and providing the much needed health care services. “The WBOT approach will require all of us as health professionals, tribal authorities, the community, WBOTs in the local areas are supported various families and patients themselves to by a PHC clinic that is largely nurse-driv- work together to fight diseases from inside en, with part-time support from a doctor. of our homes and out in broader commu- In overall support of these WBOTs and clin- nities”, said Dr. Masike(Motsieng, 2012:6-8). ics, a family physician is required to ensure However, in light of all discussed above, evidence-based best practice, integrate the health sector in the province, in South care, help evaluate and reflect on what Africa and in developing countries are is happening, as well as mentor and ca- still faced with so many challenges. These pacitate team members. This research will challenges are the huge health status gap be an important contributor to achieving between urban and rural areas, low level of these goals (Beasley, Starfield, van Weel, health awareness, cost of healthcare, scar- Rosser and Haq, 2007:516). The delivery of city of specialty care and under-resourced the health system in South Africa and oth- infrastructure (Schneider & Barron, 2008). er developing countries is an important measure that affects a country’s health In recent years, these health sector prob- status (Marmot, Ryff, Bumpass, Shipley and lems have become more serious and higher Marks, 1997:901). The healthcare service priority has been given to delivering health delivery system is the mode to combine service and meeting the needs of the poor

204 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 in rural areas in many countries (Reddy, Pa- 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY tel and Jha, 2011:760). It is recognised and indicated that strengthening health delivery system as a priority for countries and The research design that is applied in this governments to be able to meet the basic paper is descriptive. A quantitative re- health needs of their people, especially for search method was used. Quantitative poor and vulnerable populations (Marmot, methodology is associated with analyt- Allen and Bell, 2012:1011). Challenges in the ical research and its purpose is to arrive province and developing countries, includ- at a universal statement. Terre Blanche, ing South Africa, are to find ways which will Durrheim and Painter (2006) point out that enable to address this basic health needs a quantitative method begins with a se- more effectively (David, Sameh, Banaf- ries of predetermined categories, usually sheh, Katja and Marko, 2009). embodied in standardised measures and uses these data to make broad and general comparisons. The quantitative meth- 2. STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM od was based primarily on confidentially structured questionnaires provided to 27 Community Health Workers. The Kgetleng The Kgetleng Sub-district is one of the pilot Sub-district has 41 CHWs (Bojanala Report, projects since the Ward Based Outreach 2015). The target population for this paper Teams (WBOTs) programme was first estab- was CHWs working at the WBOT in the rural lished in the Bojanala District in North West area of the Kgetleng Sub-district. In this pa- Province in 2011. This is one of the three per, the population consisted of Kgetleng areas of the PHC re-engineering strategy Community Health Workers (24), Outreach being implemented in the Province of the Team Leaders (2), and Professional nurse North-West and the rest of the country. (1) of the feeder clinic. Twenty seven (27) Bojanala Operational Reports (2015) indi- respondents make up the paper popula- cates that there are high rates of maternal tion. These respondents resided within the death, defaulters and lost to follow-up of catchment area of the Kgetleng Sub-dis- patients on HIV and TB medication. These trict. are the challenges that face the Kgetleng sub-district in the optimal implementation of the WBOT programme in the district. The Self-administered questionnaires have problem the paper is focused on, therefore, been used for the purpose of this paper. was to gain insight into the understanding The development of a questionnaire was of the implementation of the Ward Based informed by reading and reviewing of the Outreach Teams (WBOT) programme in the literature during proposal writing. A total rural areas of Kgetleng Sub-district, in the number of twenty seven (27) question- North-West Province. naires were distributed to the targeted respondents. The use of self-administered questionnaires in the data collection process is critical, since it makes large samples

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 205 feasible and has an important strength with 5. LITERATURE REVIEW regard to measurement generally (Leedy and Ormrod, 2013). The Department of Health has embarked on a strategy for re-modelling the imple- Leedy and Ormrod (2014) state that data mentation of the primary health care sys- analysis in a case paper involves the steps tem using community and clinical health listed below: care worker teams to improve support and to strengthen the districts health ser- • Organisation of detail about the case – vices. Primary Health Care re-engineering the specific facts about the case - isar has three streams: Ward Based Outreach ranged in a logical order. Teams (WBOT), District Clinical Specialist • Categorisations of data – categories are Teams (DCST) and the School Health Pro- identified to help cluster the data into gramme. The integration and collaboration meaningful groups. across all three streams is important to ensure the improvement and success of the • Interpretation of patterns – specific doc- primary health care across the district and uments, occurrences, and other bits the Province of the North West and to im- of data are examined for the specific prove maternal and child health outcomes meaning that they might have in rela- (NDOH, 2012:2). tion to the case.

• Identification of patterns – the data and their interpretations are scrutinized for 5.1. WARD BASED OUTREACH TEAMS (WBOT) underlying themes and other patterns PROGRAMME IN SOUTH AFRICA that characterize the case more broadly than a single piece of information can reveal. According to Sepulveda (2006:2017), observations from many developing countries • Synthesis and generalization – conclu- suggest that provision of home and com- sions are drawn that may have implica- munity based health services and their links tion beyond the specific case that has with the fixed PHC facilities in particular are been studied. critical to good health outcomes, especially child health outcomes. The role of community health workers in many countries In this particular paper, data analysis fol- has contributed to better health outcomes lowed a quantitative research analysis ap- (WHO, 2007). The South African Depart- proach and steps mentioned above for ment of Health has suggested that this is data obtained through the questionnaires. the result of a multiplicity of factors related to community based health workers. The adverse factors include inadequate training, inadequate support and supervision, random distribution with poor coverage,

206 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 no link between the communities based that their work is targeted and linked to ser- services and services offered by fixed vice delivery targets and that they are ad- health facilities, funding through NGOs with equately supported and supervised – this inadequate accountability, limited or no approach has been adopted and provinc- targets for either coverage or quality to be es have been implementing this strategy as reached (NDOH, 2011). According to Fri- from 2011 (NDOH, 2011, Matsoso and Fryatt, is-Hannsen and Cold-Ravnkilde (2013) the 2012:21). The WBOT implementation tool kit impact of HIV on key impact indicators has also indicates that the re-engineered ap- also contributed considerably to the rela- proach to providing PHC services proposes tively poor health indicators and is inde- a population based approach for the dependent of interventions made by CHWs livery of services. In addition, the PHC out- or other health workers and interventions. reach is a service to the uninsured popula- Many of these factors could be correct- tion of South Africa. ed if CHWs were part of a team, were well trained, supported and supervised with a clear mandate both in terms of what they It further indicates that the Department are expected to do and of the catchment of Health in a sub-district or on local lev- population that they are responsible for. els will deploy PHC outreach teams in ru- The ward based PHC outreach team is de- ral areas, in informal urban settlements as signed to correct these limitations in the well as townships. According to Matsoso way community based health services are and Fryatt (2012:2), the Ward Based PHC currently provided in the country (Gem- Outreach Teams (WBOT) which are one of ma, 2015:57). Given the key role that CHWs the one streams of the re-engineered PHC will play, they should, over time, be direct- model are the level of health service which ly managed by the Department of Health provides services to communities, fami- (as opposed to NGOs). This move has allies and individuals at community –based ready happened in all the provinces in the institutions and at a household level in a country. The strategies for direct manage- ward. Furthermore, the ward based PHC ment by the Department have already outreach team is the cornerstone of com- happened and all the districts in the coun- munity based PHC services, which encom- try have done an audit on the number of pass activities in communities, households CHWs, to be trained and employed by the and educational institutions, and referral Department of Health as CHWs. The PHC networks with community based providers. reengineering toolkit for implementation of the WBOT in provinces indicates that each The researcher, however, will only concen- team is linked to a PHC facility with a nurse trate on and conducts this research on the in each facility, who is the team leader. Ward Based Outreach Teams (WBOT) area of PHC reengineering.

The diagrammatic PHC Outreach Teams The team leader is responsible for ensuring (WBOT) model is presented in figure 1 below.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 207 Figure 2.1: The Ward Based Primary Health Care Outreach Team (WBOT) adopted from NDOH (2011)

5.2. KEY ASPECTS OF COMPREHENSIVE PHC IMPLEMENTATION

The WHO (2014) indicates eight elements Denhill, King and Swanepoel (1998) indi- that form the basis of comprehensive cate that, overall, in any health care pro- PHC programme interventions in order to gramme or strategy, the successful imple- achieve the goal of health improvement. mentation of PHC must be guided by the These elements include the following: “ed- following principles: ucation on prevailing health problems and methods of preventing and controlling • Political will: The presence of progressive them; promotion of food supply and prop- political will is central to the success of a er nutrition; an adequate supply of safe health system. water and basic sanitation; maternal and • Integration of promotive, curative, pre- child health care including family planning, ventive and rehabilitative health care immunization against major infectious dis- services. eases; appropriate treatment of common diseases and injuries; and the provision of • Equity: Communities must have equal essential drugs.” (Lehmann and Sanders, access to basic health care and social 2007). services without segregation of subgroups and provision of care.

• Accessibility: Health services must reach all people in the country in terms of geo-

208 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 graphical, financial and functional ac- ers cessibility. • Cost-effectiveness, efficiencies and eq- • Affordability: The level of health care uity services must be in line with what the community and country can afford. Not 6. LESSONS LEARNED FROM INTERNATIONAL being able to afford should not be a lim- EXPERIENCES iting factor to receiving health care. 6.1. LESSONS LEARNED FROM CUBA • Availability: An adequate and appro- According to Gorry and Keck (2014:407), priate health services to meet particular Cuba is an example of the successful im- health needs of each community. plementation of community participation. It involved the integration of the mass dem- • Effectiveness: Health services provided ocratic movement into formal governance must meet the objectives for which they structures, including health. Institutional were intended and should be justifiable structures were developed to allow for the in terms of funding. participation of communities in decision • Efficiency: Objectives and goals ac- making and policy processes. Furthermore, complished should be balanced to republic officials were elected to People Pow- sources used. er Assemblies at the provincial and national level to represent community interests. In These principles mentioned above deter- addition, all authority comes from the peo- mine the success or failure of any WBOT ple and all accountability comes from the and PHC programme worldwide. state to the people (Birkland, 2014).

5.3. FACTORS THAT FACILITATE SUCCESS OF WBOT IMPLEMENTATION Oviedo (2011) state that, In Cuba, Each People Power Assembly at each level of government appoints the personnel of the According to Lewin and Lehman (2013:3) administrative agencies assigned to it. Each most comprehensive PHC programmes health facility had an advisory committee that are successful come as a result of good consisting of representatives; manage- government policies and legislature for eq- ment consults with the advisory committee uitable implementation of efficient and on issues that affect or require participation cost-effective health care interventions; from the community. Though rarely done, they also emphasize the need for commu- the community has the power to request nity and individual participation (Lewin and the removal of health workers. Accord- Lehmann, 2013:3). ing to Oviedo (2011) Cuba developed a unique Family Doctor Programme that at- • Government commitment and will taches a family doctor and a nurse to every 120-140 families. These health workers are • Community participation by stakehold- responsible for all the health needs of that

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 209 community (including health education, states and municipalities is also innovative. promotion and curative services). Further- A proportion of the health budget for a city more, this has strengthened communities’ (municipality) or state is defined on the ba- understanding of health matters, and pro- sis of popular vote; the population of a giv- moted the collective discussion and solu- en city can vote, for example, on whether tion of health problems, thereby improving a new intensive-care unit or more health the families and communities’ participatory posts should be built (Crisp, 2014:249). skills. However, a criticism of this approach is that it fostered dependence on medical interventions of the communities. 6.3. LESSON LEARNED FROM ZAMBIA

6.2. LESSONS LEARNED FROM BRAZIL

According to Resnick (2014), declining Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and de- According to Spink (2011:50), the exam- creasing health budgets have impacted ple of the Unified Health System in Brazil negatively on many countries in Africa. In has been the guiding vision behind the Zambia, for instance, PHC implementation South African Re-engineering Policy. Fur- began in August 1981, with steady progress thermore, social participation in health and interventions that included the training is mandated by the constitution to be in- of community health workers, construction cluded in all levels of government (Health and upgrading of rural health centers, im- councils – 1 national, 27 state and 5500 proved distribution of medicine, a strength- municipal). According to Crisp (2014:249) ened transport system, as well as improved the health councils are permanent bodies health planning and management. Fur- in charge of formulating health strategies, thermore, these interventions were largely controlling implementation of policies, and driven by the economic boost that Zam- analysing health plans and management bia experienced due to the increase in reports submitted by their respective level the global demand for copper - Zambia’s of government. Furthermore, strong inter- main export product and the country’s actions exist between councils, managers, major source of income at the time (Res- and policy makers, forming a complex and nick, 2014). Furthermore, the current public innovative decision-making process. All health system is two-tiered as well as ineq- councils are made up of health care users uitable and unsustainable in terms of poor (50% of members), health workers (25%), financial resources allocation, inadequate and health managers and service provid- human resource, staff turnover and un- ers (25%). In addition, health conferences equal access to health care services. The are held every four years at the three levels. two-tiered system is characterized by poor The mandate of these conferences is to as- management, supervision and poor quali- sess the health situation and propose direc- ty of health care services and deteriorating tives for health policies, thus contributing to infrastructure in the public sector, whilst the inclusion of themes in the public agenda. private sector is characterized by over-pric- Among other democratic mechanisms, the ing of services (Kautzky et al, 2009). participatory budget adopted by several

210 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 7. DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS make the implementation of the WBOT programme a success or failure. All 100% This section provides the findings of the respondents’ indicated that they have dif- study from the data collected. ficulties when referring patients to the clin- 7.1 Challenges and successes experi- ics. One respondent indicated that “some enced with the WBOT programme? nurses are rude to the patients when they refer patients to nurses.” This results in pa- All 100% respondents indicated challeng- tients refusing to go to the clinic when re- es and successes encountered with WBOT ferred. They indicated that they are unable programme. The respondents indicated to provide patients in the community opti- that they worked hard in spite of the chal- mal support due to poor participation of so lenges to achieve the WBOT goals and ob- community structures. jectives. However, there are also successes with this programme such as many patients Negative attitude towards the respondents are able to adhere to treatment and live by the community and the nurses in the their healthy lives. The responses also indi- clinics were also indicated in this study as a cated that there are challenges and suc- factor in the success of WBOT programme. cesses in the WBOT programme. The chal- Furthermore, respondents indicated that lenges are such as patients not wanting the community structures are not involved and CHWs to know their status, early booking of recommended that they need to be en- anti-natal clinic, adherence to antiretrovi- couraged, allow them to be fully involved ral (ARV) regime, shortage of vitamin A or and participate in health issues. From the patients giving wrong addresses. However, responses, it is found that community par- there are successes in the programme such ticipation and negative attitudes in health as patients being able to be referred to the issues of some structures and nurses are clinic for treatment early or the community some of the factors that contribute to the being able to get knowledge on different WBOT programme success or failure. diseases in a form of one on one and campaigns. Nxumalo and Choonara (2014) state the importance of mobilizing, com- 7. 3. The difficulties of working with nurses municating with and involving local stake- in the health facilities holders including Department of Health to generate support and develop networks All 100% respondents had different forms that can continue to support WBOT to ad- of difficulties working with nurses in the fa- dress the challenges highlighted above. cilities. Difficulties such as bad attitude, not taking us (CHWs) seriously, not completing the referral forms, not wanting to touch the 7.2 Respondents knowledge of factors that patients because of bad smell were ma- make the implementation of the WBOT pro- jor difficulties indicated by respondents in gramme a success/failure. working with nurses in the facilities.

In this section, the researcher discusses the It is clear that there are difficulties in working factors mentioned by respondents that with nurses in the health facilities. Respon-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 211 dents indicated that some nurses are being rude to the patients when they referred 7. 5 The strategies to improve community to the facility, this results in patients refusing participation to go to the clinic when referred. Nxumalo and Choonara (2014) highlight the impor- All 100% respondents indicated that there tance of working with all stakeholders in- are challenges that are facing community cluding nurses for optimal implementation structures with WBOT and also highlighted of the WBOT programme. the strategies that can improve community participation in the WBOT programme. They indicated that it is important for all relevant 7. 4. The benefits of working with nurses and structures and stakeholders to meet and patients in the health facilities plan together; otherwise the community would not be able to attend these meet- All 100% respondents indicated the benefits ings. They also indicated that the commu- of working with nurses and patients in the nity is tired by meetings and campaigns health facilities. The respondents indicated that are coordinated separately without its that some nurses do co-operate and help involvement. It is noted in the survey that us by talking to patients in a correct man- community mobilization and involving local ner. They make things easy for us and the stakeholders to generate support is critical. patients. Regarding the patients, they indicated that they become impossible, refusing to take treatment, and even to go to According to Dennill et al. (1998), commu- the clinic for admissions. It came out that nity participation is a critical support activ- despite the difficulties working with nurses; ity for PHC system to achieve the goal of there are benefits of working with the nurs- health for all. The responses in the table es in the facilities. According to Nxumalo et 5 above indicate that respondents are in al. (2014), it is indicated that working hand agreement that there are challenges that in hand with the government, the commu- the community structures are facing to en- nity structures, nurses and patients is critical courage and support WBOT. Some of those in the success of WBOT programme. It has challenges are: the Department of Health been shown in these responses that work- does not listen to the community needs, the ing together with nurses will improve the feedback is not taken seriously, and there is programme. a great need for educating the community and their leaders in terms of WBOT. It came out clearly in these responses, that stakeholder involvement and participation is a key in the success of the WBOT programme.

7. CONCLUSIONS FROM THE FINDINGS

212 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 The results from the respondents have er, willingness and commitment to help shown that there are successes, challeng- the community from the CHWs enhanced es and lesson learned from this paper. The the WBOT programme implementation. results of the paper indicate that the pro- Despite challenges that the CHWs experi- gramme is being implemented well even enced in their duties, they continued work- though it is in its pilot phase in the sub-dis- ing and helping the community to be a trict. It has shown that more and more peo- better and healthier one. According to the ple are being helped by CHWs in their own WHO (2008), community participation is a homes. The long queues in the clinics have critical support activity for the PHC system been reduced, because many patients to achieve the goal of health for all. In ad- are treated at home by the CHWs. The pro- dition, participation should be active, com- gramme has managed to improve and it munities have the right and responsibility saves many lives in the communities of the to exercise power over the decisions that Kgetleng Sub-district. In addition, the find- affect their lives and there must be mech- ings of the paper also indicated challenges anisms to allow for the implementation of such as bad attitude of some nurses in the the decisions by the community (Dennil et facilities, nurses not able to complete the al., 1998). referral forms, wrong addresses by patients The findings for the paper showed that there and refusal of some patients to allow the are still challenges regarding optimal com- CHWs to visit and enter their homes. Further- munity participation in the health issues in more, the findings of this survey highlighted the community. One respondent indicat- the importance of mobilizing and involving ed that “when they organize campaigns, local stakeholders to generate support. some people don’t attend, so the informa- They also can develop networks that can tion is not spreading as it should’. Further- continue to support WBOT implementation. more, the findings indicated in this paper that the referral system is a big challenge for the respondents when conducting their Objective 1: To evaluate the experiences work. According to WHO (2007), a referral of CHWs in the implementation of the system plays one of the key roles and gives WBOT programme. input to the approach for the optimal implementation of the WBOT programme. In addition, the CHWs role in the household The findings showed that respondents- re is to assess and identify health problems in garded WBOT as a good programme and the community, and if needs be, refer to as one that is doing well. Experiences by the nearest facility. According to the NDOH CHWs such as unwillingness of the patients (2011), referral forms should be completed to disclose their status, giving wrong ad- by the Outreach Team Leader (OTL) to the dresses, patients swearing at the CHWs, clinic and the clinic to the Outreach Team. lack of knowledge of the community re- However, this is not the case according to garding WBOT, and finally, a lack of com- the respondents. They encounter problems munity participation were found to hamper of nurses not completing the back referral the successes of the programme. Howev- form and they indicate that this causes the

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 213 patients to default. The findings from this being rude to patients, failure to record objective is a clear indication that CHWs, after issuing medication, not being taken community structures, all stakeholders seriously, nurses not completing the back should be supported, planning together referral form, not wanting to touch the pa- with government entities and ward coun- tients because of a bad smell. These were selors in the community would achieve the major difficulties that the respondents- en desired goals that will help the communi- countered when working with the nurses ty to get more involved in the WBOT pro- and they indicated that they sometimes gramme. compel the patients in the household not interested to go to the health facility (clinic) when referred. However, there are also Objective 2: To identify and evaluate fac- benefits of working with nurses in the health tors that facilitates the implementa- facilities. The respondent number one (1) tion of the WBOT programme indicated that “some nurses are cooperative and help us by talking to the patients in a correct manner and they even fill out the The section on factors facilitating the imple- back referral forms”. Respondent number mentation of the WBOT programme have three (3) indicated that nurses are knowl- shown that working hand in hand with the edgeable in the field of health and are community structures, ward counsellors able to give advice; and where they are and the nurses in the clinics is critical to the not competent, they refer to the medical success of the WBOT programme. Of the 12 officer. respondents, eleven (92%) share their views of what they encounter from the community regarding the WBOT programme. Objective 3: To make recommendations to However, one (8%) of the respondents felt the District Management Team with re- that as CHWs, they are not being taken gards to the findings of the paper to be seriously. Nxumalo and Choonara (2014), implemented. in their rapid assessment of the WBOT programme findings, highlight the importance of mobilizing and involving local stakehold- The respondents suggested various strate- ers to generate support and also devel- gies and recommendations to improve the op networks that can continue to support WBOT programme implementation. All the the WBOT programme implementation. twelve (100%) respondents suggested that The findings of this paper further indicated they needed support beyond the normal all twelve (100%) respondents encounter duties that they conduct in the communi- some form of difficulties with nurses when ties, such as taken seriously and be appoint- working in the health facilities. ed permanently as government workers. Suggestions for improvements included:

• Local stakeholders in the community to The difficulties mentioned by the respon- meet, plan and coordinate together dents are (but not limited to): bad attitude,

214 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 • Improve mobilization and involving local and to be provided with career path- stakeholders ing. The CHWs have been provided with Phase 1 training and are still to • Training and education of the communi- continue to Phase 2 training and Phase ty about WBOT 3 NQF qualifications, which is a one • Strengthen communication amongst year occupational training accredit- the community structures and ed by QCTO; finishing this they would be able to enter into health promotion • Conducting community campaigns and field. The NWDOH should continue to dialogues so that the community can recruit more OTL and CHWs to cover all understand WBOT and get involved. the wards needed for optimal implementation of the WBOT programme.

8. RECOMMENDATIONS • Professional development and mentoring opportunities for CHWs and the OTLs should be provided, as many of them have a working service of be- The next section will outline the recommendations of the paper for various tween 1- 3 years. stakeholders in WBOT programme. It is • A conducive working environment recommended that: should be created by providing good working relationships with providers of service such nurses, social workers, • The North West Department of Health health promotion and environmen- should recruit more male CHWs for tal health practitioners to respond to gender representations in the com- needs of the communities. munity structure making males to see the contribution they can make in the • Policy changes need to be communi- WBOT programme. There is a need to cated efficiently, both to health- pro formulate a gender mainstreaming fessionals and the community to avoid policy on hiring of CHWs in this pro- resistance and confusion. gramme. Information on all aspects of 9. CONCLUSION CHWs appointment criteria should be known to all members of community.

• NWDOH should recruit more CHWs un- This paper indicates that the successful der the age of 40 years because they WBOT programme provides a more holistic are still young and able to cover the approach to addressing the health needs long distance walking. of all individuals and promotes the development of community participation, provi- • The respondents ought to be trained sion of staff in clinics that have positive attitudes and willing to help the community. In addition, this paper shows that proper re-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 215 ferral system, working together with stake- Crisp, N. 2014. HIV/AIDS and National Health holders is important for smooth running of Insurance in South Africa. African Health the WBOT programme in the community. Leaders: Making Change and Claiming the Future , 249.

David, HP, Sameh E, Banafsheh S, Katja J In addition, resources are needed to sup- and Marko V. 2009. Improving Health Ser- port CHWs; these are cadres that help vice Delivery in Developing Countries, the people who are sick in the community. World Bank, Washington, DC, 978-08213- Furthermore, this paper shows that CHWs 7888-5. can make a valuable contribution to community health development and more spe- Dennill, K, King, L and Swanepol, T. 1998. cifically, they can improve access to and Aspects of primary health care; community coverage of communities with basic health health care in Southern Africa. Oxford Uni- services. versity Press, Southern Africa: Cape Town.

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Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 217 STUDENT REPRESENTATIVE COUNCIL: ADDRESSING INFORMA- TION NEEDS OF STUDENTS AND EVALUATION OF INFORMA- TION DISSEMINATION CHANNELS USED BY THE SRC OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LIMPOPO

TM Ntsala and MR Mahlatji

University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

Students’ representative formations in institutions of higher learning are responsible for governance and administration of students’ academic matters. That is, they lead and represent students on various platforms on or outside university campuses. For the Student Representative Council (SRC) to be truly representative, it has to have information about matters affecting students and also how the university functions. This will enable students to access information on policies, academic rules and any other information that affect them. The term access, in this paper, is taken to mean ability to obtain, read, understand and apply the information efficiently and effectively. It is imperative for students to know the role of the SRC, its activities and challenges that affect students. This will allow active participation of students in university activities and SRC administration to enhance students’ wellbeing at the university. This paper argues that whereas there are many students who need SRC intervention upon violation of certain academic policies and rules, it is worth noting however, that due to the inaccessibility of SRC, some of such students are left with little or no information to address their challenges. This is in spite of the fact that the SRC is mostly considered to be better positioned to educate and make information accessible to the students. It is for this reason that this paper has sought to investigate how the SRC at the University of Limpopo learn about student’s information needs. It is important that students get the right information, at the right time, at the right place, in the right format using the right information dissemination channel. Moreover to evaluate the dissemination channels in use to reach the entire student body. The paper concludes by illus- trating how the accessibility of such channels can be improved.

Keywords: Information needs, dissemination channels, communication channels, Student Rep- resentative Council, policies and procedures.

218 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 no misunderstandings occur, as this could lead to a wrong decision being 1. INTRODUCTION made. Studies on students’ governance show that . Reliable: - To ensure that information is Students Representative Councils (SRCs) valid and not sourced from someone/ remain the important stakeholder of ac- somewhere that is known to spread ademic institutions worldwide and are re- disinformation. sponsible for students’ governance (Kle- menčič, 2012). Klemenćić indicates that . Fit for purpose: - Information should be SRCs are the fulltime governing body en- relevant to the students, for example trusted with specific matters by their- con information about examination rules stituency and university management. In should be given to students, not staff the South African context, the SRCs are promotions. now considered to be statutory structures . Accessible: - making sure that informa- as provided for in terms of section 35 of the tion is available for use by any student Higher Education Act 101, of 1997. Sec- that needs it is important because it tion 35 of the Higher Education Act 101 could be the difference between the of 1997 allows for the establishment of the correct and wrong decision. SRC which has jurisdiction over students’ matters. SRCs represent students on forums . Timely: - Information should be ob- such as School boards, Faculty boards, tained and used in a timely fashion Senate and University Councils.In this case to ensure that any decisions being the SRC have to exercise authority over stu- made are made as easy as possible. dents and hear students’ cases or issues. . Reliable”, “timely”, “fit for purpose” It is clear that the SRCs serve as a link be- to mention a few. Quality informa- tween the student body and the universi- tion is important for the SRC because ty management. To ensure success of stu- it can assist it with planning, making dent affairs on campuses, SRCs should liaise informed decisions and solving stu- closely with students in order to understand dents ‘problems effectively. As such, the needs and challenges facing students information remains an important re- they represent. Through their services, SRCs source for enabling SRCs to under- lead various activities and are responsible take their responsibilities effectively. for coordinating formation of students’ or- . ganisations, societies and clubs in order to Understandable by the user: - If infor- enhance the university environment for stu- mation isn’t understood then it cannot dents. This suggests that SRCs, as leadership be considered usable information in bodies, need to have access to quality in- the first place and would be pointless formation for good governance. Charac- to gather from the start. When devel- teristics of good information are (Wright, oping information, it is important that 2013): it is what the user requires and that they are able to understand it. . Valid: - information should be accurate and reliable to ensure that Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 219 . Communicated by an appropriate the SRC constitution. The SRC constitution channel of communication (Lucey, is regarded as a written enactment of the 2005:20) will of the student body. Such a constitution also provides for a less chaotic and According to Appiah (2012:3) informa- non-confrontational manner of addressing tion dissemination channels and can be disagreements with the development of grouped as (i) people intensive(room to policy and practice within students’ gover- room campaign, rally/students gather- nance (Bonakele, Mxenge, Thabakgale, & ing and encounter in the lectures halls) Tabane, 2003: 7). Some of the functions of (ii) mass media (radio, newspapers, mag- SRCs are summarised as follows (Bonakele, azines, posters), and (iii) information com- et al, 2003): munication technologies (text messages, emails, social networks:- Facebook, twitter and WhatsApp). Hence, this paper focus- • To address the needs of all students in es on how SRCs use information to main- the university. tain good governance and which idcs are used at the University of Limpopo. To map • To keep the students informed about the out the role of SRCs in addressing informa- events in the university and in the univer- tion needs of the students at the university, sity community. it is crucial to firstly to explain the concep- • To encourage good relationships within tual framework that underpins this paper. the university between learners and academics, and between students, administrative and support staff (health centres, 2. CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAME- library, counselling services etc.) WORK • To establish, for the benefits of students Like any formal structure the SRC should in the university, fruitful links with SRCs in have a constitution. According to Bon- other universities akele, et al (2003), SRC constitution is a basis for the operation and management The UL SRC is also expected to adhere to of the SRC, and defines the purpose of its constitution. It is the role of the UL SRC to existence of the SRC as an organisation forge links within the university and identi- responsible for the needs of students. Kle- fy the challenges that the University and its menčič (2014), Klemenčič, Luescher and students faces. This can be achieved when Mugume (2016), and Luescher-Mamashe- the SRC has the responsibility to gather and la and Mugume (2014) added that mem- report valuable information to students and bers of the SRC have to execute their du- thus show interest in the student daily infor- ties in accordance with the provisions of mation needs.

The formation of the SRC in various universities is based on these three models namely, Liberal Democracy Model, Direct

220 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Model approach and Representative De- The student representatives are elected by mocracy Model (RDM) (Perkin 2006; Bukali- the student body to act on their behalf and ya & Rupande, 2012).The Liberal democra- in their interest; they retain the freedom to cy model postulates that a representative exercise their own judgment as how best to democracy is one in which the ability of do so (Dahl, 2000). The RDM seems to be the elected student representatives to ex- the most preferred as it clearly describes ercise decision-making power is subject to the role of SRCs as to represent the student a constitution incepted by the students to body which elected them for that purpose. guide the operations, a constitution which This does not conclude that the model has emphasises the protection of students no flaws. rights and freedoms and regulates the actions leaders against making unpopular decisions (Dahl, 2000).The direct model Bloch (2016:18) agrees that SRCs must rep- approach posits that in an organised in- resent all students. This could be possible if stitution, students participate in the deci- the SRC serves as the voice for all students sion-making of the organisation personally, by presenting issues as are necessary for contrary to relying on intermediaries or rep- smooth academic environment. The chal- resentatives. The direct democracy model lenge with this is that even at UL like any gives the voting student population binding democratic organisation, the majority rules. orders to its elected representatives, such Allegations have been made of the UL SRC as recalling them before the expiry of their as serving the interests of the majority of the term in office (Bukaliya & Rupande, 2012). students who voted for them. Klemenčič The RDM apparently is of major use today (2014) notes that the SRCs have been in most institutions of higher learning includ- blamed for not defending student interests, ing the UL. The RDM involves elections and but end up serving the interests of the po- the organisation with plurality of the votes litical parties to which elected student rep- becomes student council to represent the resentatives belong to. SRCs are political wishes and desires of the student body (Bu- party wings and/or student branches. The kaliya & Rupande, 2012).This takes the form situation is the same at UL where students’ of negotiations, and lobbying on behalf of branches belong to political parties such students (SRC Kwame Nkurumah Univer- as African National Congress (ANC), Eco- sity Science and Technology, 2014/2015). nomic Freedom Front (EFF) and Pan African At UL on an annual basis the SRC elections Congress (PAC). There are eleven students’ are held whereby different organisations branches at UL in 2016. such as South African Student Congress Or- The SRC is expected to intervene and act ganisation (SASCO), Pan Africans Student on behalf of students. In representing and Movement of Azania (PASMA), Students providing information to students, the SRC Christian Organisation (SCO), and Econom- should be able to identify the needs and ic Freedom Fighters Students Command challenges of the students hence use of the (EFFSCO) canvases to be elected as stu- information foraging theory as a framework dent representatives. for this paper. The Information Foraging is deemed necessary in the context of this

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 221 paper as it describes how UL SRC addresses mation diet model. Pirolli and Card (1995) students’ information needs and evaluates explain information diet model to refer to information provision channels used. ranking the information by its profitability divided by the amount of time required to handle it, while Information patch model The Information Foraging Theory is drawn refers to displaying of information in reason- from Biology and Anthropology and refers able packages and categories in a scrolla- to activities associated with assessing, seek- ble manner in which it will be easier to ing, and handling information (Pirolli & Card, decide which one is relevant or not. The In- 1995). The relevance of this theory lies in the formation diet model alerts the UL SRC that fact that in order for the SRC to provide it should to recognise that there is too much quality information to students, it should be information circulating at university for stu- able to assess the quality of information and dents. Moreover, the SRC should determine if it addresses students’ information needs. which information is important for which Moreover the SRC has to obtain information students. The SRC should take into account from various sources so that they govern that students have academic activities to effectively. The information foraging theo- complete within specific timeframes; as ry suggests that people should shape their such the information disseminated should behaviour to the information environment, be arranged according to its importance and for the information provider (SRC) to and for the students to afforded reason- know how information environment can be able time to access it. best shaped to people (students). This call for students to know which IDCS are used by the SRC. For example, UL-SRC prefers On the other hand, the information patch distribution of pamphlets next to major en- model recommends that information trances, walls around campus, next to SRC should be arranged according to title/ offices and more important is for students topic/theme so that the students should to attend mass meetings so that they have be able to scan it and decide whether it is access to quality information. At the same relevant for them to read it. For example, time the SRC should also be cognisant of it is expected that the agenda to list spe- the idcs that can reach majority of the stu- cific items to be discussed in the meeting. dents. This theory is critical to this paper as On the same note while in the meeting, the it is important to understand how UL SRC agenda should be followed to avoid derail- assesses and identifies students’ information ing the purpose of the meeting. Even the needs to ensure that the right information disseminated pamphlets should not cover for the right student at the right time. The too many issues which at times are unrelat- foraging of information refers to grouping ed or have no relevancy to students ‘issues’. information items into specific format and Simply stated, the SRC hast to provide infor- sources within space and time. mation which is relevant to students. For example, during university orientation the SRC should talk to new students about what the In addition, the foraging of information in- SRC is about, what they do, university poli- cludes Information patch model and infor- cies, rules as some new students may have

222 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 no idea about life at a university in general. be engagement to ensure that fees do not necessarily go up, he added.

At some stages students’ needs have led The SRC should put across as much infor- to protests that were experienced in most mation as possible so that students may South African universities but the paper dis- lead successful and effective academic cusses those that affected UL. life during their university years. To have a better understanding SRC governance and Academic matters information dissemination channels, students’ information needs will follow. It is vital that the SRC gather information from their constituencies about issues brought 3. SRC AND STUDENTS INFORMATION before the meetings and authorities as well NEEDS as about any issue that their constituency might have (Bukaliya & Rupande, 2012: SRCs exist for the benefit of the students in 75). This could be information on policies order to help students share ideas, interests, and rules that govern teaching and learn- and concerns without tutors, other mem- ing which are very crucial so that students bers of different faculties, administrative are not taken off guard when they have to staff and to build harmonious relationships appear before disciplinary structures or are between students themselves (Bukaliya & excluded from the university depending on Rupande, 2012: 74). According to Luescher the individual circumstances. The role of the (2009) in most universities in Kenya, the stu- SRC when it comes to exclusion is to advise dents’ unions also supplement the services and intercede on behalf of students who that are offered by the university. These have become financially or academically include information dissemination on mat- excluded in the past academic year (The ters such as assistance with academic and Dailyvox, 2015). At UL the university rules are administrative problems, peer counselling, covered in printed general university calen- the provision of financial assistance for dars and the websites. The SRC is expected needy students, offering study facilities and to be conversant with application of rules services, and running businesses such as in a practical situation. In most cases when bookstores, Internet cafés, tuck shops and students face academic exclusions the first restaurants (2012: 74). Ledwaba when in- place they turn to for help is SRC chambers. terviewed by Luescher- Mamashela (2013: The UL SRC should be able to provide infor- 79) indicated that during his time as SRC mation such as grounds for students’ exclu- leader at University of Cape Town (UCT) sion, appeals’ procedures and the role of SRC focus on an institutional level was on students’ counselling services in general. academic matters such as ensuring that the academic calendar was not hostile to Challenges tackled by UL SRCs are many students, focused on academic develop- and varied. There were instances where ment programmes and academic support students raised concerns about extension staff, and academic exclusion of students. of library hours, inadequate technologies, Another generally applicable issue would

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 223 financial matters, accommodation and they need for their studies. Students have transport. The commitment to serve stu- to type their assignments, search online da- dents was realised when UL SRC attended tabases and internet as well as to access to the following issues as … in the letter dat- blackboard facilities. The study by Man- ed. The letter read as follows; sor and Nor (2011) established that SRCs also needs to use technology to commu- On the library issue the SRC warned nicate with students about planned and “that if the management does not unplanned notices of the mass meetings, comply to this commitment we are postponement of academic assessments going to occupy the library and be- (tests and examination), social events such come the staff of the library unit until sports and entertainment. The fact that the University employs enough staff the university does not have enough com- who are going to be on full operation puters is frequently mentioned in the SRC at 08h00-00h00”. memoranda to management (Zha, Gao & As from 08 March 2016 the library operat- Ni 2013). ed from 08h00 to 00h00, however the question is whether opening for longer hours has translated into use of library resources Financial matters or the library is merely used as a space for reading because residences tends to be noisy in most cases. Financial information that students require includes information on how National Stu- Technological equipments dents Financial Assistance (NSFAS) oper- Universities need to ensure that students ates, when to apply, what other financial have adequate access to technological assistance such as the merit bursary by the equipments such as computers to enable university are available, who qualifies, etc. them to improve access to information The SRC intervene so that students qualify for NSFAS funding even though it may not exclusions in 2016 (2) the historic debt that cover all the fees. SRC members sometimes must be cleared (3) free registration for all are not aware of the information to pro- students. At the meeting of the SRCs with vide with regard to financial matters. The the Minister of Higher education alluded to Department of Higher Education and Train- the fact that some of the issues are the re- ing (Mafilika, 2016) has organised road- sponsibilities of universities, while others are shows to capacitate student leaders on systemic and therefore the responsibility of issues such as tuition fees. Some SRC Presi- the Ministry. This response may cause frus- dents and Secretaries General submitted a trations between the SRC and their con- list of demands to the Ministry of Higher Ed- stituencies. How much of this information ucation at a meeting on 15 January 2016 was the SRC aware of? Mafilika (2016) indi- (Ministry Higher Education and Training, cated that there is communication break- Republic of South Africa, 2016). The letter covers progress made on (1) No financial

224 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 down between students and university students (mentees) adjust socially and ac- management. The UL SRC like other cam- ademically to the university life. Neverthe- puses led marches concerning NSFAS. This less the SRC remains an important source reaction by the SRC makes one to question of information and support to students in how much information they have on how dealing with any form of harassment from NSFA functions or ask why the protests take other students and lecturers (Klemenčič, place on campus instead of directly con- 2014). In February of 2016 the UL SRC issued tacting NSFAS head offices. a strong worded pamphlet which read as follows “We would like to urge all our fe- Accommodation, security and transport male students to report all cases of sexual harassment to the office of SRC as we are The other issue that has featured predomi- totally against these devilish acts that are nantly on the agenda of SRCs across most being done to our future mothers and par- campuses in South Africa is students’ ac- ents of this country.” commodation. South African universities have a challenge of a high number of students who cannot be accommodated on Rights and responsibilities campus and have to find accommodation outside campus. UL also experiences such a The Constitution of the Republic of South challenge. Even though accommodation Africa 1996 guarantees individual rights. is available in the neighbouring Mankweng The Constitution guarantees the students’ Township, where the university is situated, right to protest, the right to information, but most students may still need to know about these right go with responsibilities. These crime and transport to campus. There are rights mean that individuals should be in- times when they have to write tests up to formed on how to behave under different 19h00 or study at the library until late in the situations. Budoo (2016) a project officer evening. The UL provides transport for stu- at Human Rights Commission commented dents who live off campus even though it’s that some female protestors marched half still a logistic challenge. It’s impossible to naked at Rhodes University concerning the drop off students at their respective gates rape claim. This action by half naked female due to narrow streets and footpaths. This students was at the same time violating the make females to remain vulnerable and Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and relat- fear walking late by themselves. ed Matters) Amendment Act 2007 Section Personal Development skills 3 (2), she added. The Criminal Law (Sexu- al Offences and related Matters) Amend- ment Act 2007 Section 3 (2) provides that First entering students arriving on campus ‘any person who is 18 years or older who university for the first time are responsible wilfully and openly exhibits himself or her- for their choices such as making decisions self in an indecent dress or manner at any relating to budgeting, health, entertain- door or window or within view of any public ment to mention a few. Unlike other uni- street or place or in any place to which the versities UL has a Peer Support Programme public have access, shall be guilty of an of- where senior students mentor first entering fence’. This provision was enacted taking

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 225 into account all the requirements of sec- 4.INFORMATION DISSEMINATION CHANNELS tion 36 of the Constitution of the Republic As the representatives of the student body, of South Africa and therefore, irrespective the SRC has a responsibility to report valu- of the emotions that one is experiencing, able information to their fellow students. It is legally speaking, nudity as a form of protest vital that they gather information from their is not allowed in South Africa (Budoo, 2016). constituencies about issues brought up in One may question whether the Rhodes meetings with authorities as well as about University SRC had information regarding any issues that their constituency might violation of others rights and responsibilities have (Wang & Salo, 2009). Lines of com- by half naked female protesters. Therefore, munication between different sections of even if one is filled with emotions, one is not the university community must always re- allowed to exhibit himself or herself during main alive, open and never allowed to get protests as this is violation of other peoples’ blocked (Appiah 2012:3).The information rights. When students are informed they are dissemination channels mainly used by UL expected to make better decisions and SRC are; avoid unnecessary legal repercussions.

Historic symbols

UL (formerly University of the North) renamed a) Mass meetings its buildings, residences, public spaces, and The SRC in most universities are usually ex- streets after certain political struggle stal- pected to hold regular and annual gener- warts as far back as 1993. For instance Tiro al mass meetings as indicated in their re- Hall is named after Abram Onkgopotse Tiro spective constitution. Mass meeting refers who was elected president of the Student to large or general assembly to discuss or Representative Council (SRC) in 1972. On hear discuss some matters of common in- other campuses, African students studying terest or concern (Merriam-Webster Dic- in former White universities rejected and de- tionary, 2005). During these meetings, SRC stroyed statues associated with colonialism leadership learns about students’ needs, in- and apartheid. Politicians and concerned forms them about University management individual rejected the move as they indi- decisions and provides information about cated that the National Heritage Resourc- activities on campus and so on. Mass es Act of 2009 outlines the consultative pro- meetings are used for information gather- cesses that should be followed in the case ing exercises in order to allow student lead- of the removal of a statue. This may be in- ers to understand the needs of students. formation protesting students and the SRC Furthermore, it is also a way for students to lack. Matebesi as cited by South African engage the governing authority so as to Broadcasting Corporation (2015) maintains ensure that their information needs are met that the removal of these statues would (Ballard, 2008:168). deny future generations the opportunity to know the history of South Africa.

226 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Despite the mass meetings being a com- Another way through which SRCs common feature in most campuses, it is notable municates with students is through distribu- that they have on many occasions failed tion of pamphlets throughout the univer- to attract large numbers of students. In a sity campuses. Hubbard (2006) indicated study by Mugume and Luescher (2015: 11) that pamphlets have the ability to reach a on politics of student housing at the Univer- large audience if distributed correctly. This sity of Ghana, established that some stu- author further stated that when using pam- dents were discouraged from attending phlets as channels of information dissemi- SRC’s mass meetings because they tend- nation, one has total control over what is ed to turn into party-political contests rath- said and how it’s said (2006). Pamphlets are er than focusing on trying to constructively regarded as the most basic style that gives resolve the challenges facing students. This information on particular subjects explains implies that mass meeting are not always how things are done (Dhawan, 2009). At UL relevant platforms to disseminate the infor- pedestrian gates are used as key points for mation to students. distributing such pamphlets mainly for off campus students. This does not mean that students pick up the pamphlets. Regarding accountability, the main complaint was that the student leaders do not report back to them on certain matters in c) Participation during Protests mass meetings and that they demonstrate little political willingness to the student during their term in office (Koen, Cele & When the SRC calls for protests about stu- Libhabher, 2006: 409). Another challenge is dents issues it represents all or some stu- political apathy which according to Nyun- dents’ groups. Badat (2016:18) cites an ear- du, Naido and Chagonda, (2015:151) it is lier work by Lenin on four kinds of students’ when some students do not see the need groupings; to be actively involved in SRC or student . One kind is affiliated to and rep- politics. Apathy can be simply described resents particular positions as the behaviour which reveals a lack of interest in an issue, due to prioritising personal • A second kind of students’ grouping is or individualistic concerns. Students have ‘indifferents’- those that are unrespon- also been described as disinterested in pol- sive and detached from the student itics, disillusioned with the manner in which protest movement. protests and negotiations takes place and • A third kind, ‘reactionaries’ are opposed as wanting everyday issues (Chimanikire, to the protest movement. 2009:46). • A fourth kind, ‘academics’ believe that student movements should be con- b) Pamphlets cerned with academic issues.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 227 Since the SRC represents all students it has to find a balance to make sure that the rights 5. CHALLENGES TO IMPROVED INFORMA- of those who do not want to join should be TION PROVISON respected, however on many occasions students were chased out of classrooms, the library and residences. Mafilika (2016) concluded that protests are largely based Sometimes it does happen that the SRC on lack of information on matters that af- fails to address some of the demands ad- fected students. equately or at all. Advantages, limitations and issues associated with student participation in university decision making have been explored in earlier studies (Zuo & d) Social networking Ratsoy, 1999: 3). Bonakele, et al (2003:29) It is common finding the youth hooked onto warns that the challenges facing student’s their cell phones accessing social network- governance today cannot be resolved ing sites while on streets, aboard transport, simply by constitutional acumen. Proper in school and at home (Mansor & Nor 2011). administration of student governance can, Social networks such as Facebook, twitter, however, go a long way in providing an ex- WhatsApp groups may be used during SRC cellent basis from which these challenges elections or making an announcement can be tackled. on envisaged protests or information on This paper would not attempt to solve all ‘going back to academic activities’. The the challenges individually, but will address SRC should realise that the power of the the role the SRC should play in relation #hashtags have grown tremendously in to understanding students’ informational popularity. A warning to both the SRC and needs in order to remain credible among students is that they should remember that students. Bloch (2016:18) better address- on social media is sometimes difficult to au- es the SRC role when he stated that while thenticate the source and accuracy of the SRC represent all students, they still repre- information. sent that majority who voted for them as f) Community Radio such one expects them to assist students Community Radio has obligation to the at large. As SRC they have to decide community it serves. Community radio is amongst many students priorities. He ap- essential, democratic, and participatory pealed for them to do the work and give and should put the information needs of feedback to students. He urges that “By all the community they serve. AT UL Radio Turf means, lead the protests, even disrupt and caters for the university community and sur- challenge the law where needed. But tell rounding rural villages. It’s one of the chan- students the consequences of your and nels the UL SRC could use to announce their actions. Democracy means telling the academic related matters. Research is students the truth, even as you lead them needed to know if students do listen to Ra- forward”, Bloch concluded. dio Turf. According to Obondo in Mwangi, (2015: 24), student representatives have

228 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 also been noted to have the capacity to ious universities, it is high time students re- diffuse potential conflicts. This, they can do sisted such a phenomenon (National Union through regular meetings with their mem- of Ghana Students NUGS, 2011). The NUGS bers and administrations, designing mech- communiqué pointed out that such elect- anism for regular communication, thereby ed students leaders become “pawns” of restraining their fellow students from unnec- politicians neglecting their key responsi- essary conflicts. However, reports on some bilities such as championing the cause of protests that took place in 2015 in South Ghanaian students for which reason they African have shown that in many protests were elected. Jansen is the only vice-chan- that took place at various campuses from cellor, who, in light of experiences in the rest 2015 were infiltrated or hijacked by people of Africa, has on the Bloemfontein campus who were not students (Laterza & Manqoyi, prohibited political party affiliation. The SRC 2015). Badat (2016) remarks about the ac- is non-partisan; candidates must be non- tions taken outside the channels of the partisan although they wear party insignia SRC’s, whose credibility has been called (Cloete, 2008). into questions in instances, as “hooligan- The other negative impact includes high ism” is unfortunate, as is the seemingly hos- levels of competition between parties, es- tile attitude to student strikes, even if they pecially around election time. This allows are mobilised by groups other than the SRC. for national politics to invade student pol- Bloch warns that the SRC should not allow itics, and for student leaders to become so minority take over, and should insist on rec- ‘captured’ to the extent that their activism ognition of the votes of the students by do- no longer represent students’ interests but ing the work required (Bloch, 2016:18). those of their respective political parties. In The interference of politicians in students’ 2013, Mugume and Luescher-Mamashela affairs has become a problem in the var- (2015) undertook a more detailed study of

Makerere University in Uganda. In this study, students’ interests. On 08 September, Gha- they found that different kinds of resource na News Agency (GNA) the (NUGS), called exchanges are contributing towards under- on politicians not to interfere in students af- standing the relationships, which include fairs but allow them to remain focused. This the financial and political strength of a po- may affect the information that must be litical party and student leaders’ ambitions provided to students. Since students are el- of a future political career. Mugume and igible for voting they information about dif- Luescher-Mamashela (2015) concluded ferent political parties. With this information that the main negative effect of this rela- students will know different manifestos and tionship is that student leaders are inducted more, but it should be at the time when stu- into a patron-client relationship within the dents need it. political party machinery, which constantly The SRC further should concern itself with rewards student leaders as they submit to all issues that threaten the congenial atmo- the whims of party bosses. The relationship sphere of learning. In line with governance, distracts student leaders from representing

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 229 the roles and responsibilities of SRCs may pedestrian gate which is mainly used by include participation in the development students who stay off campus, those who and implementation of institutional and buy at the nearest shopping complex and national policies on higher education; ad- those catching taxis to reach various des- vice and support on the development of tinations. Most universities have commu- academic programmes and student-learn- nity radio station on campus wherein The ing experiences; participate in institutional UL SRC can reach students via Radio Turf decision making structures; and manage is a platform intended for students. What and administer students’ representation at is crucial is that the information should be different levels. packaged to suit the behaviour of the students as per the information foraging model. Timing of when students listen to the ra- 6. Conclusion dio is very important if the SRC values the students. The purpose of this study was to indicate idcs used by UL SRC when communicating with the student body. Moreover, this pa- LIST OF REFERENCES per indicated various information needs and challenges for students and how SRC Appiah, J. A.2012.Channels of communi- could address information needs of the stu- cation in Students’ Representative Council dents. The expectation is that the SRC has (SRC) elections campaigning in the Univer- to show interest in daily students’ matters sity of Ghana, Legon. University of Ghana and also take action to correct challenges [Online] http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (Ac- of the students rather than be passive. SRCs cessed 20 April 2016) should liaise with many academic forma- Badat, S. 2016. Deciphering the meanings, tions and engage with various stakeholders and explaining the South African Higher on and off campus. Once the SRC is in place Education Student Protests of 2015-2016. it needs to focus on understanding the stu- [Online] https://www. google.co.za/the+- dents’ information needs. Such needs are South+African+Higher+Education+Stu- important because they represent the ex- dent+Protests+of+2015-2016 (Accessed 22 periences of the individuals or groups in- April 2016). volved. There are instances whereby the SRC priorities may not match the priorities Bergan, S. 2004. Higher education gover- of the student body and their services may nance and democratic participation: the not be offered to students who do not rec- university and democratic culture, in S. ognize it as useful. The more information Bergan (ed.) The university as res publica: available about the students’ needs the Higher education governance, student better are chances of students viewing it participation and the university as a site of as relevant. It is notable that the SRC also citizenship. Strasbourg: Council of Europe employs different channels such as mass Bloch, G. 2016. SRCs must remain resolute in meetings, pamphlets or posters that are pursuing their goals. The New Age newspa- pasted against walls within campus, pam- per, 20 April 2016. phlets with are usually disseminated at the

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234 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 AN EXAMINATION OF FACTORS HINDERING THE GROWTH OF MEDIA FIRMS IN CAPRICORN DISTRICT REGION OF LIMPOPO PROVINCE, SOUTH AFRICA FT Maswanganyi

Central University of Technology

EM Nkoana

University of South Africa

ABSTRACT

All firms operate within the challenging macro- and micro-economic factors and internal and external environments. Media firms experience additional challenges from disruptive innovation. With this background, this article reports on a qualitative study that examined factors that hinder the growth of media firms operating in the Capricorn District of Limpopo Province, South Africa. Empirical data was collected by administering an interview guide through face-to-face interviewing with Chief Executives of media firms (n=20).Primary data obtained from the interviews was analysed using Qualitative Content Analysis (QCA). The researchers found that the main barriers of growth of media firms in Capricorn District are associated with political interference, sexual advances, and lack of financial capital.

1. INTRODUCTION that come with it. The most prominent of these challenges media firms face today is Neo-liberal economics argue that the ben- disruptive innovation of old technology by efits derived from the growth of firms will new ones. Hence, it is important to investi- trickle down to the lower classes and solve gate the ever-changing barriers to growth the wicked problem of poverty and un- of media firms-a task we take on in this pa- derdevelopment (Rittel & Webber, 1973). per. Private sector growth, away from ‘big’ government interference, is touted as a Our paper is divided into three sections: silver bullet for the development of poor Section 2 begins by mapping out the countries. Media firms are also expected changing media landscape and estab- to play their role in this orchestra. However, lishes a theoretical framework that an- the chink in this ‘neo-liberal’ armour is the chors our paper in scientific literature and various macro-economic and micro-eco- methodology. Section 3 briefly outlines the nomic factors and the internal and exter- methodology used to collect field notes, nal environments that conspire to arrest and Sections 4, 5, & 6 discuss findings and the growth of the firm and diminish hopes

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 235 make concluding remarks and recommen- print media (i.e. newspapers and maga- dations. zines) are in decline due to the emergence 2.THE MEDIA INDUSTRY of the Internet in the 90s (Tandon, 2008). Nowadays, consumers prefer online me- Zapiski (2003) states that the growth of media platforms such as news websites (such dia firms is an essential part of developing as News24), social network sites (mostly the media industry, as thus, will lead to Facebook), and instant messaging (includ- positive economic contribution including ing WhatsApp) and so forth (Nutley, 2006; job creation and a growing tax base. De- Tandon, 2008: 37-42; Cohen, 2012; Murray, spite their potential, media firms encounter 2012). growth challenges from the micro-economic (i.e. reliability of suppliers) and mac- 2.2.New-Firm Formation Theory ro-economic (i.e. national legislation, dis- There are two approaches central to the ruptive technological innovation) factors New-Firm Formation Theory. One approach and internal (i.e. organisational culture) has focused on the organisation of the in- and external (i.e. competition) environ- dustry and examined the effect that mar- ments. These factors have been explained ket structure exerts on the ability of firms to extensively in the New Firm-Formation The- enter an industry. A particular emphasis of ory (Karlsson, Johannisson & Storey, 2003) the industrial organisation approach has and Growth of the Firm Theory (Burns, 2001). been on identifying those characteristics of We highlight these theories that were used market structure that either impede or fa- to guide the process of this study in an at- cilitate entry (Karlsson, Johannisson & Sto- tempt to arrive at our aim. But before this, rey, 2003: 40-41). The alternative approach we draw on the technological innovation focuses on economic conditions in the changes sweeping the media industry. macro-economic labour market, and of These changes, dubbed, disruptive inno- particular interest to the labour market ap- vation have a potential of decimating ex- proach is the relative importance of push isting firms while new ones that take full ad- (i.e. large supply of unemployed workers) vantage might emerge from this trend. and pull (i.e. demand for goods and ser- 2.1.Changing trends in the Media Industry vices) factors determining the aggregate amount of firm formation activity (Karlsson Changes in the media industry are mainly et al., 2003: 40-41). It is important to look at driven by technological changes. Howev- the abovementioned approach in a seri- er, technological innovation in the media ous light as the reason to start a firm deter- industry is not new. Newspaper circula- mines the growth of the firm. tion began to decline in Europe and North America with the introduction of television 2.3. Growth of the Firm Theory and radio over five decades ago. The de- 2.3.1. Macro-economic and micro-eco- cline of print media and a gradual migra- nomic hindrances tion to broadcast media was driven by technological advances. Today, both the McIntyre & Dallago (2003: 51) reiterate that broadcast (i.e. radio and television) and

236 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 the growth of the firm is influenced by mac- There are other factors derived from the ro-economic and micro-economic factors internal and external environments that and the internal and external environments also influence the growth of the firm. Burns within which it operates. They point us to (2001: 40-72) maintains that there is an ex- a case in Russia that reveals the following pectation for a small firm to transition or macro-economic and micro-economic grow into a big one. However, small firms conditions as barriers to growth, and these do not grow to any size because they are are: tax burden, gaps in legislation, limited ‘life style businesses’ that provide the own- access to finance, administrative barriers, er-manager with an acceptable income business security, reliability of business part- but, more important, a comfortable life- ners, and access to information, training style. Burns continues that, despite this, and counselling of entrepreneurs. Similarly, small firms must develop in the early stages here in South Africa, the obstacles to the to a certain size if they are to survive. Even growth of firms include: access to finance, ‘growth businesses’ often grow to a certain crime and corruption, electricity crisis, lack size and then falter or stagnate, usually at of skills, lack of access to land, and prob- around five (5) to twenty (20) employees. lems of transportation (Mengistae, Daniels, Going beyond twenty (20) employees of- Habiyarimana, Kaplan, Love, Ramachan- ten means that the way business is organ- dran, Shah & Xu, 2010). ised has to change. To this end, Burns tab- ulated a typology of characteristics that 2.3.2. Internal and External hindrances distinguish growth firms from static firms.

Growth firms versus Static firms Table 1: Characteristics of Growth and Static firm characteristics

Growth firm Static firm Objectives Maximise profits Less emphasis on profits

Increases Sales More on independence Organisational structure ‘Tree’ structure ‘Tree’ in well established firms

Development of ‘teams’

‘Clover leaf’ (full-time, part- time and temporary) employee structure emerging Style of management Autocratic to start Paternal

Consultation emerging Structure of internal account- Strong movement to profit Less emphasis on profit cen- ing centres tres Historical data Strong on cash flow Very little

Trend to monthly forecasts Key variables Cash flow More emphasis on supplier relationships Profitability

Sales Source (Burns, 2001: 41)

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 237 Purchasing power (Burns, 2001) and stagnate.

The power of the buyers is determined by Intensity of Rivalry the buyer versus firm size and concentration, the volumes purchased, buyer infor- The rivalry of an industry will depend on its mation and switching costs, and their abili- newness and growth, its attractiveness in ty to backward integrate. Thus, a small firm terms of profit and value addedness, inter- selling large volumes to a big company mittent overcapacity, product differentia- buyer, where these volumes represent small tion, brand identity, switching costs, con- volumes to the big company, is a priori, in a centration, and diversity of competition weak competition. The power of the mar- and exit costs (Burns, 2001: 50-51). In the ket mix and its ability to differentiate the case of media firms, an old industry, the product and insulate it from price sensitiv- competition is fierce, with larger firms domi- ity will also have an effect. The power of nating the industry and smaller ones at their supplier is also affected by the relative size mercy, and this impact detrimentally on of the firm. Thus, a small firm buying from a the growth of small firms. big firm is relatively disadvantaged (Burns, 2001) and this might negatively affect its 2.3.3. Growth facilitators growth prospects. Burns (2001: 54-56) argues that there are Threat of New Entrants four fundamental ways of achieving sustainable competitive advantage neces- The threat of new entrants: barriers to entry sary for growth. These are: Cost Leadership keep out new entrants to an industry. These (i.e. via mass production), Differentiation can arise because of legal protection (i.e. (i.e. specialisation), Focus (i.e. Niche Strat- patents and so on), economies of scale, egy), and Diversification. proprietary product differences, brand identity, access to distribution, government Cost Leadership policy, switching costs, capital costs and so Cost leadership is where the firm sets out forth. For example, a firm whose product is to be the low cost producer in the indus- protected by patent or copyright may feel try. This is often unattractive to small firm that it is relatively safe from competition as it requires economies of scale, constant (Burns, 2001: 50-51) leading to complacen- capital investment in new technology, sub- cy resulting in stagnation. stantial relative market share advantage Threat of substitutes and market power and experience curve effects. This revolves around their relative price performance, switching costs, and the pro- Differentiation pensity of the customer to switch. Thus, for Differentiation is whereby the firm sets out example, a small firm selling a poorly dif- ‘to be unique in the industry along some ferentiated product in a low-price fashion dimensions that are widely valued by cus- market should find it difficult to compete tomers’. This is called developing a Unique

238 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Selling Point (USP). The firm sets out to- es becomes its own distributor or retailer. Syn- tablish itself as unique and different from ergy is often used as a justification for di- its competitors in some ways. It can then versification, particularly through acquisi- charge a premium price for this unique ser- tions or mergers. Synergy is concerned with vice experience. assessing how much extra benefit can be obtained from providing linkages within the Focus value chain (Burns, 2001).

Focus is when the firm focuses on a narrow Managing Growth target market segment combined with either of the abovementioned strategies. The process of how growth is managed If the firm adopts a strategy of ‘focused also affects the development of the firm. differentiation’ it is said to pursue a niche Greiner’s growth model shows each evo- strategy. This is a very attractive option to lutionary phase dominated by a partic- smaller firms wishing to survive in the cut ular management style used to achieve throat media industry. growth. Each evolutionary period presents a management problem to overcome. Diversification Only phases 1 to 3 really apply to smaller firms. However, the model demonstrates In search for further growth, a business has how the management style adopted by four options, illustrated in the product mar- the owner-manager must change if they ket mix and they are. Firstly, it can stay with are to pass successfully through the differ- its base product or service, and its existing ent phases of growth (Burns, 2001: 61-67). market, and simply try to penetrate the market further. This involves selling more of • Existence: strategy is to stay alive, and the same product to the same market. This the company needs to find customers is dealing very much with the familiar and and deliver products/services. The or- is normally the lowest risk option, although ganisation is simple. The owner does the point will come when further penetra- everything. Planning is minimal/non-ex- tion is not possible or economic. Secondly it istent. can develop related or new products for its existing market. Thirdly it can develop relat- • Survival: strategy is to establish the cus- ed or new markets for its existing products, tomer base and product portfolio. The and lastly, it might try moving into related or company has to demonstrate that it has new markets with related or new products. sufficient products and customers to be a viable business. It has control of its rev- The strategies discussed above are called enue and expenses to maintain a cash ‘horizontal’ strategies. Two further strate- flow. The organisation is still simple and gies for growth open to the small firm are planning is, at best, cash flow forecast- ‘backward vertical integration’ where the ing. The owner is still “the business”. firm becomes its own supplier of some basic raw materials and services, and ‘for- • Success: the company is big enough and ward vertical integration’ wherein the firm has sufficient customers and sales to es-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 239 tablish itself with confidence. The owner pled. A Qualitative Content Analysis (QCA) has acquired functional management was used to analyse the rich text and talk and basic marketing, financial and op- emanating from the interviews with media erations systems. Planning is in the form industry executives (Bryman, 2008; Dens- of operational budgets. This company combe, 2010). has two strategic options. The first option is disengagement. If it can maintain its 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION market niche and/or, adapt to changing circumstances, the company can First, the following key themes kept stay like this for a long time. If not, it will re-emerging: ‘political interference’, ‘po- either fold or drop back to the survival litical appointments’, ‘sexual advances’, stage. The second growth is if the own- ‘being asked for sex’, ‘supply chain corrup- er consolidates the company, clarifies tion’, ‘white monopoly capital’, and ‘busi- his vision and ensures that resources are nesses are held by whites’. Shockingly, all diverted into growth, strategic planning responses on ‘sexual advances’ were ut- is introduced to achieve that vision. The tered by female respondents. This may sug- business, however, must remain profit- gest that the female media firm owners are able. asked to perform sexual intercourse with the government official and/or politicians • Maturity: the firm begins to develop in positions of power and influence in return the characteristics of a stable compa- for government tenders. We discuss these ny with professional management and findings in more details later. formal information systems which inform planning. Second, the researchers’ findings indicate that there is lack of growth of media firm in • Take-off: this stage is critical but provid- the Capricorn district region. This is despite ed the owner-manager can ensure sat- the fact that most of these media firm own- isfactory finance and management, the ers are mostly young Black people that are firm can become very large. favoured by the government’s positive discrimination policies of Broad-Based Black 3. METHODOLOGY Economic Empowerment (BBBEE) when allocating government tenders (RSA, 2003). The use of a qualitative research design for Moreover, female business owners seem to this study is supported by Creswell (2013) be at more disadvantage than their male and Patton (2001: 39). In line with this, the re- counterparts. Again, their disadvantage searchers administered an interview guide is despite the fact that they are favoured through face-to-face interviews with Chief more than males by the government’s pos- Executives (n=20) of Media firms operat- itive discrimination policies. It would seem ing in the Capricorn District. Capricorn Dis- that the respondents’ age, race, and gen- trict includes Polokwane, the Capital City der does not have an impact on the growth of Limpopo Province in South Africa. An of their business in this regard. equal number of male and female Chief Executives Officers were purposively sam- Third, this study attests to the fact that the

240 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 level of education of an individual does not guarantee business success and even those with business qualifications struggle to grow their businesses. This makes sense because most of the respondents do business with the government that operates in a political environment that is much politicised. All the respondents complained about negative political interference from political party officials and government bureaucrats in the awarding of public tenders.

Fourth, and on the up side, previous work experience seems to benefit small business owners that worked for large media companies in Gauteng Province. Their exposure with those media houses outside the province assisted them to craft their strategies, and therefore, have different or competitive products and services to offer in the Capricorn district region.

Fifth, limited access to finance for growth and corruption seem to be dominating barriers for growth followed by insufficient start-up finance. Reliability of business partners and tax burden are also alarming when further analysing the barriers of growth of small business. These barriers are consistent with (McIntyre & Dallago: 2003)’s findings in the Russian case study. Findings from this section are illustrated in Figure 1 below:

Sixth, we also discovered that race has an impact on the progress of media firms in the Capricorn district region, with White-owned media firms such as Northern Media Group (NMG) dominating the Limpopo Province media industry. Most Black-owned media firms are mostly owner-manager run with little or no permanent staff and limited financial capital and technical knowhow, in turn, they rely heavily on White-owned media firms to service their client base. Inability to deliver to meet contractual obligations is another challenge brought about by limited financial capital by Black-owned media firms. In this context, Black-owned media firms receive government tenders but are not able to meet their contractual obligations due limited financial capacity resulting in terminated orders and legal action. On top of this, respondents indicated that they do not have social networks or safety

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 241 nets that they can call upon for temporary Niche Strategy), and diversification (Burns, financial loans. These social networks can 2001: 54-56). This is confirmed by the fact assist in pooling resources through crowd that during face-to-face interviews the re- funding and spreading the risk across the searchers picked up that some of the re- social network. spondents did not even understand the meaning of a SWOT (Strengths, Weakness- On the seventh point, answers from most es, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis. This respondents indicated that they started finding is quite concerning considering the their media firms either to benefit financial- complexity and fierce competitiveness of ly from their own skills or to gain personal the media industry, and the fact that it is independence. It is not a surprise that lim- constantly in transitions. Players in this rapid- ited access to finance for growth was list- ly evolving industry should have the knowl- ed overwhelmingly by the respondents edge to deal with the complexities. as the major hindrance to growth. This is because most of the respondents are the 5. CONCLUSION sole owners of their businesses and cannot raise financial capital from potential inves- This paper aimed at diagnosing the barri- tors (in the form of shareholders), and also ers to growth affecting small media firms in they have little social capital in the form of the Capricorn district region from theoreti- weak social networks that can act as guar- cal and empirical perspectives. To achieve antors for business loans from lending insti- this end, theories on Firm Formation and tutions. Revealingly, the respondents raised Firm Growth informed the theoretical an- corruption as the second most important chorage of this paper. These theories list barrier to the growth of their media firms. macro-economic and micro-economic Again, this does not come as a surprise be- factors and the internal and external en- cause most of the respondents’ firms trade vironments as affecting the formation and with the government sector which is highly growth of firms, in our context, media firms. politicised. To ascertain this, we conducted a fieldwork and administered an interview guide On the last point, and from more theoret- with twenty (20) leaders of big and small ical perspective, most media firms in the media firms operating in the Capricorn dis- Capricorn district region are relatively small trict region. These captain and pioneers of with the firm having less than twenty (20) industry were distributed equally by gender employees on a part-time basis. This sce- between males and females. First, most nario is indicative that the media firm is in respondents, particularly Black Africans, the survival and existence stages (Burns, complained about the political interfer- 2001) with little prospects of growing out of ence with the awarding of government these critical phases. Despite their educa- tenders and pointed to this as a barrier to tion, this might mean that Black-owners are growing their media firms. Second, female not taking advantage of the knowledge participants cried foul about requests to provided in literature about avenues avail- perform sexual favours as a precondition able for small firms to grow including dif- for awarding government tenders to their ferentiation (i.e. specialisation), focus (i.e. media firms. Third, White-owned media firms

242 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 perform way better than Black-owned me- However, they should specialise in a dia firms. Fourth, Black-owners do not have specific service through differentiation, access to financial and social capital that focus, and diversification. This might im- might support the growth of their emerging prove their competitive advantage. media firms. Last, despite their decent lev- LIST OF REFERENCES els of education, Black-owners seemed to be unaware of various scientific literatures Blackburn, R. A., & Brush, C. G. 2008. Small on growth theories available at their dis- Business and Entrepreneurship. London: posal. Such literatures might improve the SAGE. prospects of growing their media firms. Blackburn, R. A., & Brush, C. G. 2008. Small 6. RECOMMENDATION Business and Entrepreneurship. London: SAGE. Informed by our findings, we recommend the following novel solutions: Bordt, M., Earl, L., Lonmo, C., & Joseph, R .2004. Characteristics of Firms that Grow • A follow up study to conduct an in-depth from Small to Medium Size: Growth Fac- investigation into the barriers of growth tors-Interviews and Measurability. Science, to media firms, Innovation and Electronic Information Divi- sion, Statistics. Canada: Vancouver. • Since political interference and sexual advances are the foremost barriers, we Bryman, A. 2008. Social Research Methods call on government officials and polit- . Oxford: Oxford University Press. ical office bearers to abide by ethical Burns, P .2001. Entrepreneurship and Small and moral standards such as Ubuntu Business. Palgrave MacMillan: London or Botho. A moral regeneration programme amongst the government offi- Cohen, H (2012) ‘Social Media’s Future: 5 cials and politicians is recommended. Important Trends [Research & Charts]’ URL Link. http://heidicohen.com/social-me- • Media firms should approach govern- dia-future-5-important-trends/ Accessed on ment and its business development 09 July 2013. sectors such as the National Youth De- velopment Agency (NYDA) and Small Creswell, W J. (2013) Qualitative Inquiry & Enterprise Development Agency (SEDA) Research Design: Choosing among Five for mentoring and counselling in busi- Approaches . Los Angeles: Sage. ness skills. Murray, I (2012) ‘Marketing, Social Media, and Technology Trends’ • Black-owners of media firms should establish crowd funding and social net- URL Link http://biztegra.com/ working initiatives to raise financial capi- blog/2013-marketing-social-metal and create safety nets. dia-and-technology-trends Accessed on 09 July 2013. • Small media firms cannot compete on Cost Leadership or Economies of Scale. Karlsson, C., Johannisson, B & Storey, D.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 243 1993. Small Business Dynamics: Internation- 2013. al, national and regional perspectives. Lon- Punch, K. F. 2014. Introduction to Social re- don: Routledge. search-Quantitative and Qualitative ap- Leandros, N. 2011. ‘The International Me- proaches. 3rd edition. London: SAGE. dia Systems in Transition: A Human Devel- opment Perspective’ URL link http://www. Republic of South Africa .2003. Broad-Based newmedia21.eu/analizi/the-internation- Black Economic Empowerment Act No. 53 al-media-system-in-transition-a-human-de- of 2003. Pretoria: Government Printers. velopment perspective/ Accessed on 09 July Ritchie, J.; Lewis, J.; Nicholls, C. M.; and 2013 Ormston, R. 2014. Qualitative Research McIntyre, R. J., & Dallago B. 2003. Small and Practice-A guide for social science stu- nd Medium Enterprises in Transitional Econo- dents and researchers. 2 edition. London: mies. England: Palgrave Macmillan. SAGE.

Mengistae, T., Daniels, R., Habiyarimana, Rittel, H. W. J., & Webber, M. M. 1973. Di- J., Kaplan, D. Love, I., Ramachandran, V. lemmas in a General Theory of Planning. Shah, M, & Xu, C. 2010. South Africa: Sec- Policy Sciences, 4 (2): 155-169. ond Investment Climate Assessment Busi- Tandon, S .2008. ‘The Future of Print News ness Environment Issues in Shared Growth. Media: Adapting to Change’ Journal of Volume 2. Draft Report. URL link www.thed- Global Media Studies (volume 2): 37-42. ti.gov.za Accessed 29 July 2013. Zapiski, O .2003. The role of media in Russia’s Nutley, M .2006. ‘Emerging trends in new Economic Development. URL Link http:// media’. URL link http://www.bcs.org/con- www.russianmediamarket.com/media/ tent/conwebdoc/4701 Accessed on 29 July OZ-English.htm Accessed on 10 October 2013.

244 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT PLANNING PROCESS AS A CO- HERENT STRATEGY FOR SERVICE DELIVERY BACKLOGS: A CASE STUDY OF LEPELLE-NKUMPI LOCAL MUNICIPALITY

KI Makalela

University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

Since the advent of new dispensation of local government in South Africa, it is inevitable that municipalities are still in a serious distress and experienced the proliferation and long standing patterns of service delivery backlogs. The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 has entrusted the mandate for using Integrated Development Planning processes as a coherent strategy for delivering basic services to the local sphere, which is regarded as the center of development especially because it is regarded as the sphere closest to local people. Notably, a vast amount of communities, who are the beneficiaries of municipal services, generally view municipalities as progressing at a snail’s pace in terms of municipal service provision. Municipalities that are predominately rural such as Lepelle-Nkumpi Local Municipality are engulfed by several challenges that hinder basic municipal service provision. This is in spite of the fact that it is a legislative requirement for municipalities to use integrated development planning processes for facilitating effective provision of municipal services in their respective areas of jurisdiction. It is within this context that the study set out to investigate Integrated Development Planning processes as a strategy for improving municipal service provision. The study was predominately qualitative. 20 semi-structured questionnaires were used to collect data from household members. Interview schedule was also used to solicit data from IDP manager. The major finding of the study is that IDP as part of the municipal planning process is largely ineffective as a strategy for unending service delivery backlogs within Lepelle Nkumpi Local Municipality. The conclusion that can be made from this is that the municipality is not effectively promoting participation of communities in the process of formulating and adopting municipal IDP. The study concludes by recommending measures which can be undertaken in order to enhance public participation in the developing and adopting of IDP so that it could be reflective of the actual needs of communities.

Keywords: Service Delivery, Integrated Development Planning, Integrated Development Plan (IDP), Developmental Local Government.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 245 1. INTRODUCTION planning process. Section 23(1) states that IDP as a strategic document must be pro- Service delivery in South Africa contin- duced by all municipalities as a super plan ues to be a major problem confronting that gives the overall framework for devel- many local communities. According to opment. It aims to co-ordinate the work of Dikota, Mahlatji and Makgahlela, (2014) local and other spheres of government in a the challenge of service delivery remains coherent plan to improve the quality of live unresolved and alarming issue in almost for all people living in the area (Mautjana all South African municipalities. Poor ser- and Mtapuri, 2014). vices such as provision of roads, sanitation, health facilities, water, electricity and The state of Local Government report by basic shelter is what characterized many the Department of Cooperative Gover- municipalities (Beyers, 2015). Consequent- nance and Traditional affairs (CoGTA) indi- ly, service delivery beneficiaries viewed cated that several municipalities are in a municipalities as progressing at a snail’s serious distress or challenges of effectively pace when it comes to delivering of vari- delivering services to its constituents (CoG- ous municipal services. TA, 2009). Moreover, many concerns have been raised regarding local government According to section 25(1) of the failure and inability to deliver basic services Municipal Systems Act (2000) integrat- (Akinboade, Mokwena and Kinfack, 2013). ed development planning processes has The local government failure to deliver ser- been adopted as a response to problems vices is attributed to having incompetent pertaining to service delivery and as a tool personnel who are incapable of leading to development planning which requires all the agenda of local government and thus municipalities to be developmental in na- results in the poor implementation of the ture with the purpose of overcoming cen- IDP (Beyers, 2015). tralized and fragmented planning practices of the past. As part of the planning tool, The study area, Lepelle-Nkumpi Local Mu- municipalities are legislatively mandated nicipality is predominately rural with lack of to use integrated development planning services such as water, electricity, sanita- processes which has been viewed as hav- tion and refuses removals (Lepelle-Nkumpi ing the potential to accelerate service de- 2013/2014). The failure of the municipality to livery. Integrated development planning eradicate long standing patterns of service processes is considered an implementa- delivery backlogs is largely attributed to tion agent that promotes an integrated inability of the municipality to incorporate and participatory approach in which all community members in the municipal plan- sectors and affected individuals must be ning processes. The latter therefore, results legally consulted (Cash and Swatuk, 2010). in on-going community protests (Beyers, Integrated Development Plan (IDP) refers 2015). This paper therefore, put forward an to the output or product of the integrated argument that local municipalities are not development planning processes. This ba- effectively using integrated development sically means that IDP is a document pro- planning as legislatively mandated by var- duced through integrated development ious pieces of legislation. It is also argued

246 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 from this paper that local municipalities are planning process wherein individuals and found to be using integrated development affected parties must be legally consulted planning for compliances purposes as op- (Cash and Swatuk, 2010). It is even stated posed to be a true reflection of the actual in section 152 of the Constitution that one needs and priorities of communities. Ad- of the object of local government is to en- ditionally, the inadequate use of integrat- courage the involvement of communities ed development planning results in poor in local government. Sections 16(1) of the implementation of the IDP. Many scholars Municipal Systems Act (2000) also require studied about the inadequacy of integrat- the municipality to develop the culture of ed development planning and service de- municipal governance that complements livery. Therefore, scholars demonstrated formal representative government with a that there is still lack of community partici- system of participatory governance which pation in the municipal planning processes emphasizes the following: which lead to unprecedented and prolific • The municipality must foster par- unending service delivery backlogs (Beyers, ticipation in the IDP process, the 2015). This paper therefore, emphasis on in- budget process; and strategic de- tegrated development planning processes cision regarding service delivery. as a strategy for service delivery backlogs in the municipality. • The municipality must enable participation through capacity build- 2. INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT PLANNING ing in the community and among PROCESSES IN RURAL AREAS staff and councillors. Prior to 1994, the local sphere of govern- 3. LEVELS OF SERVICE DELIVERY IN RURAL ment was mainly concerned with service AREAS provision and the implementation of regulations for attainment of development. This paper view levels of service delivery However, with the introduction of new as households with and without services. Constitution of the Republic of South Africa The paper defines basic service delivery and new legislative and policy frameworks, as public services which are funded with the role of local government expanded to public money and such services can be a large extent. Municipalities are required delivered by the state or on behalf of to be developmental in their approach; the state, by a voluntary and community they must lead, manage and plan for de- organization or private sector company. velopment (Mautjana and Mtapuri, 2014). Therefore, service delivery in this paper Municipalities are required to make the use refers to among others housing, electrici- of integrated development planning as a ty, water access and use, sanitation and strategy to assist in curbing wasteful expen- refuses removal (National Council for diture. Voluntary Organizations, 2013). Service delivery challenges remain palpable and One of the major processes of integrated affecting many communities across the development planning is public participa- globe (Nnadozie, 2011; Asha, 2014). Apart tion. Public participation is found to form the from this, many countries adopted vari- integral part of integrated development

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 247 ous reforms in terms of legal frameworks sure that available resources are best used and policies in order to overcome the towards the promotion sustainable eco- predicaments of inadequacy of services. nomic and social development, with the Additionally, in many countries the optimal focus on viable service delivery (CoGTA, governance system to ensure effective 2009). Integrated development planning service delivery of social and economic is considered to aid the implementation services to meet the aspiration of people of the IDP and to meet the goals of the seems not to be effective (Holland, Rue- RDP. Within the ambit of service provision, din, Scott-Villiers and Sheppard, 2012). IDP promotes an integrated, participatory approach where all sectors and affect- Service delivery statistics within Lep- ed individuals must be legally consulted elle-Nkumpi local municipality shows that (Cash and Swatuk, 2010), in addressing 75% of households do not have access socio-economic needs of local communi- to water above the RDP standard (Lep- ties and sustainable service delivery. elle-Nkumpi 2013/2014). Lepelle-Nkumpi Local Municipality still experiences huge According to Department of Provincial service delivery backlogs of 14501 house- and Local Government (DPLG), 2009 holds that still to be serviced with a quite municipalities are legislatively required number of basic municipal services. Inter through their IDP processes to align strate- alia, free basic water is provided to house- gic plans with other sectors of government hold estimated at 51000 individuals and in ensuring effective service delivery. They there 430 more households that receive must further, incorporate a wide range of free basic water. 51% of households still sectoral plans and programmes such as need to be serviced with sanitation facili- water, health and small business develop- ties, in reference to toilets, from RDP stan- ment into their own municipal develop- dard and with a huge backlog of 29827 ment programmmes. Integrated develop- households. Electricity is heading backlog ment planning as an optimum strategy for estimated at 4809 households and only service delivery it helps in the following: 12087 households have been provided • It provides an opportunity to with electricity by the municipality (Lep- establish and prioritise the needs to elle-Nkumpi 2013/2014; Statistics South be addressed by the municipality; Africa, 2011). • It grants the municipality the 4. INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT PLANNING opportunity to inform the community PROCESS AND THE DELIVERY BACKLOGS IN and all stakeholders about available RURAL AREAS resources; Municipalities are mandated and obliged • It helps the municipality to in- by various pieces of legislation to exercise volve communities in prioritising ser- a representative function to participate vices and service levels; and the communities to achieve optimum basic service delivery (Tsatsire, Taylor and • Allows for the design of alter- Raga, 2010). Integrated development planning on the other hand is used to en-

248 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 native service delivery mechanisms, material and non-material requirement of such as public private partnerships. a particular society to enable it in the short- est time to empower all of its citizens to par- 5. CONCEPTUALIZING DEVELOPMENT PLAN- ticipate in a chosen objectives”, because NING IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE the basic needs of the poorest people are South African development planning tra- less likely to be fulfilled in the normal cause jectory experienced a shift of development of development, the poor are according- approach to more of a micro develop- ly, identified as a priority target group (Mo- ment thinking in which integrated devel- japelo, 2007). The basic need is both an opment planning becomes the central key analytical concept and a strategy to aid to local government function and that the development, and its adoption by admin- local government has a role to play in spite istrators was tentative and its implementa- of the traditional role of providing services, tion was slow and uneven. In South Africa, but to lead, manage, and to play an ac- various policy frameworks were adopted tive role in social and human development which includes among others Reconstruc- (Van Niekerk 2014). The IDP concept was tion and Development Programme (RDP) introduced in South African municipal in in which one of its basic principle is to meet 1996 as a form of strategic document for the basic needs of people and open up local governments to guides all planning previously suppressed economic and hu- and decision making in a municipality man potential in urban and rural areas. The (RSA, 1996). The Constitution requires the basic needs of people extended to hous- metropolitan council to have an IDP and ing, water, sanitation and electricity sup- permitted district councils to formulate and plies (RDP, 1994). implement an IDP for local council. IDP is 7. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF PEO- therefore, considered a holistic planning PLE-CENTERED DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AF- that take into cognisance and integrating RICA various aspects of local government including economic, social, spatial and insti- The concept of people-centered devel- tutional issues, in contrast to its role, it is now opment emerged from the background seen as integrated system of planning and of South Africa’s colonial and apartheid delivery (Koma and Kuye, 2014). history of empowerment and top-down decision making wherein all the develop- 6. BASIC NEEDS APPROACH ment planning decisions were vested at The basic needs approach to development a national level. Therefore, South Africa’s became prevalent in the later 1970s and its first elected government deemed it neces- aim was the alleviation of poverty through sary to embrace people-centered devel- provision of services such as education, opment through its 1994 socio-economic health, and social welfare programmes. framework, the Reconstruction and Devel- According to Moon and Dixon (1992), a opment Programme (David, Theron and basic needs approach can be defined Maphunye, 2007). The main motive behind as a type of development that attaches people-centered development was to a special weight to the satisfaction of the provide a starting point in addressing the

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 249 injustices of the past development effort. planning processes, thus it affect service Consequently, people-centered develop- delivery in a way that the municipality pro- ment has its form of building block which in- vides services that are not in line with priori- cludes participation of the public in devel- ty needs of communities. opment planning processes (Korten, 1984). 9.2 Public Participation as part of integrated development planning Processes

8. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY The findings reveal that 25% of the respondents demonstrated that they sometimes This paper used a mixed methods participate in the formulation of Municipal approach, which is a combination of qual- IDP, 15% demonstrated to always partici- itative and quantitative techniques for pate and 60% never participate in the for- data collection and analysis. Qualitative mulation of IDP. The results indicates that methods dominate this paper. Empirical majority of residents are found not forming data was collected using a semi-structured part in the formulation of municipal IDP questionnaire from household members. processes and most of the people demon- In which, 20 (n=20) households were sam- strated that the municipality keeps their pled using a systematic sampling method planning processes in isolation from the lo- with a sample size of 10% out of 520 house- cal people. Therefore, this implies that in- holds. An interview schedule was also used adequate participation of local people in to solicit data from the key informant (n=1). the formulation of IDP processes results in Secondary data sources were also used to poor and fragmented planning that lead collect information regarding integrated to “white elephant” projects in the area. development planning processes and levels of service delivery through a literature review process. 9.3 Extend of Participation in integrated de- 9. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS velopment planning processes

9.1 Integrated development planning pro- The figure below shows the extent of partic- cess in rural areas ipation in the IDP process

The findings revealed that the understand- Figure 1: The extent of participation in the ing of the concept IDP by the residents in IDP process the municipality is a major concern. There- The findings indicate that 10% of -respon fore, the analysis shows that 60% of respondents participate in the municipal IDP fo- dents don’t know and understand what rums, 15% participate in the prioritization of IDP means; while 40% showed to have an community needs, 15% participate in IDP understanding of the IDP. Therefore, major- projects, 20% participate in the IDP review ity of respondents seems not to understand meetings and lastly 40% never participat- fully what IDP means and these led the ed in any of the latter mention extend of majority people not to have genuine par- the IDP. The results indicate that 40% of ticipation in the integrated development residents are found not to have a genuine participation in the IDP and thus results in

250 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 planning which does not reflect the priority The figure below shows the level of partici- needs of intended beneficiaries. pation in the IDP process.

9.4 Levels of Participation in the integrated development planning processes nicipalities is largely inadequate. Majority of local service delivery beneficiaries are shown

Figure 1: Ranking levels of participation in sults in unending service delivery backlogs. the IDP process

The findings indicates that 25% of -respon 10. THE LEVELS OF SERVICE DELIVERY IN RU- dents demonstrated that they are ade- RAL AREAS quately involved in the participation of IDP planning activities, 30% were unsure, while 10.1 Accessibility of Municipal Services in 45% argued that they are inadequate with the local level the level of participation in the IDP. This implies that majority of the respondents ar- Twenty (20) respondents were interviewed gued that the level of participation in the with regards to kinds of municipal service IDP is inadequate, only few people demon- that they have access to in the village. 40% strated that the level of participation in the of the respondents demonstrated to have IDP is adequate. This basically means that access to water in the municipality, 10% the municipality does not take into cog- have access to sanitation, 30% have ac- nizance the public participation principle cess to electricity, while 20% have access that embraces all views and opinions of to roads. This implies that majority of people people at grass root level. Passive form of in the village perceived water as the high- participation was found to be dominating est priority service that they have access to within the municipality. According to Asha in the village. Subsequently, electricity was (2014) lack of meaningful participation in found to be the second priority service that the decision making processes is affecting they have access to in the village. Water the implementation of the IDP and thus re- and electricity were found be fundamentals in the village. The literature on the other side revealed that the provision of basic services to the beneficiaries in the local mu-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 251 to be dissatisfied with the current level of municipal planning processes in dealing services in their municipalities (Asha, 2014; with service delivery backlogs, majority Mashamaite, 2014; Beyers, 2015). demonstrated that integrated development planning processes are largely inef- 10.2 Reliability of Water Provision in the fective in ameliorating the long standing Village patterns and unending service delivery The findings indicates that (20) people backlogs. This implies that effective service were interviewed in the village, with re- delivery can be achieved through inclu- gard to the reliability of municipal water sive and genuine form of participation by provision in the village and 5% strongly all sectors and affected stakeholders. agreed about the reliability of water, 20% demonstrated to agree about the reliability of water, 20% are neutral, 20% showed The question was asked to the IDP manager to disagree and lastly 35% strongly dis- with regard to the IDP processes. The ques- agree about the reliability of water. The tion was about the processes involved to in- analysis is that only minority of people in clude community members in the IDP pro- the village which constitute 5% are found cesses. This question was asked in order to to be positive about the reliability of water evaluate the mechanisms and procedures in the village. This implies that even though that the Lepelle-Nkumpi Local Municipality people in the village have access to water is using to incorporate community mem- but then the reliability of that water is still bers in their IDP planning processes. The questionable, which was evidently shown respond from the manager was that they unavailability of water in three consecu- use ward consultation meetings, IDP review tive months in the municipality. meetings, and IDP forums for identification and prioritization of development needs. This implies that community members are 11. INTEGRATED DEVELOPEENT PLANNING given an opportunity to make inputs and PROCESS AND SERVICE DELIVERY BACK- comments in the drafting, formulation and LOGS IN RURAL AREAS identification of needs and priorities.

11.1 Integrated Development Planning As 12. CONCLUSION a Strategy for Reducing Service Delivery In conclusion, it is blatantly clear that inte- Backlogs in the Municipality grated development planning process is The findings reveal that 15% strongly agree largely ineffective as a strategy for unend- that municipal IDP processes are found to ing service delivery backlogs in the local be an answer for service delivery back- municipality. Therefore, the major findings logs, 45% agree, 10% are undecided, 20% from the ground demonstrated that com- disagree, and 10% strongly disagree. This munity members have shown discomfort implies that majority of people in the vil- and frustrations with the current level of lage are found to be dissatisfied about the service delivery in their local municipali-

252 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ties. The analysis of the overall respondents Asha, A. A. 2014. Attitudes and Per- in relation to the integrated development ceptions Towards Local Government Ser- planning and service delivery indicated vice Delivery Efforts in Limpopo Province, that there is low level of public participa- South Africa. Mediterranean Journal of So- tion during the identification and prioritiza- cial Sciences. 5(20), 224. tion of community needs which leads to Beyers, L. J. E. 2015. Service Delivery disconnect between the needs of com- Challenges within Municipalities in the Cap- munities and the actual services that the ricorn District of Limpopo Province. Journal municipality provides. Additionally, the of Human Ecology. 50(2), 121-127. analysis of the degree of respondents also reveals that the service delivery at the mu- Cash, C. and Swatuk, L. 2010. Inte- nicipality is predominately affected by a grated development planning in South vast amount of factor limited to: inade- Africa: lessons from the Dwars River Valley. quate capacity of local government offi- In Urban forum. 22(1): 53-73. cials, alleged act of corruption in the municipality, lack of service delivery guidelines Davids, I., Theron, F., and Maphunye, for identification and prioritization of needs, K. J. 2007. Participatory Development in lack of vertical collaboration between the South Africa: A Development Manage- nd municipality and community members and ment Perspective (2 end). Pretoria: Van lastly lack of compliance with service de- Schaik Publishers. livery and budget implementation plan. As Department of Co-operative Gov- a remedy, the paper recommend that ca- ernance and Traditional Affairs (CoGTA). pacity building for municipal officials deal- 2009. State of local government in South ing with IDP and service delivery is needed Africa. Available online at: http://www. as well as accountability and transparency Government/documents/statelocalgov- of municipal officials for making IDP- pro ernment/ report/html (Accessed on 25 May cesses a reality, community participation in 2016). the developing and adopting of IDP should be promoted so that it could be reflective Department of Provincial and Local of the actual needs of communities. Government (DPLG), 2009. IDP Guide- Pack. Volume III: Methodology. Pretoria: Government Printers.

LIST OF REFERENCES Dikota, M.A., Mahlatji, M.R., and Mak- gahlela, L.A. 2014. Knowledge management for the improvement of service deliv- Akinboade, O. A., Putuma Mokwena, ery in South Africa’s municipalities. Journal M., and Kinfack, E. C. 2013. Understanding of Public Administration. 49(3): 847-859. citizens’ participation in service delivery protests in South Africa’s Sedibeng district Holland, J., Ruedin, L., Scott-Villiers, P., and Sheppard, H. 2012. Tackling the municipality. International Journal of Social Economics. 40 (5): 458-478. governance of socially inclusive service delivery. Public Management Review. 14(2),

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 253 181-196. from http://www.fundingcentral.org. uk/ page.aspx?sp=6114. Koma, S. B., and Kuye, J. O. 2014. The synchronization of the integrated develop- Nnadozie, R. C. 2011. Access to ade- ment plan and local economic develop- quate water in post-apartheid South Afri- ment policy in South African municipalities can provinces: an overview of numerical a sine qua non for growth and develop- trends. Water SA. 37(3), 339-348. ment. Republic of South African (RSA). 1994. Korten, D. C. 1984. Strategic orga- Reconstruction and Development Pro- nization for people-centered develop- gramme. Pretoria: Government Printers. ment. Public Administration Review. 44(4), Republic of South African (RSA). 1996. 341-352. Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Lepelle-Nkumpi Local Municipality Government of 1996. Government Gazette (IDP). 2013/2014. Integrated development No. 17678. Pretoria: Government Printers. plan draft. Lepelle- Nkumpi Municipality: Republic of South African (RSA). 2000. Lebowakgomo. Municipal Systems Act (Act 32 of 2000), Mojapeolo, M. A. 2007. The effective- Government Gazette No. 21776. Pretoria: ness of the integrated development plan- Government Printers. ning (IDP) as a tool to accelerated service Statistics South Africa (StatsSA). delivery: a case study of Aganang Local 2003. Census 2011: Census in brief (No. 3). Municipality in Limpopo Province . North- Statistics South Africa. Government Printers. West University: Mafikeng Tsatsire, I., Taylor, J. D., and Raga, K. Mashamaite, K. 2014. Public Service De- 2010. Local service delivery enhancement– livery Protests in a Democratic South Africa: attitudes: a case study of the Nelson Man- A Dilemma for Local Municipalities. Med- dela Bay Municipality. iterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5 (25): 231. Van Niekerk, M. 2014. Advocating community participation and integrated devel- Mautjana, H. M., and Mtapuri, O. 2014. opment tourism development planning in Integrated development plans without local destinations: The case of South Africa. development indicators: Results from Journal of Destination Marketing and Man- Capricorn District Municipalities in South agement. 3(2): 82-84. Africa. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sci- ences. 5 (8): 474.

Moon, B. E., and Dixon, W. J. 1992. Basic needs and growth-welfare trade-offs. Inter- national Studies Quarterly, 191-212.

National Council for Voluntary Orga- nizations (NCVO). 2013, Definitions of public service delivery, viewed 13 March 2016,

254 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 THE IMPACT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT INITIA- TIVES ON TRANSFORMATION AND PERCEPTIONS OF WELLBE- ING OF WINE FARM LABOURERS

S Phiri and L Prosapio

Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University

ABSTRACT

This paper examines the various policies in place to promote transformation through socio-economic development initiatives in the wine industry and how these initiatives failed to make significant impact on the wellbeing of wine farm labourers, their families, and the industry. Realising the challenges facing socio-economic development are multi-disciplinary, this paper looked to uncover the underlying socio-economic, political, and historical factors contributing to the current inequalities present within the wine industry. This paper reflects on a study whose purpose was to better understand how and to what degree initiatives and programmes designed for socio-economic development and transformation are making an impact within the wine industry. The research combined document analysis and qualitative comparative case study methods in assessing the impact that the initiatives have had on wine farm labourers’ perceptions and attitudes towards personal development and a better living standard. Despite the efforts made through policy creation and establishment of both government entities and social interest groups, many of the policies have fallen short in practice. Declarations of labour rights, revised education standards, and even access to basic amenities have been subverted by a continued disconnect between policy and practice. The study conclude that cooperation of all stakeholders and dedicated efforts to empower farm labourers through active participation in all phases of development initiatives will be required in order to realise the potential for significant transformation within the wine industry.

Keywords: Programmes, Socio-economic development, Transformation, Wine industry. 1. INTRODUCTION ters, n.a.). Through centuries of growth and adaptation, the production of wine has be- The arrival of Europeans to the Southern come a leading sector within South African coastlines of Africa in 1652 introduced many agriculture, employing 300,000 people and new customs, traditions, and trades foreign contributing 2% annually to South Africa’s to the region. Within ten years of their arriv- GDP (Giokos, 2016). But three hundred al, these settlers successfully introduced to years of industry development has come South Africa one of Europe’s prized crops: with its costs. Besides diseases, draughts, the grape vine (African Classical Encoun-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 255 aphids and other battles with the natural ing power dynamics have contributed to environment (Viall, James & Gerwel, 2011), the relatively limited presence of transfor- the development of the South African wine mation in the wine industry. industry is rooted in human exploitation and labour inequalities. From the conscrip- 2. THE SOUTH AFRICAN WINE INDUSTRY tion of slaves in planting the first vines to The South African wine industry is one of the the labour issues facing workers today, the oldest industries in South Africa and can be South African wine industry – although rich viewed as a microcosm of the state of de- in quality – is tainted with the injustices of velopment in the country. An understand- human strife. Historical practices have pro- ing of its history provides a brief introduc- duced mindsets engrained with socio-cul- tion of the socio-economic context and tural hierarchy, issues of dependency, and the key historical issues at stake, laying the lack of opportunities for personal develop- foundation for the current practices and ment. Despite twenty years of democracy perceptions within the industry. On her first and strong black1 empowerment initiatives visit to the Cape Winelands, the researcher across South Africa, the deep roots of so- was intrigued by the origin of the industry cial and economic inequality remain with- and how it has shaped the region. After in the wine industry. Previous studies in the learning about some of the farms’ commu- industry have analysed the current state of nity development initiatives and labour im- living and working conditions and types of provements, the researcher decided to in- socio-economic development needed for vestigate further the efforts made for social successful transformation. Little research upliftment and economic development has been done, however, to address for the previously disadvantaged working whether these initiatives are creating a last- class. ing impact on the well-being of labourers. South Africa’s transition to democracy This paper is based on a 2013 study ana- in 1994 and re-integration into the glob- lysing the current presence and efficacy of al economy after ten years of sanctions socio-economic development initiatives in against the Apartheid regime (Levy, 1999) the South African wine region. The central led to a renaissance within the wine in- research question asks: “to what extent has dustry. With rising demand for South Afri- socio-economic development initiatives can wines both domestically and abroad, aimed at the transformation of wine farm la- those within the industry needed to address bourers influenced perceptions of well-be- current production practices, realising that ing?” After thorough document analysis change and adaptation were necessary and a qualitative comparative case study, for increased growth. Of the various sec- the researcher found that despite the pres- tors in the South African economy, agricul- ence of development organisations and ture remains one of the most prominent for conceptual frameworks for transforma- issues of poverty, inequality and human tion, disagreements amongst stakeholders, deprivation. The historical inequalities as gaps in knowledge of initiatives, non-com- well as the legacy of Apartheid have had pliance, lack of enforcement, and overrid- detrimental effects on the development 1 Using ‘black’ as defined by theWine Industry Transfor- mation Charter, referring to Africans, Coloureds (mixed de- and current state of labour practices in scent), and Indians (SA Wine Industry 2007). 256 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 South Africa. The wine industry is a partic- the South African national agenda since ularly labour intensive industry, requiring the transition to democracy (SAWB, 2003). year-round labour, yet little education is Many of the current development efforts needed for much of the work. Although have stemmed from government transfor- there have been efforts to rectify the past mation policies covering the social, politi- social injustices and assist in the improve- cal, and economic landscape. The holis- ment of well-being and empowerment of tic development of social and economic individuals, there is a sense of lingering prej- structures is essential in the transformation udice and division amongst the population of a society as it helps deconstruct power (Botha, 2012). dynamics to create a more equitable system. Although the study relies on a vari- “Farm workers’ living and working condi- ety of publications by government and tions make them one of the most vulnera- industry organisations, the Wine Industry ble and marginalised groups of workers in Transformation Charter and the efforts that South Africa…farm labourers have been precipitated its adoption are of special sig- the subject of the worst working conditions nificance. in South Africa for a very long time and this will take years to rectify” (Ruddock, 2012, Government policies addressing the trans- pg. 35). formation needs of the agricultural sector specifically include The Strategic Plan for Consequences of racial separation such South African Agriculture (2001) and the as paternalism, patriarchy, poverty, and AgriBEE Framework (2004), which provide the dop system linger within the industry strategic plans for the South African agri- today. There are still very few opportuni- culture sector, focusing on the five main in- ties available to the majority of wine farm dustries (grain, cotton, wine, sugar, and red labourers as practices of social exclusion meat). These initial publications brought continue to limit human flourishing (ibid.). It national efforts into the wine industry and is not necessarily pronounced, but the so- established the government as an import- cial stratification within the industry is felt by ant partner and stakeholder in the sector. all sides and reflected in the mannerisms The Reconstruction and Development Pro- and social interactions amongst workers, gramme (RDP), followed by the Growth, managers, and owners. For development Employment and Redistribution Strategy to occur, there must be a consideration of (GEAR), are two of the government’s af- the labour practices in the planting, main- firmative action programmes that focus tenance, and harvesting of South African on redistribution and fiscal reformation as wine grapes. means to advance liberal macro-economic strategies (Williams, 2005). As the wine industry continued to expand, significant 3. POLICY CREATION AND ESTABLISHMENT economic growth opportunities (produc- OF PARTIES tion, trade, exports, tourism) became avail- Socio-economic transformation, de-ra- able to further advance the South African cialisation, and economic empowerment economy. The government has taken a have become central challenges within role in research and technology develop-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 257 ment, infrastructure development, eco- Members included representatives from nomic empowerment, and social and hu- wine production, cellars and merchants as man upliftment (SAWB, 2003). well as labour organisations, civil society, and non-profits. Its aim was to advance the Deregulation, restructuring, and legislative wine industry as “a globally competitive, changes have been underway in the in- profitable, accessible and equitable indus- dustry since the mid-1990s, but the majority try…that makes a significant contribution of transformation efforts have developed to poverty alleviation and wealth creation since the turn of the century. There has for all” (SA Wine Council, 2005) and set a been a general consensus amongst stake- standard for proactive transformation. Its holders that efforts to advance industry adoption of the Wine Industry Transforma- transformation are of utmost importance tion Charter (“The Charter”) in 2007 was (Wine Industry Transformation Charter, a pivotal development within the industry 2007). As the wine industry has increased because it articulated a cohesive agree- focus on socio-economic transformation ment amongst the various players in the and social upliftment, there has been a value chain on the way forward for indus- development of representative bodies to try growth and development. The Charter meet industry needs and advance its ef- provided a framework of accountability forts across the wine value chain. towards reaching the industry’s socio-eco- The South African Wine Industry Trust (‘SAW- nomic development goals for the numer- IT’) was established in 1994 with the support ous micro-enterprise farms and cellars ex- of the South African government to devel- empt from BEE compliance. In the nine op the wine industry and create a founda- years since its adoption, however, huge tion for investment research and educa- levels of inequality and issues of depen- tion within the sector (Haase, 2003: Sebeka dency remain. The disjuncture between Wines, 2008). SAWIT’s objective is to work the initiatives put forth in the Charter and with key partners to promote a “sustainable their implementation and enforcement has and vibrant” industry that has an empow- led to limited transformation in the industry. ered and enabled community of farmwork- As a result, many labourers in the wine in- ers able “to share equitably in the growth dustry remain in a position of inferiority, un- and prosperity of the industry” (SAWIT, n.a.). aware or unable to access opportunities for SAWIT promotes transformation through personal development and improve their strategic funding initiatives and has been well-being. They continue to be caught in a leader in BEE development across the in- the cycle of poverty and dependency that dustry (SAWB, 2003; SAWIT, n.a.). With the has characterised the South African wine understanding that “broad-based change industry for centuries. and development are essential to move Other industry bodies aiming to improve forward to a de-racialised industry” (Wine development and foster economic and Industry Transformation Charter, 2007: 1), social vitality in the wine industry include: cooperation amongst industry bodies led Wine Industry Business Support Committee to the creation of the South African Wine In- (BUSCO), The Wine Industry Development dustry Council (‘SA Wine Council’) in 2006. Company (DEVCO), The National African

258 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Farmers Union Western Cape (NAFU), and of well-being (below), empowerment is an The Rural Development Network (RUDINET). intangible measurement and thus subject The presence of these development bod- to qualitative research. Vague definitions ies and their involvement in drafting the of empowerment are often used to the ad- Charter is a strong indication of the need vantage of policy makers who adjust the for development in the industry, but the ap- definition to suit their interests. parent miscommunication amongst organ- Empowerment is defined holistically in this isations and the potential for replication of study to refer to an engagement in a two- efforts may unintentionally affect the trans- way exchange encouraging people to be formation agenda. active participants in decisions that affect their lives (Falletisch, 2008). It is closely re- 4. CONTEMPORARY DEBATES AND THEORIES lated to capacity-development and this Despite numerous governance structures study focuses on empowerment as ‘pow- and organisations within the wine industry er from within’ where people are able “to and South African agricultural sector as a contemplate alternative ways of existing whole, there is a noticeable lack in the suc- and generating a belief in their own abili- cessful implementation of development ties to have some role in enacting chang- initiatives. The study’s literature review es” (McEwan & Bek, 2006). Issues of em- showed that, although there has been sig- powerment are linked hand-in-hand with nificant research based on the socio-eco- issues of power dynamics and paternalism nomic needs, labour reform issues, and as they increase the dependency of the presence of industry development organ- disempowered and threaten the potential isations, there is little information regard- for transformation. ing the impact of transformation efforts on perceptions of well-being of the intended 4.2 Well-being beneficiaries. Key theoretical issues- de Of the five essential elements of well-be- rived from the central research question ing1, Rath & Harter (2010) argue that career included: empowerment, well-being, pa- well-being is the most essential because if ternalism, and poverty. an individual does not have the opportunity to enjoy what he does each day, his other 4.1 Empowerment aspects of well-being will be directly affect- Within the South Africana context, empow- ed. Although taking a holistic approach to erment strategies aims to do away with the well-being (since concepts of well-being previous racial discrimination and transform are interdependent, not independent) the toward equality within the political, social, fieldwork conducted for this study focused and economic sectors. Although empow- on well-being in the workplace (the farm) erment has become a “popular and large- and its effect on labourers’ perspectives of ly unquestioned ‘goal’” (Parpart, 2002, in overall well-being. McEwan & Bek, 2006, pg. 338), the concept is not well defined and leads to some Viewing well-being through the capabilities confusion in the expectations and evalua- approach examines not only the means by The five essential elements of well-being according to a Gallup tions of strategies. Similarly to the concept Poll are: career, social, financial, physical and community well-being (Rather & Harter, 2010).

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 259 which a person attains well-being but also of paternalistic ideology on women versus whether the institutions and opportunities men, these variances will be encompassed are available for them to reach their per- into the more generic understanding of pa- sonal success. Stemming from the work of ternalism for the scope of this study. Sen (1993), the capabilities approach looks 4.4 Poverty beyond the abilities of people’s activities and states of being to examine the oppor- Poverty is perhaps the defining charac- tunities (or freedoms) through which a per- teristic of the farm labourers’ status in so- son can realise their end goals of well-be- ciety. The United Nations Development ing (Robeyns, 2011). Programme defines poverty as the total absence of opportunities accompanied 4.3 Paternalism by high levels of undernourishment, hun- Since the first vines were planted, paternal- ger, illiteracy, lack of education, physical ism has defined the relationship between and mental ailments, emotional and social farmers and workers in the South African instability, unhappiness, sorrow, and hope- wine industry. Although the original vine- lessness for the future (UNDP, 2002). Poverty yard workers were slaves, they were seen is seen as “the single most powerful circum- as valuable assets to the farmer and thus stance inhibiting human, social and eco- given minimal provisions to meet their most nomic development” (Gray, 1998, pg. 136) basic needs. After the abolition of slavery in South Africa. Poverty is relative to the in 1834, farm workers were freed but not state of the nation as a whole, not just to given any tools for mobility (i.e. wages, gov- the suffering of the poor (Mubashshir, 2010) ernment support) and thus many remained and will be used within this study as an um- on the farms (Falletisch, 2008). brella term to refer to a lack of opportunities (i.e. capacity-building, socio-econom- Labourers and their families became de- ic requirements) to live a decent life. pendent on the farmer in “every aspect of material existence” (Ruddock, 2012, pg. 5. CASE STUDY EVIDENCE 16). Despite being seen as a member of a family unit, paternalistic structures found 5.1 Methodological approach within the Western Cape farms actually This study goes beyond socio-economic de- pitted workers against one other to gain velopment to discuss the means by which favour by the farmer and have been cat- transformation efforts influence empower- egorised by this deeply divisive nature (Du ment and well-being of individual labour- Toit, 1993). Workers received social divi- ers. The researcher approached the study dends such as housing, water, and food from the social development perspective. but lacked the ability to organise or seek Addressing social development needs rep- opportunities for advancement (McEwan resents a holistic approach that is non-stat- & Bek, 2006). Dominance and influence of ic and process-oriented, focusing on em- the authority undermines any form of au- powerment and autonomy (Homfeldt and tonomy or identity development (Nasson in Reutlings, 2008). Social and economic de- Du Toit, 1993). Although there are different velopment must result in a clear improve- foci within paternalism, including the effect ment in the conditions of life and livelihood

260 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 of ordinary people (Polanyi, 1977), and it is upliftment or economic development pro- through this focus that this study has been grammes. Additionally, the researcher did designed. not want to incorporate farms with reputa- tions for poor working conditions and high A qualitative comparative case study de- levels of social inequalities. Farms were sign was chosen as it allowed for greater further narrowed to exclude farms within depth in the research by narrowing the the 2011 BAWSI study, Farmworkers Voic- focus to a representative group within the es. Last minute adjustments to the sample broader population. This approach en- group changed farm demographics slight- abled the researcher to come to a deeper ly, incorporating one farm (“Farm Three”) understanding of the dynamics within the with well-developed social upliftment and wine industry. Initial document analysis capacity-building programmes. Its size, lo- was followed by semi-structured interviews cation, and history, however, compliment- with labourers, managers, and experts ed the study and allowed the researcher within the wine industry. The researcher to include a comparative case study com- spent one week in the Western Cape wine ponent. region conducting fieldwork on three farms in the Paarl region and meeting with rep- Due to the structure of the wine industry’s resentatives from SAWIT and WIDA. Inter- working class, the people who were the fo- views with labourers regarding perceptions cus of the study are what Jan Theron (2010) of well-being and transformation in the in- calls the ‘marginal working class’: those dustry provided first-hand accounts of the who are often excluded from legislative impact of socio-economic development protection and live well below the pover- initiatives and contributed to answering the ty line. Although race, ethnicity, and so- research questions put forth in this study. To cio-economic status are not a focal point enhance the study’s validity and credibility, in this report, they are pertinent character- the researcher adhered to strict research istics to the study group in question as racial approaches and high ethical standards to and social identities are often interchange- decrease potential bias and ensure the an- able in the South African context. As it is onymity of research participants. not feasible within the context of this study to include all members of a population, a 5.2 Sample population representative sample that met necessary Research participants were chosen based attributes for the study was preferred2. on purposive sampling techniques1. Ini- tially, farms were selected based on size (hectares, number of staff, and the annual 6. CASE STUDY FINDINGS production yield) and their moderate position within the labour development spec- The well-being of labourers is threatened trum. This means that, unlike some of the in the wine industry by the legacy of dis- larger farms in the wine region, the farms empowerment, selective compliance on selected had not instated formal social the part of industry stakeholders, issues of Purposive sampling is a strategic approach to qualitative paternalism and disempowerment, and research, based on the researcher’s objectives in the fieldwork Criteria for labourer selection included: full time employee of (Palys, 2008). the wine farm; over 18 years of age; could be either male or female; must voluntarily sign research participation consent form.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 261 the lingering effects of the dop system1. operations, improve their social awareness, Although use of the dop system became and address labour practices to rectify his- illegal in the later part of the 20th century torical injustices. Increased pressures by ex- (Falletisch, 2008), the damage had been ternal bodies (international clients, accredi- done and generations of farm labourers tation associations, trade unions, etc.) seem were dependent on alcohol. Dependency to have had the most notable impact on on alcohol thwarts potential for well-being the development of transformation initia- and many children within this system were tives. The presence of these organisations born with foetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)2. has increased the realisation that change Alcoholism, in all its forms, affects educa- within the industry has become a require- tion, productivity, and mindsets of labour- ment. “If you were part of that bracket ers and their children (CIIR, 1989). who didn’t want to socially uplift previously disadvantaged then you don’t really have Outcomes of the case study found that a choice anymore if you would like to re- despite affirmative action policies and in- main competitive” (Interview: 2.Manager, creased development initiatives within the 2013). These pressures have benefited the industry, the legacy of social injustices with- transformation agenda. in the wine industry – especially the subjugation of labourers and engrained mind- McEwan & Bek’s report (2006) found that sets of a paternalistic structure – has limited several farmers initiated empowerment the ability for labourers to be freed from projects for business purposes rather than the cycle of poverty and realise opportu- altruistic reasons. Since most farms with- nities for human flourishing. Many of the in- in the wine industry are exempt from BEE tended beneficiaries of these efforts have regulations, there is little incentive beyond continued to keep an ideological distance economic subsidies to comply with devel- between themselves and the white middle opment initiatives. Implementing strategic class. According to Roux (2002), people empowerment programmes allowed farm- within this previously disadvantaged pop- ers access to government subsidies and ulation realise that the strategic nature of were used in public relations campaigns these efforts often are at the expense of to enhance the rapport of producers look- others who get left behind. ing to gain favour with consumers. Man- agers at all three farms as well as experts 6.1 Selective compliance from both WIDA and SAWIT commented As the South African wine industry has in- on the lack of motivation for many farms to creased its presence within the global mar- initiate development efforts for reasons be- ket, attention from international organisa- yond immediate self-interest. Unless there tions has forced wine farms to adjust their is a mindset geared towards the need for The use of wine as an incentive scheme to pacify labourers was first introduced during slavery and became known as the transformation, there is little incentive to ‘dopstel’ or dop system (also called the ‘tot’ system). The dop system reinforced power dynamics within the wine industry actively participate in these endeavours through strategic disempowerment (Viall, James & Gerwel, 2011). The use of wine directly affected personal welfare and (Interview: WIDA, 2013). Very few owners decreased labourers’ standard of living, leading to an attachment to masters, based on a cycle of addiction (alcoholism) have taken it upon themselves to enhance and dependency. 2 FAS is an irreversible condition found within children as the welfare of their employees for human a result of exposure to alcohol during pregnancy (Mayo Clinic, 2011). development reasons. Instead, certifica-

262 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 tion or increased market access were men- has taken a more distant role, maintaining tioned as the main motivating factors. authority over the workers although not as intricately involved in their daily lives. 6.2 Issues of paternalism During case study analysis it was evident Issues of paternalism characterising social that both forms of paternalism were at play conditions on the farms go beyond eco- in the region. Paternalism in the more tra- nomic relations and issues of dependency ditional sense was present on Farm Two. to how people understand and interpret None of the labourers on the farm ques- this dependence (Du Toit, 1993). Tensions tioned the actions of the owner or man- amongst stakeholders were reflected within agement; “if they ask me to do it, then I will the individual wine farms, where communi- say yes. If they tell me to drive something I cation amongst members of the production will drive it there. But no, I will not [ask them chain was often influenced by historically for training or assistance]. I will just do my dictated conceptions of hierarchy and lim- job” (Interview: 2.6, 2013). There was little ited trust in the opposing party. False prom- motivation to reach out and do anything ises and realistic threats by owners were without the boss’s approval. This sense of met with apathy and spite by labourers. As submissive behaviour towards those in po- evident within both literature reviews and sitions of authority affected the attitudes independent observations, many within and actions of the labourers. Labourers did the system find it easier to maintain this way not ask for assistance nor did they speak up of life than attempt to transform the mind- regarding their concerns. Even during in- sets that have developed within the South terviews, before a sense of trust and mutu- African wine industry. Instead of focusing al respect was established, many labourers on work as it pertains to productivity, efforts were hesitant and lacked confidence in on the farm were aimed at determining communicating with the researcher. one’s place in the family and relationship with other members. The submissive nature Conversely, the form of paternalism experi- of paternalism overrides any possibility of enced on Farm Three encouraged a sense resistance to emerge from the workers. It of inclusion and mutual respect. The farm denies the individuality of the worker and has taken proactive steps to successfully diminishes his autonomy and sense of self- decrease inequalities and to create a sense worth. of community on the farm. Interviewees referenced the farm as a family, praising Amidst major efforts to rectify previous la- the owner for his guidance and support to bour practices and social engineering un- create the current living and working con- der Apartheid, a new form of paternalism ditions enjoyed by its members. The efforts has emerged. As farms have changed made are exemplary within the wine indus- their organisational structure this ‘liberalised try, helping to reduce historical inequalities paternalism’ (Du Toit, 1993) continues to and address issues that have plagued the affect the power relations amongst farm region. But the reverence and gratefulness workers and owners. Instead of labourers expressed by staff on the farm brought being wholly dependent upon the farmer forth the consideration of a continued, yet in every aspect of well-being, the farmer

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 263 altered, form of paternalism where workers mented in means beyond just economic were dependent to a greater extent on the development. Otherwise, empowerment is fulfilment of emotional needs rather than often limited to the realisation of economic material items. Unlike previous forms of pa- advancements for a pre-determined sec- ternalism where labourers were submissive tion of the previously disadvantaged com- and almost fearfully compliant with their munity (Du Toit, Kruger, & Ponte, 2008). employers, the presence of a father-like fig- The lack of investment in initiatives has re- ure to encourage personal growth and co- sulted in a low sense of empowerment hesion amongst staff is a significant adjust- amongst many labourers. Historical prac- ment of power dynamics within the farm. tices have also contributed to percep- So long as there is a perception of a father- tions of transformation, developing a vic- ly figure, the basic relationships that define tim mentality and sense of subservience paternalism will remain. Absolute depen- amongst labourers and limiting individuals dence upon an authoritative figure, which from realising their potential human ca- historically characterised the power rela- pacity. The ability to stand up for oneself tions on the wine farms, has lessened but remains a major stumbling block in the in- there is still a strong need to recognise the dustry. All of the labourers came from pov- internal politics and power influences at erty-stricken backgrounds and stressed the play when creating and applying trans- importance of being employed. Issues of formation initiatives. Transformation efforts paternalism and lack of empowerment must acknowledge these social ideologies were most evident on Farm Two and, be- and work to actively combat the power cause of the desperation to keep their jobs, dynamics that exacerbate their existence. those farmworkers had very low sense of personal responsibility or self-confidence. 6.3 Issues of empowerment Even though most complained that wages Empowerment initiatives seek to challenge were insufficient, not one would go to man- the power dynamics created throughout agement to discuss a pay increase. “I only the history of the wine industry and have make R500 a week, how am I supposed to become a part of the vocabulary within pay for my family? It is not enough” (Inter- social and economic development. When view: 2.8). Most of the labourers had never an individual is able to increase his person- experienced formal training or social and al capacity, he has a heightened sense of economic development initiatives and empowerment. Although “empowerment concepts of well-being rested on financial initiatives may not be delivering radical security and the ability to support one’s outcomes yet…they are part of an integral family. process of setting a tone throughout South Those who had received training, wheth- African society, reinforcing the imperative er formal or otherwise, had an increased of transformation and identifying some of sense of confidence but maintained a his- the challenges that are situated within lo- torically engrained mindset of empower- cal, national and global power” (Ruddock, ment. A former labourer at Farm One had 2012). Empowerment tools are vital in the advanced to winemaker, gaining import- transformation agenda but must be imple-

264 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ant leadership skills and was “applying him- not say anything, just ‘yes’ and ‘thank you’ self nicely” (Interview: 1.Manager, 2013). for everything and just happy to have a job Despite these opportunities, however, the and then go on no matter what the con- man still complained about conditions and ditions. Then on the other side you have was unwilling to stand up to his co-workers. farm workers that will do the whole protest- Similarly, “there are some people who will ing and things…taking it too far to the other side” (Interview: 3.3, 2013). Empowerment ductivity on the farm. Micro-management can be measured and achieved through due to a lack of confidence in workers’ ca- levels of confidence, pride, and communi- pabilities impedes this sense of empower- cation, sense of equality, independence, ment. leadership and active contribution in the decision-making process. Successful empowerment comes through the attainment 6.4 Perspectives of transformation of social, political and psychological pow- Transformation efforts within the wine in- er, enabling an individual to take steps to dustry have aimed at improving worker advance his personal capabilities. Farms well-being and empowerment amongst must do more than provide basic acqui- the labouring population. Understanding sition of material items, but instead gear the perspectives influencing these efforts, socio-economic development initiatives however, gives a better understanding of towards self-actualisation and empower- the motivations regarding transformation. ment goals. An emerging consideration regarding per- Even producers who remain unconvinced spectives of transformation became appar- of the benefit of socio-economic develop- ent after visiting Farm Three. The research- ment initiatives can gain from empower- er realised that, unlike the other two farms, ment strategies through a purely econom- Farm Three was owned and developed ic and business standpoint. Although this is by an individual who was from ‘outside’ a limited sense of empowerment, it is ulti- of the wine farm system, meaning he had mately an improvement to the lives of the not grown up as a member of the industry labourers. Insubordination limits incentives and did not carry with him the experienc- and productivity amongst workers. When es and cultural dynamics that have influ- workers feel valued and that their efforts enced many individuals in the Cape wine- are making a positive contribution to the lands. Insider versus outsider perspectives organisation, they are more likely to put of the status of the wine industry appears forth a better effort and express increased to affect the presence of and complian- career well-being (Rath & Harter, 2010). A cy to transformation initiatives. Related to sense of purpose amongst workers at Farm this is the consideration of prescriptive ver- Three reinforces this statement. Each la- sus proactive measures as they reflect the bourer was given responsibilities and trusted perceived importance regarding certain to fulfil tasks. This allowed labourers a sense transformation efforts. of independence and also increased pro- Anything that has to do with farming and

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 265 owning land in South Africa is a very sensi- ment in personal development opportuni- tive subject. A farm owner who has grown ties. Skills training was not forced upon the up within the system and is wholly financial- labourers but encouraged as it helps ame- ly dependent upon the productivity of the liorate power differences and uplift individ- farm will operate his practice in a different uals to equal playing fields. The open com- manner from someone who has purchased munication policy on Farm Three as well as a farm for pleasure or non-occupational the sense of mutual respect and equality reasons. For example, “if you ask a 65-year- amongst all levels of staff were encourag- old white farmer who has been farming ing as they reflect the potential successes for say thirty or forty years – farming in the that might be realised should the Charter way he has been farming – I think there is a or related initiatives take hold within the in- mindset that’s been set and I think it is very dustry. difficult to teach these specific dogs new tricks. A lot of them are set in their ways” 7. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS (Interview: 2.Manager, 2013). If the farm- Despite the presence of development or- er does not see his labourers as ‘previously ganisations and conceptual frameworks disadvantaged’, then it will be difficult to for transformation, disagreements amongst convince him otherwise. Conversely, an stakeholders, gaps in knowledge of initia- outsider coming into the industry may have tives, non-compliance, lack of enforce- a very different perspective on farming. ment, and overriding power dynamics Although two farms may seem identical have contributed to the relatively limited in size, production, and style, the owner’s presence of transformation in the wine in- perspectives will more than likely produce dustry. Amongst the labourers interviewed, radically different dynamics on the farm. very few had experienced socio-economic The researcher noticed Farm Three’s in- development opportunities and there was volvement in the creation of the Fran- a general consensus amongst respondents schhoek Valley Transformation Charter that, although transformation is needed (2012) is an example of these efforts. Farm within the industry, there is a long path Three’s success in implementing socio-eco- ahead for widespread change to occur. nomic development measures has resulted Even in situations where transformation ini- not only in economic transformation but tiatives have impacted well-being, histori- also in an apparent sense of empower- cal inequalities and issues of paternalism ment and well-being amongst labourers. still exist. What Farm Three’s owner did successfully Before conducting interviews, the re- was not dictate the needs of his staff but searcher was under the impression that the rather ask them their opinions and facilitate efforts made through the SA Wine Council development based on their responses. and creation of various charters were well- This two-way communication and the ful- known within the wine industry. It became filment of promises to the workers built trust apparent after initial conversations that this amongst the stakeholders. Labourers were was not the case. Of the twenty-two par- encouraged to take responsibility both in ticipants interviewed, not one had heard the workplace and through direct involve- of the Wine Industry Transformation Charter

266 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 nor were any aware of socio-economic de- be apparent during the researcher’s time velopment opportunities offered through in the Paarl region. Although power dy- industry bodies. Organisations such as namics are inherent within any organisa- SAWIT, BAWSI, WIDA, the SA Wine Systems tion, the difference within the wine industry (SAWIS), and the Biodiversity and Wine Ini- has been how power has influenced the tiative (BWI) are visible proof of the indus- relationships amongst stakeholders. Cap- try’s commitment towards transformation, tains of the industry have capitalised on but the presence of these organisations did this imbalance of power relations. These not correlate to the state of transformation businesses and cellars have been well or- within the industry. Despite their presence ganised and protected by representative and independent development efforts bodies such as VINPRO (farmers), SALBA within specific farms or communities, there (trade), and CellarSA (cellars). The work- was no evidence of industry-wide transfor- ers, on the other hand, have not been well mation initiatives as described by the Char- organised. Although there is a presence ter. of labour unions, they were nowhere near to the same level of development as the The lack of publications regarding so- other industry representatives. The focus cio-economic development in the industry of many transformation organisations, such was explained during interviews with WIDA as SAWIT and BAWSI, has been to increase and SAWIT executives. Although there is a the legitimacy of these labour representa- widespread consensus regarding the need tives and to assist in their engagement with for transformation, there is little incentive for the traditionally powerful players. These many organisations to implement develop- efforts have been limited, however, due to ment initiatives as they are either seen as economic restrictions and lack of cohesion unnecessary financial costs or are hindered amongst effected parties. due to the inability of the stakeholders to work together. A lack of knowledge of the A lingering sense of paternalism has large- availability of programmes and continu- ly dictated the power dynamics between al miscommunication has left many in the farmers and labourers whereas the in- dark regarding the efforts aimed at indus- creased use of seasonal or contractual la- try-wide transformation. In the nine years bour has sparked issues of power amongst since the adoption of the Charter, there is the workforce. Permanent labourers work still a gap between the creation and ap- only a few hours longer than contractual plication of industry initiatives, partially due labourers but make much more money, ac- to the lack of awareness of the goals and cording to a labourer on Farm One whose opportunities. wife is a member of a contract team (Inter- view: 1.1, 2013). Additionally, age plays an 7.1 Realisation of power dynamics important role amongst labourers. Young- Power dynamics within the industry were er labourers are often not treated with re- very evident during the course of the spect by older workers, who tend to see study. Initial document analysis brought the younger generation as a threat to their forth issues of paternalism and power dy- continued employment. This can be re- namics and these factors continued to lated to the current issues within South Af-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 267 rica regarding the youth wage subsidy bill try-wide transformation have failed to have as it encourages employers, through tax significant impact. breaks, to hire younger adults in an effort There is a noticeable gap between the to reduce unemployment within that age presence of development efforts and the bracket (Sapa, 2013). knowledge of these opportunities, espe- Too often, empowerment strategies do not cially amongst farms. Interviews with man- pay enough attention to the various power agers and labourers alike found that there inequalities at play (Fine et al., 2001 in Mc- was little knowledge of the socio-econom- Ewan & Bek, 2006). For there to be lasting ic development efforts put forth by wine in- change, power must be seen less in terms dustry organisations, namely SAWIT, WIDA, of domination of one group over another. and the Wine Industry Transformation Char- Instead, power relations should be viewed ter. Additionally, the lack of communica- as capacity development tools for the pre- tion amongst stakeholders continues to lim- viously oppressed to increase their own it understanding and cooperation. Those self-reliance, decision-making capabilities, farms that had decided to implement and access to opportunities and increased transformation schemes were unaware of resources. This can occur with a focus on the existing industry tools and thus created equity schemes and redistribution of power their own (i.e. Farm Three’s involvement in within the socio-economic transformation the Franschhoek Transformation Charter, initiatives in the country. 2012). Although still a step in the right direction, these efforts could have been stream- 7.2 Recommendation and realisation of recent initiatives lined had industry information been better disseminated. Successful transformation There is disconnect between policy and will require strategic action to reduce the practice of socio-economic development knowledge gap and improve communica- initiatives in the South African wine indus- tion amongst stakeholders. try. Although there had been a number of initiatives set forth by governmental bod- After recognising the need for transforma- ies and social interest groups to combat tion efforts, the seven-year process resulting poverty and increase economic develop- in the creation of the SA Wine Council and ment, the continued presence of extreme adoption of the Charter has had a disap- poverty, rising unemployment, and linger- pointingly limited affect within the industry. ing health issues due to neglect and lack This is not due to inadequacies within the of sanitation indicate that there is still a Charter; its contents are comprehensive long road of development ahead. When and recognise the need for an integrat- present, regulations had been met with ed approach for successful development. minimal compliance to meet incentives or The issue lies in the realisation and appli- completely disregarded due to lack of en- cation of these transformation objectives. forcement or loopholes including exemp- The researcher noticed strong evidence tion status. Despite a consensus amongst of selective compliance and lack there- stakeholders of the need for transforma- of of a strong, central, unifying, and neu- tion, many of the efforts put forth for indus- tral party. Where development initiatives

268 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 were present, they were mainly motivated less of size, the gaps in which farmers have by prescriptive versus proactive measures. been getting around compliance would Many farmers “talk the talk but don’t walk decrease and there would be increased the walk” when it comes to transformation pressure to enact change. Updated re- efforts, especially those providing assis- search has found the presence of one such tance to wine farm labourers, according organisation whose socio-economic de- to the WIDA expert. There is a widespread velopment initiatives aim to encompass all acknowledgement that transformation will stakeholders within the South African wine be beneficial to the personal development industry. of workers and could assist the farm’s pro- The Fruit South Africa ethical trade productivity, especially investments in specific gramme became formalized as the Sus- skills training. Often these investments are tainable Agriculture in South Africa (‘SIZA’) not considered worth the cost to the farm, initiative in response to the increased de- however, especially if the current system mand for a single source for ethical trade of operation is working and there is no en- and fair labour practices in the South Afri- forcement to require change. Complying can agriculture industry (SIZA Background, with transformation initiatives may open a 2015). The programme focuses on capac- can of worms that no farmer wants to deal ity building and “supporting ongoing im- with, especially if it means financial costs provement of working conditions on farms” and a threat to the organisation’s repu- (ibid.). The SIZA Standard is comparable tation within the wine industry (Interview: to the researcher’s recommendation for 2.Manager, 2013). For successful transfor- increased communication and inclusion mation to occur, systems of empower- into initiatives aimed at empowerment, not ment, education, self-worth, and capacity incentives aimed at increasing productivi- development must be initiated organically. ty. SIZA aims to provide tools for self-regu- Motivation from within the individual wine lation and focuses on all industry members, farm or labour population ensures there is regardless of size or status. Workshops fo- support for and dedication to a successful cusing on a ‘train-the-trainer’ model are transformation. Conversely, prescriptive tailored to meet the needs of participants initiatives are often economically motivat- and aim to implement capacity-building ed and thus less likely to be implemented programmes within existing industry struc- wholeheartedly and for means which en- tures in 2014 and 2015 (SIZA Capacity Build- courage lasting transformation. ing, 2015). In order for these programmes There have been some successes in trans- to succeed, there must be a mutual un- formation initiatives with increased access derstanding amongst SIZA training provid- to various opportunities previously unavail- ers and managerial staff in the production, able to labourers within the wine industry. distribution, and labour force to not only These have been rather small advance- agree upon the need for socio-economic ments, however. Currently, many farmers development initiatives but also to see the are comfortable; if BEE-related legislations, economic benefit and ethical responsibility including the efforts put forth in the Charter, behind full engagement and participation. were to be enforced for all farms regard- This two way engagement encourages

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 269 people to be active participants in deci- enrichment opportunities, and empower- sions that affect their lives. ment. The principles found within the Wine Industry Transformation Charter have the potential to influence this transformation, if There is potential for significant transforma- they are properly instated and enforced by tion to occur within the wine industry, espe- a regulating body, such as SIZA or another cially in the lives of its farmworkers. There is neutral party. This will require the cooper- a strong need to reduce the overwhelm- ation of all stakeholders and the realisation ing presence of dependency amongst the that successful transformation is a process farm labour population and encourage personal development through education, that requires time and dedication to enact Codes of Good Practice on Black Econom- lasting change. ic Empowerment, 2007 (revised in 2012). The Department of Trade and Industry [online]. Government Gazette, 5 October, No. 35754. Available at:http://www.dti.gov. LIST OF REFERENCES za/economic_empowerment/docs/ga- zette_35754.pdf> African Classic Encounters (n.d.) Histo- ry of the South African Wine Industry. [Accessed: 22 October 2013] [online] Available at: [Accessed: 5 July 2013] Constitution of the Republic of South Afri- BAWSI, 2011. Farmworkers’ Voices: Reflec- ca, 1996. Republic of South Africa [online] tions of worker conditions on South African Government Gazette no. 17678. Available Farms. Administered by the Black Associa- at: [Accessed: Available at:

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272 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 LESSONS FROM POST-APARTHEID SOUTH AFRICA FOR A VIOLENCE IMBUED PROTEST CULTURE

SA Rankoana , HM Tirivangasi, SS Mugambiwa and K Malatji

University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

South Africa acquired majority rule in 1994 after 46 years under apartheid regime. This marked the birth of a democratic state built on a constitutional democracy. Yet today it still bears the marks and unhealed wounds of colonial era and is struggling to shed the legacy of apartheid. Protest and collective violence continue to be a major social problem facing South Africa today. The violent culture can be traced from the precolonial times and the colonial era. Violence in South Africa manifests itself through different forms such as political, economic, social and educational spheres of the society. During the apartheid era Black people used to protest against the apartheid government for the gross injustices perpetrated against them. The black masses protested against the carrying of passes and change in curriculum system which resulted in the deaths of students in 1976 Soweto uprising. In the post-apartheid South Africa, most notable acts of collective violent demonstrations can be highlighted by the Marikana strikes which resulted in the death of many people. More so, the world witnessed with horror the 2008 and 2015 xenophobic attacks which resulted in the death of 69 people and many more injuries on fellow humans. Violence demonstrations results in the loss of life and destruction of property worthy of millions. The social collision theory will be used to explain the origin of the culture of violence in South Africa. This article gives an analysis of the various forms in which protest and collective violence occur and lastly this desktop research provides various interventions which can be used to prevent or stop the culture of violence in South Africa.

KEY WORDS: Culture of violence, Protest and Collective violence, Social Collision theory, Xenophobia 1. INTRODUCTION It has become a phenomenon from Cape Town to Limpopo province. This is most- Protest and collective violence in South Af- ly witnessed by the images of strikes with rica has become a daily or rather a week- people throwing petrol bombs, blocking ly feature in which both the televised and and barricading roads with burning tyres, electronic media has filled the ears and hatred and the driving away of people eyes of the public with the news of such. from other countries as well as destruction

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 273 of infrastructure worth of millions. This is the South Africa has witnessed escalating and manifestation of the culture of violence in unprecedented spiral waves of violence. South Africa and it shows that violence has The constitution of South Africa readily become a resort when people are frustrat- communicates the right of the individual ed. Collective violence may be defined as to express themselves and also the right the instrumental use of violence by people to form a gathering and strike is also en- who identify themselves as members of a shrined in the constitution. Section 17 of the group against another group. Whether this Bill of Rights protects people’s right to as- group is transitory or has a permanent iden- semble, demonstrate, picket and present tity against another group or set of individu- petitions as long as they are unarmed and als, in order to achieve political, economic behave in a peaceful manner. However, or social objectives (Krug, Dahlberg, Mercy, most protest actions have not resulted in Zwi and Lozano, 2002:215). There is always peaceful resolution but have often resulted an agenda which is being conveyed when in collective violence which is detrimental people engage in protest and collective to the human life (Duncan, 2005). Collec- violence. tive violence often it results in the destruc- Lau, Seedat and Suffla (2010) observe that tion of property and human life. This form collective violence is used to define protest of violence reveals unhuman nature of hu- action, public and social protest that can man beings and it has potential to render contain violence action as noted in more South Africa a no tourism destination. There South African communities. Protest action is also undesirable consequences which and Collective violence has been an ac- can jeopardise South Africa’s regional inte- ceptable way of black people communi- gration. cating their grievances against the white The essence of this paper is to bring out apartheid government (Swart, 2013). How- to the open different multi-levels in which ever, the relevance of this tool in post dem- protest and collective violence occur. ocratic South Africa is being questioned. This research gives a brief background of During apartheid, protest and collective vi- protest and collective violence as being olence dominated the South African soci- entrenched in the apartheid era and the ety for a great while. This resulted in the de- culture of violence. This research uses so- velopment of the culture of violence which cial collision theory to explain the causes the world is witnessing. In 1994, South Africa of protest and collective violence in South held its first democratic elections herald- Africa, and then lastly discourse analysis is ing the beginning of a new life and new used to collect and analyse data. era. The end of apartheid and the advent of democracy did not result in an overall decrease in violence. In fact, since the introduction of a new government in 1994,

274 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 2. BRIEF BACKGROUND OF PROTEST AND VIOLENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA

Map 1: Map of South Africa

(Source: South Africa. Infor)

South African history is characterised by litical power. They became a poor class in tribal wars, wars about land, racial conflicts, the Cape colony and occupied a middle internal friction between blacks and whites, position between the Khoikoi and the slaves the Afrikaners and the British and violent from the East and other parts of Africa (Gi- clashes between ethnic groups. These wars lomee, 1982:390). South African society is and violence is a feature of South Africa’s only violent because of its pre-colonial and pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial his- colonial wars. The economic and political tory. Violence became a method of solv- empowerment was achieved after a long ing problems (Levey, Bentley & Shellman, struggle which involved protest and collec- 2012:56). The tribal war was fueled because tive violence. In this scenario, one can note of a number of reasons; ethnic group like that historically, some of the ethnic groups the Zulu wanted to have more land and in South Africa like the Zulus knew how to trade (Tirivangasi & Rankoana, 2015). South protect their resources through exercising Africa had its experience in regard to tribal violence and power. Further, as shown by wars and it is these violent wars that shaped the scholarly review above, the apartheid the country. Through the ages violence be- made things to be worse, because the came systemic. This was evident in the pro- Black communities devised ways of how to cess of social stratification that emerged in deal with the White oppressors. In this case 1652 when the social order was dominated the government has become the enemy by Europeans (Gilomee, 1982:403). Blacks because of the lack of Service delivery. It were not able to gain any economic or po- is ease for these communities to gather to-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 275 gether and engage in protest and collec- viduals by certain powerful groups, nations tive violence. or state. All different kinds of collective violence are driven by ulterior group motive. Social violence is described as violence 3.THE MANIFESTATIONS OF PROTEST AND acts that serve a certain particular social COLLECTIVE VIOLENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA agenda such as hate crimes against a certain group and mob violence (Duncan, South Africa has been dubbed the protest 2007). Smead (2007) notes that riots are capital of the world (Rodrigues, 2010) with by far the most common manifestation of one of the highest rates of public protests civil disorder. Smead argues that riots can in the world (Alexander, 2010). This is due to be repressive, insurrectionary or expressive. the number of protest which occurs during The repressive mobs are the most common the course of the year. The South African around the world; they seek to preserve protest since the colonial era varies from the racial, ethnic and religious order. This the economic, political and social causes. evidently explains the collective violence This is what makes the issue of protest and in South Africa. collective violence to be a very serious concern to the peaceful community members, A classic example of US riot case which can academics, politicians and the internation- parallel to the South African scenarios was al community alike. Rodrigues (2010) notes highlighted by Smead: that the rate of protests has been escalat- In Chicago on July 27, 1919, a young black ing since 2004. There is growing dissatisfac- boy named Eugene Williams joined the tion of the citizens over service delivery and throngs swimming in Lake Michigan to es- the failure by the government to meet the cape the 96 degree heat. Offshore, he needs. The rate of protests rose dramatical- strayed into the white area, was stoned ly in the first eight months of 2012 and it was for this breach of racial etiquette and reported that there were 540 protests in the drowned. His death touched off a flurry of province of Gauteng between 1 April and rock throwing between outraged blacks 10 May 2013 (Patel, 2013). In February 2014 and whites. Police refused to arrest the ini- it was reported that nearly three thousand tial white rock thrower. Indeed, they went (3,000) protest actions occurred in a period after a black man. This episode triggered of ninety (90) days (Patel, 2013). Further, Du a seven-day riot in which bands of whites Preeze (2014) also notes that more than a ranged into black neighbours burning and million people took part in one form of pro- pillaging. Twenty-three blacks died. Blacks test action or another in a period of thirty fought back, killing 15 whites (Smead, (30) days. Since 2008, more than two million 2007:1). (2) million people have taken to the streets in protest every year. This clearly shows that This can be compared to the South African the problem of protest violence is increas- cases where one case of xenophobic ating and is a cause of concern. tack on foreigners would trigger a series of several attacks on other foreigners in oth- Duncan (2007) defines collective violence er South African cites. The 2015 xenopho- as acts that are perpetrated against indi- bic attacks in the greater Durban area

276 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 were linked to Zulu King Goodwill Zwelithi- the labour strikes can be traced to USA ni’s speech in Pongola, in which the king where most violent strikes occurred. Most is said to have said foreigners should pack incidents resulted from strikes, lockouts and their bags and leave South Africa. Tirivan- attempts at Union (Smead, 2007). In South gasi and Rankoana (2015:523) agree with Africa, Congress of South African Trade the above assertion when they state that Unions (COSATU) led campaign against “The King’s utterances (although taken labour brokering and electronic road tolls out of context by the media) endangered in Gauteng, the Marikana mine strikes in the lives of the foreigners in South Africa…” 2012 and the Western Cape farm workers’ The King’s statements whether true or not strike. The Marikana strike turned from be- resulted in the spiral wave of collective vi- ing a peaceful strike into a violent protest. olence against the foreigners. The most The Marikana strike left thirty four (34) peo- obvious is proximity: these are the groups ple dead in the street after the clashes be- of people who live and work in townships. tween the police and the workers. As the violence is based on a mix of rage, The culture of protest and collective vio- frustration and opportunism, these are the lence has extensively affected most of the obvious and ‘easy’ targets. According to society’s institutions. In this regard, educa- mainstream reports from the (City Press, tion institution is not an exception. In the April 2015) the police did little to protect 1976 uprising, students were protesting in a the foreigners from these attacks. The at- peaceful demonstration. However, it turned tacks started in KwaZulu Natal and spread violent when the police opened fire. This in- to other cities like Johannesburg targeting cident is a classic example of state repres- the foreigners. The local mobs ran havoc in sion. In post-Apartheid era students still en- city after city searching for foreign owned gage in protest and often they have turned shops and properties, in an unplanned violent. Mottiah and Bond (2011) observe wave of violence whose ultimate goals that student protest over fees and excur- was to remove the assumed threat that sion began in 2011 in Durban, compelling foreigners bring to the South African. Some Durban Institute of Technology to be shut of the arguments were that the foreign- down in early February 2011 and repeated- ers take their women, business opportuni- ly July and August same year. The scholars ties, and jobs and were also perceived as note that the protest continued more in in thieves (Pillay, Barolsky, Naidoo, Mohlakoa- UKZN campuses (Mottiah and Bond, 2011). na & Hadland, 2008). These are the acts The police used all sorts of weapons to of collective violence justified as a normal disperse the students. They used weapons occurrence or protest by the perpetrators such as teargas, rubber bullets and water themselves. cannons. In 2015 under the #fees must fall Further, collective violence is also seen protest the police fired rubber bullets at stu- manifesting in labour disputes. The labour dents. Health24 in Sowetanlive, 2015 points strikes are a significant feature in post-Apart- out that rubber bullets can cause some heid South Africa. Smead (2007) notes that detrimental effects on an individual. For in- most often strikes and lockout frequent- stance, they can inflict painful tissue bruise ly deteriorate into violence. The history of or break one, lung contusions, laceration,

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 277 abrasion and can results in swollen on the In order to gain a comprehensive insight parts hit. Mottiah and Bond (2011) notes into protest and collective violence in South that in turn when students protest they burn Africa, discourse analysis was used as the tyres, throw stones and destroy buildings. main data collecting method for this secondary study. Discourse analysis is more of 4. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE deconstructing the literature and coming STUDY out with new interpretation. The discourse The discourse discusses protest and collec- analyses covered a wide variety of sources, tive violence using Social Collision Theory. including written texts. Data was collected The theory borrows heavily from the Kinet- from the internet, newspapers and books ics Theory which was developed by Peter on protest and collective violence. The Waage and Cato Guldberg who in the 19th researchers found discourse analysis to be century pioneered the law of mass action a powerful tool in trying to make meaning in chemical reactions. The theory holds that of the newspapers and articles on protest chemical reactions do not take place in and collective violence in South Africa. Dis- the absence of reactants (Matunhu, 2014). course analysis enable the creation of new Similarly, the social collision theory (SCT) information and also presents the forms in holds that protest and collective violence which protest and collective violence oc- is a result of social, economic and political cur in a clearer and simpler way. pressure. If pressure reaches unprecedented levels; stress and depression may weigh down an individual. The point of rupture 6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION might be suicide, crime or other form of an- 6.1 Protest and collective violence as a ti-social behaviour (Matunhu, 2014). Social communication tool pressure may vent out in the form of civil war, xenophobic attacks, strike or other up- Rose (1970: 26) makes an important obser- risings. In this discourse, economic, political vation when he states that “violent control and social factors act as the major drivers restraints and regulates, and is a method of protest and collective violence in South of social- political control. Violent revolt is Africa. The state of poverty is more painful dissent and strives to create change”. In in communities where wealth distribution South Africa, collective violence has been is inequitable. This is a result of unfulfilled used as a communication tool to attract promises by the government of African the government’s attention. This discourse National Congress (ANC) to the people of has revealed that in the social sphere pro- South Africa. The fact that protest and col- test and collective violence has been used lective violence is occurring in South Afri- as a way to effect change in a number of can communities every day means people ways. Protest and collective violence has have reached a boiling point. The public been used in the educational institutions, has reached a point where they have to communities and at the work place. This dis- put issues in their hands in order to reach course has found out that, even though this out a solution just like in the apartheid era. can be effective means to effect change but it comes with consequences which 5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

278 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 can be harmful to both the perpetrator negative picture for its use in post-apart- and the victim. This research has revealed heid South Africa. The problem is that the few case studies where violence has man- message is not conveyed or it does not ifested itself and the consequences it has reach the authorities it is supposed to be brought. The multi-layers are discussed in reaching. At one point in Bronkhorstspruit, this discourse namely social, political and the authorities thought that the protesters economic sphere. are protesting about water problems but later they realised that they were protesting 6.2 Protest for service delivery about increasing electricity tariffs. Protest Protest action in South Africa has been has become a mode of communication caused by the government’s failure to pro- between the people and the authorities. Its vide sufficient service delivery. The govern- major weakness is the fact that they are dif- ment has an obligation to ensure that the ferent implications which are derived from needs of the people are met. The media every human action. This results in the real has given reports of angry people who are problem being not addressed but rather in faded up of the government promises. Ev- the escalation of problems in the commu- ans (2015) gave a report of a truck which nities involved. Masango (2009) concludes was set ablaze in Burgersfort on the R555 violence and riots in South Africa has be- road. The police had to intervene in the come a sheer expression of an overwhelm- process; people of Burgersfort felt that if ing sense of frustration, desperation, and they do not do something no change was hopelessness. In this case protest and col- going to be effected. They were promised lective violence does not achieve the spe- that a road will be built but nothing hap- cific objective intended but ends up with pened, until they thought about taking the some devastating effects on the communi- matter to their hands. In a similar scenar- ty in which it is carried out. io in Durban on the N2’s South bound car- 6.3 Foreigners used as a scapegoat riage way, the road have been obstructed by rocks and burning barricades (Wicks, Scholars and intellectuals in South Africa 2015). Most protests have been success- have argued that xenophobic violence is fully conducted attracting large crowds. ultimately the consequence of economic Shange (2015) observes a crowd of about decay and uneven development as a re- 600 people in Limpopo, where disgruntled sult of structural adjustment and deindustri- residents of Zebediela in Limpopo put the alization (Bond et al. 2011; Tshitereke, 1999; local plaza under lock down and blocked Harris, 2002). The government’s policies the roads. The most notable thing is that have resulted in massive unemployment most residents in South Africa are protesting rocketing from 13 percent in 1994 to 25 about service delivery which is not secure. percent in 2013 or 40 percent by unofficial measures (Hickel, 2014). Since 1994, peo- However, despite staging electrified pro- ple were expecting the betterment of their tests, the protests are filled with violence lives and they hoped that their life would and destruction of property. This is a pitfall improve. Two million people have lost their in the use of protest and collective violence homes because of forced removals and as a communication tool and it paints a

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 279 inflated rents, and the number of shack tatives who understand their needs rather dwellers has increased by fifty percent, people are only given an option to vote for to the point where today more than one a political party of their choice. In this case quarter of South Africans live in shacks(Hick- individual accountability is not achieved. el, 2014). The argument holds that as live- People have to face the party as a whole lihoods become ever more precarious, instead of removing the Member of Par- competition over jobs, housing, and retail liament. The hopeless situation has made have reached extreme levels. In the face the community to resort to the use of proof this competition, the South African pub- test and collective violence in order to be lic felt the need to protect and capitalize heard. There is need for accountability in the diminishing resources. Furthermore, Tsh- the country, where every constituency can itereke (1999) notes that foreigners were hold someone accountable for the lack of then used as the scapegoat by the public service delivery. In the current system the to show their disgruntlement over the lack party and the government are the one of jobs, housing and lack of service deliv- who are responsible and answerable to ery. The xenophobic attacks resulted in the the public. Lack of a point of contact, has death of a total of sixty two (62) lives in 2008 resulted in most cases people gathering (Matunhu, 2011) and more than seven (7) together and engaging in protest in order people died in 2015. It is of paramount im- to attract the government’s attention and portance to note that since the outbreak of action. xenophobia attacks in South Africa, there 7. CONCLUSION are no exact causes which have been pin- pointed. The only thing which is apparent In a nutshell, this paper has concluded that is the fact that South Africans are not pre- since the beginning of the democratic era pared to have more foreigners in the coun- in the 1990s, the South African public has try. Xenophobia in South Africa is another not been given the public a clear oppor- classic example of protest and collective tunity to channel their grievances without violence, as revealed by this research. the use of violence. Protest and collective violence has been used to catch the gov- 6.4 The defect in the South African Electoral ernment’s attention to the people’s needs. system However, protest and collective violence The South African Electoral system needs results in some unwarranted consequenc- to be looked into. South Africa has adopt- es. It results in the destruction of property, ed proportional representation electoral harm to individuals. The problem of pro- system since 1994. The proportional repre- test and collective violence is not wavering sentation system is not flexible in terms of soon as long as the service delivery is not meeting people’s needs. Members of par- addressed in time. liament are elected using the party list system. Individuals are not hold accountable for their lack of service delivery in communities which they represent. People do not have a choice in selecting proper represen-

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282 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 THE STATE OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN SOUTH AFRICA: A CRITICAL REVIEW

PH Munzhedzi

University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

Community participation plays a pivotal role in any democratic society, and it is for that reason that community participation at the local sphere of government is provided for in several legislative frameworks and policies in South Africa. The provisions in these frameworks and policies make it compulsory for all municipalities in the country to ensure active participation by local communities and stakeholders in their programmes and activities. To this end, it is widely believed by Public Administrations scholars and practitioners alike that involvement and engagement between local citizens and their government is an essential factor for ensuring efficient and responsive municipalities. It is for this reason that this paper seeks to assess the extent of participation by local communities in the municipal programmes and activities. In addition, the paper seeks to identify challenges so as to propose possible solutions to address the mishaps at this critical sphere of government in so far as participation is concerned. The methodology adopted by the paper is reviewing existing literature with regard to community participation in South Africa. Through this assessment, the local communities are found to possess limited understanding of community participation, and that the extent of participation in the municipal programmes by local communities is not adequate. As a way of addressing the challenge, it is recommended that the municipality develop awareness initiatives and also beef up their training programmes with regard to the enhancement of understanding and participation by local communities in the municipal programmes and activities including but not limited to integrated development planning and municipal budgeting.

Keywords: Community participation, Local communities, Municipal programmes

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 283 1. INTRODUCTION sion making process including planning and budgeting particularly because lo- During the apartheid era, most South Af- cal communities are the principal stake- ricans were passive citizenry and as such holder at the local sphere of government they could not question the power of the (Thornhill & Madumo, 2011). On a global state and, most importantly, they were re- scale the important role of community par- cipients of governance, rather than partic- ticipation has been discussed thorough- ipants (Mathekga & Buccus, 2006: 12; Sibi- ly and diversely by academics and local ya, 2010:1; Mautjana & Makombe, 2014). government practitioners alike and it was However, this all come to an end in 1994 found to be a building block of a partici- when, as a “new” beginning, the govern- patory democracy. Tau (2013) posits that ment was to be defined in relation to its cit- community participation is encouraged in izens. The South Africa context has a differ- democracies to enhance decision-making ent and unique progression of events, that and implementation processes particular- is from an authoritative regime of colonially because democracies like South Africa ism and apartheid to its collapse and the even legislated the participation of local dawn of democracy basically allows for communities in their municipalities through new lens with observational capacity that legislations including but not limited to Lo- is uniquely South African in nature. The im- cal Government: Municipal Structures Act, portance of involving people in their own 1998 (Act 117 of 1998) (hereafter referred development as posited by Silima and Au- to as Municipal Structures Act), Local Gov- riacombe (2013) is driven by the Millennium ernment: Municipal Systems Act, 2000 (Act Development Goals set for community de- 32 of 2000) (hereafter referred to as Munic- velopment. This specific shift in focus from ipal Systems Act) and Local Government: centralisation to decentralisation followed Municipal Finance Management Act, 2003 the realisation that top-down approach (Act 56 of 2003) (hereafter referred to as was largely unsuccessful in that huge parts Municipal Finance Management Act) . of the population could not be reached Thus, according to Tau (2002), community particularly the poor (Silima & Auriacombe, participation has become an institutional 2013). According to Sibiya (2010:18), the feature of government and public policy notion for participation of people in dem- decision making. ocratic governance at all the different levels of governance was recognised by the The degree of attention being given to ex- African National Congress (ANC) in its poli- panding ordinary citizens’ roles in the policy cy document, the Reconstruction and De- process underscores the need to consider velopment Programme (RDP), in 1994. The what effects these processes might and RDP sought to promote the contribution of will have on public policy decisions and those who were previously marginalised on those who participate in them. It must into the governance of their own affairs however be noted that community partic- (ANC, 1994). ipation is undertaken for different purposes and with different underlying goals. In Community participation plays a critical terms of community participation, South role in any municipal government deci- African history reflects very little opportuni-

284 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ty for community participation in govern- 2. PUBLIC PARTICIPATION VERSUS COMMU- ment programmes and activities. The fact NITY PARTICIPATION that black majority had no political rights The concepts public participation and envisaged in the law of the land until 1994 community participation are often used in- demonstrates the total absence of partici- terchangeably even when they have got pation of any sort including through election a different meaning. At times Public Ad- of public representatives (Masango, 2002: ministration scholars and practitioners refer 52). Contrary to this democratic phase, to public participation when in actual fact Williams (2000) posits that the pre-1994 they mean community participation. Com- era’s government was highly centralized, munity participation is one of the key ingre- deeply authoritarian and secretive, which dients of an empowered community (Reid, ensured that fundamental public services 2000:1). Community participation occurs were not accessible to the majority of cit- when a local community organises itself izens who happened to be black. Makgo- and take full responsibility for managing its ba and Ababio (2004:277) postulate that problems. Taking full responsibility includes even after the introduction of the first black identifying the problems, developing ac- municipalities in 1980, black communities tions, putting them to place and following had no say in matters of governance and through. The World Bank (1996:3) defines could not elect their own municipal repre- public participation which is participation sentatives. It is against this background that at national and provincial sphere level as Municipal Systems Act was introduced with “a process through which stakeholders particular emphasis on local participation (at national and provincial) influence and in municipal affairs through political struc- share control over development initiatives tures including but not limited to ward com- and the decisions and resources which af- mittees, public hearings, and community fect them”. Public participation is the pro- meetings (Sibiya, 2010: 19; Vivier & Wentzel, cess by which public concerns, needs, and 2013: 240-241). This Act places emphasis on values are incorporated into governmental community participation, consultation and and corporate decision making. Of funda- involvement in the activities and functions mental importance is to acknowledge that of municipalities. This paper seeks to assess the largest possible way through which the the extent of participation by local com- public can participate in decision-making munities in the municipal programmes and processes, is the acceptance and em- activities by reviewing existing literature as brace of the principle, that the public have a research methodology adopted. In ad- a democratic right to participate in deci- dition, the paper seeks to identify challeng- sion-making that impacts on their lives, ines through literature review in the state of cluding governance issues (Gildenhuys & community participation in South Africa so Knipe, 2000:126). Participation is basically as to propose possible solutions to address a two-way communication and interac- the mishaps at this critical sphere of gov- tion, with the overall goal of better deci- ernment in so far as participation is con- sions that are supported by the commu- cerned. nity (Creighton, 2005: 7). Furthermore, Tau (2013) points out that, community partici-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 285 pation should arguably include more than decisions affecting their communities, and just organized community representative identifying institutions and mechanisms that groups (including ward committees) and acquire opportunities and resources. In the non-governmental organizations but also South African local government sphere, a mass of the general communities. In the community participation is encouraged to context of this paper, community partici- an optimal level. What however is neces- pation refers to the process of seeking and sary, is a process where communities are in- facilitating the involvement of those poten- formed and made aware of their right and tially affected by or interested in a decision obligation to participate – and even edu- either directly or indirectly at a community cated (Van der Walt & Knipe, 1998: 143; Co- level. The principle of community participa- etzee, Graaf, Hendricks & Wood, 2001: 473) tion holds that those who are affected by on the basics of what developmental local a decision have a right to be involved in government as provided by the 1996 Con- the decision-making process as enshrined stitution could afford them. It is for this rea- in the South African legislative framework. son that local communities should also be Community participation implies that the alerted that they are important stakehold- contribution of the community must influ- ers in municipal affairs; and the fact that in ence the decisions of government particu- reality resource constraints particularly hu- larly local sphere of government. man and financial are prevailing and therefore in most cases, projects and resources allocation are approved on the basis of pri- 3. COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN SOUTH ority by the municipal council. Community AFRICA participation was minimal pre-apartheid in South Africa and this had to be addressed The Constitution of the Republic of South by the democratic dispensation through African of 1996 (hereafter referred to as the different pieces of legislation specifically 1996 Constitution) provides for community meant to foster community participation participation in the development, imple- in all spheres of government particularly in mentation and evaluation of integrated the local sphere of government as a sphere development planning which is basically a that is closest to the people. Amongst oth- principal planning instrument for municipal- ers, Municipal Systems Act requires that ities in South Africa (Mathekga & Buccus, municipalities develop a culture of munici- 2006:11; Silima & Auriacombe, 2013: 45). To pal governance that complements formal this end, the collapse of apartheid in South representative government with a system Africa meant the end of an authoritative of participatory governance (Masango, regime which was characterized as a re- 2002). Furthermore, the 1996 Constitution gime that defined itself against the needs in South African is underpinned by princi- and wishes of the majority of the population ples of good governance, also highlighting in the country (Sibiya, 2010:1). World Bank the importance of participation by local (1996:145) also indicates that reaching the communities as an essential element of poor masses requires working with them to successful good local governance. Section learn about their needs, understanding the 152 of the 1996 Constitution also confirms a considerations that are made regarding

286 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 number of citizen rights including the rights in terms stakeholders understand and in of communities to be involved in local gov- ways that relate to stakeholders values and ernance (Munzhedzi & Phago, 2013). Mu- concerns (Houston, 2001:222). nicipalities are also obliged to encourage Community participation also plays a par- the involvement of communities and com- amount role in conflict prevention in that munity organisations in local government, conflict prevention should focus not only and that this obligation extends to the en- on containing a potentially violent situa- tire way in which a municipality operates tion, but also addressing the fundamental and functions in its locality. This is basically causes of conflict. Ideally, Ramsbotham, to say that local communities as primary Woodhouse and Miall (2005:145) are of the stakeholders in local government must be view that conflict prevention goes further encapsulated in any local government ac- than problem solving in that it is proactive tivities including formulation of Integrated step in preventing violence by bringing Development Plans (IDPs) and municipal parties together to analyse and transform budgets. a dispute into an agreement. Like the current community participation model in the country, conflict transformation assumes Community participation contributes to that all problem-solving processes involve better decisions because decision-makers moving through a systematic, constructive have more complete information in the thinking process to reach a desired goal form of additional facts, values, and per- state of conflict having been resolved. In spectives obtained through community the case of South Africa, where there are input to bring to bear on the decision pro- often differing and sometimes opposing cess (Batten, 1994: 98; Sibiya, 2010: 2). As a views and expectations, it is assumed that result of consideration of community inputs, the desired state will come from putting municipalities may incorporate the best in- together those who have divergent views, formation and expertise of all stakeholders experiences and expertise. In essence, including business people in that locality. community participation in the country in Decisions are more implementable and a conflict context assumes that all parties sustainable specifically because the deci- must participate, because the nature of sion considers the needs and interests of all the conflict comes from parties that are in- stakeholders and stakeholders better un- terdependent and intertwined. derstand and are more invested in the outcomes. Theron (2005:119) and Munzhedzi and Phago (2013) correctly posits that de- 4. COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN THE IDP cisions that are informed by community AND BUDGETARY PROCESS participation processes are seen as more legitimate and are less subject to chal- Traditionally, South Africa did not have a lenge by local populace. Decision-makers culture of actively engaging communities who fully understand stakeholder’s interests in local government development affairs also become better communicators, able during apartheid (van Rooyen, 2003: 126). to explain decisions and decision rationale Democracy in the country has brought

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 287 about new emphasis to transparency in tation is only for compliance with the provi- government activities, greater public ac- sions of the 1996 Constitution and the Mu- countability and the notion of respect for nicipal System Act (Mautjana & Makombe, human rights as enshrined in the 1996 Con- 2014). However, an IDP of a municipality stitution. This approach differs substantial- may not be approved by the municipal ly from the prior 1994 South Africa where council without having gone through the community information and consultation necessary process of consultation as re- was to a large extent limited. The IDP which quired by legislative prescripts. is the planning tool of local government The financial year for South African munic- was seen as one of the ways to ensure ipalities runs from the 1st of July to 30th of this inclusion (Sibiya, 2010; Silima & Auria- June of the following year. The Municipal Fi- combe, 2013). The introduction of the IDP nance Management Act’s provision is that process in the year 2001 required munici- the mayor of a particular municipality is pal councils of respective municipalities to responsible for coordinating the processes develop strategies for community involve- for preparing the municipal budget and for ment, including but not limited to commu- reviewing the municipality’s integrated de- nication strategies, community outreach velopment plan and budget-related poli- programmes and stakeholder involvement cies. Like the Municipal Systems Act which strategies (Skenjana & Kimemia, 2011:59). makes the IDP consultations and partici- Van Rooyen (2003: 127) also correctly pos- pation compulsory, the Municipal Finance its that while municipal integrated devel- Management Act also makes it a prerequi- opment planning and the municipal bud- site that before an approval of the munici- geting processes are unfolding and local pal budget could be granted, compulsory economic development projects are be- consultation and participation should have ing launched, local communities should be been adhered too. Immediately after the afforded the opportunity to participate in mayor has tabled the annual budget, the processes to articulate their expectations administrative head (municipal manag- and to prioritize their needs. These strate- er) of the municipality must make public gies were meant to improve the levels and the annual budget together with any sup- quality of community participation, how- porting documentation and invite repre- ever, critics of the application of the sys- sentations in connection with the budget tem argue that the IDP processes are still from the local community. The municipal far from achieving full community involve- council must then consider any views put ment in policy making as stipulated in the forward by the local stakeholders including relevant legislative framework, and that by the community and any other organs the process remain very much top-down of state that may have made submissions and communities are merely allowed to on the budget. The mayor is then given an comment on proposals developed by mu- opportunity to respond to the submissions nicipal officials rather than being invited to and, if necessary, revise the budget and contribute to the content before its draft- table amendments for consideration by ing (Friedman, Hlela & Thulare, 2003:56). It council. Council must then approve the therefore means that at times the consul- annual budget for the municipality before

288 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 the start of the financial year. civic involvement in local governance. A new culture of governance that comple- 5. LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK FOSTERING ments representative democracy through COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN SOUTH AF- participation is being enforced through RICAN LOCAL GOVERNEMENT this legislation. This Act also provides for the Community participation is seen as an im- establishment of ward committees which portant quality of a democratic govern- may advise the local municipality on lo- ment. Hence international experience has cal matters. However, ward committees shown that one way of achieving commu- ought have a non-political and advisory nity participation in government structures status and are established in terms of sec- is through policy and legislation regulating tion 73 of the Municipal Structures Act and the establishment of “structured and insti- they consist of the councillor representing tutionalised frameworks for participatory that ward in the council, who must also be local governance” (Department of Provin- the chairperson of the committee, and not cial and Local Government, 2005:10). To more than 10 other persons. this end, South Africa is a step further in that The Municipal Systems Act stipulates that there are numerous pieces of legislations local participation in municipal affairs must fostering community participation in the take place through political structures in- country’s local government sphere. The cluding but not limited to ward commit- 1996 Constitution sets out the imperative tees. This Act places emphasis on com- for local participation, which places partic- munity participation, consultation and ular emphasis on governance and service involvement in the activities and functions delivery (Silima & Auriacombe, 2013). It is a of municipalities, including the IDPs; per- requirement that local government must formance management systems (PMS); consult and/or involve local communities preparation of the municipal budget; and when taking policy decisions that fall with- strategic decisions relating to services. The in their jurisdiction. The 1996 Constitution Municipal Finance Management Act pro- also set the vision for functional, responsive, vides for the comprehensive reform of mu- efficient, effective municipalities (Depart- nicipal finance management systems and ment of Co-operative Governance and aims to regulate the budgeting process, Traditional Affairs (COGTA), 2009:75; Silima financial accounting, auditing, reporting & Auriacombe, 2013:43). Municipalities are and borrowing. With regard to participa- obliged to develop mechanisms to ensure tion, this Act stipulates that a council must citizen participation in policy initiation, for- consult the community on the annual ta- mulation, implementation, monitoring and bled budget. The provision for participation evaluation of programmes in terms of the at the local sphere appears comprehen- White Paper on Local Government of 1998. sive and is entrenched in all local govern- A localised system of participation has to ment legislation. be developed by each municipality. Municipalities may formulate their own by- The Municipal Structures Act also obligates laws in keeping with inter-governmental municipalities in the country to develop relations. In keeping with such provision, mechanisms to facilitate community and

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 289 the Local Government: Municipal Proper- techniques as discussed as follows: ty Rates Act, 2004 (Act 6 of 2004) provides 6.1 Publications municipalities with guidelines on how to set rates in a local area. A key consideration Publications refer to recorded documents of this Act is to ensure that the methods for or materials containing information that valuating properties are fair and equitable can be used to provide local communi- and furthermore the public must partici- ties with information that enables them to pate in decisions relating to property rates. participate in the decision-making process. The Draft National Policy Framework of According to Smith (2008), publications 2005 commits the government of the day produce documents or material which to some form of participation which is gen- may describe the process, define the prob- uinely empowering, and not token consul- lem, issue or situation, suggest options or re- tation or manipulation. It spells out a range quest direct feedback from readers on their of activities including creating ward com- views, interests or alternatives. In essence, mittees and assisting them to plan at a lo- local communities may then respond to is- cal level, monitoring implementation, and sues based on the propositions made in a supporting local activities through a cadre particular publication. These publications of community development workers. includes but not limited to municipal newsletters and brochures. This method is often From the foregoing discussion, it is certain used though not amply. that through these legislative frameworks the Government envisages a process 6.2 Public hearings and public meetings where communities are involved in governance matters, including planning, imple- According to Smith (2008), public hearings mentation and performance monitoring or meetings are forums which stakeholders and review. It is at that level where com- make formal statements about the issue at munities would be empowered to identify hand. Oral statements are often accom- their own needs, set performance indica- panied by written reports where local com- tors and targets and thereby hold their own munities express their feelings or ideas con- municipalities accountable for their perfor- cerning issues of concern in that locality. mance particularly in service delivery. Dif- A panel representing a particular munici- ferent methods which are often used as per pality may ask questions about a specific the provisions of the legislative frameworks issue to which they expect the communi- in the South African municipalities are dis- ty to respond. At times authorities (mayor cussed below. or municipal council) may attend public hearings personally to get the feelings of 6. METHODS OF ENHANCING COMMUNITY the local communities and give a response PARTICIPATION thereto. Moreover, public meetings are sessions open to anyone with an interest in There are many techniques used in en- the subject under discussion (Smith, 2008). hancing community participation in South Africa. Smith (2008) has identified some of Public meetings often begin with a techni- these techniques, namely, publications, cal overview of the situation and process public meetings, and open houses. These and then provide opportunity for members

290 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 of the community to speak from the floor project or programme and are present to regarding their concerns or to ask ques- answer questions and provide clarifications tions to the expert panelists who are either regarding the said project. If local were not council members or municipal adminis- involved in the conceptual stage, they are trative leadership. However, Thornhill and likely not to support the programme. Madumo (2011) note that public hearings 6.4 Ward Committees and meetings are designed for politicians and officials to meet with, discuss issues Ward Committees are area-based com- with, listen to, accept criticism from, hear mittees whose boundaries coincide with complaints and comments and receive those of ward boundaries (Republic of compliments from the community. At the South Africa, 1998). Ward committees were end of the session, whether public hear- introduced as a system of local governing or meeting, a report is normally written ment best placed to give practical mean- which will then be submitted to the higher ing and substance to the basic political authorities for consideration. commitment of democratic governance (Silima & Auriacombe, 2013:48). Ward Consequently, public hearings and meet- committees should therefore function as a ings are techniques of implementing cit- representative structure of the community izen participation and they are crucial in and of citizens. They ought to form a bridge that they facilitate community access to between municipal council and the local information, urge mechanisms of trans- communities they represent by facilitating parency and accountability and create a proper communication and interaction space for community to have a voice on between these structures. The rationale issues that affect them, such as the use of for ward committees is to extend the roles public money and service provision (Van of the elected ward councillors by creat- der Waldt, 2007:38). It is in this kind of forums ing a link between communities and their where local communities get to have an municipalities. In essence the ward com- exchange of ideas with municipal political mittees are expected to facilitate local and administrative leadership on any issues community participation in planning and of concern in that municipality. decisions affecting them and to present 6.3 Open house local community interests to local government structures (Putu, 2006:17). Silima and An open house usually communicates in- Auriacombe posit that ward committees formation about a project or proposal on behalf of the ward that they represent, through a series of displays (Smith, 2008). In participate in Integrated Development this process, there are two groups of peo- Planning, municipal budgeting in decisions ple involved, namely, communities or their affecting communities, in municipal per- representatives as well as the municipal au- formance management as well as in the thorities. Local communities or their repre- planning of projects. Ward committees are sentatives are presented with the proposal the institutionalised structures with the ex- of the project or programme to be imple- clusive task to narrow the gap between lo- mented and are allowed to have some cal municipalities and communities, since views about it. The authorities then push the

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 291 ward committees are better able to under- huge role in the participation process par- stand the problems and needs of citizens ticularly in the ward committees. Council- and the communities they represent (Esau, lors and their political parties also play a 2007:14). However, besides the participa- significant role in choosing the members tion in the planning and budgeting process of the ward committees. It is for this rea- in municipalities, ward committees ought son that Thornhill and Madumo (2011:141) to be able to monitor and oversee service argues that the ward committees in most delivery in communities. In practice, ward municipalities are more or less an extension committees are encountered with several of the ruling political party in that locality challenges which will be discussed below. and that ward councillors often manipu- It is only unfortunate that ward commit- late the decisions and deliberations of the tees in most areas are functional. Howev- ward committee to reflect the mandate of er, if well-equipped and beefed-up, these their own party. committees may play a fundamental role The lack of financial and human resources intended for in the legislative framework. is also another challenge affecting com- 7. COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION CHALLENG- munity participation in South Africa. Smith ES (2008:14) concurs and posits that the effectiveness of community participation is Factors identified as having a negative ef- considerably jeopardised by the levels of fect on citizen participation are the “…lack education, skills and expertise in local com- of capacity to participate, limited social munities particularly in rural municipalities. capital, control by the elite, marginalisa- This challenge is often in rural municipalities tion of the poor, a general lack of trust in particularly because of their inability to at- government, politicisation of the processes tack scare skills and limited sources of reve- of participation and bureaucratic inertia” nue. In this context, rural municipalities are (Esau, 2006:15). Buccus, Hemson, Hicks and unable to develop adequate community Piper (2007:5) are of the opinion that de- participation strategy to enhance partici- spite all the talk about the importance of pation in that municipality. This challenge community participation for a democratic is also linked to ineffective communication society and even the support of council- between municipal council, ward commit- lors, in practice very little was done to pro- tees and the local communities. At times mote participation in a real sense in local this ineffectiveness is due to lack of resourc- communities. es at the municipality. However, it is the re- Even though ward committees ought to sponsibility of municipalities to ensure that be non-political and play an advisory role all these challenges are addressed so as to the council as provided for in terms of to enhance participation within this crucial section 73 of the Municipal Structures Act sphere of government. at times the ward committees are political 8. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS and not representative of the local communities in their jurisdiction. Munzhedzi and Through community participation, munic- Phago (2013: 43) also alludes to the fact ipalities are able to formulate sound poli- that party political influences played a cies such as IDPs and development policies

292 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 which haves directions and are public-cen- building could be done through regu- tred. In a nutshell, the people and the gov- lar campaigns and workshops in differ- ernment must interact to ensure success ent wards of a particular municipality. in public activities to reflect sense of unity If and when communities are informed and transparency. Some conclusion and about municipal policies, programmes recommendations to address the identified and activities, they are likely to make in- challenges include the following: formed and meaningful contributions to their municipality. • With the unreliability and unaffordability of newspapers as highlighted by some • Sufficient commitment of resources into respondents, it is advisable of munici- the communication participation pro- palities to disseminate information using grammes of municipalities is elementary. other methods such as distribution of These resources could either be human pamphlets containing relevant informa- or financial. Lack of resource commit- tion. However, community participation ment may be a symbol of not taking should not be regarded as an ad hoc these programmes serious enough. event but rather a continuous process. • Ward committees ought to be strength- • For municipalities and the community to ened so as to enhance participation function effectively, there has to be an at each and every ward is paramount. increased transparency and account- Ward committees may contribute im- ability particularly in government pro- mensely particularly because they are cesses and programmes. Van Rooyen chaired by ward councillors who are (2003) concurs and further posits that members of a municipal council. But democratic, transparent and account- more importantly is that committee able practices are highly regarded traits members are found in the local jurisdic- where municipalities strive towards legit- tion of that municipality imacy in view of their communities and The preceding recommendation may posi- where investment in development proj- tively contribute to a desired state of active ects is sought. Such transparency should citizenry who assist government in identify- be inclusive of decision-making processing their own needs, developing priorities as es particularly those with a direct bear- well as setting up indicators and evaluating ing on the affected communities. performance of their municipalities. Not- • Capacity building for the enhancement withstanding the the extensive legislative of active participation by all stakehold- framework, as well as the establishment of ers including but not limited to non-gov- participative structures including but not ernmental organizations and communi- limited to ward committees and community organizations. It is through the active ty development workers, the South African participation which is necessitated by experience of participatory democracy capacity building of the relevant stake- has not really produced the anticipated holders where municipalities will become results. Passive participation on the side a formidable force whereby account- of local communities as well as malicious ability is encouraged. The said capacity compliance on the side of municipalities is

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 293 the order of the day ation in the Western Cape.

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296 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 THE ROLE OF KING III REPORT ON CORPORATE GOVERNANCE IN IMPROVING POOR SERVICE DELIVERY IN THE SOUTH AFRI- CAN GOVERNMENT

TI Mokgopo

University of Western Cape

ABSTRACT

When the new government came in to power in 1994 it inherited dysfunctional municipalities. In fact it inherited a country with high levels of poverty, growing levels of inequality and also social dysfunctionality. As such in an attempt to redress apartheid legacies, the new government reformed previous legislation and policies to address issues pertaining to segregation, inequity, inequality, discrimination, poverty and to establish new transitional local authorities. Therefore new institutions have been created with new principles, philosophies and support mechanisms to make the transformation of local government a success. This is irrespective of the government coming up with good policies and laws the South African local government sphere is still rocked by poor service delivery in the majority of the municipalities including the big metropolitan municipalities. Since 2008, South Africa has witnessed many service delivery protests by communities demanding better services. This paper critically analyses the role of the King III report on corporate governance in improving poor service delivery in South African local government and to assess if indeed these policies and legislations can improve service delivery. The findings in this paper indicates that corporate governance principles are an effective instrument in improving municipalities in South Africa and if adhered to by the municipal councils and management of all municipalities then the challenges that are faced at the local government will be minimised. This paper further finds that the only way to restore public confidence in South Africa is by first fixing the local government as it is a test of the country as to whether it is able to manage its affairs and providing services to the members of the communities (public).

Keywords: Corporate governance, Dysfunctionality, Local authorities, Support mechanisms.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 297 source mainly influenced the development of urban municipal government but it also 1. INTRODUCTION had the effect of divorcing judicial from The South African government inherited civil administration in rural government and dysfunctional system of government from led to the introduction of elected represen- the apartheid government and after the of- tatives there long before the English Coun- ficial end of apartheid in 1994 the introduc- ty councils Act of 1888 (Green 1957). tion of democracy left many people with Van der Walt, Venter, Van der Walt, Phut- lot of expectations for a better well-being. iagae, Khalo, Van Niekerk, Nealer (2007) Most people who were in serious poverty, posits that the present post-apartheid particularly in black homelands, expect- democratically elected South African gov- ed the government to deliver them out of ernment inherited problematic adminis- poverty aggravated by unequal alloca- trative, economic and political structures tion of resources by the apartheid govern- emanating from the legacy of decades ment. According to Green (1957) Jan van of apartheid rule. The legal and adminis- Riebeck landed in South Africa in 1652. Lo- trative structures it inherited were not de- cal government began thirty…. years lat- veloped to serve the broad population of er, and its subsequent history was confined the country, but rather a small section of it, almost wholly to the Cape of Good Hope the white people. After the abolishment of until the middle of the nineteenth century. apartheid in South Africa the new Constitu- tion of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 was developed which plays a pivotal role There was little settled population else- in the development and function of the where before the urban centres of Pieter- municipality. marizburg, Durban, Winburg, Bloemfon- tein, Potchefstroom and Pretoria began Atkinson (2002) attests that since 1994, South to grow between 1840 and 1860; and it Africa has experienced a steep learning was not until the passing of the Natal Mu- curve with regard to institutional design in nicipal Ordinance, 1854, that the initiative general, and local government in particu- in the development of local government lar. When the transition to democracy took first tended to pass from the Cape (Green place, South Africa inherited a dysfunc- 1957). Since the beginnings of the present tional local government system, based on system of local government are thus to be inappropriate jurisdictions, structures and found in a colony administered from both programmes (Sebei 2013). During the past the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, years, great progress has been made in local government in South Africa has two designing municipal systems and govern- historic sources which are; firstly the Dutch mental principles intended to promote sus- and secondly the other British. The Dutch tainable development. Non-Compliance source was pre Napoleonic and exerted its and lack of proper implementation of gov- influence through the landdrost and heem- ernment policies and legislation has always raden system of rural government, and the urban Cape raad der gemeente. The British

298 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 contributed to a large-scale of failure of the public, private or non-profit sectors. In governance. This therefore resulted in poor contrast, the King II Report only applied to service delivery from the South African gov- certain categories of business enterprises, ernment to its citizens. It was observed that namely listed companies, financial insti- the failures of the majority of municipalities tutions and sector enterprises, while com- with regard to service delivery are a result panies falling out of these categories were of lack of competent and qualified people merely required to consider the applica- in the municipality. It further seems that the tion of the King II Report insofar as it was government failures from the nation, pro- applicable. vincial and local government emanates The USA codified its corporate governance from lack of proper implementations of Co- provisions in the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of operate Governance Principles as provid- 2002 and legal sanctions are applied for ed for by the king III Report. non-compliance with this Act (Cassim, Jooste, Shev & Yeast 2012). In South Africa, compliance with the King III Report and Methodology the code is mandatory for the companies This research is library based and reliance listed on the JSE, financial institutions and is on library materials such as textbooks, re- sector enterprises, but for all other entities ports, legislations, regulations and articles, there is no statutory obligation to com- government manuals, legislative policies ply with the King III Report and the Code. as well as internet sources. Consequently, While corporate governance practices in a combination of legal comparative and South Africa may be voluntary, note that legal historical methods, based on juris- they are highly recommended and have prudential analysis was employed. A legal considerable persuasive force. Common- comparative method was applied to find wealth countries and the European Union solutions, especially to resolve the South states have also not legislated their corpo- African challenges from the local govern- rate governance practices and have ad- ment level opted a similar approach to that adopted in South Africa.

2. THE APPLICATION OF THE CORPORATE GOVERNANCE 3. THE PRINCIPLES OF CORPORATE GOVER- NANCE The King III Report and the Code apply to all entities incorporated in and resident in The King III Report is divided into nine chap- South Africa and the national institutions ters of which each one of the principles (department), regardless of the manner contained in this Report is set out in the and form of incorporation or establish- Code together with the recommended ment and whether that establishment is in practices relating to each principle. There- fore some of the main principles and practices of the King III Report will be discussed below. The King III Report provides guid-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 299 ance on the following aspects related to does not apply only to Companies but also corporate governance: Ethical leadership to all municipalities in South Africa. Accord- and corporate citizenship, Boards and di- ing to Nevondwe (2012) the board should rectors, Audit committees, the governance ensure that an ethical corporate culture is of risk, the use of information technology, built and sustained in the company. It de- compliance with the laws, codes, rules and termines ethical standards which are clear- standards, Internal audit, Governing stake- ly understood by the company and that the holder relationships and Integrated report- company ensures adherence in all aspects ing and disclosure of it business, adherence to the ethical standards is measured. The risk management process incorporates ethical risks and 3.1 Ethical leadership and corporate citi- opportunities; the ethical performance of zenship external business partners is aligned around the ethical standards of the company. The underlying philosophy of the King III Report revolves around leadership, sustainability and corporate citizenship. On the is- 3.2 Boards and directors sue of leadership, the King III Report requires the board of directors to provide effective The King III Report differentiates between leadership based on an ethical foundation executive and non-executive directors. (Cassim et al 2012). Ethics or integrity is the An executive director is involved with the foundation of and very reason for corpo- day-to-day management of the company rate governance. An ethical corporate or government departments. He or she is culture constitutes more than social philan- in the full-time salaried employment of the thropy or charitable donations (Nevondwe government and is generally under a con- 2012). The reasoning behind the ethics of tract of service with the government wheth- corporate governance, which requires the er national, provincial or local. Whereas a board of directors to ensure that the gov- non-executive director, on the other hand, ernment institutions and department is run is a part-time director. He or she is not in- ethically, is that, as this is achieved, the na- volved in the management of government tional government earns the respect and institutions and organisations, but plays an approval of those affected by and affect- important role in providing objective judging its operations. ment, independent of management, on issues that are faced facing. Generally, The South African government i.e. the na- non-executive directors contribute to the tional, provincial and local government development of management strategies should conduct its business in an ethical and monitor the activities of the executive manner. The board should set the values directors. on the departments and ensure the formulation thereof in a code of conduct. Nev- In Fisheries Development Corporation of SA ondwe points out that the board should Ltd v Jorgenses and Fisheries Development ensure that the company’s ethics are man- Corporation of SA Ltd v AWJ Investment aged effectively (Nevondwe 2012). This (2002), the court stated that non-executive

300 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 directors are not bound to give continuous be seen as the vocal point of any govern- attention to the affairs of the company. ment poor service delivery elimination, and Their duties are of an intermittent nature, to the Code as part of its recommendations be performed at periodical board meet- lists the duties and responsibilities of the ings and at any other meetings that may board of directors from a government insti- require their attention. Non-executive di- tutions point of view rectors are expected to attend board and 3.3 Audit committee relevant board committee meetings and to acquire and maintain a broad knowl- An independent audit committee fulfils a edge of the economic environment, indus- vital role in the South African government. try and business of the company. The role The audit committee is a critical compo- of non-executive directors and the inde- nent in ensuring the integrity of integrated pendence that they are believed to bring reporting and financial controls, the proper to the board of directors has been a consis- identification and management of -finan tent theme of corporate governance theo- cial risks and the integrity of the reporting ries, policies and programmes (Nevondwe practices (King III Report 2009). The Report 2012). points out that at each AGM, the shareholders of a public company, state-owned Nevondwe (2012) also states that an inde- company or any other company that has pendent non-executive director is a direc- an audit committee must elect an audit tor who is required to be independent in committee. The nomination committee character and judgment. There should be (where there is one) should present share- no relationships or circumstances that are holders with suitable candidates for elec- likely to affect, or could appear to affect, tion as audit committee members. The audit their independence. In this context, ‘inde- committee should meet to perform its func- pendence’ means the absence of undue tions, but it is usually recommended that influence and bias that could be affected the audit committee meets twice a year. by the intensity of the relationship between The committee should also meet with the the director and the company, rather than internal and external auditors at least once any particular fact such as length of ser- in a year without the management being vice or age. Not only should the director be present. Nevondwe (2012) further provides independent in fact, but he or she should that the audit committee should comprise also appear to be independent in the per- at least three members who should be suit- ception of a reasonably informed outsider. ably skilled and experienced independent The board of directors is the most important nonexecutive directors. Section 94(4) of the governance structure, as it is ultimately re- Act prescribes further requirements to qual- sponsible for the performance and affairs ify as a member of the audit committee. A of the government in South Africa. Sever- member of the audit committee must be al investigations after recent corporate director of the company who satisfies any collapses and municipal failures pointed minimum qualification requirements set out towards a lack of effective accountability by the Minister of Trade and Industry as be- within the South African spheres of governing necessary to ensure that the committee ment. The board of directors can therefore

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 301 comprises persons with adequate relevant of increased uncertainty or any adverse knowledge and experience to equip the changes in the business environment (Cas- committee to perform its functions. From sim et al. 2013). It is recommended that the the above it can be noted that the audit board’s responsibility for risk governance committee is currently viewed as one of be expressed in the board charter. In ad- the most important governance structure dition, the board’s responsibility for risk gov- within the modern South Africa. Nevondwe ernance should manifest in a documented (2012) attests that the Companies Act also risk management policy and plan, which regulates the appointment, role and com- should be widely distributed throughout position for all public companies and state- the company and reviewed by the board owned entities while on the other hand the at least once a year. The board should also King Code furthermore stipulates that the comment in its integrated report on the ef- board should ensure that the company has fectiveness of the system and process of an effective and independent audit com- risk management (Nevondwe 2012). mittee

The Report furthermore states that the au- 3.5 THE GOVERNANCE OF INFORMATION dit committee should review arrangements TECHNOLOGY (IT) made by the company/government to enable employees and outside whistle-blow- The governance of IT is dealt with for the ers (including customers and suppliers) to first time in the King III Report. As acknowl- report in confidence concerns about pos- edged by the King III Report, IT has become sible improprieties in matters of financial re- an integral part of doing business and is porting, or compliance with laws and reg- fundamental to support, sustain and grow ulations, that may have a direct or indirect the business. The King III Report states that effect on financial reporting. IT governance is not an isolated discipline, but an integral part of overall corporate governance (Nevondwe 2012). Informa- 3.4. THE GOVERNANCE OF RISK tion technology governance can be considered as a framework that supports the The King III Report requires that the board effective and efficient management of IT of directors be responsible for the gover- resources to facilitate the achievement of nance of risk and determine the levels of a company’s strategic objectives. The IT risk tolerance that the company is able to governance framework should include the bear in the pursuit of its objectives. Risk is relevant structures, processes and mech- defined as the taking of risk for reward. The anisms to enable IT to deliver value to the board of directors should determine the business and to mitigate IT risks. It should fo- levels of risk tolerance at least once a year. cus on the governance of the information It should review these limits during periods as well as the governance of technology (Nevondwe 2012).

Nevondwe (2012) states that the King III Re- port requires the board of directors to be

302 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 responsible for IT governance. The board 3.6 COMPLIANCE WITH LAWS, RULES, CODES may appoint an IT steering committee or AND STANDARDS similar forum to assist with its governance of The King III Report requires the board of IT. It is recommended that the Chief Execu- directors to ensure that the company tive Officer (CEO) appoints a Chief Informa- complies with all applicable and relevant tion Officer (CIO) to be responsible for the laws and that it considers adherence to management of IT. There is an increased non-binding rules, codes and standards. A risk to organisations that embrace IT and its compliance culture should be encouraged directors should ensure that the reasonable through leadership, establishing the appro- steps have been taken to govern IT. priate structures, education and training, The board should monitor and evaluate sig- communication and the measurement of nificant IT investment and expenditure. The key performance indicators relevant to board should specifically focus on value for compliance. The board has a duty to take money, return on investment and the pro- necessary steps to ensure the identification tection of intellectual property and also the of laws, rules, codes and standards that assurance on IT internal controls should also apply to the company. Details must be dis- include outsourced services (Nevondwe closed by the board in its integral report on 2012). how it has discharged its responsibility to establish an effective compliance framework IT should form an integral part of the com- and process. pany’s risk management: Management should regularly demonstrate to the board The King III Report goes as far as to require that sufficient disaster recovery procedures the board and each individual director to are in place and that the board should also have a working understanding of the ef- ensure that the company complies with all fect of the applicable laws, rules, codes IT-related laws and regulations (Nevondwe and standards on the company and its 2012). Nevondwe (2012) further provides business. Directors should sufficiently famil- that it is therefore held that a risk commit- iarise themselves with the general content tee and audit committee should assist the of applicable laws, rules, codes and stan- board in carrying out its IT responsibilities. dards to be able to adequately discharge The risk committee should ensure that IT their fiduciary duties and their duty of care, risks are adequately addressed and assur- skill and diligence in the best interest of the ance should be obtained regarding con- company. trols in place. It is further recommended 3.7 INTERNAL AUDIT that IT should be considered by the audit committee in relation to financial reporting The Institute of Internal Auditors defines in- and going concern, it should also be con- ternal auditing as “an independent, ob- sidered how the use of IT could improve au- jective assurance and consulting activity dit coverage and efficiency. designed to add value and improve an or- ganistaion’s operations. It helps an organisation accomplish its objectives by bringing a systematic, disciplined approach to eval-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 303 uate and improve the effectiveness of risk SHIPS management, control and governance Nevondwe (2012) posits that the King III processes.” From this definition we can con- Report adheres to the ‘triple context’ or include that the internal audit department tegrated approach, which acknowledges of a company can play an integral role as that companies should act with econom- part of an effective corporate governance ic, social, and environmental responsibility. system (Thornhill & Cloete 2013). Directors should consider economic, so- The King III Report requires the board of cial and environmental factors when they directors to ensure that there is an effec- manage the company. tive risk-based internal audit. An internal Thus the Report advocates the notion that audit should evaluate business processes, the board of directors is responsible not perform an objective assessment of the ef- merely for the company’s financial bot- fectiveness of risk management and the tom-line, but rather for the company’s per- internal control framework, systematically formance within the triple context in which analyse and evaluate business process- it operates (‘triple bottom-line’) (Nevondwe es and associated controls, and provide 2012). Nevondwe (2012) is of the view that a source of information, as appropriate, Companies in South Africa are encour- regarding instances of fraud, corruption, aged to adopt the inclusive approach to unethical behaviour and irregularities. An governance based on which companies internal audit plays an important role in are required to act in the best interest of all providing assurance to the board regard- stakeholders. This section of the code pro- ing the effectiveness of the system of inter- vides guidance regarding the governance nal controls and risk management of the of stakeholder relationships. company (Cassim et al. 2013). Internal audit should provide a written assessment of One implication of the right to vote being the effectiveness of the company’s system a right of property is that shareholders may of internal controls and risk management: choose not to exercise their right to vote at the internal audit should form and integrat- all. But if shareholders are passive, it under- ed part of the combined assurance model mines good levels of compliance by man- as the internal provider of assurance. The agement (Nevondwe 2012). internal audit should also focus on operational, compliance and sustainability issues, Nevondwe (2012) further state that to en- and not only on financial matters. It is also courage shareholders activism, an environ- provide that the internal audit should pro- ment should be created where sharehold- vide a written assessment of the system on ers are not mere speculators, but owners internal control and risk management to concerned with the well-being of the com- the board. Furthermore the internal audit pany in which they hold shares, constantly should provide a written assessment of in- checking whether the directors are prac- ternal financial controls to the audit com- ticing good corporate governance. mittee (Thornhill & Cloete 2013). 3.9 INTEGRATED REPORTING AND DISCLOSURE

3.8 GOVERNING STAKEHOLDER RELATION- Sustainability reporting has been the subject

304 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 of the king II report. Sustainability report- stakeholder to make an informed assessing can be defined as reporting on those ment of the company’s economic value financial and non-financial matters that (Marx et al 2011). The board should ensure influence the company’s ability to survive that positive and negative impacts of the and prosper and sustain its business future. company’s operations, together with plans Where financial reporting tends to provide to improve the positives and eradicate or an historic account, sustainability reporting ameliorate the negatives in the financial and disclosures provide a balanced and year ahead are conveyed in the integrat- integrated record of the economic, social ed report (Nevondwe 2012). and environmental performance of the company. This now generally referred to as “triple bottom line” reporting. The econom- 4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ic aspect of “triple bottom line” involves the financial aspects relevant to the business of In conclusion, it is evident that the Principles the company, whilst the social aspect fo- of Corporate Governance is the best way cuses on the values of the company, ethics, of building an effective and accountable and reporting on the company’s engage- nation away from corruption activities and ment with stakeholders. The environmental maladministration’s in government institu- aspects include reporting on the effect of tions, provincial departments and munici- the company’s products or services on the palities. The purpose of the King Report 1994 environment (Marx et al 2011). was, and remains, to promote the highest standards of corporate governance in The king III Report on Corporate Gover- South Africa. This means that even the mu- nance advocates the publication of an nicipalities cannot be exempted from cor- integrated report dealing with both finan- porate governance as mentioned. The in- cial and non-financial matters in integrated tegrated report should be prepared every manner (Nevondwe 2012). year. Sustainability reporting and disclosure should be integrated with all the provincial The board of directors should ensure the departments and municipality’s financial integrity of the company’s integrated re- reporting. The annual financial statements port. An integrated report means a holistic should be included in the integrated re- and integrated representation of the com- port, and the board should include a company’s performance in terms of both its fi- mentary on the national, provincial and nances and its sustainability. The integrat- municipal financial results to be commented report should be prepared every year ed by the members of the public. It is there- (Marx et al 2011). Sustainability reporting fore provided that this commentary should and disclosure should be integrated with include information to enable a stakehold- the company’s financial reporting. The an- er to make an informed assessment of the nual financial statements should be includ- economic value in the country. The board ed in the integrated report, and the board should ensure that positive and negative should include a commentary on the company’s financial results. This commentary should include information to enable a

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 305 impacts of the South African government in the King III Report which provides that an operations, together with plans to improve executive director is involved with the day- the positives and eradicate or ameliorate to-day management of the company and the negatives in the financial year ahead he or she is therefore in the full-time sala- are conveyed in the integrated report. ried employment of the company; and is generally under a contract of service with This means that for the provincial govern- the company. A non-executive director, ments and municipalities to perform their on the other hand, is a part-time director, duties effectively, government must do who is not involved in the management of away with hiring the politicians who do not the company, but plays an important role have skills or excellent educational back- in providing objective judgment, indepen- ground in order to promote and enforce dent of management, on issues facing the all the principles of corporate governance. company. Generally, non-executive di- For it is through all this politicians that are rectors contribute to the development of being employed in the municipalities that management strategies and monitor the we see municipalities being hid with irreg- activities of the executive directors. ularities and protests due to poor service deliveries. Politicians are not performing The Constitution of the Republic of South their functions in so far as the municipality is Africa recognises the importance of good concerned but they are there to promote governance. Section 195 deals with ba- and safe guard the interest of their political sic values and principles governing public parties. administration. Our Constitution compels government in all of its forms, both through Looking at the definition of corporate gov- government departments and organs of ernance we could conclude that local state (including state-owned enterprises) to government is also covered in the defi- adhere to principles of good governance. nition, it is not only about the companies. Therefore there is no doubt that corporate Corporate governance is generally under- governance is a key element in improving stood to mean the way in which compa- the South African service deliveries to all nies are directed and controlled. Thus, the the members of the society and eradicat- emphasis is on those organs which play a ing corruption from its roots, It will also pro- vital role in corporative decision-making. It moted economic efficiency and growth is widely accepted that corporate gover- as well as enhancing investor confidence. nance does not affect or apply exclusively This will be achieved only if there is consis- to listed companies, as some writers insist. In tency in applying the above mentioned order to simplify matters, a distinction needs principles. These principles will be the yard- to be drawn between corporate gover- stick of pointing to the right direction as to nance applicable to all companies and who should be held accountable for all corporate governance applicable to ‘af- poor service deliveries as it will ensure that fected companies’ as defined by the King functions are assigned to rightful spheres of Committee on Corporate Governance. government and its employees in order to Municipalities and provinces need an ef- eliminate service delivery protest. fective board of directors as provided for

306 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Leora F, Klapper, and Love, Inessa. 2002. Corporate governance, investor protec- LIST OF REFERENCES tion, and performance in emerging mar- Atkinson D .2002. Local Government, Lo- kets. World Bank Policy Research Working cal Governance and Sustainable Develop- Paper. ment: Getting the parameters right’. HSRC Maharaj N. 2012. Governance and Service Publishers: Cape Town. delivery: A case study of sanitation in Inan- Claessens S & Laeven L (2002) ‘Financial da Durban. development, property rights and growth’ Mokale T, Scheepers T. 2011. A practical Journal of Finance. guide to achieving excellence in Municipal Cassim FHI, Cassim MF, Cassim R, Jooste R, Governance in South Africa’. Proverto edu- Shev J, and Yeats J. 2013. Contemporary cational Publishers: Helderkruin. Company Law’. Juta Publishers: Cape Mongalo T. Corporate Law & Corporate Town. Governance. 2003. New Africa Books (Pty) Donald J Johnston D J .2003.White Paper Ltd: Claremount. on Corporate Governance in Russia. Mkhabele C J M M. 2014. A legal analysis of Doreen Atkinson, Local government, Local the application of corporate governance Governance and Sustainable Develop- principles in Musina Local municuipality’ ment. .2002. The Human Sciences Research unpublishedmini dissertation completed at Council Publishers: Cape Town. the University of Limpopo. University of Lim- popo: Sovenga Elgar E ‘International Corporate Gover- nance A Case Study Approach’ Edward Mphasane M E .2012. ‘The role of inter- Elgar Publishing, Inc.: William Pratt House governmental Relations in promoting De- USA. velopmental Local government: The case of Sedibeng District Municipality’ unpub- Energy Office – eThekwini municipality lishedmini dissertation completed at Vaal .2013. The sustainable energy hub. Litera- Triangle Campus of North-West University: ture Review for Legal Framework for Munic- Vaal Triangle ipal Engagement with Embedded Electric- ity Generators’. Nevondwe L .2012. Corporate governance principles: lessons to be learnt. The Thinker Goba T .2014. An appraisal of the link be- Political Journal. 44 tween transformation and Good Gover- nance at Sedibeng district Municipality’ Nevondwe L, Odeku K O & Clarence I. mini dissertation completed at Vaal Trian- Tshoose. 2014. Promoting the Application gle Campus of North-West University: Vaal of Corporate Governance in the South Afri- Triangle can Public Sector’.

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Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 307 ration (LTD) v Mpofu (2009) 4 ALL SA 169. toria (GSJ)’ unpublishedmini dissertation com- Van der Walt G, Annelise venter, Van der pleted at the Universty of Limpopo. Univer- Walt C, Phutiagae K, Khalo T, Ven Niekerk sity of Limpopo: Sovenga D, Nealer E .2007. ‘Municipal management Siswana B .2007. Leadership and gover- serving the people. Juta Publishers: Cape nance in South African Public Service: An Town. overview of the public finance management system’ thesis completed at the Uni- versity of Pretoria. University of Pretoria: Pre-

308 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 SPATIAL RE-ORGANISATION THROUGH LAND REFORM: METHODOLOGICAL DIMENSION OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT

KM Mulaudzi ,KK Molapo and MS Maake

University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

The Post-Apartheid government inherited South Africa which characterized by extreme racial imbalances epitomized through social relations of land and spatial distortions. Non- white South Africans were (are) victims of the legacy of the Group Areas Act of 1984 that had forcibly displaced “inferior” masses to homelands and non-productive remote areas. It was, therefore, a priority for the incoming democratic government to re-design land reform policies targeted at reversing these colonially fueled spatial distortions. Land was instrumental in energizing peasant participation in liberation struggle and the material expression of liberation was (is) land. South Africa’s overall Land Reform programme constituted by three key elements and namely are; land redistribution, tenure reform and land restitution. Man- ifold proponents and researchers have denounced and embraced land reform ideology concomitantly. The criticism overlapped towards both beneficiaries and the state due to factors such as poor post-settlement support, lack of skills, lack of capital and equipment and the infighting over land claims and land management. Conversely, land reform has been applauded for widening rural livelihood choices, enhancing rural poverty alleviation, redressing racial imbalances and spurring self-reliance on food production. This is a conceptual paper which seeks to partake in Land Reform discourse by arguing that, the primacy and success of land reform policy in rural development is determined by how the programme is interpreted by the intended beneficiaries and how it conforms and improves their livelihoods, ambitions and goals. In addition, the paper reveals nascent abate of land reform effectuated by multi-facets such as social perceptions of land in South Africa. There- fore, the argument of this paper thrives to exhaustively prove that land reform programme as ideological dimension of rural development needs to secure support from both state and intended beneficiaries in order to give credence to its guiding policies.

Key Concepts: Land Reform, Rural Development, Land Policy 1. INTRODUCTION terns (Mathin & Lorenzen, 2016). Non-white citizens were (are) still victims of the legacy The South African Post-Apartheid govern- of colonial and apartheid policies that had ment inherited a country characterized forcibly displaced “inferior” masses of indig- by extreme racial imbalances which man- enous African people to reserves consisting ifest(ed) in land ownership and spatial pat-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 309 largely of barren land or arid areas with spite wide spread buzzing advocacy from poor rainfall patterns while fertile land was academic circles and opposition political allocated to white farmers for commer- parties (EFF) and Black Economic Empow- cial agriculture. 80% of the population was erment (BEE) proponents. Pro-Land Reform confined to 13% of the land while less than protagonists account for vivid signs of spa- 20% owned close to 90% of the land (Hart, tial injustice, inefficiency and unsustainabil- 2012). A few black people who afforded ity in, especially rural settlements inherited land were prohibited from buying in areas and, seemingly upheld by the Post-Apart- outside the reserves. This apportionment heid government. of land remained until the end of apart- With over 70% of the national population heid in early 1990s and remains virtually dwelling in rural settings, the facilitation unchanged. There might have been other and enforcement of land use and devel- minor causes for the Bantu-European wars, opment measures aimed at igniting rural but land was a fundamental issue (Logan, development through an agrarian econo- 2012). As such, the instrumentality of land in my is imperative (Hart, 2012; Statistics South energizing peasant participation in the lib- Africa (StatsSA) 2013).This paper joins the eration struggle and its status as a material Land Reform discourse by theoretically ar- expression of freedom understandably en- guing that Land Reform is one of the main gendered public anticipation of land lord- ideological dimensions of rural develop- ship at the advent of democracy, espe- ment. The discussion unfolds with succinct cially in rural South Africa (Sibanda, 2014). background of Land Reform in South Afri- It was, therefore, a priority for the incoming ca. democratic government to re-design colonially distorted spatial patterns through 2. THE SOUTH AFRICAN LAND REFORM Land Reform as an ideological dimension of rural development. South Africa’s overall Land Reform programme has three primary objectives, first- Whilst the legacy of historical spatial dis- ly, to return land to those unfairly dispos- tortions remains visible and manifest in the sessed as from 19 June 1913 (effect date concentration of indigent rural households of the Native Land Act of 1913), second- in remote and unproductive former home- ly to reverse extreme racial imbalances in lands, the economy’s stability has since landholding especially in rural agricultural been attributed to the constancy of the land and finally to alleviate poverty in rural national agrarian economy. Consequently, areas (Department of Land Affairs, 2013). the land issue remains simultaneously cen- To facilitate this transference of productive tral and marginal in South African spatial land, the programme has since employed policy frameworks. The latest piece of land land restitution to restore land rights to legislature, the Spatial Planning and Land those who were dispossessed of them un- Use Management Act, (SPLUMA) is testimo- der discriminatory laws, land redistribution ny to the recurrent marginalization of the to make land more accessible to those land issue by the Ministry of Rural Devel- who had previously been denied access opment and Land Reform (government). and tenure reform to give security of tenure The downgrading of the land issue is de- to labour tenants, farm workers and other

310 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 rural dwellers who lived on land without se- aims to assist the poor, labour tenants, farm cure rights. workers, women, as well as emergent farmers.” These principle goals of land redistri- 2.1. Land restitution bution led to constitutional declaration The constitution provides for the Restitution that, “the state must take reasonable leg- of Land Rights Act which entitles a person islative and other measures, within its avail- or a community dispossessed of rights in able resources to foster conditions which land or a descendant of a person or a de- enable citizens to gain access to land on ceased estate of a person dispossessed of an equitable basis” (section 25(5)). Howev- rights in land, after 19 June 1913, as a reer, the instrument for an enabling acquisi- sult of racially discriminatory laws or prac- tion law vanished with the expiry of Land tices, to claim restoration of those rights or Reform (Labour Tenants) Act in March equitable relief such as alternative land or 2001. Relative success of this redistribution compensation. Whilst the Commission for mechanism has been largely ascribed to its Restitution of Land Rights (CRLR) has set- ability to allow tenants to access and own tled substantial number of households, the land they resided on before forced dis- Land Claims Commission has encountered placements by using state funds to make anticipated and yet regressive challenges. purchases. Rural development advocates It was not unprecedented of challenges have since pin-pointed the provident en- such as verification, valuation, and cal- durance of state funding schemes such culation of compensation for claimants as The Settlement/Land Acquisition Grant and land owners to be a toll order for the (SLAG) farm equity schemes; municipal Commission during the restitution process commonage grants and more recently (Rugege, 2004). High levels of rural pover- the Land Redistribution for Agricultural De- ty were capitalized by many white farmers velopment programme (LRAD) as rays of who enticed rural claimants with monetary hope in lifting rural development boards. compensation rather than the broader ob- The above mentioned programs are likely jectives of restitution, thus the transforma- to be backed up by, perhaps, the resur- tion of land ownership and the building of gence of enabling redistribution legisla- livelihoods for, especially, the rural poor. tions spearheaded by Minister’s power to This continual imbalance in the distribution expropriate land for redistribution subject of land ownership calls for holistic and con- to compensating the owner. text-specific strategic land redistribution 2.3. Land tenure reform especially in rural settings where illiteracy, poverty and vulnerability pave way for ex- Section 25 (6) of the Land Tenure Act as- ploitation and partiality of initiatives. serts that “a person or community whose tenure of land is legally insecure as a result 2.2. Land redistribution of past racially discriminatory laws or prac- According to the White Paper, the purpose tices is entitled to the extent provided by an of land redistribution is: “to provide the Act of Parliament, either to tenure which is poor with access to land for residential and legally secure or to comparable redress.” productive uses, in order to improve their The legislative provision was targeted at se- income and quality of life. The programme curing land ownership of, especially, farm Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 311 workers, former farm workers, sharecrop- Productive rural agrarian-oriented econo- pers and labour tenants who had been vic- my requires re-distribution of land through timized by the notorious Prevention of the a gradual rather than drastic and random Illegal Squatting Act 52 of 1951 and lived expropriation. An eventual pragmatization on land legally owned by others. In rural set of the land issue has been a simultaneous- ups, customary law was (is) the most com- ly central and marginal process hugely ra- mon ticket of land ownership which is, of cialized, politicized and all in all sensitive. course manipulatable by corrupt chiefs. Continual holdbacks on land redistribution Despite the efforts by Land Reform (Labour implies the South African citizenry, espe- Tenants) Act (LTA) and the Extension of Se- cially rural dwellers, remain deprived of curity of Tenure Act (ESTA) to offer land ten- constitutional land rights, local economic ure security to labour tenants and gener- development instrument for growth and ational beneficiaries of tenant-settler land employment and rural development its use make shift arrangement, intimidation only hope of attaining food security. and forced eviction continue especially on Food security, as major strategy of rural de- commercial farms (Senadza, 2014). velopment, requires adequate agricultural 3. IMPACT OF LAND REFORM ON RURAL DE- land for improved food productivity (Hart, VELOPMENT 2012). Therefore, land reform that gives rural households access to agricultural land Rural areas are deeply marked by extreme are key to food security and subsequently poverty, rampant exodus of rural surplus rural development. In GaMothapo Village labour force into already congested cit- in the Limpopo Province, residents were ies and informal business entities, a trend beneficiaries of pieces of land divided which has since been ascribed to dysfunc- amongst them off a farm previously owned tional rural economies. Instead of the ide- by a white organization. These acres of fer- alism of an overnight urbanization, industri- tile land were used for intensive small-scale alization and emergence of an economic crop farming by the villagers and the ensu- boom in passive rural set-ups, Rural Devel- ing benefits were clear to see. Households opment strategies such as Land Reform could produce food for consumption and should, perhaps consider the common ex- for sale for income which they would use trinsic attachment rural dwellers have with for other non-farm needs and investments. agrarian livelihoods as exploitable social Researchers also found that beneficiaries capital for rural development. However, who were employed elsewhere and had both in academic and public domains, the no time to farm started using them as as- land issue ensues quick reference to the serts for capital accumulation by renting Post-Chimurenga land grabs and the con- them out to other households. One might sequent economic downfall that charac- notice the primacy of making productive terized the Zimbabwean Land Reform Pro- land available to villagers through peas- gramme at the beginning of the millennium ant-oriented approach as strategic instru- (Sibanda, 2014). Indeed, land reform after ment for rural development. its worst execution turned the ‘bread bas- ket of Africa’ into a ‘bread case of Africa.’ Through land redistribution projects in var-

312 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ious villages countrywide, farms consisting less especially in rural areas where there is of hectares of agricultural land previously little or no capital to secure tenure through owned by a single white household were the ‘willing seller willing buyer’ market sys- transferred through ‘willing seller, willing buy- tem. Despite functionality of the SLAG, the er’ principle to previously disadvantaged system has been criticized for subsequently groups, particularly black households, most creating socio-economic classes shaped of whom had never owned land(Brooks & by land ownership Gumede, 2014). There Kjelstrup, 2014). Researchers found that for has been debates about whether more these households, obtaining land was seen priority should be given to the agricultural as asset in at least three ways. Firstly, bene- efficiency that comes with the market-led ficiaries were now farming on the land and land reform or a state-led approach that produce commercial crops which were puts peasants as primary beneficiaries as sold locally or to hawkers. Secondly, for aspiring small-scale farmers. Considerable some it provided an asset which they could land proponents have concluded that use to further increase household assets by main objectives of land reform revolves rearing livestock. Thirdly, land was consid- around poverty alleviation, racial rebal- ered an investment and families could de- ancing and equity, as such state-led land cide to sell the land, retain it as an asset or reform approach which prioritizes peasants use it for collateral (Hart, 2012). It is against have to be embarked in order to enhance such background that the instrumentality of rural development (Brooks & Kjelstrup, land reform as an ideological dimension of 2014; Lahiff, 2014). However, the literature rural development cannot be undermined, has depicted that land reform initiative has regardless of the shortfalls associated with been undeniably slow and rural develop- the programme. ment proponents’ points out various reason to the cause thereof (Gumede, 2014; La- 4. SHORTFALLS OF LAND REFORM AND THEIR hiff, 2014). The determination upon the slow ATTRIBUTES pace of land reform has been as a con- Since her transition to democracy in sequent of the failure to reach the set tar- 1994, South Africa has adopted a strong- get of 30 %. Ntsebeza (2007) have avowed ly pro-market approach to land reform, that the slow pace of land reform is as a influenced by conservative forces within consequent of inability to implement re- the country and international backing for lated policies which include Large Scale market-assisted agrarian reform. The spirit Commercial Farming model. Furthermore, of post-Apartheid reconciliation and a free the literature has revealed that insufficient market economy gave credence to Land budget towards land reform could be seen Reform through ‘willing seller willing buy- as a consequent to the unsuccessfulness er’ approach (Aliber & Cousins, 2013). The of land reform program (Anseeuw, 2005). strategy was targeted at rebalancing land Land reform, however, has failed to meet ownership through redistribution, restitu- key objectives embodied in the Constitu- tion and tenure reform. However, the mar- tion, because less than 10 percent of the ket-led approach to land reform has since land has been redistributed since 1994 (Um- been criticized for discriminating the land- hlaba Wethu, 2011), and those who have regained land rights as part of the land Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 313 claims or redistribution processes have not ingredient in the essential recipe for rural been able to translate these into meaning- development, particularly to people who ful livelihoods (Hall, 2007). practice livelihood diversification largely because is also invariably framed in terms Furthermore, it has been observed that in of small-holder production (Riggs, 2006). order for land reform to reap desired re- Concomitantly, problems derive when sults there is need for area specific poli- there is no understanding of rural people’s cies that suit the specific context in terms land use plans and multiple livelihood strat- of livelihoods, cultural and environmental egies that are practiced on land (Kepe factors (Sibanda, 2014). Meanwhile, reform and Tessaro, 2014). To some extent, land experiences in South Africa show notice- issues are at the heart of rural people be- able signs of misalignment of policies and cause they are the most ones who prac- peasantry ambitions and conditions (Lahiff, tice vast livelihoods strategies. Livelihoods 2014). For example, the Land Restitution and land use are divergent manifestations Programme (LRP) model of Limpopo Prov- of power relationships that are both pro- ince is testimony that land reform should ductive in improving the standard of living be framed around locally contextualized for rural dwellers (McCusker & Carr, 2006). narratives, which should then provide gen- Numerous rural development strategies eral insights for national plan. However have been unsuccessful, and some never there have been calls for re-orientation of even reaching the implementation stage the LRP Model towards formulation of land due to the issues of land (Kepe, 2001; Ntsho- restitution policies from local land con- na, Kraai, Kepe & Saliwa, 2010). Develop- ceptualization rather from modernist (mar- ment strategies involves livelihood, where it ket-led) mega-narratives (Cochrane 2006). becomes a problem when the process of The study infers that land reform policy has land reform are slow and not been given a to shift from a ‘national template’ or Blue- “bird and worm eyes” view. However, rural Print approach towards locality and the livelihoods rely on land and if land is not ac- user-oriented planning approach. This will cessible then the survival of rural dwellers is go a long way in aligning land reform and compromised. specific rural livelihood activities, goals and objectives (Gumede, 2014).

5. LAND EXPROPRIATION AND LIVELIHOOD 6. WAY FORWARD FOR THE LAND ISSUE IN CHOICES IN RURAL SETTINGS SOUTH AFRICA

The conceptual frameworks have clear- Even 20 years into democracy, South Afri- ly ascertained that rural livelihood strate- can government has been exposed to its gies heavily depend upon land and thus, salient inability to activate the long over- land becomes an indispensable natural due land reform programme (Brooks & Kjel- resource for rural people. Recent studies strup, 2014). The process of implementing have demonstrated land and other natu- this programme has always been conun- ral resources play a significant role in live- drum to the ruling government and South lihoods of rural dwellers (Aliber & Cousins, Africa chiefly as a consequent of vague 2013). Land is perceived to be the core implementation strategy thereof. Land re-

314 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 form has been identified through concep- ries considering the strategy of local devel- tual framework that focuses on broad and opmental state. Land is perceived to be holistic approach to rural development the core ingredient in the essential recipe (Lahiff, 2014)). Thus, area-specific land - re for rural development, particularly to peo- formed has been deemed to be optimum ple who practice land-based livelihoods approach to a successful land reform. Con- (Riggs, 2006). However, human capital spicuously, this regard to an area-specific (education, skills training) has been ascer- land reform which has potential to grant tained through literature as optimum for municipality’s authentication towards par- consideration within rural development ticipation in development programmes in specifically for land reform in order to en- other spheres of government which entail sure that redistributed land yields effec- provincial and national government. Ac- tive benefits and poverty reduction (Riggs, complishing local developmental state 2006; Senadza, 2014). encapsulate the process of affirming and From one point view, education and skills granting local people in particular the au- training are believed to be catalytic in thority and power to manage their own bringing about transformation in to lives of development. In the same sentiment, rural the people particularly previously deprived development as an ideological dimension communities (Senadza, 2014). According- should be in a more bottom-up approach ly, agro-studies require the design of area to development (Hart, 2007). specific curriculums for prospective farmers In respect of the status quo of land reform in rural setups. Furthermore, lack of physi- within rural development in South Africa, cal resources has also been viewed to be impediments of land reform have been a major compounding factor in the fail- the centralisation approach to redistribu- ure of land reform (Rigg, 2006). Clearly, it tion of land or blue-print model for decision can be recommended that democratic making (Aliber & Cousins, 2013). Conse- government should consider holistic appli- quently, the 30% target for land reform has cation of state-led green revolution in an continued to be cumbersome within dem- attempt to provide catalytic technolog- ocratic dispensation. Reciprocally, bottom ical, financial and non-financial support up approach to policy design should be to emerging farmers as a consequent of the focal point in achieving land reform re-oriented land reform (Marthin & Loren- thenceforth (Aliber & Cousins, 2013). Clear- zen, 2016). Originally, green revolution has ly, rural development could pay immense been reprimanded for manifold reasons attention upon the beneficiary oriented which include its instinctive character of policy as a transformational component to being de lux and expensive hence favours land reform. Undoubtedly, the bottom-up affluent farmers while ignoring the emerg- approach in rural development planning ing poor farmers. It is therefore suggested create conducive environment for proper that rural development should ensure that planning which is associated with success- green revolution is led by the government ful implementation of the policy (Lahiff, hence providing those who cannot afford 2014). Generally, policy needs be aligned with necessary agricultural equipment. It with the ambitions of intended beneficia- is further recommended that there should

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 315 be a redress in the imbalances of the past ed beneficiaries in solving spatial dispari- as well as to ensure that there is equity in ty brought by legacy of segregation and application of spatial development plan- apartheid. The major goal of the reform is ning and land use management systems to return land or offer alternative redress to (Marthin & Lorenzen, 2016). people who unfairly lost their land, make land available for productive and residen- The democratic government has set prom- tial purpose to the landless, and provide se- ises to be accomplished in relation to solv- cure land tenure rights where they did not ing the inequalities brought by colonial exist (Kepe and Tessaro, 2014). Land reform, settlers. These promises were meant to be however, has failed to meet key objectives achieved through land reform hence there embodied in the Constitution, because less is a near-consensus that the program has than 10 percent of the land has been re- been undeniably slow (Senadza, 2014). distributed since 1994 (Umhlaba Wethu, According to (Anseeuw, 2000), the spatial 2011), and those who have regained land segregation measures have engendered rights as part of the land claims or redistri- extreme inequalities concerning land distribution processes have not been able to bution. Furthermore, those measures, com- translate these into meaningful livelihoods bined with the limitations of commercial (Hall, 2007). Practicing livelihoods especial- farm activities for black populations, have ly agricultural ones has still been deemed also led to important inequalities between intricate by rural dwellers due to the histor- white and black farmers (Anseeuw, 2000). ical spatial arrangement and the failure It is therefore important for development of a democratic government to come up programmes to be implemented in a form with swift rural development strategy to ac- ‘that land can be re-orientated in order to celerate land reform program. redress the injustices of forced deportations and denial of access to land. After 1994, ANC mandate was to find solution to the Pithily, after three years into power, con- over population of certain rural areas of comitants of ANC and Department of the former reserves and Bantustans, to pro- Land Affairs (1997) have identified three mote access to residential and farmland, main programmes which are enshrined and to revitalize the non-white agricultural within the government’s constitution re- sector and rural areas. garding land and agricultural reforms: land restitution, redistribution and tenure reform. However, it is believed that if these three South African government strive to ensure main programmes are achieved, there- rightful indigenous beneficiaries procure fore re-orientation of land will be accom- assets which primarily belongs them (La- plished and therefore, rural people will be hiff, 2007). Section 25 of the Constitution of more productive through land-based live- South Africa addresses land reform, and it lihoods. Succinctly, it can be recommend- addresses existing property rights as well. ed that the South African government has As presented recently, through its three to come up with realistic approaches to- components (restitution, redistribution and wards achieving land reform. In addition, tenure reform), land reform was aimed focus on implementation of the policies at reversing skewed land to the intend-

316 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 rather than planning as well as providing intended beneficiaries and how it - con sufficient budget in order to facilitate the forms and improves their livelihoods, am- reform through fostering Land Redistribu- bitions and goals. It was further proposed tion and Agricultural Development Grant that if Land Reform is to become an ideo- as a clear symbolic to the embracement logical and effective dimension of rural de- of post-acquisition support. velopment it is imperative to capitalize on intrinsic attachment of rural societies with 6. CONCLUSION land-based and agrarian livelihoods. The paper has partitioned concept of Furthermore, there is a near-consensus that Land Reform into three (3) major compo- South African land reform has been a con- nents (restitution, redistribution and tenure) spicuous failure and this has led to other re- all rooted to the principle objectives of the searchers to extrapolate that human cap- programme: to return land to those unfair- ital (education) should be the focal point ly dispossessed, to reverse extreme racial in the democratic dispensation in conjunc- imbalances in landholding especially in tion with land reform. Experience from land rural agricultural land and finally to allevi- reform programs elsewhere in the develop- ate poverty in rural areas. Land reform has ing world has unambiguously demonstrat- unleashed a process of radical agrarian ed the importance of this type of advice. change, with many rural dwellers enjoying While reforming South Africa’s land market enhanced land-based livelihoods and out- is clearly an important political objective, puts. Whilst the idealism of effective Land substantive point that paper posits for pov- Reform and the subsequent agrarian boom erty reduction is investments that devel- are meant to attain food security, income op poor people’s human capital, thereby generation and sustainable settlements, improving their ability to access the labor progress in the pragmatic execution has market. left a lot to be desired and enabling environment for employment creation particu- LIST OF REFERENCES larly among rural dwellers. Aliber, M and Cousins, B .2013. Livelihoods It is evident that the land issue is simultane- after Land Reform in South Africa. Journal ously central and marginal and has failed of Agrarian Change 13(1): 140–165. to lift the boards. The snail pace of the Anseeuw W. 2000. Between neo-liberalism Land Reform Programme is compounded and post-imperialist land and agrarian re- by a wide range of shortfalls both in the informs: The South African case. International ternal and external environment of policy Journal of Development Issues 4(2):71-93. making. The paper has argued and concluded that the most sustainable source Binswanger, H. and Deininger, K. 1993. of credence for Land Reform policy is the South African land policy: The legacy of alignment of area specific policies with history and current options. World Develop- ambitions and aspirations of the rural ben- ment 21: 1451–75. eficiaries. As such, the success of Land Re- form is, to a great extent, determined by Brooks, S and Kjelstrup, L .2014. An anato- how the programme is interpreted by the my of dispassion: Post-apartheid land rights

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 317 and farm dweller relocation in the context Marthin, S.M. 2016. Livelihood diversifica- of a private game reserve initiative, north- tion in rural Laos. World Development, 83 ern KwaZulu-Natal. Journal of Contempo- (1): 231-243. rary African Studies 32 (2): 238-257. McCusker, B. & Carr, E.R .2006. The co-pro- Cochrane, P. 2006. Exploring cultural cap- duction of livelihoods and land use change: ital and its importance in sustainable de- Case studies from South Africa and Ghana. velopment. Ecological Economics 57 (1): Geoforum, 37:790-804. 318–30. Ntshona, Z., Kraai, M., Kepe, T. & Saliwa, Department of Land Affairs (DLA).1997. P. 2010. From land rights to environmental White Paper on Land Reform. Department entitlements: Community discontent in the of Land Affairs, Pretoria. http://land.pwv. ‘successful’ Dwesa Cwebe land claim in gov.za/legislation_policies/white_papers. South Africa? Development Southern Afri- htm (Accessed 20 April 2014). ca, 27:353-361.

Gumede, G. 2014. Land reform in Kepe, T. & Tessaro, D. 2014. Trading-off: Ru- post-apartheid South Africa: Should South ral food security and land rights in South Af- Africa follow Zimbabwe’s footsteps. Inter- rica. Department of Geography in the Uni- national Journal of African Renaissance versity of Toronto, 36:267-274. Studies 9 (1): 50-68. Riggs, J. 2006. Land, farming, livelihoods Hart, Tim G.B .2012. How rural land reform and poverty: Rethinking the links is the ru- policy translates into benefits. Develop- ral South Africa. World Development, 54(1): ment Southern Africa. 29(4). 180-202.

Ikubolajeh Logan, B. 2012. Towards a reori- Rogan, M. 2013. Alternative definitions entation in land reform: From a market to of headship and the ‘feminisation of in- locality-driven approach in South Africa’s come-poverty in post-apartheid South Afri- land restitution programme. 12(2&3): 173– ca. The Journal of Development Studies, 49 191. (10): 1344-1357.

Jacobs, P. & Makaudze, E. 2012. Under- Sibanda, F. 2014. Beyond the Third standing rural livelihoods in the West Coast- Chimurenga. Theological Reflections on al District, South Africa. Development the Land Reform Programme in Zimbabwe, Southern Africa. 29(4): 574-587. 2000-2010i, 6(8): 55.

Lahiff, E. 2014. Land reform in South Africa Senadza, B. 2014. Income diversification 100 years after the Native’s Land Act. Jour- strategies among rural household in de- nal of Agrarian Change 14 (4) 586–592. veloping countries: Evidence from Ghana.

318 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 African Journal of Economic and Manage- policy translates into benefits. Develop- ment Studies, 5(1): 75-92 ment Southern Africa, 29(4): 563-564.

Stats SA (Statistics South Africa). 2009. Cen- Umhlaba Wethu, 2011. A Bulletin Tracking sus of Commercial Agriculture 2007. Preto- Land Reform in South Africa. PLAAS, Uni- ria: Stats SA. versity of the Western Cape, Cape Town.

Tim GB Hart. 2012. . How rural land reform

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 319 CHALLENGES INHIBITING AFRICA’S SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND RELATIONS

NE Mathebula

University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

The notion of African relations is pivotal and continues to generate debates among policy-makers, civil society and in public administration practice and scholarship throughout in the African continent. These governance-relations debates stem from, among others, challenges of corruption, nationalism, nativism and xenophobia and thus affect the Afri- can countries’ ambitions to catch up with the developed world. It is therefore understandable that in the effort to realise developmental objectives through effective and efficient government operations, the building of a transparent governmental system has not been given adequate attention. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to; through literature review and desktop analysis highlight the African countries relations and its impacts on socio-economic development. This paper argues that the relationships between African countries are still a major challenge that delays both social and economic development of the continent. The challenges are prevalent despite the fact that Africa has treaties, agreements and mechanisms to ensure its cooperation and the upliftment of the continent. The paper concludes by suggesting certain interventions that can be considered in an effort to deal with the challenges confronting the African continent.

Keywords: Africa, Socio-economic development, Relations, Governance 1. INTRODUCTION ly contribute towards the socio-economic development of the continent. Institu- Policy-making processes, civil society, public tions, tools and mechanisms such as the administration practice and science contin- African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM), ue to advance debates on the notion of the the New Partnership for Africa’s Develop- state of African governance and relations. ment (NEPAD), Millennium Development However, these debates rarely focus on the Goals (MDGs) and the African Union (AU) impact governance and relations within the among others exist to ensure African unity, continent forge the fight against societal-ills prosperity, peace-building and socio-eco- such as xenophobia, corruption, and the im- nomic development. The realizations of pacts of nationalism and nativism. This article Africa’s developmental agenda, building attempts to advance the idea that relations a transparent and accountable govern- among African countries can significant-

320 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 mental system, stronger institutions within undertaking of judicial reforms and promot- the continent are required. Human (2003:2) ing socio-economic development (Hope, points out that “only a strong state can 2005). With this being said, governance shape a new society, as only a state with can be understood as bad and good gov- strong institutions can truly revolutionize so- ernance. The concept governance in rela- ciety”. The article highlights the concept tion to African countries is in most instances of governance-relations to Africa’s devel- viewed as bad governance. Good gover- opment and the challenges inhibiting such nance particularly in Africa can be used as relations. The article will further discuss insti- a tool which encourages healthy relations tutions, tools and mechanisms seeking to between African countries with a view of advance socio-economic development. promoting socio-economic development.

2. GOVERNANCE AND AFRICAN RELATIONS The concept of good governance has received increasing attention by the end The concept as contested as governance of the 1980s in Africa. At government, pri- is a challenge to conceptualise. Gover- vate and civil society sectors the concept nance can be understood as the govern- good governance refers to the exercise ment’s ability to make and enforce rules, of authority through political and institu- and delivering services regardless of wheth- tional processes that are transparent and er it is democratic or not. Governance can accountable and encourage public ad- further be defined as the, or what has tra- ministration (United Nations, 2006). It is a ditionally fallen within the domain of pub- condition whereby the responsibility of an lic administration practice and science organisation or country is discharged in an as opposed to politics (Fukuyama, 2013). effective manner that promote sustain- Governance is the exercise of political able development by empowering citizens and administrative authority at all levels to to influence policies that promote growth manage a country’s affairs, mechanisms, and prosperity and reflect their priorities processes and institutions through which (Abed, 2001). Good governance is viewed citizens and groups articulate their inter- as what ought to be done. It can be not- ests, exercise their legal rights, meet their ed that good governance, in all its facets, obligations and mediate their differences has been demonstrated to be positively (Wohlmuth, 1998; Parigi, Geeta & Kailas- correlated with the achievement of bet- am, 2004; Hope, 2005). Given the capacity ter growth rates, particularly through the limitations across African countries as iden- building of institutions in support of markets tified in the NEPAD Framework Document (Hope, 2002). The NEPAD Framework Doc- (2001), the institutional reforms to strength- ument (2001) recognises the significance en political and economic governance in of good governance for achieving sustain- Africa will need to focus on the administra- able development in Africa and sets out tive and civil services, the strengthening of principles pertaining to the strengthening parliamentary oversight, the promotion of of democratic and political governance participatory decision making, the adop- as well as socio-economic and corporate tion of effective measures to combat cor- governance. ruption and embezzlement as well as the

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 321 Socio-economic development is the pro- Despite all this, the commitment shown by cess of social and economic development African leaders to work together in devel- in a society as measured by indicators such oping the continent by consolidating de- as the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), in- mocracy, ensuring good governance and flation and repo rates, life expectancy implementing sustainable socio-economic and levels of infrastructural development development programmes for promoting (Szirmai, 2005). Socio-economic develop- good governance and accountability is ment is a key concept central to resolv- obscured due to economic commitments ing societal challenges such as poverty, with other countries outside the African illiteracy, poor infrastructure among oth- borders (Abdelaziz, Janneh & Mayaki, ers. This is coupled with change in the both 2012). For example, china has since the the business and public domains therefore year 2000 accelerated its investment in Af- embracing economic change. Socio-eco- rica broadly focusing on issues of politics, nomic development may in turn result in trade relations while in turn neglecting the the transformation of social and political strengthening of intercontinental trade institutions in a manner which improves the among African states. To this extent, China capacity of the society to fulfil its aspira- is rapidly becoming an important aid do- tions (Chojnicki, 2010:8). This development nor and investor in Africa and continues to can therefore be attained through the exploit raw materials and to position its self transformation of the functioning of the AU on the international stage. This is captured which is the African continental body for by Kormawa, Roepstorff and Yumkella political-economy renewal. Today the AU is (2011), when stating that “the share in Afri- more people-centered with a wider man- ca’s total experts has decreased in recent date focusing on political and socio-eco- years, while total authorities are dominated nomic integration of the African continent by primary products and mineral resourc- based on a wish to promote good gover- es which are increasingly being exported nance, relations and the progression on to the rapidly industrialising economies of socio-economic development (Assogba- Asia and Latin America”. The expansion vi, 2014).The AU is a machinery based on of exports within the region is not feasible principles of free movement of people, due to high intra-African tariffs as well as goods, services and capital intercontinen- non-tariff barriers, weak transport links and tally. In order to ensure that the AU realiz- other obstacles of cross-border trade. Afri- es its objectives, NEPAD owned and led can countries have a tremendous poten- socio-economic programmes designed to tial to expand the merchandise export of place African countries united on a path agro-industrial products (Yumkella, Korma- of true sustainable development. Further- wa, Roepstorff, & Hawkins, 2014), for which more, the APRM was established to moni- there is growing demand in the internation- tor the compliance of African governance al market. This obviously has the potential agreed systems to standards of good po- of denting upcoming partnerships within litical and good governance and their the continent and undermining commit- progress towards greater socio-econom- ments of the AU and of course NEPAD. ic development (Grimm & Katito, 2010:1).

322 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 3. CHALLENGES INHIBITING AFRICAN COUN- 2009; Nyamnjoh, 2010). Xenophobia be- TRIES RELATIONS came known as the manifest of relations and perceptions, including a fear of losing According to Mathebula (2014), within Af- identity, suspicion of its activities, aggres- rican societies there is a sense of morality sions and desire to eliminate its presence to which is based on the concept of Ubuntu secure a presumed transparency (Moge- which can be understood as human kind- kwu, 2005). According to Crush and Pend- ness. He argues that humanness in an Afri- leton (2004), the manifestation of xenopho- can context can be translated as humani- bia undermines social cohesion, peaceful ty towards others. Sebola (2014) advances co-existence, and good governance, and an argument by postulating that Ubuntu constitutes a violation of human rights. To is a cultural practice embedded in black this end, South Africa is party to African and Africans and applicable to administrative international human rights and humanitari- practices and undoubtedly governance, an treaties, especially on refugees and ref- and curbing corruption which in turn may uge seekers therefore obligations to com- result in ‘good African governance’. The bat xenophobia have both a legal and a foregoing section of the paper looks at moral force. In a constitutional democra- challenges inhibiting good relations among cy such as that of South Africa which is a other African states. Amongst those are xe- member state of the AU, NEPAD, and the nophobia, corruption, nationalism and na- Southern African Development Communi- tivism. It must however be pointed out that ty (SADC) it is challenging to uphold ethical these are not the only challenges. and economic positions to close its borders 3.1 Xenophobia and strengthen relations with other nations.

The repetitions of xenophobia in South Afri- scholars continue to advance debates on ca are a cause for concern. This is because the cases of xenophobia and related vio- it has the potential of undermining democ- lence where advocacy is made in relation racy, human rights and governance. De- to initial links between foreign and local spite this, good governance and the agree- entrepreneurs, who if can partner in enter- ments with other African counterparts are prises can stem out hatred and promote a undermined and denting relationships and brotherly associations. the possibility to forge new ones. Xenopho- 3.2 Corruption bia can be understood as the fear or hatred of foreigners or strangers (Harris, 2002). Corruption is understood as behavior de- It is embodied in discriminatory attitudes viating from formal rules of conduct gov- and behaviour, and often culminates in vi- erning actions of those in positions of olence, abuses of all types, and exhibitions public authority due to motives such as of hatred. However it is worth noting that greedy desires for wealth, power or status xenophobia is not a phenomenon prev- (see Nye, 1967; Khan, 1996; Mathebula & alent to South Africa alone as it manifests Makamu, 2014). It must however be ac- in other African countries and at a global knowledge that coining a concept bewil- arena (see Galindo & Vigil, 2006; Clermont dering and contested such as corruption & Eisenberg, 2007; Norbert, 2009; Yakushko, is a daunting task (Mathebula & Makamu,

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 323 2014). In the 21st century, the African con- corruption in Africa are a serious challenge tinent has been labeled as very corrupt which must be given the deserving atten- when compared with other nation states tion because of its potential to undermine in the world. However, scholars (Thompson development. Furthermore, corruption has & Shah, 2005; Tsheola, 2014) have refuted a damaging effect on administrative de- this claim stating that institutions such as velopment and efficiency, which can cre- Transparency International which base its ate extensive problems for already afflict- findings on merely perceptions is simply a ed governance systems. The consequence Western machinery for demonizing the Af- of this is that corruption does not only de- rican continent with the verge of raw ma- moralize, but also incapacitates the public terials exploitation. Challenges associated service while society become weak in the with defining and contextualizing corrup- production process (Alam, 1989:33). Cor- tion to befit the African continent is as a re- ruption affects political development and sult of the lack of a theoretical base that is stability in various ways, therefore in coun- aligned to the African way of doing things. tries where corruption is systematic, polit- Chizuma (2014) argues that Africa needs ical repression and domination and sub- its own definition and conceptualisation of ordinating the main political relationship. what corruption refers to. This is because Corruption in Africa also affects political some of the African conventional ways of stability in the overthrow of not only au- doing things can be viewed as corruption thoritarian regimes but also democratical- if applied in the Western discourse. Howev- ly elected governments (Hope, 2000). The er, the argument of this paper is not mainly scale of corruption in most African countries on the conception of corruption, rather the is distressing, thrilling and disheartening. Ac- impact it has on socio-economic develop- cording to Okafor (2004:98), corruption by ment of the African continent. political leaders has been identified as one of the major causes of poverty, and the Lerrick (2005:2) advocates that where failure in the development of developing there is poverty there is corruption. A typi- countries, particularly in Africa, therefore cal example of this assertion will be the Afri- the incidence of corruption remains one can continent which is rich of resources but of the greatest challenges of democracy economically not empowered. Corruption in the continent as virtually all democratic is not just one of the causes of intractable experiments are associated with reports of poverty in Africa but a root cause while a hyper-corrupt practices. vast portion of the poverty is to blame for internal political corruption. Corruption in 3.3 Nationalism and nativism the African continent and particularly ex- Nativism is a socio-political and economic tortion is one of the major ways of enrich- standpoint of seeking a favour of better ment as it has the potential of facilitating prestige for native residents of a nation social advancement (Uneke, 2010) and state as compared to immigrants (Foner the upholding of one’s position and en- & Alba, 2008). This must not be viewed abling the political elites to fulfil their duties in the same vain as xenophobia as it is to meet the expectations of their clients only seeking for better status. Nativism (Ebegbulem, 2012). The estimate costs of

324 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 can conventionally be referred to as the opment Goals (MDGs) and the African opposition to immigration, and support Union (AU) among others exist to ensure Af- efforts to weaken the socio-economic, rican unity, prosperity, peace-building and political or legal status of specific ethnic socio-economic development. This article or cultural groups who are well-thought- highlights some of the support structures out to be aggressive to the natural culture, and treaties in realising good governance, upon the assumption that they cannot be relations and socio-economic develop- embraced (Foner & Alba, 2008). Ndlovu- ment of the African countries. It should Gatsheni (2009) correctly points to an however be noted that these are not the example of the president of Zimbabwe, only mechanisms established within the Robert Mugabe who continue to deploy continent. Afro-radicalism and nativism as part of 4.1 African Union taking the decolonisation struggle to the further level of economic liberation from the According to Williams (2011:3), the African snares of neo-colonialism. However, such a Union’s (AU) objective is the emergence of struggle has left Zimbabwe in a distraught an integrated, prosperous and peaceful social and economic debacle which might Africa, driven by its own citizens and repre- take more than sixty years to correct. Zeleza senting a dynamic force in the global are- (2003) in Ndlovu-Gatsheni (2008) however na. The key objective of the union in this re- postulates that in an African, nativism and gard is the intervention in a member-state nationalism is a liberal force that cannot in respect of grave circumstances includ- be simplistically dismissed as ‘shibboleths ing war crimes, genocide, xenophobia of discredited geographies and histories’ and crimes against humanity (Kioko, 2003). and purveyor of ‘primordial pathologies’. To this extent, the AU intends to facilitate, These forces are however propagated with coordinate, and monitor the union toward little attention given to the effects it has on its overarching vision of peace and secu- trade and other relations intercontinentally rity. With this being said, the recent xeno- and even abroad. It is for such forces phobic attacks in South Africa and the war that Zimbabwe as an example has been crimes in the Republic of Sudan necessitat- penalised and sanctioned for participating ed a swift action for the union’s interven- in major platforms which could have tion in its verge of ensuring peace, security served to drastically boost socio-economic and socio-economic development of the development of the country, the region African continent. As it has been said be- and Africa in particular. fore, institutions such as the AU are equally important for revolutionizing society and building stronger states. However, the de- 4. INSTITUTIONS, TOOLS AND MECHANISMS velopmental agendas of this kind of an FOR DEVELOPMENT institution collide with international obligations for those states affiliated with the Unit- Institutions, tools and mechanisms such ed Nations for instance. The African conti- as the African Peer Review Mechanism nent in comparison to other continents has (APRM), the New Partnership for Africa’s been embroiled in a security dilemma, bad Development (NEPAD), Millennium Devel-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 325 governance, gross corruption and xeno- economic development in Africa. , more- phobia amongst other challenges. Other over it is promoting endeavors to imitate scholars (see Chizuma, 2014; Mathebula & the high quality value agriculture in Africa, Makamu, 2014) however reiterate the fact nevertheless NEPAD promotes the notion that institutions such as Transparency Inter- that a reversal of African economic de- national are used to demonize the African cline necessitates that the governments of continent with regard to the above men- Africa take the initiative with improved ca- tioned challenges. With this being said, the pacity to frame policies effectively, elimi- role of the AU in promoting intercontinental nate corruption and demonstrate transpar- socio-economic development cannot be ency and accountability (Nicolaides & Van underestimated. der Bank, 2013:63). The current societal-ills turmoil surrounding Africa with regard to bad governance, and development can 4.2 New Partnership for Africa’s Develop- be tackled using the defined systematic ment approaches as NEPAD also aims to coordinate development rather than the hap- The New Partnership for Africa’s Develop- hazard current economic planning and ment (NEPAD) is an agency of the AU estab- development policies which have put Afri- lished in 2001 with the view of eradicating ca in a quandary, a kind of regression and poverty in Africa. Most scholars argue that under-development (Moriyole, 2015:253). poverty is one of the challenges perpetuating challenges such as corruption, xeno- 4.3 African Peer Review Mechanism phobia and thus hindering the continent’s According to Rashed (2013:3), the Afri- socio-economic development (Harris, can Peer Review Mechanism (APRM) is 2002). It is for this and other reasons NEPAD an instrument voluntarily entered into by initiatives encompasses the political, eco- member states of the AU, as self-monitor- nomic and social-cultural development of ing machinery for the progress achieved African states through partnerships with the by participating countries in adopting and business and government sectors. There- implementing NEPAD’s priorities and pro- fore the establishment of NEPAD sought gramme on democracy and good gover- to reposition Africa towards challenges nance. This commitment can be furthered surrounding the continent on political, so- to the promotion and realization of Africa’s cio-economic and cultural perspectives. socio-economic development while mea- In this regard NEPAD programmes include sures are also taken to integrate the African the promotion of peace and security, ed- economy. APRM began operating in 2003, ucation, democracy, good governance, as a voluntary instrument acceded to by economic and corporate governance African states to assess political, economic (Abdul-Talib, Terwase & Zengeni, 2015:55). and corporate governance in their coun- NEPAD seeks a different global partnership tries. APRM aims to assist African countries between the rich North and the Poor South, to address democratic deficits and create which is centered on shared responsibility the economic transparency needed to and the fulfilling of mutual interests through attract investment and to nurture growth the drive towards political democracy and

326 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 (see Cheema & Maguere, n.d; Ajam & Aron, 2007; Helle, 2011). Moreover, it has initiated the dialogue between government, business and civil society actors on areas for improvement and challenges such as corruption, governance, political stability and electoral reform (Paterson, 2012). These mandates of the APRM are aimed at encouraging member states to conform to agreed policy practices. It is with no doubt that in pursuit and proper implementation of the overarching vision, ‘bad governance’ as commonly known among African states can be addressed. In turn this will ensure that there is improved business and personal relations in what can be termed ‘one Africa’. This and other achievements according to Gruzd (2014) can be realised through accelerated sub-regional and continental economic integration through sharing of experiences and reinforcement of successful and best practices.

4.4 Millennium Development Goals

The eight goals to be achieved under the MDGs are the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger, the achievement of universal primary education, the promotion of gender equality and empower women, the reduction of child mortality, the improvement of maternal health, to combating of HIV/AIDS, Malaria, and other diseases, ensuring environmental sustainability, and the development of global partnerships for development. According to Chiroro and Simelane (2013), since the endorsement in 2000, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have been a pillar and point of reference for sustainable development. It is on this basis that this paper argues that the MDGs with institutional support can be amal- gamated into African developmental agendas as life-standing intentions to accomplish separate African national development plans; poverty-reduction strategies while pursuing socio-economic development, good governance and fostering good relations. It is for this point that the MDGs have evolved as an urgent need to address poverty around the world. The achievement of this goals other internationally agreed developmental agendas in Africa embraces the promise of saving millions of lives, empowering women, addressing the scourge of illiteracy, hunger and mal- nutrition and ensuring that Africa’s children 5. CONCLUSION have access to high-quality education and good health to lead productive lives. The purpose of this paper was to; through Nevertheless, the recent up rise against Af- literature review and desktop analysis high- rican foreigners in South Africa fuelled by light the African countries relations and its challenges such as high food prices, unem- impacts on socio-economic development. ployment and competition for the private The paper argued that the relationships be- space puts pressure on African economies tween African countries and governance and threatens the MDGs progress for fight- are still a major challenge that delays both ing hunger, peace and stability (Millennium social and economic development of the Development Goals Report for Uganda, continent. Of course challenges are preva- 2013). The MDGs are referenced in across lent despite the fact that Africa has treaties, all societal realms and viewed as a key in- agreements and mechanisms to ensure its dicator for socio-economic development. cooperation and the upliftment of the con-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 327 tinent. This paper therefore proposes that ments/african_union_compendium_2nd_ African countries should review socio-eco- edition.pdf. (Accessed 28 August 2015). nomic policies particularly in human rights Chiroro, B. & Simelane, T. 2013. Beyond protection and curbing challenges of xe- the Millennium Development Goals. Policy nophobia, corruption, nativism and nation- Brief, No.84. alism. In order to fast track Africa’s war on corruption, there is a need to set up anti- Ebegbulem, J.C. 2012. Corruption and corruption units in order to strengthen so- Leadership Crisis in Africa: Nigeria in Focus. cio-economic development. International Journal of Business and Social Science. 3 (11): 221-227.

Foner, N. & Alba, R. 2008. Immigrant Reli- LIST OF REFERENCES gion in the U.S. and Western Europe: Bridge Abdelaziz, M.A. Janneh, A. & Mayaki, I. 2012. or Barrier to Inclusion? IMR. 42 (2):360–392. Africa’s decade of change, Reflections on Fukuyama, F. 2013. What is Governance? 10 years of NEPAD. Ethiopia, Addis Ababa: Working Paper 314. Washington DC, Massa- NEPAD Planning and Coordinating Agen- chusetts: Center for Global Development. cy. http://www.nepad.org/system/files/Af- rica%20Decade%20of%20Change%20-%20 Grimm, S. & Katito, G. 2010: African devel- Final.pdf. (Accessed 28 August 2015). opment, Continental Integration in Afri- ca-AU, NEPAD and the APRM. Johannes- Abdul-Talib, A.S., Terwase, I.T. & Zengeni, burg: German Development Institute. K.T. 2015. The implementation of peace and security programme initiative in Nige- Gruzd, S. 2014. The African Peer Review ria: The role of NEPAD. Mediterranean Jour- Mechanism: Development Lessons from nal of Social Sciences. 6 (3):54-59. Africa’s Remarkable Governance Assess- ment System. South African Institute of In- Abed, G.T. 2001. The changing role of the ternational Affairs. http://www.saiia.org. state, Governance and New Capacity Re- za/research-reports/the-african-peer-requirements. In M.A. Dessert and R.E. Ubogu, view-mechanism-development-les- eds, Capacity building, Governance, and sons-from-africas-remarkable-gover- Economic Reform in Africa, pp. 38-47. nance-assessment-system. (Accessed 28 Washington, DC: IMF. August 2015). Alam, M.S. 1989. “Anatomy of corruption, Harris, B. 2002. Xenophobia: A new pathol- an approach to the political economy of ogy for a new South Africa? In Hook, D. & underdevelopment”. The American Jour- Eagle, G. (eds) Psychopathology and So- nal of Economics and Sociology. 48 (4): cial Prejudice, pp. 169-184, Cape Town: 441-456. University of Cape Town Press. Assogbavi, D. 2014. African Union Compen- Hope K.R. 2000: Corruption and Develop- dium. Oxfam International Liaison Office ment in Africa. New York: St Martins Press. with the African Union. https://www.oxfam. org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/file_attach- Hope, K.R. 2002. From Crisis to Renewal, De-

328 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 velopmental Policy and Management in (NEPAD) Lessons from Ghana: Model for Africa. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. other Africa’s Countries under the African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM). Academ- Hope, K.R. 2005. Toward Good Governance ic Research International, 6 (2): 253-262. and sustainable Development: The African Peer Review Mechanism. Governance, An Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S.J. 2008. Nativism and international Journal of policy, Administra- the debate on African public sphere in tion and Institutions, 18 (2): 283-311. postcolonial Africa: reflections on a problematic ‘reverse-discourse’. Paper pre- Human, P. 2003. Yenza, a blueprint for trans- sented under the panel: Nationalism, Pub- formation. Oxford University Press Southern lic Sphere and Citizenship in Africa at the Africa: Cape Town. Council for the Development of Social Sci- Kioko, B. 2003. The right of intervention un- ence Research in Africa (CODESRIA)’s 12th der the African Union’s Constitutive Act: General Assembly: Governing the African From non-interference to non-intervention. Public Sphere, Yaoundé, Cameroon, 7-11 IRRC, 85 (852): 807-825. December 2008.

Lerrick, A. 2005: “Aid to Africa at risk; cover- Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S.J. 2009. Africa for Afri- ing up corruption, international economic cans or Africa for “natives” only? “new na- report, Pittsburgh PA. Carnegie Melton Uni- tionalism” and nativism in Zimbabwe and versity. Centre for Public Policy. South Africa. Africa Spectrum. 44 (1): 61-78.

Mathebula, N. 2014. Public sector financial NEPAD Secretariat. 2001. The New Partner- management, morality, culture and law. ship for Africa’s Development. South Africa, Journal of Public Administration, 49 (3): 936- Midrand: NEPAD Secretariat. 945. Nicolaides, A. & van der Bank, C.M. 2013. Mathebula, N.E. & Makamu, V.M 2014. Re- Globalisation, NEPAD, Fundamental Hu- flections on conceptions of corruption in man Rights, South African and Continental South Africa: implications for service deliv- Development. International Journal of De- ery. Conference Proceeding of the South velopment and Economic Sustainability. 1 African Association of Public Administration (2):54-72. and Management Limpopo Chapter, The Office of the United Nations High Commis- Park Hotel, Mokopane, October 2014. sioner for Human Rights. 2007. Good Gov- Millennium Development Goals Report for ernance practices for the protection of hu- Uganda 2013. Ministry of Finance, Planning man rights. New York: United Nations and Economic Development September Okafor, O.C. 2004: Neo-Democracy and 2013. http://www.ug.undp.org/content/ Poverty Management in Africa. Lagos: dam/uganda/docs/UNDPUg-2013MDG- Mercury Bright Press. Progress%20Report-Oct%202013.pdf. (Ac- cessed 17 August 2015). Paterson, M. 2012. The African Union at Ten: Problems, Progress and Prospects. Germa- Moriyole, B.A. 2015. An Appraisal of the ny, Berlin: International Colloquium Report. New Partnership for Africa’s Development

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 329 Rashed, A. 2013. Challenges of African Press. Peer Review Implementation. New York: United Nations. 2006. Definition of basic African Peer Review Mechanism. concepts and terminologies in governance Sebola, M.P. 2014. Ethics in the South Afri- and public administration. Committee of can public service: A paradox of culture, Experts on Public Administration Fifth ses- politics and ethics in the world of work. sion New York, 27-31 March 2006. http://un- Journal of Social Sciences. 40 (3):295-304. pan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan022332.pdf. (Accessed UN System Task Team on the Post-2015 UN 20 June 2016). Development Agenda. 2012. Governance andDevelopment.http://www.un.org/mil- Williams, P.D. 2011. The African Union’s lenniumgoals/pdf/Think%20Pieces/7_gov- Conflict Management Capabilities. United ernance.pdf. (Accessed 14 August 2015). States of America: Council on Foreign Re- lations. Uneke, O. 2010. Corruption in Africa South of the Sahara: Bureaucratic Facilitator or Wohlmuth, K. 1998. Good governance and Handicap to Development? The Journal of Economic Development, New Foundations Pan African Studies.3 (6): 111-128. for Growth in Africa. Bremen: University of Bremen. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2002. Human Development Report Yumkella, K.K., Kormawa, P.M., Roepstorff, 2002: Deepening Democracy in a Frag- T.M. & Hawkins, A.M. 2014. Agribusiness for mented World. New York: Oxford University Africa’s prosperity. UNIDO: Austria.

330 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ECONOMIC GROWTH, GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE AND

EXCHANGE RATE NEXUS IN SOUTH AFRICA

IP Mongale

University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

South African government is often faced with a double edged challenge of cutting down its expenditure to satisfy international credit ratings against the interests of the trade unions and the electorate who will want to protect jobs at all costs. This study attempts to examine the dynamic causal relationship between economic growth and government expenditure in South Africa by employing a trivariate causality model. The intention of this study is to add to strand of literature on economic growth, exchange rate and government expenditure nexus in the South African context. This is an important aspect to analyse due to the fact that the state uses it as a controlling economy instrument the fiscal policy. To address this issue, the study employed quarterly data spanning from 2000 to 2015 and cointegration and error correction models. The real effective exchange rate has a positive relationship with the country’s GDP at market prices whereas national government total expenditure has a negative relationship with GDP at market prices. Finally the trivariate causality model revealed that in the case of South Africa, causality runs only one way from national government total expenditure to real effective exchange rate.

Keywords: Government expenditure, Cointegration, Trivariate correction models, South Af- rica

1. INTRODUCTION as Nurudeen and Usman (2010), Sinha, et al (2011), Angello, et al (2013) and Rosoiu South African government is often faced (2015) have expressed different opinions with a double edged challenge of cutting about the issue of government spending. down its expenditure to satisfy internation- As emphasised by Heylen, et al (2013) a al credit ratings against the interests of the government that uses expenditure cut trade unions and the electorate who will is more significant in fiscal consolidation want to protect jobs at all costs. The call is than other governments. They also con- that more efforts should be seen to done firm that consolidation programs imply a in order to maintain adequate levels of stronger reduction of the public debt ratio investment in social and economic infra- when they rely mainly on spending cuts, structure by the state. Several authors such except public investment. Government

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 331 wage bill cuts, however, only contribute to Granger causality approach to investigate lower public debt ratios when public sector the same linkage. Furthermore to address efficiency is low. the omission of variable bias, instead of unemployment, this study incorporates real Since government expenditure is regarded exchange rate as an intermittent variable. as a major component of national income The choice of this variable is influenced in most economies, its expenditure has by the fact that the Rand (South African caused numerous controversies amongst currency) has for several years been char- scholars. This controversy can be traced acterised by high levels of volatility and a as far back as Wagner and Keynesian general trend of depreciation with some theories’ arguments about the direction intermittent periods of limited apprecia- of causation between public expenditure tion. Paul and Ibrahim (2016) points that and national income. The controversy some excessive volatility of the exchange rate created two schools of thought on the diis found to be detrimental to economic rection of causation between these two growth; however, this is only up to a point variables. Usman and Loganathan (2016) as growth-enhancing effect can also em- point out that even though different schol- anate from innovation, and more efficient ars agree that government expenditure is resource allocation. Subsequently the intu- a core determinant of national income, ition of this study is that this major variance it has a two-edged sword. Some such as of the South African currency against major Sevitenyi (2012), argues that it could sig- currencies constrains might have the nega- nificantly increase aggregate output, es- tive effects on the firms to make investment pecially in less developed countries where decisions and affects international pricing high rate of unemployment, high rate of in- arrangements which might have impact flation, insecurity and lack of an enabling on the economic growth and ultimately environment for private sectors to prosper. government expenditure. On the other hand, it could also have adverse consequences such as crowding out The major concern is that the South African private investment and demotivate peo- government spends the bulk of its national ple from additional work. budget on important aspects like education, infrastructure and social services yet This study contributes to the existing litera- both the World Bank and the Internation- ture on the controversy of the causal rela- al Monetary Funds (IMF) has cut its growth tionship between government expenditure to 0.8% in 2016. Figure 1 indicates that be- and economic growth in the South African tween January 2015 and January 2016 the context. In order to differentiate this study government spend between 615 close to with the previous ones with similar method, 620 Million Rands. Furthermore, TRADING this study employs the trivariate to exam- ECONOMICS (2016) indicates that Govern- ine the linkage between economic growth ment Spending in South Africa averaged and government expenditure. Unlike Odhi- 302259.94 ZAR Million from 1960 until 2015, ambo (2015) who uses the auto-regressive reaching an all-time high of 619683 Million distributed lag model (ARDL)-bounds test- Rands in the fourth quarter of 2015 and a ing approach, this study uses the dynamic record low of 65991 Million Rands in the first

332 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 quarter of 1960.

Figure 1: South African government spending

Source: www.TRADINGECONOMICS.COM the research method which includes the in- SOUTH AFRICAN RESEARVE BANK troduction of data and specification of the model. Furthermore the empirical findings On the other side, the government is often are presented in section 4 which is then fol- faced with a double edged challenge of lowed by the summary of the findings and cutting down its expenditure to satisfy in- conclusion of the study. ternational credit ratings against the interests of the trade unions and the electorate 2. LITERATURE REVIEW who will want to protect jobs at all costs. Wheeler (1999) studied the impact of gov- Furthermore according World Bank (2016) ernment debt in US using variance decom- like all other developing countries, South position and impulse response functions Africa is also faced with a challenge of an for the 1980s and 1990s. He tested the Ri- exchange rate experiencing both down- cardian Equivalence hypothesis focus- ward pressures and increasing volatility. As ing on the effects of government debt on Rosoiu (2015) points out this is an important output, price level and interest rates. The aspect to analyse due to the fact that the results revealed significant negative rela- state uses it as a controlling economy in- tionships between government debt on instrument the fiscal policy. terest rates, price level and output. Apart The objective of the study is to examine the from the Ricardian Equivalence hypothesis, dynamic causal relationship between eco- other studies focused on the controversy nomic growth and government expendi- brought by the Keynesian’s view and the ture in South Africa by employing a trivariate Wagner’s law. Akonji, et al (2013) show causality model. The paper is structured as that public expenditure in Nigeria is driven follows: the subsequent sections cover the largely by gross domestic product (GDP) review of both theoretical and empirical and it is therefore taken as an endogenous of the subject matter and the discussion of variable and not the cause of real gross do-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 333 mestic product. Based on this, Akonji, et al come group countries but are found to be argue that this assertion a clear contradic- of more relevance when determining debt tion of the Keynesian’s view, where public situation of middle income group countries. expenditure is regarded as exogenous vari- Angello, et al (2013) are of the opinion that able and the Keynesians are advocating positive government spending shocks infor effective role for the government in rais- crease output and private consumption. ing level public spending in order to alter They also contend that the government levels of real GDP. spending shocks have a crowding-out effect over private investment while positive In same vein, Oyinlola and Akinnibosun tax shocks have a negative effect on out- (2013) argue that economic growth leads put and private spending. Furthermore, to growth in capital expenditure as well as Nurudeen and Usman (2010) observed that in social and community service. The results rising government expenditure in the Nige- of these two studies based in Nigeria can rian context has not translated to meaning- be explained by Wagner’s law which indi- ful development as the country despite its cates that increased government activity abounded oil resources is still ranks among and the corresponding increase in govern- world’s poorest countries. In an attempt to ment expenditure is an inevitable result of investigate the effect of government ex- economic growth. In contrast earlier stud- penditure on economic growth, they em- ies such as Babatunde (2007) and Ighoda- ployed a disaggregated analysis and their ro and Oriakhi (2010) concerned with ex- results reveal that government total capital plaining the growth of public expenditure expenditure, total recurrent expenditures in terms of growth of national income that and government expenditure on educa- is testing Wagner’s Law mostly showed no tion have negative effect on economic support for the law. That been the case growth. On the contrary, rising government there is also evidence of some empirical expenditure on transport and communi- studies with exceptional cases of bi-di- cation and health results to an increase in rectional Wu et al. (2010) and Odhiambo economic growth. (2015) view, where both government expenditure and economic growth causes 3. RESEARCH METHOD each other. This study attempts to examine the dynam- Other empirical studies such as Sinha, et ic causal relationship between economic al (2011) revealed that the determinant of growth and government expenditure in debt situation is GDP growth rate for both South Africa by employing a trivariate cau- high and middle income group countries. sality model. The study concluded that government 3.1 Data and Model specification expenditure, education expenditure and current account balance are also seen The study uses quarterly time series data to influence the debt situation for both covering the period 1995Q1 to 2015Q4. groups. Other variables such as foreign di- The data on Government expenditure, Ex- rect investment and inflation have no im- change rate and economic growth prox- pact on debt to GDP ratios among high in- ied by growth domestic price at market

334 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 513 prices (GDP) are expressed in percentages and were obtained from the South African Reservemanaged Bank’s to escalate Online down the costload of facility. many Beside government the notion infrastructure of the omitted expenditure variable bias, thedue advantage the recent of its introduction depreciation. of the The exchange empirical rate model in the is system specified is to helpas follows: to capture the impact of the South African Rand volatility which has recently 513 GDPmp     REER20tr   NGet   managedt to0 escalate1 thet cost2 of manyt t government infrastructure expenditure 1due the recentmanagedwhere its depreciation. to escalate The the empirical cost of many model government is specified infrastructureas follows: expenditure due the recent its depreciation. The empirical model is specified as follows: GDPmp = Growth domestic price at market prices GDPmp     REER20tr   NGet   t 0 1 t 2 t t 1 REER20tr = Real effective exchange rate of the rand: Average for the where period GDPmp = Growth domestic price at market prices 20 trading partners - Trade in manufactured goods REER20tr = Real effective exchange rate of the rand: Average for the NGet = National government: Total expenditure period

20 trading partners - Trade in manufactured goods 3.2 Estimation of empirical results NGet = National government: Total expenditure The estimation of the results includes three major techniques applied in most of

3.2the econometricEstimation of empirical studies. resultsThe Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) unit root test

Thewhich 3.2estimation Estimationemployed of the of to resultsempirical determine includes results the three order major of integrationtechniques appliedof the threein most variables. of the econo - metricThis is studies. then Thefollowed Augmented by Dickey-Fullerthe Johansen (ADF)-Juselius’ unit root testmaximum which employedlikelihood to de- termineThe estimation the order of ofthe integration results includes of the three three major variables. techniques This is then applied followed in most by theof Jo- cointegration analysis to test for the existence of a cointegration relationship hansen-Juselius’the econometric maximum studies. likelihood The Augmented cointegration Dickey analysis-Fuller to (ADF)test for unitthe existenceroot test of a cointegrationamongst the relationship variables by amongst means the of variablesthe trend by assumption: means of the Linear trend deterministicassumption: Linear which employed to determine the order of integration of the three variables. deterministictrend. The tr trend.ivariate The Granger trivariate causality Granger causalitymodel of model the study of the is study therefore is therefore can be can be This is then followed by the Johansen-Juselius’ maximum likelihood expressedexpressed as as follows: follows: cointegration analysis to test for the existence of a cointegration relationship amongst the variablesp by meansp of the trend passumption: Linear deterministic GDPmpt  a1   jGDPmpt j  jREER20trt j  j NGtet j  t trend. The trivariatej1 Grangerj causality1 modelj of1 the study is therefore can 2be expressed as follows: p p p

RRER20tr  a   GDPmp    REER20tr    NGte   t 2 p  j t j p  j t j p j t j t j1 j1 j1 3 GDPmpt  a1   jGDPmpt j  jREER20trt j  j NGtet j  t j1 j1 j1 2 p p p

NGte  a   GDPmp    REER20tr    NGte   t 3  j p t j  j p t j  j p t j t j1 j1 j1 4 RRER20trt  a2   jGDPmpt j jREER20trt j  j NGtet j  t j1 j1 j1 3

p p p

ConferenceNGtet  aProceedings3   j GDPmpof the Internationalt j  Conference j REER 20on trPublict j  Administration j NGte andt j Development t Alternatives 2016 335 j1 j1 j1 4 514

4. EMPIRICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4. EMPIRICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In order to determine the order of integration and whether the regression may In beorder spurious, to determine the ADF the unit order root oftest integration was performed and whether and the the results regression are reported may be spurious, the ADF unit root test was performed and the results are reported in Table 1. The test was in Table 1. The test was performed based on an automatic SIC lag length. After performed based on an automatic SIC lag length. After carrying out the test at both level andcarrying first difference out the test using at both the three level andregression first difference forms, the using best the results three were regression obtained at con- stantforms, linear the trend best asresults indicated were obtainedin the table. at constant linear trend as indicated in

Tablethe table.1: Unit root tests results of variables

Table 1: Unit root tests results of variables

ADF

CONSTANT, LINEAR TREND

Lag t- Critical values Probabi Length: statistic lity 1% 5% 10%

(Automati

c - based on SIC) VARIABLES Results GDPmp 0 - - - - 0.0000 I(1 11.7617 4.07385 3.46554 3.15937 ) 4 9 8 2

REER20tr 0 - - - - 0.0000 I(0 8.54562 4.07241 3.46486 3.15897 ) 1 5 5 4

NGte 1 - - - - 0.0000 I(1 12.2919 4.07534 3.46624 3.15978 ) 7 0 8 0

The results indicate that there is a mixture of both I(0) and I(1) variables. The study continues with the Johansen procedure because the arrangement is such that the model consists of a dependent variable which is I(1) and two independent variables with both I(0) and I(1) combinations. This is based on (Engsted, et al 1997)’s view that with two I (1) X Y Z = Y − βX times series t and t which cointegrated such that the linear-combination t t t = t St ∑ = Z is stationary I(0). By definition the cumulated errors series j 1 t is I(1) and hence it

336 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 515

The results indicate that there is a mixture of both I(0) and I(1) variables. The study continues with the Johansen procedure because the arrangement is S X Y I t = Yt −γ St cansuch happen that the that model that consistst cointegrates of a dependent with t and/or variable t whichsuch that, is I(1) say, and two is I(0). This implies that essentially there are two levels of cointegration between just two I(1) time independent variables with both I(0) and I(1) combinations. This is based on series. Moreover, Harris (1995) indicates that a standard Johansen approach is designed X Y to (Engsted,handle I(1) et and al 1997) I(0) variables’s view that because with two it is Ipossible (1) times that series cointegration t and t is whichpresent in when there is a mix of I(0), I(1) and I(2) variables in the model.Z  Y  X cointegrated such that the linear-combination t t t is stationary I(0). By The Johansen cointegration tests results based t on both the trace and the maximum ei- St   Z genvaluedefinition tests the arecumulated presented errors in Tableseries 3. The testsj 1 twere is I(1) based and hence on the it Akaikecan information criterion (AIC), at length lag of 2 as illustrated in Table 2. Table 2: Lag Order Selection Criteria Table 2: Lag Order Selection Criteria

Lag LogL LR FPE AIC SC HQ

0 - 610.5173 NA 3190.466 16.58155 16.67496* 16.61881

1 -591.2824 36.39039 2420.222 16.30493 16.67856 16.45398*

2 -578.6943 22.79460* 2199.588* 16.20795* 16.86181 16.46879

3 -572.0651 11.46675 2352.865 16.27203 17.20611 16.64465

4 -568.3834 6.069816 2733.083 16.41577 17.63007 16.90017

5 -562.7251 8.869797 3020.734 16.50608 18.00061 17.10227

6 -557.1568 8.277180 3362.567 16.59883 18.37359 17.30680

7 -553.2361 5.510215 3936.348 16.73611 18.79109 17.55587

8 -547.6397 7.411447 4435.253 16.82810 19.16330 17.75964

9 -539.1279 10.58224 4658.211 16.84129 19.45672 17.88462

10 -533.3309 6.736986 5318.780 16.92786 19.82351 18.08297

* indicates lag order selected by the criterion

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 337 516

LR: sequential modified LR test statistic (each test at 5% level)

FPE: Final prediction error

AIC: Akaike information criterion

SC: Schwarz information LR: sequentialcriterion modified LR test statistic (each test at 5% level)

FPE: Final prediction error HQ: Hannan-Quinn information criterion AIC: Akaike information criterion

SC: Schwarz information criterion All the critical values of both the trace and the maximum eigenvalue tests in HQ: Hannan-Quinn information criterion Table 3 are greater than all the critical values at 5%. Hence these times series All theare critical having values three cointegratedof both the trace equations and the and maximum the implication eigenvalue is that tests they inhave Table 3 are greater than all the critical values at 5%. Hence these times series are having three cointe- a long run stable relationship. grated equations and the implication is that they have a long run stable relationship. Table 3: Johansen Cointegration Tests Table 3: Johansen Cointegration Tests

Tests Hypothesized Eigen Trace/Max- 0.05 Probabilities value Eigen Critical No. of CE(s) value Statistics

Trace None* 0.299123 49.19621 29.79707 0.0001

At most 1 0.173785 20.40691 15.49471 0.0084

At most 2 0.059212 4.944014 3.841466 0.0262

Maximum None 0.299123 28.78930 21.13162 0.0034

Eigen At most 1 0.173785 15.46289 14.26460 0.0322 value At most 2 0.059212 4.944014 3.841466 0.0262

Trace test indicates 3 cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level Trace test indicates 3 cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level

Max-eigenvalue test indicates 3 cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level

*denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level

Source: Own calculation with EViews 9

From the estimates of the cointegrating relation based on the normalisation and also estimates of the adjustment parameter the normalised cointegration coefficients and their signs of the long run estimates are shown in Table 4.

338 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 517 517 517 Max-eigenvalue test indicates 3 cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level Max-eigenvalue test indicates 3 cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level Max-eigenvalue test indicates 3 cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level *denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level *denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level *denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level Source: Own calculation with EViews 9 Source: Own calculation with EViews 9 Source: Own calculation with EViews 9 From the estimates of the cointegrating relation based on the normalisation From the estimates of the cointegrating relation based on the normalisation Fromand also the estimatesestimates of of the the adjustment cointegrating parameter relation the based normalised on the cointegrationnormalisation and also estimates of the adjustment parameter the normalised cointegration andcoefficients also estimates and their of signsthe adjustment of the long parameter run estimates the arenormalised shown in cointegration Table 4. coefficients and their signs of the long run estimates are shown in Table 4. coefficients and their signs of the long run estimates are shown in Table 4. Table 4 Normalised cointegrating equation Table 4 Normalised cointegrating equation Table 4 Normalised cointegrating equation Variables GDPmp REER20tr NGte Variables GDPmp REER20tr NGte VariablesCoefficients GDPmp1.000000 REER20tr-1.588713 NGte0.080503 Coefficients 1.000000 -1.588713 0.080503 CoefficientsStandard error 1.000000 -(0.31763)1.588713 0.080503 (0.26659) Standard error (0.31763) (0.26659) Standard error (0.31763) (0.26659)

A normalised cointegrating equation based on Table 4 is therefore presented A normalisedA normalised cointegrating cointegrating equation equation based based on Table on Table 4 is therefore4 is therefore presented presented as equation asA normalised equation 5 cointegratingas follows. equation based on Table 4 is therefore presented 5 asas follows. equation 5 as follows. as equation 5 as follows. GDPmp     REER20tr   NGet  0 t 0 1 t 2 t 5 GDPmp t  0  1REER20trt  2 NGett  0 GDPmp     REER20tr   NGet  0 5 t 0 1 t 2 t 5 In orderIn order to able to able to compare to compare whether whether signs signsof the of coefficients the coefficients of the of variablesthe variables in equation 5 In order to able to compare whether signs of the coefficients of the variables are Ininas equation orderanticipated, to able 5 are weto as compareneed anticipated, to reverse whether we the need signs signs to of reverseof the the coefficients estimated the signs of coefficientsof the the estimated variables of the inde- pendentin equation variables 5 are as aswe anticipated, transpose them we need to the to right reverse hand the side signs of of the the equal estimated sign of equa- incoefficients equation 5of are the as independent anticipated, wevariables need toas reverse we transpose the signs them of the to estimated the right tion coefficients5. The new equationof the independent 6 with the coefficients variables as ofwe the transpose variables themfrom Tableto the 4 rightwill therefore hand side of the equal sign of equation 5. The new equation 6 with the be presentedcoefficients as of follows: the independent variables as we transpose them to the right hand side of the equal sign of equation 5. The new equation 6 with the handcoefficients side of of the variablesequal sign from of Tableequation 4 will therefore5. The new be equationpresented 6 as with follows: the coefficients of the variables from Table 4 will therefore be presented as follows: coefficients of the variables from Table 4 will therefore be presented as follows: GDPmp   1.588713 REER20tr  0.80503 NGet t 0 t t 6 GDPmp t  0 1.588713 REER20trt  0.80503 NGett GDPmp   1.588713 REER20tr  0.80503 NGet 6 Based on equationt 0 6, the implicationt is that the realt effective exchange rate has6 a positive Based on equation 6, the implication is that the real effective exchange rate relationshipBased on with equation the country’s 6, the implicationGDP at market is that prices the real whereas effective national exchange government rate total has a positive relationship with the country’s GDP at market prices whereas expenditureBased on has equation a negative 6, the relationship implication with is that GDP the at realmarket effective prices. exchange Since the ratepresence of has a positive relationship with the country’s GDP at market prices whereas a longhasnational run a positiveeconomic government relationship relationship total withexpenditure has the been country’s establishedhas a GDPnegative atwe market expectrelationship prices some with whereaskind GDP of causality national government total expenditure has a negative relationship with GDP amongstnationalat market the variables,government prices. Since either total the one expenditurepresence way or in of both hasa long adirections, negative run economic therefore relationship relationship the with Pairwise GDP has Granger Causalityat market results prices. based Since on lag the of presence 2 are presented of a long in Tablerun economic 5. relationship has atbeen market established prices. Sincewe expect the presence some kind of a of long causality run economic amongst relationship the variables, has been established we expect some kind of causality amongst the variables, been established we expect some kind of causality amongst the variables,

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 339 518

either one way or in both directions, therefore the Pairwise Granger Causality results based on lag of 2 are presented in Table 5.

Table 5: Results of the Pairwise Granger Causality Tests

Null Hypothesis F- P- Decision Conclusion statistics values

REER20tr does not H0 cannot Granger Cause be GDPmp 0.40900 0.6657 rejected No causality

GDPmp does not H0 cannot No causality Granger Cause be REER20tr 0.29338 0.7466 rejected

NGte does not H0 cannot No causality Granger Cause be GDPmp 0.38754 0.6800 rejected

H0 cannot No causality REER20tr does not be Granger Cause NGte 2.04578 0.1362 rejected

NGte does not H0 can be There is causality from Granger Cause rejected NGte to REER20tr REER20tr 4.23130 0.0181

*/**/*** rejection of the null hypothesis of no Granger causality at 10/5/1

Source:Source: Own Own calculation calculation with with EViews EViews 8 8

FromFrom Table Table 4 it appears 4 it appears that thethat Granger the Granger causality causality runs only run sone only way one from way NGte from to REER- 20tr because the null hypothesis is cannot be rejected in all other cases. The implication NGte to REER20tr because the null hypothesis is cannot be rejected in all other is that national government total expenditure causes the real effective exchange rate of cases. The implication is that national government total expenditure causes the rand. Furthermore no causality was found between other variables during the period of thisthe study. real effective exchange rate of the rand. Furthermore no causality was found between other variables during the period of this study. Finally to determine the stability of the model, the CUSUM and CUSUM of Squares stability tests were conducted and the results are presented in Figure 2. The results of the both tests

340 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 indicate that the model is stable since the cumulative sums move inside the critical lines throughout the period of study.

Figure 2 CUSUM and CUSUM of Squares tests results

lationship amongst variables. Furthermore 30 this analysis revealed that the real effective 20 exchange rate has a positive relationship 10 with the country’s GDP at market prices 0 whereas national government total expen- -10 diture has a negative relationship with GDP -20 at market prices. Finally the trivariate cau- -30 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 sality model revealed that in the case of CUSUM 5% Significance South Africa, causality runs only one way from national government total expendi- 1.2 ture to real effective exchange rate. The 1.0

0.8 implication is that national government to-

0.6 tal expenditure causes the real effective

0.4 exchange rate of the rand. Furthermore no 0.2 causality was found between other vari- 0.0 ables during the period of this study. -0.2 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014

CUSUM of Squares 5% Significance These results seem to be inline Nurudeen and Usman (2010) who observed that government total capital expenditure, total 5. CONCLUDING REMARKS recurrent expenditures and government The main purpose of this study was to ex- expenditure on education have negative amine the dynamic causal relationship be- effect on economic growth. There is also tween economic growth and government correlation with studies such as Babatunde expenditure in South Africa by employing (2007) and Ighodaro and Oriakhi (2010) a trivariate causality model. The intention who were concerned with explaining the of this study is to add to strand of literature growth of public expenditure in terms of on economic growth, exchange rate and growth of national income that is testing government expenditure nexus in the South Wagner’s Law mostly showed no support African context. This is an important aspect for the law. to analyse due to the fact that the state On the other side, some empirical studies uses it as a controlling economy instrument such as Wu et al. (2010) and Odhiambo the fiscal policy. To address this issue, the (2015) found that both government expen- study employed quarterly data spanning diture and economic growth causes each from 2000 to 2015 and cointegration and other. The possible explanation of such op- error correction models. posing view on this issue might be in the Through Johansen cointegration analysis it nature of government expenditure under was established there is a long run stable re- investigation because even though Nuru-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 341 deen and Usman (2010) also found nega- of Petrosani, Economics, 2(10), 185-198. tive between these variables, they realised Nurudeen, A., & Usman, A. (2010). Govern- rising government expenditure on transport ment Expenditure And Economic Growth and communication and health results to In Nigeria, 1970-2008: A Disaggregated an increase in economic growth. Analysis. Business and Economics Journal, 6. LIST OF REFERENCES 2010(4), 1-11.

Akonji, D. R., Olubukola, O. A., & Wakili, A. Odhiambo, N. (2015). Government Expen- M. (2013). Nexus between public expendi- diture and Economic Growth in South Af- ture and economic growth by testing Wag- rica: an Empirical Investigation. Atlantic ner’s law time series: Evidence from Nige- Economic Journal, 3(43), 393-406. ria. International Journal of Development Odhiambo, N. M. (2009). Fi- and Sustainability, 2(4), 2383-2395. nance-growth-poverty nexus in South Afri- Angello, L., Castro, V., & Sousa, R. (2013). ca: A dynamic causality linkage. The Jour- What determines the duration of fiscal con- nal of Socio-Economics, 2009(38), 320-325. solidation program? Journal of internation- Oyinlola, M. A., & Akinnibosun, O. (2013). al money and finance, 37, 113-134. Public expenditure and economic growth Babatunde, M. (2007). A bound testing nexus: Further evidence from Nigeria. analysis of Wagner’s law in Nigeria: 1970- Journal of Economics and International Fi- 2006. Applied Economics, 4(21), 2843-2850. nance, 5(4), 146-154.

Bank, W. (2016). World Economic Situation Paul, A., & Ibrahim, M. (2016). On the causes and Prospects2016. New York: United Na- and effects of exchange rate volatility on tions. economic growth: Evidence from Ghana. Working paper, The International Growth Engsted, T., Gonzalo, J., & Haldrup, N. Centre (IGC), 1-27. (1997). Testing for multicointegration. Eco- nomics Letters, 56(1997), 259-266. Rosoiu, I. (2015). The impact of the government revenues and expenditures on Harris, R. (1995). Using cointegration analy- the. Procedia Economics and Finance, sis in econometric modelling. Harlow: Pear- 32(2015), 526-533. son Hall. Sevitenyi, L. (2012). Government Expendi- Heylen, F., Hoebeeck, A., & Buyse, T. (2013). ture and Economic Growth in Nigeria: An Governent efficiency institution and the eff- empirical investigation (1961-2009). Journal fects of fiscal consolidation on public debt. of Economic Analysis, 1(3), 38-51. European journal of political economy(31), 40-59. Sinha, P., Arora, V., & Bansal, V. (2011). De- terminants of Public Debt for middle income Ighodaro, C., & Oriakhi, D. (2010). Does the and high income. MPRA Paper(32079), relationship between government expen- 1-27. diture and economic growth follow Wag- ner’s law in Nigeria. Annals of the University TRADING ECONOMICS. (2016, June 04).

342 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 TRADING ECONOMICS. Retrieved June 04, 24. 2016, from http://www.tradingeconomics. Wheeler, M. (1999). The Macroeconomic com/south-africa/government-spending: impact of government debt; An empirical http://www.tradingeconomics.com analysis of the 1980s and 1990s. Atlantic Usman, G. A., & Loganathan, N. (2016). The Economic Journal, 27(3), 273-284. causal nexus between government expen- Wu, S., Tang, J., & Lin, E. 2010. The Impact diture and economic growth in Nigeria: of Government Expenditure on Economic Evidence from a bootstrap rolling window Growth: How Sensitive to the Level of Devel- approach. The American Journal of Inno- opment? Journal of Policy Modeling, 32(6), vative Research and Applied Sciences, 16- 804-817.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 343 TECHNOLOGY AND WORKER MARGINALISATION: A CASE OF LOCAL E-GOVERNMENT AT CITY OF CAPE TOWN

S Makwembere

University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

Electronic government or e-government is becoming a significant development in South Africa’s post-apartheid public administration. This multidimensional phenomenon facilitates the increased use of information and communication technology and web based technology in government processes. With this, the nature of administrative and governance processes is shifting to rely more on these new technologies. In municipalities, the government to employee (G2E) e-government dimension especially facilitates the introduction of technologies to move back office operations from manual to electronic based processes. It focuses on supporting the transactions between government and its employees, for example, training and payroll. Further, it facilities the online exchange of information on work, performance, personnel and the development of employees. Using the case of the City of Cape Town, this paper explores what workers are experiencing of shifting dynamics of workplace control and demands due to local e-government (with a particular focus on the G2E dimension). It draws from interviews taken during a study where the sample of respondents were selected using purposive sampling based on the subjects’ knowledge and experience, snowball sampling following referrals and random sampling during site visits. The findings point to some of the challenges they experience. Given the scant literature available on the impacts of this form of e-government on municipalities, the paper seeks to uncover some worker realities within contemporary technological developments in South Africa. As government continues to look to new technology to promote better governance, a multifocal perspective which includes worker experiences of technology is necessary to understand the implications of new technologies for present day governance.

Keywords: Communication technology, E-government, Governance, Information and communication technology,

1. INTRODUCTION

E-government is one of the most significant developments in modern public administration, “both in practice and in concept” (Brown, 2005:241). It links to the growth of contemporary electronic forms of communication that are paperless and online. Governments promote it as a means to address service delivery, accountability, development and governance

344 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 challenges. In South Africa, e-government to extend control over the workplace to is still at an early stage (United Nations Pub- achieve public management outcomes lic Administration Network, 2014) despite and meet legislative imperatives, workers’ e-government strategies, policies, frame- experiences of this points to forms of mar- works and commitments. Its impacts on work ginalisation which pose a challenge to lo- and society are still being discovered. The cal government development plans. In multi-dimensional characteristics of e-gov- light of the historical trajectory of the de- ernment and models mean that it is under- mocratisation of the South African public stood and experienced in various ways at sector workplace, as well as the lingering different levels (Brown and Brudney, 2001; workplace challenges left by apartheid, Carter and Belanger, 2004; Siau and Long, such as a racially stratified workplace, the 2005; Evans and Yen, 2006; Baum, Yigit- findings point to a marginalisation of back canlar, Mahizhnan and Andiappan, 2008). office workers that needs further interroga- The government to employee (G2E) dition. mension in particular directs technological What follows is presentation of literature support to the transactions between gov- on new technology and workplace con- ernment and its employees, for example, trol. The study methodology is then pre- training and payroll. It includes the online sented. After this, a background on the exchange of information on work, perfor- City of Cape Town is provided to contex- mance, personnel, policy, career manage- tualise the findings. The findings are then ment and the development of employees offered. Pseudonyms have been given to (Fang, 2002). The nature of communica- the respondents. In conclusion some impli- tion is between different departments or cations of the findings for governance are employees, it facilitates decision making, discussed. negotiations and interactions on work and performance (Fang, 2002). The character- 2. NEW TECHNOLOGY AND STRUGGLES FOR istics of transactions involve online interper- WORKPLACE CONTROL sonal workflow, knowledge management, participation and exchange of person- Public administration has long been con- nel policy, solutions data and information cerned about the impacts of technology (Fang, 2002). In terms of workplace control, on public sector organisations. It has inter- it offers management with diverse ways to rogated areas such as external as well as control workplace behaviour. internal environmental influences driving technology (Reddick, 2012; Liu and Yuan, Taking the experiences of back office 2015), the influences of technology on workers and union representatives from the functions such as human resources (Red- City of Cape Town metropolitan, this paper dick, 2012) and the benefits of technolo- points to the experiences of marginalisation gy for citizen participation in governance due to new extensions of managerial con- (Liu and Yuan, 2015). What appears limited trol, disciplining of workplace behaviour are observations of the effects of technol- and an individualised labour process asso- ogy on the organisation of work or labour ciated with the G2E technological chang- process in public sector organisations. As es. As managers utilise G2E e-government a field, it does not point to a theory of its

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 345 labour process in the act of trying to con- man, 1974:68), would extend through tech- stitute that process through various means nology. Further, the Taylorist strategies he (Harney, 2002). By focusing on how to get observed were not simply about job de- workers to work harder (or smarter or more sign but about introducing systems that efficiently) it excludes the question of why extended control over labour. As a result, workers should want to work at all. Public the features materialising in the workplace administration, as a field, has traditionally then included a decline in craftsmen, de- separated the concern of its administration creased training levels, increased separa- and labour process (Harney, 2002). Even so, tion of physical and mental labour as well few in the field such as Colley (2011), have as increased inter-changeability of person begun to use labour process concepts to and task (Braverman, 1974). While Braver- enhance understanding on the effects of man viewed the labour process as a valo- public sector reforms on the workplace. risation process, his automatic connection between valorisation and deskilling re- Labour process debates point to some al- moved a far more complex understanding ternative perspectives to understand work- of the connections between the stages in place issues. Labour process theory itself is capital accumulation and changes in the not a theory of technology but a theory of labour process that include broader politi- the labour process within capitalism (Hall, cal and ideological dynamics (Elger, 1982). 2010). For over fifty years, labour process By overestimating Taylorism as well, Braver- theorists have recognised the introduc- man (1974) did not account for worker re- tion of technology at the workplace as a sistance to management strategies and managerial prerogative that labour may the introduction of non-Tayloristic strategies or may not resist. For over fifty years, sociol- because of this resistance (Wood and Kel- ogy of work literature has paved the way ley, 1982). Braverman (1974) gave much to interrogations on modern technologies attention to objective processes thereby in post-industrial contexts. In the 1970s, setting aside subjective dimensions of work Braverman (1974) raised concerns with the and workers (Sawchuk, 2006) whereas class-embedded nature of technology and there is a ‘practical indivisibility’ of the sub- its link to the organisation of work. Braver- jective and objective (Willmott, 1993). man (1974) observed an increasing general trend towards deskilling of jobs because Edwards (1979) posited a trend from simple of automation. Braverman (1974) held the to technical to bureaucratic control. Simple view that in the long-term, jobs progres- control would be exemplified by individual sively mechanised and routinised and thus, owners present on the shop floor reward- the working class increasingly became ho- ing and punishing behaviour. Technical mogenous. Through the separation of con- control involved “designing machinery ception from execution, Braverman (1974) and planning the flow of work to maximise perceived management as gaining mo- the problem of transforming labour power nopoly over knowledge to control every into labour as well as maximise the purely stage of the labour process and its mode physical based possibilities for achieving of execution. Control, as the “central con- efficiencies” (Edwards, 1979:112). The as- cept of all management systems” (Braver- sembly line exemplified this system. Techni-

346 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 cal control would not only restrict workers veal the preoccupation of workers to de- but created the potential for worker resis- vise and pursue strategies and tactics to tance and militancy through shared ex- “beat” the employer in issues such as bo- periences of work (Friedman, 1977). Cap- nuses or to organise workplace activities to ital, however, remained vulnerable to the favour employees (Burawoy, 1979). The op- workforce (Friedman, 1977). The workplace portunities taken to gain small victories not itself comprised a constant potential for only award workers with material rewards disorder (Hyman, 1975). The idea that man- but enhance a sense of choice in and con- agement commands and employees sub- trol over the organisation of work. “Workers mit had limits. The limits of management’s are sucked into the game as a way of re- authority and workers’ obedience had to ducing the level of deprivation” (Burawoy, be viewed as imprecise and shifting (Hy- 1979:199) then enter a situation where they man, 1975). Edwards (1979) argued that “strategise their subordination” (Burawoy, worker resistance to technical control led 1979:10). The conflict over the control over to bureaucratic control. Bureaucratic con- the labour process results in changes to trol established “the impersonal force of organisation structures and even technol- company rules or company policy as the ogy. He supported an incorporation of ‘ob- basis for control” (Edwards, 1979:152) and it jective’ and ‘subjective’ analyses arguing became the most commonly used control for an examination of “how the process of method. It involved the use of job security production shapes the industrial working and other tactics to evoke worker loyalty to class not only objectively - that is, the type the company and its rules. of labour it carries out - but also subjective- ly – that is, the struggles engendered by Burawoy (1979) suggested that the work- a specific experience or interpretation of er’s labour process would be experienced that labour” (Burawoy, 1985:8). as an “encounter with technology and regulations that are imposed externally By the 1990s, Ackroyd and Thompson and impersonally” (Giddens, 1981:193). (1999) offered less prescriptive observa- He questioned “Why do workers work as tions about the characteristics of worker hard as they do?” (Burawoy, 1979). He action by suggesting that workplace re- showed how workers come to consent to sistance could be described as “organ- their own exploitation through mischief, the isational misbehaviours” (Ackroyd and use of games and informal rules of “mak- Thompson, 1999). They described organi- ing out” to achieve autonomy (Burawoy, sational misbehaviour as “anything you do 1979). Cooperation in most workpalces beat work you are not supposed to do” (Ack- came prevalent leading to “participation royd and Thompson, 1999:2). Resistance in choosing that generates consent” (Bura- would take place, not in response to ex- woy, 1979:27). Workers’ consent arose from ploitation and domination, but when tech- the organisation of workplace activities in nological changes (or other changes) take a way that workers perceive themselves as place too quickly (Ackroyd and Thompson, having choices. Workers would be active 1999). They found that a range of misbe- subjects in the processes of subordination haviours or gaming exist in the workplace. and exploitation. Shop floor “games” - re Some examples include a failure to work

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 347 hard, practical joking, deliberate work out- preferences within the organisation (Sturdy put restriction and sabotage (Ackroyd and et al., 2010). By being oneself, the individ- Thompson, 1999). They found that defin- ual becomes bound to the organisation. ing “misbehaviour” is essentially a matter For the most part, “neo-normative control of “perspective and definition” (Ackroyd aims to enhance the enjoyment of the job and Thompson, 1999:164). The manner it is via the freedom of identity and emotion- identified and prosecuted has “to -be un al expression surrounding the work perfor- derstood in terms of structural imbalanc- mance rather than through it” (Sturdy et es of power” (Ackroyd and Thompson, al., 2010:121). 1999:164). New technologies mean a wider range of More contemporary labour process inves- control relations that “attempt to control tigations have observed that with increas- and coordinate the activities of organisa- ingly sophisticated monitoring technolo- tions across teams, business units, division, gies, new forms of control are becoming sites, regions and countries, not to mention evident. In his examination of call centres supply chains and networks of various kinds” as ‘info-service’ work, Russell (2009) re- (Hall, 2010:177). In his studies of the impact vealed how ICT use leads to changes in skill, of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) on worker stress, emotional labour, increased work organisation, business process and work intensity and challenges for employ- organisational performance, Hall (2010) ee representation (Russell, 2009). He found found that ERPs enhance the scope, depth that managerial use of ‘culture’ to control and effectiveness of managerial control. the labour process assumes a “larger sig- He argued that they integrate technical, nificance in the absence of physical flows” bureaucratic and normative forms of con- (Russell, 2009:165). The primary means of trol by compelling standardised business managerial control of knowledge work is processes on workers and labour processes the regulation of employees’ ‘self’ rath- (Hall, 2010). As such, ERPs “represent a new er than work tasks or work flows (McKinlay control strategy that is fundamentally sys- (2006:245). temic” (Hall, 2010:174).

Sturdy, Fleming and Delbridge (2010) iden- Kristal (2013:361) observed how labour’s tified forms of neo-normative control in the share within different industries (non-agri- contemporary world of work. Neo-norma- cultural and manufacturing) has declined tive control involves importing the personal overall due to the “erosion in workers’ po- values and characteristics formed outside sitional power” partly due to “class-biased the organisation to extract more from work technological change”, namely comput- performance (Birken, Menz and Kratzer, erisation, which favours employers over 2013). While the goal of normative control most employees. On the other hand, she is to make the employee individual identi- observed a rise in capitalists’ profits share. ty compatible with the company identity She found that workers lose their power to (Birken et al., 2013), with neo-normative represent their interests. Kristal (2013) iden- control, employees are encouraged to tified the indicators of positional power as express their personal eccentricities and unionisation, capital concentration (that

348 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 is, the consolidation of capital accumula- knowledge and experience, snowballing tion), import penetration (that is, imports following referrals and random sampling from low-wage countries as a share from during site visits. Guided by interpretivist the industry’s value add) and unemploy- philosophy, the paper describes the social- ment in the overall private sector (Kristal, ly constructed meanings of what these em- 2013). She argued that a “class-biased ployees experienced rather than explain technological change” where the focus is their behaviour. on “classes’ positional power in the labour 4. THE CITY OF CAPE TOWN process” (Kristal, 2013:369) could explain the inequality dynamics between unions City of Cape Town evolved from an amal- and capital. In her view, computerisation gamation of seven autonomous municipal- was responsible for supporting class-biased ities in 2000. It inherited a number of organ- technological change (Kristal, 2013). She isational challenges with the merger. These argued that “computer-based technol- included a large workforce of about 27 ogies are not class-neutral but embody 000 employees, lack of internal organisa- essential characteristics that favour capi- tional structure at all levels, an absence of talists (and high-skilled workers), while erod- a performance management system, dis- ing most rank-and-file workers’ bargaining parate conditions of service, lack of a skills power” (Kristal, 2013:369). As technology development plan, outdated and inade- evolves, the sociology of work concepts quate back office systems, different finan- and analysis can add to public administra- cial systems and databases and a lack of tion concepts to investigate e-government a business model on service delivery (CoCT impacts. IDP, 2002/03; CoCT IDP, 2003/04). The City sought to become a “smart city for all the 3. METHODOLOGY people” (CoCT IDP, 2002/03:20). It planned The methodological practices to inves- to use an IT enablement strategy where IT tigate e-government are still growing. would be aimed at ensuring effective ser- Many e-government studies use positiv- vice delivery, customer friendly and citizen ist research approaches and quantitative orientedness, reduced bureaucracy, re- methods which require no face to face en- duced transaction costs, cheaper services gagement (Heeks and Bailur, 2007). Oth- and improved decision making (CoCT IDP, ers combine quantitative and qualitative 2002/03). To enable this, a “Smart City strat- methods (Heeks and Bailur, 2007). This pa- egy” was developed as the framework to per extracts evidence generated from a position the City’s technological advance- case study approach used to generate dif- ments. ferent data on the unique experiences of At present, City of Cape Town is labelled employees in their own contexts. Different as one of the most modernised municipal- case study methods, namely interviews, ities implementing an IT enabled strategy surveys and observations, were used. The for service delivery. The main system that is sample of respondents were selected from the back-bone of operations is SAP. It com- the Corporate Services directorate using presses about 420 business processes and purposive sampling based on the subject’s deals with approximately 1.2 million consol-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 349 idated invoices per month (Saran, 2013). It cesses by the corporate information system has been a crucial part of institutional per- through automating of business processes. formance management. Electronic human For management, the information systems resources and time management systems serve better decision making, encourage are part of SAP. As features of the Organ- a more “customer friendly and citizen-ori- isational Development and Transformation ented” approach, reduce bureaucracy, Plan, there were great expectations that bring down transaction costs and provide they would deal with problems such as un- cheaper services. accounted absences and cumbersome Workplace matters, including matters recruitment processes. The e-HR delivera- around technological changes, are dealt bles include: with at local labour forums (LLFs). These are • Productivity – biometric time and atten- established under a South African Local dance system Government Bargaining Council agreement (2009). The forums are meant to • Self-service – management and em- have equal representation from the trade ployee self-service unions and employer. The trade union rep- • E-services – external portal for electronic resentation is divided in proportion to their recruitment (Pick, 2011) membership at the municipality. The City has two representative unions, the South In the 2008/2009 financial year, the City African Municipal Workers’ Union (SAMWU) prepared to fully implement all SAP HR and the Independent Municipal and Allied processes, based on SAP best practice, to Trade Union (IMATU). The employer repre- improve HR business processes. This would sentatives consist of councillors and man- be implemented over a three-year period agers. They meet at least once a month to and provide a management and employ- discuss an agenda jointly compiled through ee self-service tool (a SAP-ERP functional- consultation with the parties. ity) (CoCT IDP, 2008/09). The SAP Manager Self-Service (SAP MSS) web-based tool provides managers with a single access point 5. INCREASED MONITORING AND WORK- for information to carry out management PLACE MISBEHAVIOURS tasks such as cost and budget responsibilities and administrative and planning For employees at the City, they witnessed tasks. Information from back-end systems enhanced monitoring. In response to a and processes is then accessible to man- question on how he felt being monitored us- agers. The SAP Employee Self-Service (SAP ing the biometric time and attendance sys- ESS) allows staff to handle salary related is- tem, Employment Equity employee Zethu sues, manage business travel and expens- Dee admitted: “I used to forget this clock- es, administer personal information, and ing in and clocking out so I would just walk access organisation information. The City away” (Zethu Dees, Professional Officer, 15 increased the use of ICTs in its administra- July 2013). When he joined the organisation tion. It brought the back-end of depart- at the beginning of 2012, he did not imme- ments in line with corporate business pro- diately adhere to the rules on clocking in

350 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 and clocking out and ignored the CoCT being introduced to monitor work but raised signs reminding employees to adhere to concerns about how managers might use the system. These notices read ‘HELLO. this against workers. HAVE YOU CLOCKED IN?’ (with ‘clocked in’ Speaking about her experiences of resis- in red). They had a picture of three charac- tance to the time and attendance system ters (a woman dressed in office clothes, a at the workplace, Administrative Officer man dressed in a suit and a man dressed Lesley Brown stated: in a work suit and hard hat) with their arms raised and index fingers pointed up. Be- There is so much resistance and negative low the characters read ‘STAY IN TOUCH’. attitude from employees because when it These were positioned at all entrances with comes to behavioural issues, that is where a biometric scanner as a reminder. As one the organisation is lacking. People are be- exited offices, they would be met by ‘HAVE ing treated like machines, they say, ‘you YOU CLOCKED OUT?’ signs. should do this’ no matter how you feel about it, just do it. It ignores the emotional Although Zethu Dees reported improve- part of things … it’s all about the systems ments in his clocking in and clocking out (Lesley Brown, Administrative Officer, 9 July practices, he observed “People, when they 2013). want to leave early, they just walk past [the system] and say ‘I won’t do that’ (that is, She suggested that people were expected clock out)” (Zethu Dees, Professional Offi- to adhere to whatever technologies were cer, 15 July 2013). Despite the system being introduced without a consideration of how in place, not all members of staff adhered people feel. This neglect of employees’ to it. The system could not completely elim- feeling caused there to be resistance and inate practices of not abiding to the work- a negative attitude amongst employees. place rules on clocking in and out. Worker misbehaviour was evident. From a mangers’ perspective, Senior Man- ager Wilma Jack emphasised the impor- When questioned on how he felt about tance of the time and attendance system further technologies being introduced to to manage her staff movements. She stat- monitor work, Zethu Dees responded: ed:

I guess for purposes of productivity that will If a person has been off, you know. You be a good initiative … to make sure people can see that. Also, in terms of the return of don’t just sit there and are really not pro- investment, it has assisted the City get back ductive … Except … I’m not sure what the a lot of money because now you cannot [ill] intentions of the managers would ac- just stay away without anybody knowing tually do to you … If really it monitors the where you are. Remember, we are man- productivity, maybe to some degree it will aging twenty-eight to thirty thousand em- assist people to focus on what they are do- ployees including non-permanent staff ing (Zethu Dees, Professional Officer, 15 July employees in the City … you can imagine. 2013). Before we implemented the clock system [time and attendance system], people He was not averse to further technologies

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 351 were just coming and going whenever mance management system (Alice Kruger, they want (Wilma Jack, Senior Manager, Middle Manager, 19 July 2013). Similarly, 17 July 2013). Ruth Chile acknowledged that the access of her clocking in and out times information She spoke of how the time and attendance to others on SAP meant she had to adhere system helped in managing CoCT human to the system, especially because this was resources budget and a more accurate included as a measure in the performance account of whether people arrive to work. management linked to bonuses (Ruth Before the system, it was difficult to -man Chile, Senior Manager, 8 July 2013). age the movement of employees. 6. WORKPLACE CONTROL AND COLLECTIVE Alice Kruger, a middle manager in Com- RESISTANCE LIMITATIONS munications, shared how she believed new technologies had depersonalised Unions play an important role in protecting work. She said: “People feel threatened. To worker interests but financial and human the City I’m just a number, my salary, my resource constraints meant that the unions staff number … It’s almost like you lose your at the City had not been able to devel- identity” (Alice Kruger, Middle Manager, 19 op their own capacity to pre-emptively July 2013). Further, she stated: respond to G2E technological changes as they took place. They could not mirror The whole thing of clocking in with your fin- structures management had established ger (shakes head). I understand why the for itself to be knowledgeable about new City had to do it, but what did we sacrifice technologies, for example, LOGICT. As in good will? It says you don’t trust me. I, who such, the unions’ capacity to meaningful- has been working here for 21 years, why do ly negotiate with management over tech- you want me to clock in every morning and nological changes was limited. Speaking clock out every afternoon? (Alice Kruger, about SAMWU’s capacity to deal with Middle Manager, 19 July 2013). technological changes, shop steward She felt that the time and attendance sys- John Dube perceived managers as better tem neglected important aspects of indi- positioned to deal with these because they viduals such as their loyalty and trustworthi- had the means to attend numerous train- ness. While she understood the reason for ings on various new technologies and spe- the system (to improve public accountabil- cifically form committees to deal with the ity), she seemed to believe that her many issues. He stated: years with the CoCT were not considered. Are we (union leadership) getting the train- Alice Kruger also reported that the monitoring we should be getting to equip the shop ing of manager performance had contrib- stewards to be able to advise that this is uted to a sense of pressure on managers. the best piece of equipment and analyse She believed that there was little room for (shakes head). We are not on an equal error for managers; they had to clock in footing. Deliberately so by the employer and out as they had to account for their … They only need a shop steward when own performance according to the perfor- there’s a crisis they can’t resolve (John Dube, SAMWU shop steward, 18 July 2013).

352 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 In his view, shop stewards were not re- fluences that technology has on the work- ceiving the level of training they needed place and people as well (Greg Spielberg, to meaningfully contribute to discussions IMATU shop steward, 8 July 2013). with the employers over technologies. He A man in his 20s, he pointed out that the viewed this as a deliberate tactic by the older more senior union officials were not employer. Unions found their roles confined concerned about technology in the work- to manager needs. place. He attributed this to their level of Speaking about the internal human ca- education and also a lack of understand- pacity challenges unions faced, shop stew- ing of how technology affected the work- ard Greg Spielberg said: place and workers.

I don’t see technology play a big role in Likewise, John Dube pointed to capacity the union yet. The senior management of issues in SAMWU to deal with discussions the union are still old school, they’re more around G2E technologies like SAP. He crit- straight for the people, labour relations, un- icised the union for “not integrating mod- fair treatment of workers and so on. So with ernisation and taking shop stewards to the union systems, there are still huge gaps school” (John Dube, SAMWU shop steward, to the union getting involved in technology 18 July 2013). He emphasised: issues (Greg Spielberg, IMATU shop stew- These cadres (shop stewards) should also ard, 8 July 2013). go to the universities … The unions should He believed that technology played a mi- take care of their shop stewards and mem- nor role in union affairs. Technology issues bers … We (CoCT) have an Employment were superseded by condition of service Equity, Education and Training sub-com- matters such as pay and hours of work. He mittee to look at levels of qualifications and suggested that the unions had to address knowledge systems for our shop stewards its own internal limitations, namely a union to be able to challenge managers with de- leadership that did not seem to take an in- grees etc. etc. (John Dube, SAMWU shop terest in technology related matters. steward, 18 July 2013).

Further, Greg Spielberg suggested that the He highlighted the importance of improv- age of the union leadership contributed ing the qualification levels of shop stewards to the perspectives they held about tech- as well as the knowledge systems the unions nologies and therefore the type of action had to support these shop stewards. He they led when it came to e-government. believed this would greatly assist with the He stated: union capacity issues. Already he had observed “internal issues, leadership squab- The IMATU guys, a lot of the older guys, I bles, where at meetings it’s about positions stand under correction, but a lot of them and privileges” (John Dube, SAMWU shop probably don’t have degrees. Technology steward, 18 July 2013). He described the is not a big deal for them. I still see people union leadership as having access to “cosy typing with one hand and one finger. Age offices” and cautioned that they “should is a factor. People don’t understand the in- not be mesmerised by this cosiness” and

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 353 fail to address the internal difficulties af- he had been working there. However, he fecting the manner that they tackled the expressed that he did not see the point of matters affecting their shop stewards and some of these changes. When asked about members (John Dube, SAMWU shop stew- the role the union played in the discussions ard, 18 July 2013). around these changes, he stated:

Citing an example of his own skills devel- As a shop steward, I don’t really think it’s opment predicament, John Dube noted our place to fight about technology. We how his full-time shop steward status did are more labour relations. We give feed- not guarantee he could return to work for back … Technology is not a priority. There the CoCT. He thought that while the oper- are other issues that are far more import- ations of the CoCT had benefitted from his ant (Greg Spielberg, IMATU shop steward, position, he believed that if he wished to 8 July, 2013). return to work for the CoCT this would be He did not believe that unions were in a difficult. Not only did the nature of the job position to dispute the technologies being differ from jobs in Corporate Services de- introduced under e-government. Instead, partments (where he used to work) but he there were other matters that were more felt the union position did not provide the of a priority. He identified these as labour kind of skills, especially technology related relations issues related to conditions of ser- skills that could enable him to reintegrate vice such as pay and work times. into the CoCT. He expressed in dismay: Echoing John Dube, IMATU shop steward If I’m never exposed to training all these Lenny Boza also pointed to the union’s lack years, how do I then come back? I would of protest against SAP. He stated: apply but I’m not current and the employer doesn’t recognise the type of work I’m With regard to SAP, we had no control over doing (John Dube, SAMWU shop steward, it. We had to go with the times. The employ- 18 July 2013). er convinced us then we never challenged any introduction of SAP as IMATU (Lenny Already in his 50s, he believed that because Boza, IMATU shop steward, 19 July 2013). of his union position he would not likely be able to return to work for the CoCT. He felt Reflecting on how SAMWU reacted to the that the skills he had gained from his role introduction of SAP and other technolo- were not transferable. SAMWU did not use gies, he stated: systems as complex as SAP and it was only when he was at the CoCT offices that he We’re challenged. Do we have time to fo- could access the SAP system. cus on issues where we’d get torn apart over running battles in all directions and There had been no recent record of pro- therefore not get anything done? (shakes test over e-government developments. In his head) We’re being challenged at that an interview, IMATU shop steward Greg level (John Dube, SAMWU shop steward, 18 Spielberg observed how the City had in- July 2013). troduced a number of new technologies under e-government over the years that He revealed that the unions faced chal-

354 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 lenges on which issues to focus on as they the increased degree of technological had numerous matters to deal with. He be- control pervasiveness is becoming evident lieved unions risked not making progress if in the public sector workplace. Organisa- they put their effort into every issue they tional misbehaviour may occur as a means came across. Further, he observed what for administrative workers affected to resist he believed was a general trend towards changes. However, the indirect form of re- reduced union power. He added: sistance has no collective strength only individual significance as it provides a means The union used to be very powerful, they to channel a level of dissatisfaction. could demand whatever because they worked as a united front … This is how the Control of the workplace will continue to labour politics has turned out in this country; be a necessity for management. A number the unions are really under immense pres- of challenges plague South African public sure and then how do you respond to these sector workplaces, namely maladministra- situations without being labelled as caus- tion and misuse of funds. Certainly, tech- ing harm to the economy, driving away in- nologies that monitor workers can alleviate vestors? … You become the scapegoat for these problems. However, managerial con- the lack of leadership to meaningfully en- trol cannot escalate to a point where inter- gage and realise the need for better em- actions become completely impersonal. ployment conditions (John Dube, SAMWU Although e-government might not be driv- shop steward, 18 July 2013). en to extend control over the labour pro- He implied that the unions were not as pow- cess but rather mean public outcomes, erful as they used to be. He had attributed the extension of control and related con- this to the technologies and technology sequences are unavoidable. Extensions of policies as well as pointed to what he be- control through technologies will need to lieved was the nature of labour politics in occur in a manner that does not increase South Africa where the unions hesitated to the risk of professionals leaving the organi- respond to membership concerns for fear sation. Already administrative workers have of being labelled negatively. In addition, more labour market opportunities because he raised concerns about what he felt was they possess a high level of skill. It would a marginalisation of workers and their con- be pertinent at this early stage of e-gov- cerns as a result of what he perceived as ernment that the objectives of control be reluctance by unions to be confrontational interrogated to ensure that the strategies on contemporary workplace matters. followed enable workers to have enough flexibility without compromising public sec- 7. IMPLICATIONS OF E-GOVERNMENT FOR tor outcomes. Management might be able THE MUNICIPAL WORKPLACE to monitor movements and link these to 7.1 Enhanced monitoring and reduced au- performance management but as long as tonomy it remains a challenge to quantify administrative work, performance management E-government technologies affect differ- needs to be managed in a manner that ent levels of workers in diverse ways and will not lead to a major loss of highly skilled

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 355 workers who will undoubtedly be replaced doing more than this. For unions to ensure by expensive consultants. a more just, democratised workplace, they will need to capacitate themselves to en- 7.2 Diminishing union inclusivity gage over e-government matters. Their de- Unions have traditionally been viewed as sire should not only be to be consulted on obstructions to public service reforms. A the introduction of technologies but they major assumption is that their concerns are should have an on-going independent in- on increasing salary packages for workers. terest in technologies given the fact that Bread and butter issues are a predominant certain levels of workers most affected by focus not only because of the social and the technologies might not always be able economic positions workers find themselves to be organise themselves. in but also because the limited capacity 8. CONCLUSION to engage in contemporary technology challenges confines them. The rapid pace E government is introducing a variety of of technological changes in the workplace forms of management control. The extent means that the unions are not always able to which the technologies are used to con- to understand the implications of these trol the workplace varies and is becoming and their collective power is compromised. increasingly complex. Despite these expan- Management has the prerogative to intro- sions of control, workplace resistance can- duce technologies but within the public not be entirely eliminated. This resistance, sector workplace, the unions are an im- for different reasons, arguably represents portant partner for development. The pub- struggles with reduced autonomy and lic sector ultimately functions to achieve workplace exclusion as opposed to mo- outcomes that cater to needs and realise tives to get rid of new technologies. Thus, rights. Municipalities must function for the how e government will change organisa- public good and unions have to be includ- tional relations and processes in the future ed in discussions on what this might mean. is an area for further research. The inclusion of unions in matters of tech- LIST OF REFERENCES nological change cannot be allowed to diminish to a point where the union com- Ackroyd, S. and Thompson, P. 1999. Organi- pletely finds no space to represent workers. sational Misbehaviour. London: Sage.

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358 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 COMPLIANCE TO PROCUREMENT PROCESSES, DEVIANT BE- HAVIOUR AND EFFECTS ON SERVICE DELIVERY IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR

HE Zitha Limpopo Provincial Treasury MP Sebola and MA Mamabolo University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

This paper investigates compliance to procurement processes and its effect on service delivery in the public sector. Public procurement non-compliance has triggered a lot of debate in recent years. Due to colossal amount of money involved in government procurement and the fact that such money comes from the public, there is a need for accountability and transparency. In order for government to realise the provisions of section 195 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 government departments are required to comply with the rules, regulations and prescripts governing procurement of goods and services. For instance, in 2011, five Provincial Departments in Limpopo Province were put under administration in terms of Section 100 (1) (b) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (1996). Procurement was mentioned as one of the weaknesses that contributed to the impasse. According to Smart Procurement (2011), despite the reform processes in public procurement and employment as strategic tool, there are predicaments in South African public procurement practices. This paper is conceptual in nature and it explores the deviant human behaviour in relation to procurement compliance. There are various theories that did an exploration on the deviant behaviour of human beings which is the centre focus of the study. However the paper will focus on social bond theory given the relevancy of their exposition to the study. The paper concludes that only compliance to procurement guidelines will ensure service delivery, in South Africa public services. system which is fair, equitable, transparent, 1. INTRODUCTION competitive and cost-effective. Despite In terms of section 217(1) of the Constitu- the reform processes in public procure- tion of the Republic of South Africa (1996) ment and the introduction of Supply Chain when an organ of state in the national, Management (SCM) as a strategic tool for provincial or local sphere of government, addressing socio-economic imbalances of or any other institution identified in national the apartheid regime, there are predica- legislation, procure contracts for goods or ments in South African public procurement services, it must do so in accordance with a practices, for example non-compliance

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 359 with procurement and SCM related legisla- the behaviour of individuals such as soci- tion and policies as well as tender irregular- etal norms, values and customs, however ities (Smart Procurement, 2011). It is against it does not consider the control exercised this background that the aim of this con- by these individuals over their social envi- ceptual paper is to investigate compliance ronment. Reckless (1961) echoes the same with procurement processes and its effect sentiments by indicating that the individual on service delivery in the public sector. This is so isolated in contemporary society – so paper will keep the relevance of its discus- free to move from one context of external sion to the following, the social bond theory, control to the other or even to escape from legislative frameworks governing procure- most of it – that internal control is the more ment, pillars of procurement, challenges of basic factor in conformity. Thus advocat- compliance to procurement, complex leg- ing for the notion of internalisation which islative requirements an impact of compli- he refers to it as the process by which so- ance to procurement. cial norms are taken so deeply into the self as to become a fundamental part of the 2. THE SOCIAL BOND THEORY personality structure (Reckless 1961). Tit- As cited by Defee, Williams, Randall and tle (1995) made an innovative insight that Thomas (2010), good research should be people are not only objects of control but grounded in theory. There are various the- also agents of control. In his social control ories that did an exploration on the devi- theory, he postulates that each person has ant behaviour of human beings. But for the a certain amount of control that he or she purposes of this conceptual paper focus is under and a certain amount of control based on social control theory given the that he or she exerts. relevancy of its exposition to the study. So- This paper argues that the establishment cial control theory was developed by Travis of different law enforcement agencies, Hirschi in 1969, and it is also known as the chapter nine institutions, and development social bond theory. According to Hirschi of policies and strategies aimed at dealing (1969), social control theory proposes that with corruption alone cannot suffice, there people’s relationships, commitments, val- is a great need for officials to regard com- ues, norms and beliefs encourage them not pliance as necessary. There is a need for to break the law. He posits that individuals individuals to reawaken the internal eye break the law due to a breakdown with- which will make them shying away from in their societal bond and maintain that deviant behaviour. The theory postulates weak containing social systems results in that if moral codes are internalised and in- deviant behaviour. This theory is in line with dividuals are tied into, and have a stake in the exposition of the conceptual paper on their wider community, they will voluntari- the value of exemplification of ethical be- ly limit their propensity to commit deviant haviour as one of the key enhancement acts. This implies that the power of internal strategies to compliance (Dintwa, 2012). means of control, such as one’s own con- Contrary to the social control theory, Tittle scious, ego, and sensibilities about right (1995) posits that control theories generally and wrong are powerful in mitigating the focus on the factors that restrain or control likelihood that one will deviate from social

360 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 norms. According to Hirschi (1969) social provincial or local sphere of government, bond is much like a dam holding back or any other institution identified in national floodwaters; social bonds keep individuals legislation, procure contracts for goods or safe from crime. He argues that if the dam services, it must do so in accordance with cracks or breaks, then criminal motivations a system which is fair, equitable, transpar- can flood these individuals and no barrier ent, competitive and cost-effective” (Van exists to prevent them from offending. The Gruenen and Van Niekert, 2010). Therefore next presents the legislative frameworks any procurement action in public sector will governing procurement system and ser- be measured against this constitutional im- vice delivery in South Africa. perative, failure to satisfy the requirement will constitute non-compliance to procure- 3. LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORKS GOVERNING ment processes, policies and procedures, PROCUREMENT SYSTEM IN SOUTH AFRICA thus undermining the constitution itself. As advocated by Hanks, Davis and Perera 3.2. Public Finance Management Act No 1 (2008) public procurement operates within of (1999) a highly legislated environment set by national government and extended to prov- The Public Finance Management Act, No inces and local government bodies by spe- 1 of (1999) governs financial management cific policies, legislation and regulations. practices in South Africa and establishes This section is limited to acts, legislative and a regulatory framework for Supply Chain policy frameworks which give guidelines on Management within national, provincial the compliance to procurement processes and state owned enterprises. According and the enhancement of service delivery to Purera and Turley (2014), this act makes in South Africa. provision for the use of procurement as a policy tool, and following the aforemen- 3.1. The Constitution of the Republic of South tioned five pillars contemplated in section Africa (1996) 217 of the Constitution of the Republic of Under the constitutional supremacy, the South Africa, 1996. According to Zitha and Constitution of the Republic of South Afri- Mathebula (2015) adherence to this Act by ca, (1996) is the bedrock for compliance procurement officials will see government with regard procurement of goods and procuring goods and services at market re- services and a yardstick through which ser- lated prices, thus optimising the quality of vice delivery can be measured. Section public service delivery. 195 (1) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (1996) spells out democratic values and principles governing public administration. The public service as an instru- 3.3. Preferential Procurement Policy Frame- ment of governance as contemplated in work Act, No 5 of (2000) section 217(1) of the Constitution of the Re- public of South Africa, 1996 provides for the Parliament approved the Preferential Pro- basis of procurement and determines that curement Policy Framework Act No.5 of “when an organ of state in the national, 2000 and its revised regulations to adhere

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 361 to the requirements of the Constitution of services. the Republic of South Africa, 1996. This act 3.6. Private Security Industry Regulation Act gives effect to the government priority of (2000) empowering designated categories of persons through preferential treatment in Bidders in the security industry have to com- procurement activities. ply with Private Security Industry Regulation Act (PSIRA) (Act No.56 of 2001). The Act 3.4. Preferential Procurement Regulations regulates the Private Security Industry and (2011) to exercise effective control over the prac- Part 2 (3) (a-b) of the Preferential Regula- tice of the occupation of security service tions, 2011 states that “an organ of state providers in the public and national inter- must, prior making an invitation of tenders, est and that of the Private Security Industry properly plan for, and as far as possible, ac- itself. This minimises the undesirable conse- curately estimate the costs of the provision quences of appointing security companies of services, works or goods for which an in- without minimum requirements prescribed vitation of tenders is to be made and; de- by PSIRA Act resulting in security companies termine and stipulate the appropriate pref- failing to protect government property. erence point system to be utilised in the 3.7.Promotion of Administrative Justice Act, evaluation and adjudication of tenders”. 2000 In putting these regulations into effect, departments are required to have procure- The Promotion of Administrative Justice Act ment plan which must be approved by the (PAJA) (Act 3 of 2000) gives effect to the accounting officer. The procurement plan right to administrative action that is lawful, if used appropriately can be the master- reasonable and procedurally fair and to piece for planning within the procurement the right to written reasons for administra- environment. tive action as contemplated in section 33 of the Constitution of the Republic of South 3.5. Construction Industry Development Africa, 1996. Through this Act, the disquali- Board (2003) fication of bidders and the passing over of The Construction Industry Development bids (not awarding the bid to the bidder Board Act (CIDB) (Act 38 of 2003) provide who scored the highest bidder) can only for the establishment of the Construction be done if such decision is fair, reasonable, Industry Development Board; to implement justifiable and can stand the test of time if an integrated strategy for the reconstruc- tested before the courts of law. Although it tion, growth and development of the con- has often prolongs the timelines for finalis- struction industry. Compliance to this Act ing bids, however it does protect the state will see government contracting compa- against possible litigations which might nies that have requisite skills and capability arise out of error in judgement as well focus to execute construction projects thus en- much on administrative compliance and hancing the delivery of sustainable quality compromise substance. Failure to comply with this act results in litigations that often

362 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 comes at a hefty cost at the expense of service delivery in South Africa was seen as service delivery. an instrument that will bring about efficiency and effectiveness in the provisioning of 4. POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR ENHANCING services. According to Nengwekhulu (2009) SERVICE DELIVERY the introduction of public service delivery As echoed by Nzimakwe and Mpehle policy was a response to high expecta- (2012), the South African government has tions which accompanied the emergence committed itself to service delivery through of a democratic South Africa. According the enactment of various legislative frame- to the Department of Public Service and works and the creation of an enabling Administration (1997), the White Paper on environment for service delivery. Accord- Transforming Public Service Delivery, 1997 ing to Maluka, Diale and Moeti (2014) the introduced eight principles which became most significant policies in this regard are the compass in terms of which success or the White Paper on the Transformation of failure of public service delivery is assessed. the Public Service (1995), the Public Service The eight Batho Pele principles to be com- Regulations (2001) and the White Paper on plied with aimed at promoting people first, Transforming Public Service Delivery (1997). set the framework for the type of service quality that citizens can expect. These prin- 4.1 The White Paper on the Transformation ciples include consultation, value for mon- of the Public Service (1995) ey, redress, the development of service The White Paper on the Transformation of standards, access to information, openness the Public Service enacted in 1995, had and transparency, as well as courtesy. as purpose the establishment of a policy 4.3 The Public Service Regulations (2001) framework to guide the introduction and implementation of new policies and legis- Furthermore, section two of the Public Ser- lation aimed at transforming the South Af- vice Regulations (2001) includes the code rican public service (Nzimakwe and Mpeh- of conduct, which issues guidelines for the le, 2012). conduct of public officials’ relationship with the legislature and the executive, the public and another employees, as well as 4.2 The White Paper on Transforming Public performance of their official duties and the Service Delivery, 1997 conduct of their private interests. The code of conduct prohibits an employee from us- The White Paper on Transforming Public ing his or her official position to obtain gifts Service Delivery, 1997 was introduced with and benefits for herself or himself during the the aim of transforming the overall public performance of his/her official duties. Sec- service institution and service delivery (Ma- tion three of the Public Service Regulations luka, Diale and Moeti, 2014). On the other (2001) requires senior managers (equiva- hand, Nzimakwe and Mpehle (2012) regard lent of a director) in the public service to the White Paper on Transforming Public Ser- declare their personal financial interests vice Delivery, 1997 (Batho Pele) as a policy in private or public companies, director- framework that would revolutionise public ships and partnerships, ownership in land

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 363 and property, gifts and hospitality received ernment procurement process since it (Public Service Commission, 2013). Without gives each bidder an equal chance of compliance to this act, officials will see their obtaining government business. There- private interests overtaking their interest to fore this principle must be incorporated serve the public which puts service delivery into the procurement process of govern- in jeopardy. ment departments since procurement thrives on real competition. Therefore, compromising this pillar compromises 5. PILLARS OF PUBLIC SECTOR PROCUREMENT the quality of services that must be rendered to the citizenry of South Africa. According to Ambe and Badenhorst-Weiss (2012), the pillars of public sector procure- • Ethics and fair dealings: Procurement ment forms the base for compliance to officials are required to recognise and procurement processes by procurement deal with conflicts of interest or poten- officials. According to the General- Pro tial thereof, ensure that they do not curement Guidelines issued by National compromise the standing of the state Treasury public sector procurement thrives through acceptance of gifts of hospital- on five pillars, namely; value for money, ity. According to Munzhedzi (2016), ac- openness and transparency, ethics and ceptance of gifts and hospitality com- fair dealings, accountability and reporting, promises the good standing of the state, and equity (National Treasury, 2005). It is thus suffocating the ethical cord and important to highlight that they are viewed throws fair dealings off the window. Ig- as pillars because collapsing one of them noring the value of this principle will see means that the procurement system will fail bids awarded to cronies, families and which introduces range of procurement ills friends which compromise the quality of with multiplier effect on service delivery. services.

• Value for money: Procuring without en- • Accountability and reporting: According suring that government receives good to the General Procurement Guidelines quality services for the amount spent issued by National Treasury (2005) ac- cripples service delivery. Forsaking this countability and reporting involves en- principle will result in government pro- suring that individuals and organisations curing services at exorbitant prices are answerable for their plans, actions which such funds could have been used and outcomes. It provides accountabil- enhance service delivery in other needy ity chain in terms of reporting, thus stipu- areas. In this regard best value for mon- lating that openness and transparency ey is the best available outcome when in administration, by external scrutiny all relevant costs and benefits over pro- through public reporting is an essential curement cycle are considered. element of accountability. Accounting Officers takes overall accountability for • Open and effective competition: Asner procurement decisions and should en- (2006:7) advances that fair and open sure that decisions made are justifiable competition is the cornerstone of gov- and in the best interests of the organisa-

364 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 tion (Muchainyerwa, 2013). (2001) and Kanyane (2005) conflict of interest occurs when personal interest comes • Equity: The word equity within the con- into conflict with an obligation to serve the text of public sector procurement guide- interest of the public. According to Reed lines means the application and obser- (2008) conflict of interest must be properly vance of government policies which understood as a situation and not an ac- are designed to advance persons or tion, and he argues that a public official categories of persons disadvantaged may find him or herself in a conflict of interest by unfair discrimination. The Preferen- situation without behaving corruptly. How- tial Procurement Policy Framework Act, ever, such conduct constitutes an abuse (Act 5 of 2000) has been enacted to le- of public office for private advantage and gitimise giving preference to designat- may hold a potential for non-compliance ed groups of people in an intention to with procurement regulations, which affect address equity in the country. Accord- the delivery of quality services to the peo- ing to Muchainyerwa (2013), as far as ple. possible procurement decisions should be based on an objective evaluation of 6.2. Lack of procurement officials with req- all bids in terms of the set criteria. Fail- uisite skills ing to adhere to the principle of equity Van Zyl (2006) noted that non-compliance disables government from achieving its to procurement processes and procedure is objective of distributing the wealth of attributable to lack of requisite skills, capac- the country equitably which impacts on ity and knowledge of the workforce to be service delivery. able to fully implement procurement func- 6. COMMON CHALLENGES ON COMPLI- tion across various spheres of government. ANCE TO PROCUREMENT PROCESSES BY Compliance with procurement processes PROCUREMENT OFFICIALS requires a degree of knowledge base with regard to procurement processes. This can According to Langseth (2000) common be linked to the accretion by Eyaa and challenges on compliance to procure- Oluka (2011) that non-compliance with ment processes by procurement officials procurement processes is attributable to manifest itself in various forms, however this three variables which are professionalism, paper will unpack the hub of compliance familiarity with procurement regulations challenges that procurement officials are and institutional factors. They argue that in experiencing whilst executing their daily re- the absence of the procurement profes- sponsibilities which have an impact or ef- sional having a sound knowledge of pro- fect on service delivery. curement indicators, there is likelihood of 6.1. Conflict of interest non-compliance with procurement regulations and rules of any organisation. Conflict of interest is at the centre of non-compliance to procurement process- 6.3. Lack of proper procurement planning es which has an adverse effect on service The outcomes of the evaluation by the delivery. According to Grundstein-Amndo Public Service Commission (2009) reveals

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 365 that there is lack of proper planning by It is the view of the researcher that the in- programme managers and procurement troduction of Central Supplier Database officials whereby they neglect demand (CSD) by National Treasury will go a long management roles and responsibilities. The way in addressing the above anomalies. above give rise to range of shortcomings 6.6. Complex legislative requirements with negative impact on service delivery. Procurement plans remains a critical tool to Furthermore, complex legislative require- enhance planning, however it is quite of- ments that public procurement process is ten used for malicious compliance (com- subjected to also contribute to non-compliance for the sake meeting the set time- pliance. According to Gelderman, Ghijsen lines) by departments. and Brugman (2006) public purchasers will comply with rules they perceive as clear. 6.4. Cancellation of bids The contradictive nature of frameworks According to Limpopo Provincial Treasury, governing procurement processes contrib- Practice Note No. SCM 8 of 2006, the trend utes to the impasse. This implies that ten- of cancelling bids prior to the award, due derers must comply with all the conditions, to poor planning defeats government’s failure which results in the invalidation of objective of ensuring that the procurement their offers. On the other hand section 33 process is done in a cost-effective man- of the Constitution of the Republic of South ner. Cancelling and re-advertising of bids Africa, 1996 i.e. the Promotion of Admin- comes at a cost of which such funds were istrative Justice Act (PAJA) holds that the supposed to have been used to fastrack solicitation, evaluation of public tenders service delivery. amount to administrative action. The act introduces a concept of form and substance 6.5. Not having a credible supplier data- in the evaluation and adjudication of pub- base lic tenders. Making such a judgement call National Treasury Practice Note No 08 of requires massive interpretation which could 2007/2008 issued in terms of section 76 (4) be subjective in nature. To date, this has (c) of the Public Finance Management been at a centre stage of inconsistency Act, 1999 prescribes that Accounting Of- with the procurement processes resulting in ficers/Authorities should compile a list of litigations which cost government millions. prospective suppliers to be used for the 6.7. Deviating from procurement process procurement of goods, works and services without valid reasons in line with the procurement thresholds. It further prescribes that once such a list has Amongst other compliance challenges been compiled, price quotations should within the procurement environment in- only be invited there from. The absence of cludes not inviting three quotations, devia- an electronic database gives officials an tions from competitive bidding without val- opportunity to rotate their preferred service id reasons, not requiring of tax clearance providers without the necessary capacity certificate, preference points system not to execute for personal gains which has the applied, awarding contracts to suppliers potential to affect the quality of services. who did not score the highest points and

366 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 non-existence of a prospective suppli- public procurement process and apply law ers’ lists (Auditor-General, 2011). Matthee appropriately towards the compliance of (2006)) re-affirms the report by the Auditor public procurement (Migosi, Ombuki, Om- General by indicating that in some cases buki and Evusa, 2012). the validity periods of bids are unduly ex- 7. IMPACT OF COMPLIANCE TO PROCURE- tended, there are inadequate controls and MENT PROCESSES ON SERVICE DELIVERY procedures in the handling of bids, drafting of ambiguous specifications. This becomes Given the above discussion, this concep- a fertile ground for corruption and has ad- tual paper deduces that the impact of verse effect of service delivery. compliance to procurement has multiplier effect on service delivery and it manifests 6.8. Failure to verify recommended bidders itself in various shapes and forms. The im- before award pact of non-compliance to procurement It is a requirement that before any final processes is discussed below: award is made, departments must subject 7.1. Undermining constitutional democracy the recommendable bidder(s) to a verifi- and the rule of law cation process with the South African Rev- enue Services, Company Intellectual Prop- As advocated by Pillay (2004) on the im- erty Commission, PERSAL, National Treasury pact of corruption on service delivery, fail- register for non-performing service provid- ure to comply with procurement processes ers and the National Treasury register for erode accountability, undermines the rule restricted service providers (Kwazulu-Natal of law and constitutional democracy, de- Provincial Treasury: 2010). National Treasury grade governance, dent public trust in the Instruction No.3 of 2014/15 with regard to state’s credibility and threatens ethics of tax compliance for persons conducting government. business with the state indicates that fighting with supply chain management relat- 7.2. Violent service delivery protests ed corruption and ensure that persons who According to Deloitte Tohmatsu (2003) conduct business with the state are afford- non-compliance to procurement processed no scope of abusing the supply chain es contains an element of inefficiency as management process. However compli- that it has direct financial loss and the lost ance with the above requirements remains time spent to rectify such inefficiencies. a critical challenge with adverse effects on Moreover, the resources that the organisa- service delivery. tion could be using for achieving its objec- 6.9. Lack of institutional support tives are diverted to the areas they were not initially intended for. Obanda (2010) indicates that low levels of institutional support have a detrimental 7.3. Poor quality service delivery effect on compliance with procurement According to Ambe and Badenhorst-Weiss processes. Strong support institutional sup- (2012) non-compliance to procurement port is needed by procurement personnel processes have a bearing on poor quality in order to promote integrity, monitor the service delivery in that they will be focus-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 367 sing on how much goes into their pockets delivery ability because it makes a huge rather than the quality of service that must dent in the public purse. As advocated by be rendered to the community. Munzhedzi (2015), the researcher is of the view that non-compliance to procurement 7.4. Waste tax payers’ money processes paralyses the state’s machinery As indicated by Mahlaba (2004) and Mun- for delivering services to the people. zhedzi (2013) with regard to the impact 8. STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING COMPLI- that corruption has on service delivery, it ANCE TO PROCUREMENT PROCESSES is the researcher’s view that non-compliance to procurement processes cost South The discussion hereunder focuses on strat- Africans tax payers hundreds of millions of egies to be employed by government rands each year. The assertion by Smart departments in order to enhance compli- Procurement (2011) that in 2010 South Afri- ance to procurement processes. It is the can government spent R26.4 billion in ways writers’s view that if the strategies can be contravening laws and regulation, and implemented it can contribute greatly in the fact that a large sum of government enhancing compliance to procurement money ends up in corrupt activities often processes thus impacting positively on ser- the procurement process becomes a clear vice delivery. evidence that non-compliance thrives, tax 8.1. Institutional mechanisms for enhancing payers money is at jeopardy. compliance to procurement processes 7.5. Contribute to the growing scourge of There are various mechanisms introduced unemployment and poverty by government to enhance compliance to Purera and Turley (2014) opine that with procurement processes. These include the government procurement representing 19 Public Protector, the Auditor-General, Pub- per cent of the Gross Domestic Product lic Service Commission. These institutions (GDP), it has a significant potential to be are established in terms of chapter nine of leveraged to address South Africa’s social, the Constitution of the Republic of South economic and environmental challenges. Africa, 1996. They are regarded as watch- It is in the same assertion whereby the re- dogs which keep government in checks searcher deduces that non-compliance and transform the society, thus safe guard- with procurement processes contribute in ing our constitutional democracy. Accord- the growing disparities between the rich ing to Naidoo (2012:667) these institutions and the growing scourge of poverty and are charged with ensuring that not only unemployment in South Africa. procurement officials, but public service in its entirety should conduct itself in line with 7.6. Destroys state’s machinery for service the values and principles enshrined in the delivery Constitution of the Republic of South Afri- Munzhedzi (2015) argues that if the link be- ca, 1996 and thus geared to promoting tween public sector procurement and cor- good governance. ruption is not adequately addressed, then the challenge will destroy the state’s service

368 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 8.2. Criminalising political interference livery. Such programmes must also include political office bearers so that they are able As advocated by Schapper, Malta and have a clear understanding on the impact Gilbert (2006) public procurement is con- of their political pronouncements. sidered an inherently a political sensitive activity. The research does not ignore the 8.4. Enforcement and visible sanctions relationship that exists between politics Enforcement and visible sanctions calls for and administration, however exposes the a decisive action that requires regulators impact that such relationship poses to to put in place measures to ensure com- the attainment of the objectives of hard pliance with procurement processes. Such fought democracy. The usage of political measures will ensure that the wound of power and public office by both ministers non-compliance to procurement process and political parties to receive clandestine does not become cancerous and pollute payments in government procurement ul- the whole public service delivery machin- timately interferes with the procurement ery. Zubic and Sims argue that enforce- process and thus constraint compliance ment action and increased penalties lead thereof. The introduction of the concept to greater levels of compliance. It is the re- “political mandate” in the public procure- searcher’s view that officials who are not ment circles has not gone unnoticed. Po- complying with procurement processes litical mandate is concept used when must be named, shamed and punished. procurement officials are given a list of companies that they must “take care of” 8.5. Exemplary leadership during the evaluation and award of tenders. It is against this background that this According to Mafunisa (2008), one of the paper proposes that government must powerful tools for enhancing compliance criminalise political interference. Therefore, is the exemplification of ethical behaviour without criminalising this menace, the at- by senior public employees. He further as- tainment of quality service delivery will yet serts that if unethical practices exist at the be another boardroom phenomenon that top of the hierarchy, they are likely to pen- will not be achievable. etrate the entire public service. Therefore, expecting compliance from procurement 8.3. Training and capacity building officials will remain a dream.

According to Munzhedzi (2013) public sec- 8.6. Integration of risk management into tor procurement is associated with lack procurement processes of proper knowledge, skills and capacity. The training and capacity building pro- Risk management is another area that has grammes must address the core issues in a bearing on non-compliance with regard procurement environment that has a neg- to procurement process. The findings by ative impact on non-compliance such as Ambe and Badenhorst-Weiss (2012) reveal planning, legislative framework, conflict of that there is a lack of internal control en- interest, as well as the impact of procure- vironment and the implementation of risk ment decisions (taken during evaluation mitigation procedures in procurement. Ac- and adjudication of bids) on service de- cording to Smart Procurement (2011) the

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 369 lack of internal control environment builds to procurement processes. a fertile ground for corruption to thrive with- 9. CONCLUSION in government departments which imped effective implementation of procurement Compliance with procurement processes function thus impacting on service delivery. remains a critical achievement through which government can achieve quality 8.7. Remuneration of procurement officials sustainable service delivery to its citizenry. Mafunisa (2002) and Klitgard (1997) are Literature revealed that although govern- of the opinion that economic factors can ment made strides in terms of introducing prompt non-compliance to procurement, legislative frameworks for enhancing com- whilst Klitgard (1997) and Clapper, De Jager pliance to procurement processes and also and Fourie (2002:30) further postulate that enhancing service delivery, it is however the less a public official is paid, the more important to indicate that there is still a lot likely such an official is susceptible to devi- that needs to be done to translate what is ant behaviour in an attempt to supplement on the paper into actions. his/her salary, thus constitutes non-com- LIST OF REFERENCES pliance with procurement processes. The aforesaid suggest that fair remuneration Akech, J.M., 2005. Development partners and recognition of the responsibilities as- and governance of public procurement in signed to procurement officials plays an Kenya: enhancing democracy in the ad- important role in enhancing compliance ministration of aid. International law and to procurement processes. politics. 37(4):829-868.

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Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 373 POWER RELATIONS AND THE PARADOX OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION AMONG THE SAN IN KHWEE AND SEHUNONG

K Molosi and K Dipholo

University of Botswana

ABSTRACT

The discourse of community participation has been popularised by both Government and Non-Governmental Organisations as a ‘technical fix’ to most community development problems. As such, participation is seen as a necessary condition for empowering grassroots communities such as the San in Botswana. However, despite this claims of empowerment, most often than not, the empowerment fostered under the rubrics of participatory development seems to be perpetuating the very disempowerment it seeks to combat among the San communities of Khwee and Sehunong. This paper seeks to explore how notions of power and power relations influence how the San perceive themselves in the social fabric, which in turn influences their perceived participation and conceptualisation of empowerment as embedded in the discourse of community participation. The data is from a qualitative multiple-case study using semi- structured interviews and focus groups. The findings suggested that since the San are considered to be socially inferior, they are not only left out of decision making and need to be integrated but most importantly, they are disadvantaged by the various institutional and relational structures which only serve the facilitation of selective empowerment.

Keywords: Community participation, Khwee, Non-Governmental Organisations, participatory development, Technical fix

1. INTRODUCTION ment problems at grassroots level, its ability to dismantle hegemonic structures that Community participation has become a condone unequal power relations among buzzword in the field of development as it the San and Tswana speaking groups has promises to make people at the grassroots been less examined. As observed by Co- central to development processes. It is be- binah (2011), power and power relations lieved that, with participation, there is likely are among some of the issues that control to be more success of development proj- and shape participatory practice. The dy- ects as communities will feel ownership and namics of power relations that shape inclu- commitment towards the projects. Howev- siveness and exclusion in the participatory er, even though community participation spaces for the San is critical for understand- is seen as a panacea to most develop-

374 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ing how the participants are perceived of the Government of Botswana is that no and how they perceive themselves in the group is more indigenous than others; all whole process. Batswana are indigenous except for those who are Batswana by naturalisation (Gov- This paper seeks to explore how hegemon- ernment of Botswana, 1993:29). The gov- ic structures and relations influence the ernment defended this position by claiming San’s perception of themselves, partici- that giving the San an indigenous status will pation and empowerment as embedded bring divisiveness in the society as this may within the discourse of community partici- give rise to negative even racist reactions pation. The rationale to focus on power re- from other segments of the society (Sau- lations in this paper is informed by the sub- gestad, 2001). This position has been con- ordinate-dominant ethnic relations existing tested as others believe that denying the between the San and the Tswana speaking San an indigenous status does not do them groups. Power in this instance is understood any good, but increases social inequality in relational terms, as a relationship be- issues. According to, Ditshwanelo (2006) for tween groups and individuals rather than instance, denying the San their indigenous an attribute- it is power over others (Mosse, rights and emphasising on ‘formal equali- 2007:7). In its relational sense, power is a ty’ which is based on seeing everyone in scarce resource which groups compete in the same form and treating people equally zero-sum games. It is on this basis that par- does not make people equal in terms of re- ticipation is explored in relation to power, sults. The fact that the San are treated just particularly the connection between pow- like everybody else is the very reason they er, voice/silence and ethnicity as well as the are being ridiculed because they are ne- structural forces at play (Parpart, 2004:177). glected, thus poor and oppressed (Molosi, Critical social theory has been used to pro- 2015). According to Saugestad (2001), in vide a theoretical framework for this pa- as far as development debates ignore the per. This theory argues that social relations history of the indigenous people, develop- are power relations. Hence, the extent to ment will always side-line them and mar- which an individual or community can in- ginalise them even further. fluence a development process depends History records that by the time when the on the power the individual or community Tswana speaking groups began to inhab- has (Cobinah, 2011). it the same area as the San in the eigh- teenth and nineteenth centuries, the San were made to live in the periphery as serfs 2. WHO ARE THE SAN AND THEIR POSITION (malata), while rising Tswana speaking WITHIN BOTSWANA SOCIETY? groups gained wealth and power (Mom- According to the historical accounts, the pati & Prinsen, 2000). According to Cha- San were the first people to inhabit what wawa (2015) the relationship between the is now called Botswana (Wagner, 2006). serfs and the masters provided the masters While they are generally considered as with exclusive rights to use the serfs for any an indigenous group, the official position form of service they deemed fit. As a - re sult, as the masters used the serfs to accu-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 375 mulate property, the serfs (San) remained sions and resources that affect their lives. poor and marginalised. The relations of Even though the concept of communi- inequality between the Tswana speaking ty participation promises some degree of groups and the San can be evidenced by beneficiary involvement in project plan- the complex unequally perceived statuses ning and implementation, it is fraught with of different ethnic groups, where some are vagueness in its definition, and ambiguities regarded as ‘inferior’ and others ‘superior’ in its interpretation. Cobbinah (2011:53) has (Datta & Murray,1989). observed that sometimes participation is confused with just representation whereby community members are just invited 3. THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNITY PARTICI- to meetings where they are meant to wit- PATION ness development decision making taking Participation simply refers to the engage- place. According to Molosi (2015) partici- ment and involvement of people at the pation at times comes in the form of con- grassroots level in decision making process- sultation where communities are informed es. Penderis (2013) distinguishes between of the decisions already taken and their participation as a means to achieve the position sought. This form of participation is objectives of development, as opposed problematic because it lacks the power to to participation as an end which stresses ensure that the community’s position is tak- empowerment and transformation to ca- en on board should they challenge deci- pacitate beneficiary groups in the devel- sions already taken. Mohan (2002) cautions opment process. Participation as an end is that participation as consultation and in- of great interest to this paper as it lays the formation sharing is only used by the domi- empowerment nature of the concept. nant to maintain the status quo and retain their privileges as they only allow the ‘have Participation according to Hickey and nots’ to be heard with no power to change Mohan (2004) should ensure the transfor- anything. mation of development practice by closing the gaps that have been causing so- In explaining different forms of participa- cial exclusion of the excluded groups. The tion, Arnstein (1969) noted that the conform of inclusion through the participation cept of participation takes different shades discourse is not a straightforward thing. For which differ in terms of where power and some, it simply means involving beneficia- control lies. Power and control in participa- ries in the planning and implementation tion practice implies that the greater the process through selective engagement bargaining power the better the oppor- while for those aligned with the ‘NGO tunity for a group’s voice to matter in the view’, participation is just a moral imper- development process (Cobbinah, 2011). ative which is a precondition for funding According to Arnstein, participation can (Green, 2000). According to World Bank be understood in terms of a typology that (1994: 6) participation is a process through ranges from citizen control (where commu- which stake-holders influence and share nities actively make decisions) to merely control over development initiatives, deci- consultation which is tokenistic.

376 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Participation takes place in a variety of raise common concerns that are not being spaces that are created by different peo- adequately addressed by authoritative fig- ple for different reasons. As suggested by ures (Penderis, 2013:116). Gaventa & Valderrama (1999), community 4. THE PARADOX OF PARTICIPATION AND participation is about power and how it is EMPOWERMENT exercised by different social actors in the spaces created for interactions between For the rights-based approach, the right the community members and development to participate is a basic citizenship right facilitators. As such, this spaces are not just which helps to protect and guarantee all ‘there’ and neutral, but are dynamic social other political, social, economic and cul- products humanly constructed means of tural rights through an empowered agency control and domination (Lefebvre, 1991). of citizens (Gaventa, 2004). From this view Foucault (1977) also draws our attention to point, participation has progressed from the fact that spaces are not homogeneous just a simple invitation offered to beneficia- and empty, but are sites of social relations. ries of development to a right (Gaventa & In this regard, spaces are defined by those Cornwall, 2001). As such, the proponents of who are invited into them, as well as those participatory development sell community who are doing the invitation. As such par- participation as a very critical component ticipatory spaces reflect power differentials of successful community development which determines the shape participation initiatives because it gives ‘voice’ to the can take at a particular point in time. communities. It is this ‘voice’ that leads to greater consciousness of abilities and possi- According to Cornwall (2002), participa- bilities of making a difference (Budiriwanto, tory spaces can be organic/ created or 2007). invited. Gaventa (2004) informs us that ‘invited’ participatory spaces are designed As observed by Green (2000), much of the and enforced by external forces and the literature on community participation and beneficiaries are invited to participate. The the kinds of programmes it legitimates, rests challenge with the ‘invited’ spaces of par- on a particular philosophical construction ticipation is that although it’s a common of participation as leading to the empow- form of participation, the dominant are erment of communities in the grassroots. still situated within a position of privilege as However, even though empowerment is ‘conveners’ of participation. As such, as the main basis for community participation the ‘invited’, you will have to play by the (Green,2000), the capacity of participato- rules created by the ‘convenor’, which ry development to bring about empower- can be disempowering (Cornwall, 2008). ment to people in the grassroots is in ques- The ‘convenor’ will have the latitude to tion, firstly because there is no detailed shape the boundaries of what is possible empirical evidence indicating that indeed and which interests can be pursued. The participation has brought empowerment ‘created’ spaces of participation are those to rural people (Cleaver,2001). Empower- claimed and constituted by citizen groups. ment in this instance refers to the capability These spaces are formed by the less pow- to influence social spheres and question the erful to challenge the more dominant or to status quo (Freire, 1972). Secondly, power

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 377 relations that stem from ethnicity are rarely nically efficient service delivery (Hickey & a focus of attention in the participatory de- Mohan, 2004:168-169). velopment literature. Gaventa (2004) cau- Both agency and resources form the peo- tions that if power relations are ignored, ple’s capabilities to live the lives they want. participation evolves as underhanded dis- Resources are not simply distributed based empowerment because in many develop- on dire need, but distribution is located ment programmes thought to be partici- on various institutions and relationships of patory, they are only participatory when power (Budiriwanto, 2007). Resources in this the ideas of the oppressed are aligned to context refer not only to material resourc- those of the oppressors. In fact, Cleaver es, but also human and social resources (2001:36) asks the proponents of partici- that help to exercise choice. As alluded by pation to be careful of entrenched beliefs Kabeer (2005), the way in which resources that participation is essentially good and are distributed is influenced by the abili- that its practice ensures success and issues ty to define priorities and enforce claims of power and politics must be ‘avoided as which is based on social power. Equally divisive and obstructive’. A further analysis important here is the people’s perception by Mwanzia and Strathdee (2010:4) has il- of themselves in as far as bargaining of luminated that one of the challenges with resources is concerned. The way people participatory development is that power is perceive themselves may influence what frequently delusional and conceals the ex- they say, how they say it and whether they tent to which participatory processes are are heard. As explained by Budiriwanto manipulative and marginalising rather than (2007:8) empowerment begins from within, liberating to disadvantaged people. it is rooted in how people see themselves, In this context, empowerment should be their sense of self-worth. understood as the basis for agency and resource bargaining in the communities. Agency is the ability to define one’s goals 5. METHODOLOGY and act upon them or a process by which choices are made and put into effect (Budi- This paper draws from a more comprehen- riwanto, 2007:7). Drawing from Freirean phi- sive qualitative study undertaken among losophy, people should be able to question the San in Khwee and Sehunong settle- the status quo and recreate their reality ments. Qualitative research approach was through conscientisation. Freire argues that used as it is considered to be more faith- the proper objective of participation is to ful to the social world as it allows data to ensure the ‘transformation’ of existing de- emerge more freely from context (Ger- velopment practice and, more radically, of gen& Gergen, 2000). Semi-structured in- social relations, institutional practices and terviews and focus group discussions were capacity gaps which cause social exclu- used to collect data. The use of these two sion. In this context, participatory devel- data collection methods were considered opment is directly intended to challenge to compensate for each method’s individ- existing power relations, rather than simply ual limitations and strengthen their advan- working around the power with more tech- tages as well (Shenton, 2004). Participants

378 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 were selected through purposive sampling 6. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS and snowball sampling techniques. A to- 6.1The meaning of participation tal of 36 participants were selected for in- depth interviews. In-depth interviews were It is evident from the findings that partici- categorised into three cohorts. The first co- pation is seen as a necessity in facilitating hort was made up of 12 San people from successful development projects and pro- each research site (Khwee and Sehunong) grams. Most participants of this study em- who are the recipients of a poverty allevi- phasised that participation is important in ation programme known as the Remote any development intervention because Area Development Programme (RADP). it gives the community a voice to be in The other groups of participants were vil- charge of their development processes. lage leaders and government community development workers. The village lead- However, even though there is common ers group consisted of councilors, chiefs acknowledgement of the empowerment and members of the Village Development ability of participation, this was understood Committee (VDC). There were eight partic- in two different ways. The different ways in ipants in this group. The other group – gov- which participation was understood de- ernment community development workers picted two different levels of decision mak- (GCDWs) – consisted of four participants ing power and control. Participation was who were mainly extension workers in edu- understood as consultation and as deci- cation and social and community welfare. sion making power. Both the interpretations It is important to note that in all the set- of participation imply different power levels tlements, both community development which have been explained by Ainstein’s workers and the councillors were from ladder of participation. Tswana speaking groups, thus non- San. Participation as consultation was main- For focus groups, participants were chosen ly popular among those participants with from among the RADP recipients group and education levels lower than the Botswa- the VDC. People chosen from these groups na Government Certificate of Secondary were later joined by eight people from a Education (BGCSE). This group conceived category for the purpose of this study was participation in terms of different shades termed the Village Mobilising Group. This of tokenism which represents a top-down group consisted of leaders of active groups development approach. They indicated in the village such as the Parents Teachers that they are actively involved in the de- Association, Community Home Based Care velopment processes because they are in- and Out of School Youth Group. formed about decisions made concerning their settlements as indicated in the follow- Nvivo software was used in the data anal- ing excerpt, ysis process. The data analysis followed the grounded theory data analysis procedures. We are actively involved in the RADP decision making. Whatever they plan to do, they inform us. There is nothing that is done without being informed and consulted.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 379 Even for projects, they tell us about them Tswana speaking who serve as both poli- and we choose amongst what they offer cy makers (councillors) and implementers (BNS3). (community development officers) at local level, are at the centre of the whole pro- This group equated consultation with deci- cess while the San are located within the sion making power, when they were in fact peripheries of power but made to believe only perceived as clients and consumers that they are in fact in control. According rather than equal partners in the develop- to Crewe and Harrison (1998) when those ment process. Paradath (2006) reminds us in a position of power locate themselves at that the only meaningful participation en- the centre of a participation process, they tails decision-making partnership, which consolidate their power and perpetuate does not only enhance development prac- the unequal social structures. As a result, tice but also contribute do deepening the unequal social structures may be perpetu- democratic process. Viewing participation ated and the status quo maintained as the in terms of consultation by some of the par- dominant groups advance their interests. ticipants may be reiterating the confusion that surrounds the definition of the concept Secondly, this San’s perception of what is of participation which is usually associat- participation may influence their ability to ed with any form of involvement offered engage with authorities because the way to beneficiaries of development projects people are perceived influences what (Cobinah, 2011). This view of participation they say, how they say it and how they per- is problematic for many reasons. ceive themselves (Cobinah, 2011). This has implications for the community’s agency Firstly, this view of participation shows how and empowerment because both agency the concept can be used to perpetuate and empowerment processes are rooted the very disempowerment it seeks to com- in how people perceive themselves and bat. Despite its claims of empowerment, its how others perceive them (Budiriwanto, interventions are premised on a denial of 2007). Borrowing from the work of Bourdieu the poor’s capacity to bring about chang- (1990), the construction of social reality is es for themselves, by themselves, there is determined by people’s position in the so- always development agency institutional cial space or habitus. It is this position that structures involved (Green, 2000:67-68). As influences a community’s ability to engage indicated in the findings, when superordi- with authorities or people seen to be supe- nate groups are involved, practices that rior to them. According to Molosi (2015) this only reflect false sense of power or control view of participation shows that the San may be confused with control and deci- might be seeing themselves as too power- sion making. Following from this, Gaventa less to question their ‘masters’ which leaves (2004) cautioned that in many develop- the status quo untouched. In fact, the dis- ment programmes thought to be partici- course of participation has been criticized patory, they are only participatory when because it fails to question the relational the ideas of the oppressed are aligned to and institutional forces at play, which may those of the oppressors. As suggested by continue to (re) produce unequal power the findings, the outsiders who are mainly relations.

380 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 The above statement can be explained by what Arnstein (1969) calls tokenism. Token- The other view presented meaningful par- ism according to Arnstein’s ladder of participation as decision making power and ticipation is a stage of information sharing control, where the community is seen as whereby the ‘uppers’ inform the ‘lowers’, equal partners in a development partner- and the latter are able to inform the ‘up- ship. This understanding was mainly aligned pers’. However, in this arrangement, the to those participants with education level decision making power remains with the at BGCSE and above. As indicated in the powerful as the ‘oppressed’ do not have following excerpt, some participants want- the power to challenge the dominant in ed to be located at the centre of power cases where opinions differ. According to and not the periphery. Molosi (2015) this is the same concept of When it comes to development, the com- participation and decision making as em- munity should take the lead in controlling bedded within the traditional kgotla sys- the process. Government should act on tem. Although the kgotla was believed to the priorities given by the communities, not offer the subordinated groups a chance whereby things are just thought up in high to voice their concerns, it was mainly the offices and we are told about them (BNS6). voice of the dominant Tswana speaking groups that was given priority because of The findings suggested that participants their social standing (Mompati & Prinsen, who viewed participation in terms of de- 2000). Following from this kind of structures, cision making felt that the way participa- groups considered inferior may end up tion is currently done is just used as a tool internalising their powerlessness and per- to grant development projects a stance of ceive them as ‘natural’. moral authority, while they are in fact only perceived as clients and consumers rather 6.2 Spaces of participation and power re- than equal partners in the decision mak- lations ing processes. It appears that even though The findings have shown that the interplay structures such as the Village Development of social relations seem to be critical in the Committee are recognised as platforms to way the San understand the concept of engage the community in development participation. There is evidence that due discussions and negotiations, the findings to their inferior social status within Botswa- suggests that VDC only plays a symbolic na society, their democratic right to partic- role in Khwee and Sehunong. This is indicat- ipate in decision making is compromised. ed in the following statement, For example, some participants explained Even at times when we are involved as the that because ‘ke masarwa’, even when Village Development Committee (VDC), they make suggestions they are rarely tak- when we are invited thinking that we are en on board. According to one partici- going to contribute our views, instead we pant, ‘…other people’s voice is always lis- will find that everything has been thought tened to, but for us it doesn’t matter, ‘ke about us and there is nothing we can con- masarwa’. The data suggests that the ‘ke tribute (FGK) masarwa’ connotation is used to highlight

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 381 San’s powerlessness as a class of no con- cent, 2003). Borrowing from Gramsci (1971), sequence. Based on this, it appears the invited spaces may serve as places of he- San have accepted the powerlessness be- gemony and platforms for control and re- stowed upon them by the Tswana speaking pression to preserve the status quo rather groups such that they consciously or sub- than an opportunity for citizenship and the consciously, keep reminding themselves of exercise of agency. who they are within the social ladder when Secondly, invited spaces are frequently re- it comes to participation. For instance, one duced to hierarchical sites of inequitable participants indicated that because the relations, which reproduce dependency San are mostly poor, they cannot initiate and undermine the potential for meaning- any engagement platforms, government ful participation and deliberation (Penderis, and other stakeholders should create such 2013). As explained by Budiriwanto (2007), platforms and engage with them. Freirian the process of empowerment is rooted in philosophy terms this scenario internalised how one see their self-worth. Hence, due oppression. According to Freire (1972) inter- to the norms and values that has over the nalised oppression is whereby the people time deprived the San an opportunity to be tend to normalise their discrimination and equals in the social rung, they may even see it as a part of them. This is not surprising not consider themselves with any capabili- because as explained by Penderis (2013), ty to engage Tswana speaking people and past experiences and social relations leave other development stakeholders on their their footprints even it participatory con- own terms as indicated in the following, texts. It’s difficult to initiate things on our own be- Although some participants valued partici- cause we do not have resources and also pation as decision making and control, the we do not know a lot of things. That is why findings suggested that they still preferred we continue to depend on outsiders who participation within the invited spaces. It end up bossing us around (BNK7) seems most of the participants believe that government and other stakeholders should be at the forefront and create spaces for participation and invite them to discuss Using Foucault (1980) to explain the preced- their lives. In this context, this group of San ing view, Foucault has argued that if in the believe that it should be community de- development process there is a dichotomy velopment workers and councillors who of those who are seen as developed/un- invite them to discuss their development, developed, those developed will be seen they seem not to want things done the oth- as the creator and giver of development er way round. This view of participation is while those underdeveloped are only ob- problematic. Firstly, the problem with the jects. This perhaps stems from the fact that invited spaces is that those who offer the being the recipient of generosity means to spaces have power over the spaces- they be ‘inferior’ to the one who gives because decide the form of participation. As such, when you ask for something, you make the people will be joining a game, the rules of person from whom you are asking great which have already been decided (Vin- (Saugestad,2001:218). This has implications

382 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 for participation because unequal power only be useful in furthering selective par- relations maintain the status quo of disem- ticipation. In this sense, transformation will powerment and powerlessness. need to take place even ‘upwards’ before those at the ‘bottom’ can have any reason to believe that they can have an effect. 7. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS It is also recommended that appropriate As indicated by Hickey and Mohan (2004), education should be used to help consci- the proper objective of participation is to entisation of the San so that they can en- ensure the ‘transformation’ of existing de- gage in self-reflection and action. For- ex velopment practice and, more radically, ample, education grounded on Freirean the social relations, institutional practices critical pedagogy ideas, which provides and capacity gaps which cause social skills and knowledge necessary to help the exclusion. However, if participation is just expansion of capacities to question deep done on an ‘add-on’ approach, with- seated disempowering social practices. out addressing power relations between Both formal and non-formal education can the San and the Tswana speaking groups, be utilized in this instance. San youth who empowerment though participatory de- have been exposed to different worlds and velopment is still a dream far from reach. education could be useful in taking the Measures should be put in place to help lead. the San to create their own world through meaningful participation. This is important because no person can empower anoth- LIST OF REFERENCES er, people should engage in their own em- Arnstein, S.1969. A ladder of citizen partici- powerment (Freire, 1972). As argued by pation. AIP journal. 216-214. Inglis (1997), there is a distinction between individuals being empowered within an ex- Bourdieu, P.1990. Structures, habitus,prac- isting social system and struggling for free- tices. In P. Bourdieu (Ed.), The logic of prac- dom by changing the system. tice. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Budiwiranto, B.2007. Pesantren and participatory development in Indonesia. Unpub- When viewed through the lens of a criti- lished Masters degree. Australian National cal social theory framework, the findings University: Canberra. of this study calls for a change of position, moving the San from the peripheries of de- Chawawa, M.2015. Fighting poverty within velopment where they are development the San community, in N.W. Raditloaneng objects, into the core where they would &M.Chawawa (eds),Lifelong Learning for have genuine control and decision-mak- Poverty Eradication. Switzerland: Interna- ing power as actors of development. How- tional Publishing. ever, if participation is implemented on an ‘add-on’ basis, without transforming the Cleaver, F.2001. ‘ Institutions, agency and social structure, development initiatives will the limitations of participatory approaches to development’. In B. Cooke & U. Kothari

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 383 (Eds.), Participation: the new tyranny? Lon- Books. don: Zed books. Gaventa, J., & Valderrama, C.1999. Partic- Cobbinah, J. E.2011. Barriers in community ipation, citizenship and local governance. participation and rural development. Un- background note for workshop on Strength- published Ph.D Thesis. University of Brad- ening Participation in Local Governance, ford: Bradford IDS, Cornwall, A.2002. Locating citizen partici- Brighton: 21–24, June. pation. Retrieved on 10 April 2016 from Gergen, M. M., & Gergen, K. J.2000. Quali- http://www.dfid.gov.uk tative Inquiry, Tensions and Transformations. Cornwall, A.2008. Unpacking ‘participa- In D. N. K & L. Y. S (Eds.), The Landscape of tion’: models, meanings and practices. Qualitative Reserach: Theories and Issues. Community development journal. 43(3), Thousand Oaks: Sage. 269-283. Gramsci, A.1971. Selections from prison Crewe, E., & Harrison, E. 1998. Whose devel- notebooks. London: Lawrence and Wishart. opment? An ethnography of aid. London: Green, M.2000. Participatory development Zed. and the appropriation of agency in South- Datta, A., & Murray, K.1989. The rights of mi- ern Tanzania. Critique of Anthropology, norities and subject peoples in Botswana. 20(1), 67-89. In J. D. Holm & P. P. Molutsi (Eds.), Demora- Hickey, S., & Mohan, G.2004. Towards par- cy in Botswana. Gaborone: Macmillan. ticipation as transformation: Critical themes Ditshwanelo.2006. 34th Session of the Afri- and challenges. In S. Hickey & G. Mohan can Commission of Human and Peoples’ (Eds.), Participation,from tyranny to trans- Rights. Item 9: Human Rights Situation in Af- formation? Exploring new approaches to rica [Press release] participation in development. London: ZED Books. Foucault, M.1977. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. London: Allen Lane. Inglis, T.1997. ‘Empowerment and emancipation’. Adult Education Quaterly, 48(1), Foucault, M.1980. Power/ Knowledge: Se- 3-17. lected interviews and other writings. Brigh- ton: Harvester Wheatsheaf. Lefebvre, H.1991. The production of space .London: Verso Freire, P.1972. Pedagogy of the oppressed. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Mohan, G.2002 Participatory Development in Desai, V. and Potter, R. B. (eds) The Gaventa, J.2004. Towards participatory governance: assessing the transforma- Companion to Development Studies, Lon- tive possibilities. . In S. Hickey & G. Mohan don: Arnold pp 49-54. (Eds.), Participation: From tyranny to trans- Molosi, K.2015. The world of development formation? Exploring new approaches to as experienced and perceived by the San participation in development. London: Zed 384 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 through the RADP: The case of Khwee and Penderis, S.2013. State–Society relations in Sehunong Settlements. PhD. University of the ‘South African Developmental State’: Glasgow Integrated Development Planning and Mompati, T., & Prinsen, G.2000. Ethnicity public participation at the local level. PhD, and participatory development methods University of Western Cape in

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Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 385 CONTRIBUTION AND CHALLENGES OF THE INFORMAL SECTOR TO JOB CREATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

L Mmotlana

University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

Since the discovery of the informal employment in Africa early in the 1970s, it has then been subject to many interpretation and debates in international development circles. Notwith- standing the debates and critiques, the informal employment sector has continued to be an essential fragment for economic growth and job creation. With the unprecedented level of redundancy in urban areas, informal economy provided an overabundance of populace with an opportunity to earn a living through Small and Micro Medium Enterprises (SMMEs). The informal employment sector has continued to grow strand by strand, absorbing as much labor force as it can, granting that it does not provide any health, financial and social security or benefits. It has though relentlessly continued to provide space for employment in unconventional manners. This is due to the fact that unlike formal sector, informal sector does not offer benefits like health insurance. Informal sector economy has over the years contributed to the economic growth of the country, though it has stagnated at 5% per annum. However, the exploitation of this niche – informal sector – was confronted by multifaceted challenges (high competition, low profit, not good operational structure etc.). The contribution the informal sector towards the economy and employment offers a niche that needs to be explored. Thus, the paper argues that with proper support and funding, informal sector economy has the potentiality to address the redundancy and economic growth in urban areas. The paper concludes that local municipalities must support informal sector through basic training on financial management, customer care and ways to expand the business in order to maximize the potential that it offers.

Keywords: Informal sector, economic growth, job creation, government, second economy

1. INTRODUCTION economy. Informal economy has over the years received a lot of attention in the de- Developing countries have over the years velopment lexicon and policy formulation, witnessed an exceptional population and South Africa is no exception (Laird, growth, thus accompanied with high un- 2015). The notion of the second economy employment rate and poverty. Due to high has been elaborated as the reality that unemployment rate, most people endeav- consists of mainly informal, marginalized, ored into informal sector as the second

386 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 unskilled economy, much populated and even criminal, economy (Vearey, 2012). popularized by the unemployed and un- The informal economy consists of a range employable labor force that could not be of informal enterprises and informal jobs absorbed by the formal economy (ANC (Vearey, 2012). While there are meaningful Today, 2004). In recent years, informed ways to classify various segments informal activists and researchers, including mem- sector, this comprises of self-employment bers of the global research policy network in informal enterprises, which is workers in Women in Informal Employment: Globaliz- small unregistered or unincorporated entering and Organizing (WIEGO), have worked prises, including: employers, own account with the International Labor Organization operators-both heads of family enterprises (ILO) towards broadening the earlier con- and single person operators, unpaid family ception and definition of the ‘informal workers. Then followed by the wage em- sector’ to incorporate certain types of in- ployment in informal jobs, which is workers formal employment that were not includ- without worker benefits or social protec- ed in the earlier conception and definition tion who work for formal or informal firms, (Chen, 2007). The recent definition pursues for households or with no fixed employer, to include the whole informality, as it is including: employees of informal enterpris- manifested in industrialized, transition and es. Other informal wage workers include developing economies and the real world casual or day laborers, domestic workers, dynamics in labor markets today, particu- unregistered or undeclared workers some larly the employment arrangements of the temporary or part-time workers, industri- working poor. The aim of this definition is to al outworkers (also called homeworkers) extend the focus and include not only en- (Chen, 2007). The informal economy can terprises that are not legally regulated but be assisted and be given support in the also employment relationships that are not form of financial services, business support legally regulated or protected. In brevity, services and training, and these are nation- this new definition of the ‘informal econo- al government competences. The Depart- my’ focuses on the nature of employment ment of Trade and Industry, for example is in addition to the characteristics of enter- tasked with growing small businesses, in- prises. It also includes informal employment cluding informal enterprises while the De- both within and outside agriculture. Under partment of Labor is tasked with providing this new definition, the informal economy training services. Further, local government is comprised of all forms of ‘informal em- plays a particularly important role in shap- ployment’, that is, employment without ing the environment that those working labor or social protection both inside and in the informal economy operate. In the outside informal enterprises, including both post-apartheid period local government self-employment in small unregistered en- has been given greater independence terprises and wage employment in unpro- and new roles and responsibilities. Of rele- tected jobs (Chen, 2007). vance to informal economy management and support, the 1996 Constitution commits There is a prevalent misconception that local government to promoting local eco- the informal economy is somehow illegal nomic development (Skinner, 2006). or is the equivalent of the underground, or

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 387 2. WOMEN AND MEN IN THE INFOR- non followed by many developing coun- MAL SECTOR tries. However, due to the pressure given to men that they should and must be pro- The challenge with compiling statistics on viders within their households, unorthodox the size, composition and contribution of methods of receiving income have been the informal economy is hampered by the employed by men in developing countries. lack of sufficient data. This is due to the This involves their involvement in illegal min- ever changing and evolving nature of the ing, wood work and even street vending. informal sector (Chen, 2007; Zhao, 2008). High involvement of women in informal While many countries have now undertak- sector especially in survivalist connotes the en a survey on employment in the informal unappealing plight of women with house- sector, very few countries undertake these holds. Informal sector play an important on a regular basis, as it is not seen to be the role in uplifting the status quo of women most necessary and beneficial sector in the (Wollack, 2011). Though South Africa should economy. Furthermore, only a handful of not make a rush and premature decision countries have collected data to measure to see informal sector as a panacea to the informal employment outside informal en- manifestation of unemployment. terprises and their contribution towards the economic sector. In addition, the available data is not comprehensive and does not 3. THE ROLE OF INFORMAL ECONOMY make conclusive decisions (Skinner, 2006; Chen, 2007). In measuring informality, agri- TOWARDS JOB CREATION culture continues to be excluded by many The informal sector has been recognized as countries, though it forms an integral part of an important aspect and functioning of or- informal sector economy (Chen, 2007). The ganization and economies (Dickson, 2008). informal sector is generally a larger source It contributes in immeasurable ways toward of employment for women than for men in creating new work, wealth creation, pov- the developing world (Chen, 2001). Oth- erty reduction and income generation for er than in North Africa, where 43 per cent both government and individuals. Schum- of women workers are in informal employ- peter in 1934 argued that the informal ment sector, 60 per cent or more of wom- sector is very significant to the growth and en non-agricultural workers in the develop- development of economies (Keister, 2005; ing world are informally employed (Chen, Garba, 2010). There is a general consensus 2007). In Sub-Saharan Africa, 84 per cent of that the performance of informal econo- women non-agricultural workers are infor- my is important for both economic and so- mally employed compared to 63 per cent cial development of developing countries. of men; and in Latin America it is a stacking From the economic perspective, informal 58 per cent of women in comparison to 48 economy provides a number of benefits per cent of men. In Asia, the proportion is through Small and Micro Enterprises (SME’s) 65 per cent for both women and men. The (Advani, 1997). The informal economy has belief that women play an integral part in been noted to be one of the major areas reducing poverty has been a phenome- of concern to many policy makers in an at-

388 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 tempt to accelerate the rate of growth in the quality of life would prevent migration low-income countries. Through the SME’s of the residents of the rural communities to it has been recognized as the engine the urban centers. through which the growth objectives of de- The implication of this is that it will create veloping countries can be achieved (Abor employment opportunities thus leading & Quartey, 2010). The existence of SMEs to greater reduction in social maladies or within the sector seems to have advantag- vices. The wide spread and acceptance es over their large-scale competitors in that of informal economic and entrepreneur- they are able to adapt more easily to mar- ship education is a clear indication of its ket conditions, given their broadly skilled usefulness and importance in the present technologies. They are able to withstand realities. The development of the informal adverse economic conditions because of economic sector will go a long way in pro- their flexible nature (Kayanula & Quartey, viding the necessary stimulus for economic 2000). growth and development. It will be crucial The informal economic sector is more labor in boasting productivity, increasing com- intensive than the formal economic sector petition and innovation, creating employ- and therefore has lower capital costs as- ment and prosperity and revitalizing econ- sociated with job creation (Anheier & Sei- omies (Ritche & Lam, 2006). The informal bel, 1987; Liedholm & Mead, 1987; Schmitz, sector contributes towards the economy 1995). Since SMEs are labor intensive, they through the goods or services produced are more likely to succeed in smaller urban for which they are paid for by consumers, centers and rural areas. Due to their region- through generation of economic activities al dispersion and their labor intensity, it can such as buying, selling and marketing of argued that, small-scale production units goods and services rendered. The people can promote a more equitable distribution within the informal sector are considered of income than large firms (Abor & Quar- entrepreneurs, the heroes and heroines in tey, 2010). They also improve the efficiency the economic sphere within their commu- of domestic markets and make productive nities (Imafidon, 2014). The informal- eco use of scarce resources, thus facilitating nomic sector acts as an agent of social long-term economic growth (Kayanula and economic transformation by providing & Quartey, 2000). Informal employment entrepreneurship in SME’s. In recent years, sector has constantly contributed towards the informal economic sector is recognized poverty reduction, for instance, the Fed- as a critical element in the development eral Government had since 1999 been in- process of nations. In developing countries jecting funds into different skills acquisition in particular, the informal economic sector programmes, small businesses, support for is being vigorously advocated for because the informal sector through provision of of its potential to: credit facilities for boisterous economic ac- • Create jobs through the formation tivities at the rural community level (Ima- of new enterprises especially small fidon, 2014). This is a decision in the direct and medium scale enterprise. direction as majority of the population live in the rural areas and an improvement in • Raise productivity through various

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 389 forms of innovation. technical skills and it provides flexible working hours and working environment (Chen, Jhabva & Lund, 2001; Pendleton, Crush • Facilitate transfer of technology or & Nickanor, 2014). The threats faced by the adaptation of existing ones. those who work in the informal economy also differ by their employment status, by • Harness resources that might oth- the industry or trade in which they are en- erwise remain idle and put them into gaged, and by the wider social, econom- productive use. ic, and political context in which they live • Stimulate growth in those sectors and work. However, four broad general- which supply it with inputs. izations can be made in this regard. Firstly, those who work in the formal and informal • Reinvigorate large scale enterprises economics face the same general threats, and also public enterprises. notably: illness, property loss, disability, old • Encourage and sustain economic age, and death. However, informal workers dynamism that enables an econo- often face greater exposure to these gen- my to adjust successfully in a rapidly eral threats given the nature of their work changing global economy and en- and living conditions. Secondly, those who able individuals to use their potential work in the informal sector face greater and energies to create wealth, inde- work-related threats than those who work in pendence and status for themselves the formal sector do. Dependent informal in society (Imafidon, 2014). workers face little assurance or guarantee of work, low wages or earnings, few worker benefits, and unsafe or unhealthy working conditions. Independent informal workers 4. THE PROSPECTS AND THREATS OF often have insufficient market information, THE INFORMAL SECTOR skills, or power and, therefore, less access The prospects and opportunities enjoyed to existing or emerging market opportuni- by those who work in the informal econ- ties. Thirdly, those who work in the informal omy differ by their employment status, by sector typically have fewer mechanisms – the industry or trade in which they are en- including access to formal financial instru- gaged, and by the wider social, econom- ments – for dealing with threats than those ic, and political context in which they work. who work in the formal sector do (Chen, However, as a general rule, informal wage Jhabva & Lund, 2001). Despite the poten- workers enjoy fewer career opportunities tial role of informal sector through SMEs to than formal wage workers; and informal accelerated growth and job creation in entrepreneurs enjoy fewer market opportu- developing countries, a number of bottle- nities and are less competitive that formal necks affect their ability to realize their full entrepreneurs or businesses. The prospects potential. SME development is hampered of the informal sector are that it accom- by a number of factors, including finance, modates any person of any age, race or lack of managerial skills, equipment and gender, it does not necessarily require technology, regulatory issues, and access

390 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 to international markets (Anheier & Seibel, start-up costs for firms, including licensing 1987; Steel & Webster, 1991; Aryeetey et al, and registration requirements, can impose 1994; Gockel & Akoena, 2002). The lack of excessive and unnecessary burdens on managerial know-how plays a significant SMEs within the informal sector. threat on SME development. Even though The high cost of settling legal claims, and SMEs tend to attract motivated managers, excessive delays in court proceedings ad- they can hardly compete with larger firms. versely affect SME operations. In the case The scarcity of management talent, prev- of Ghana, the cumbersome procedure for alent in most in rural and under developed registering and commencing business are areas of South Africa, has had a magnified key issues often cited. The World Bank Do- impact on SMEs (Abor & Quartey, 2010). ing Business Report (2006) indicated that it takes 127 days to deal with licensing issues and there are 16 procedures involved in li- Furthermore, the lack of support services censing a business in Ghana. It takes longer or their relatively higher unit cost can ham- (176 days) in South Africa and there were per SMEs’ efforts to improve their manage- 18 procedures involved in dealing with li- ment, because consulting firms are often censing issues (Abor & Quartey, 2010). not equipped with appropriate cost-ef- Meanwhile, the absence of antitrust legis- fective management solutions for SMEs. lation favors larger firms, while the lack of Besides, despite the numerous institutions protection for property rights limits the infor- providing training and advisory services, mal sector with access to foreign technolo- there is still a skills gap in the SME sector gies (Kayanula & Quartey, 2000). Previously as a whole (Kayanula & Quartey, 2000). separated from international competition, This is because those involved in the infor- many SMEs are now faced with greater mal sector cannot afford the high cost of external competition and the need to ex- training and advisory services while others pand market share. However, their limited do not see the need to upgrade their skills international marketing experience, poor due to complacency. In terms of technol- quality control and product standardiza- ogy, the informal economy often has dif- tion, and little access to international part- ficulties in gaining access to appropriate ners, continue to impede SMEs’ expansion technologies and information on available into international markets (Aryeetey et al., techniques (Aryeetey et al., 1994). In most 1994). They also lack the necessary infor- cases, informal economic sector utilize formation about foreign markets. One import- eign and indigenous technology with a ant problem that SMEs often face is access scarce percentage of shared ownership to capital (Lader, 1996). Lack of adequate or leasing. Regulatory constraints also pose financial resources places significant- con serious challenges to informal economic straints on SME development. Cook and sector development and although wide Nixson (2000) observe that, notwithstand- ranging structural reforms have led to some ing the recognition of the role of informal improvements, prospects for enterprise development remain to be addressed at the firm-level (Abor & Quartey, 2010). The high

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 391 sector in the development process in many athy & Mandal, 2015). However, potential developing countries, informal sector de- providers of finance, whether formal or in- velopment is always constrained by the formal, are unlikely to commit funds to a limited availability of financial resources to business which they view as not being on a meet a variety of operational and invest- sound footing, irrespective of the exact na- ment needs. A World Bank study found that ture of the unsoundness. Lack of funds may about 90% of small enterprises surveyed be the immediate reason for a business fail- stated that credit was a major constraint ing to start or to progress, even when the to new investment (Parker et al., 1995). more fundamental reason lies elsewhere. Levy (1993) also found that there is limited Finance is said to be the “glue” that holds access to financial resources available to together all the diverse aspects involved in smaller enterprises compared to larger or- small business start-up and development ganizations and the consequences for their (Green et al., 2002). growth and development.

The role of finance has been viewed as a critical element for the development of 6. POLICIES TO HELP ENHANCE THE IN- SMEs (Cook & Nixson, 2000). A large portion FORMAL ECONOMIC SECTOR of the informal sector does not have ac- There needs to be an existence of a de- cess to adequate and appropriate forms bate on policies, as to who should be in- of credit and equity, or indeed to finan- volved in the policy formulation and who cial services more generally (Parker et al., should the policy accommodate and ben- 1995). In competing for the corporate mar- efit. There must be policies from -the na ket, formal financial institutions have structional and local government with specific tured their products to serve the needs of legislation, regulations, or sectorial policies large corporates. Requirements such as to be enforceable in a manner and style identifying a product and a market, ac- that conforms to the policy intent towards quiring any necessary property rights or li- the informal sector (Chen, Jhabva & Lund, censes, and keeping proper records are 2001). In developing an overall policy the all in some sense more fundamental to issues to be addressed by policy makers running a small enterprise than is finance in consultation with various stakeholders (Green et al., 2002). Some studies have include: What stance should the govern- consequently shown that a large number ment take towards the informal sector? of small enterprises fail because of non-fi- What segments or categories of the infor- nancial reasons. Other threats that the in- mal economy are being targeted? Which formal sector face include: lack of access specific areas of policy should be reformed to appropriate technology; the existence to conform to the overall policy? How of laws, regulations and rules that impede should the policy analysis be carried out?. the development of the sector; weak in- Government needs to analyze what their stitutional capacity and lack of manage- current stance, implicit or explicit, towards ment skills and training (Sowa et al., 1992; the informal economy is, and then decide Aryeetey et al., 1994; Parker et al., 1995; what their future stance should be. There Kayanula & Quartey, 2000; Patnaik, Satp-

392 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 is range of possible stances illustrated by generation is slight, as clients and consum- local government stances towards street ers require services that are at their conve- vendors - they include: nience (Dewar, 2005). By understanding and weighing the potentials of individual • dismissive: that is, to ignore the traders, the provision of markets increases issue (e.g. hoping street vendors their capacity to capture central, more via- will go away and ignoring their ex- ble, locations. The local government needs istence) to include the growing physical large num- • punitive: that is, to eliminate (e.g. bers of the informal traders and operators evicting street vendors forcefully into their spatial development areas and or voluntarily) framework.

• restrictive: that is, to contain (e.g. issuing a limited number of permits Another form of assistance with which local and restricting vending sites) authorities should become involved in en- • Promotive: that is, to support or hancing the informal sector is the provision protect (e.g. providing credit and of food centers to operators and traders storage facilities to street ven- in the food and hospitality sector. This in- dors) volves the provision of public infrastructure (utility services, shelter, hardened floor sur- There are certain measures to be adopted faces, wash-up points, collective furniture by the local government authorities in poli- (tables and chairs) at highly accessible cy making ensuring enhancement and as- and busy locations (particularly tourist and sistance to the informal sector. A large num- recreationally-based locations) to promote ber (arguably, the majority) of small scale agglomerations of small-scale providers of informal-sector operators are involved in cooked food. In these centers, custom- the retailing sector. Potentially, therefore, ers can choose dishes from a variety of investment in market infrastructure is ca- vendors, given the range of cultural and pable of benefiting very large numbers of therefore culinary representation in South these small operators (Dewar, 2005). Fur- Africa, from indigenous and distinct flavors thermore, it can do so without discriminat- and diets (Dewar, 2005). Educational pro- ing against those who cannot prove a past grammes are necessary to be facilitated record of operation or of any profitability. by the local government authorities as op- The second element is the stimulation of posed to running them. Skills training cours- markets representing the informal sector es oriented to promoting small business (for and the main and only way they can ac- example, book keeping, buying strategies, cess central, viable locations in the city. marketing strategies, banking and credit One of the biggest problems which very and so on) in order to assist the transition small operators face in the informal sector from informal, largely survivalist, activities is that of spatial marginalization. Because to more formal, profit-oriented business- of their very low rent-paying capacity, they es. Markets offer particular opportunities tend to be forced into the peripheral areas for engaging with traders in this way and of the city, where the potential for profit

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 393 this will reduce the hand-to-mouth cycle ties for production and employment can (Dewar, 2005). Consideration by financial be helped by a coherent and sound pack- institutions to provide micro lending will pro- age of policy intervention to manage the vide access to capital, which is one of the growth of dynamic segments of the small largest problems which small traders face and micro-enterprise economy. The cho- and most of the informal sector operators. sen package of targeted interventions for While it is clearly not the responsibility (nor is making more dynamic an informal econ- it desirable) for a local government author- omy of growth must be grounded in a firm ity to undertake this activity, any pro-active appreciation of the heterogeneous nature informal trader policy will engage with the of South Africa’s informal enterprise econ- issue and seek to play a facilitation role. omy points to the need for multiple and flexible approaches to policy formulation undertaken on a basis of recognizing the 7. CONCLUSION differing requirements of sets of survival enterprises on the one hand and of micro-en- This paper concludes that the informal terprises on the other. The intervention of economy must be an essential policy focus local government in policy formulation will within a reconstruction and development ensure in the growth of the economy with programme for the new South Africa. In the government benefiting through taxes assessing its capacity to contribute to eco- and rates from these informal traders. nomic growth, welfare and the relief of urban poverty a fundamental distinction must be drawn between an informal economy LIST OF REFERENCE of growth and one of mere survival, that is the hand-to-mouth trading. The viability of Abor, J. & Quartey, P. 2010. Issues in SME survival informal enterprises in South Africa development in Ghana and South Africa. would be greatly strengthened by policy International Research Journal of Finance intervention in the spheres of human devel- and Economics, Vol. 39, pp. 218-229. opment such as education, health or housing. Nevertheless, with the representation Advani, A. 1997. Industrial Clusters: A sup- of an appropriate support framework from port system for small and medium-sized the national and local government author- enterprises, private sector development, ities, the survivalist segments of the informal World Bank Occasional Paper No. 32, World economy clearly can contribute to further- Bank, Washigton, DC. ing the satisfaction of basic needs, to goals Anheier, H. K. & Seibel, H.D. 1987. Small scale of self-reliance, and to a greater sense of industries and economic development in purpose in life and work for participants Ghana, Business behavior and strategies in within the informal economy. Likewise, the informal sector economies, Verlag Breiten- objectives of raising living standards, of bech, Saarbruckh, Germany. redistribution of resources and empowerment of formerly disadvantaged commu- Aryeetey, E., Baah-Nuakoh, A., Duggle- nities, and of providing greater opportuni- by,T., Hettige, H. & Steel, W.F. 1994. Supply and demand for finance of small scale en-

394 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 terprises in Ghana, Discussion Paper No. No 15. University of Manchester: Manches- 251, World Bank, Washington, DC. ter

Chen, M.A., Jhabvala, R & Lund, F. 2001. Laird, J. 2015. Unemployment among Mex- Supporting workers in the informal econo- ican immigrants men in the United States, my: a policy framework. Paper Prepared 2003-2012. Social Science Research. 49: for ILO Task Force on the Informal Econo- 202- 216. my. University of Natal. Levy, B., Berry, A. & Nugent, J. B .1999. Sup- Chen, M. A. 2007. Rethinking the informal porting the export activities of Small and economy: linkages with the formal econo- Medium Enterprise (SME), in Levy, B., Berry, my and the formal regulatory environment. A. and Nugent, J. B. (eds.), Fulfilling the Ex- DESA Working Paper No. 46. port Potential of Small and medium Firms: Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Cook, P. & Nixson, F. 2000. Finance and Small and Medium-Sized Enterprise Devel- Liedholm, C. & Mead, D. 1987. Small scale opment. University of Manchester: Man- industries in developing countries: empiri- chester. cal evidence and policy implications, Inter- national Development Paper No.9, Depart- Dewar, D. 2005. A conceptual framework ment of Agricultural Economics. Michigan for the formulation of an informal trader State University: East Lansing. policy for South African towns and cities. Urban Forum. 16(1): 1-16. Parker, R., Riopelle, R. & Steel, W. 1995. Small enterprises adjusting to liberalisation Garba, A.S. 2010. Refocusing education in five african countries. World Bank Discus- system towards entrepreneurship develop- sion Paper No 271. The World Bank: Wash- ment in Nigeria: A tool for poverty eradica- ington DC. tion. Patnaik, B. C. M., Satpathy, I. & Mandal, Green, M. 2002. Napster opens Pandora’s A. 2015. Employment related skill develop- Box: Examining how file-sharing services ment and its positive impact in the place threaten the enforcement of copyright on of origin – an empirical study to understand the internet. Ohio State Law Journal. 63: migrant and non migrant’s perception. In- 799-831. dia Journal of Applied Research. 5(1): 294- Imafidon, K. 2014. Entrepreneurship devel- 297. opment for sustaining economic growth Petersen, S. 2014. Who are immigrates, to in third world nations. Journal of Emerging stay or not to stay?. Applied Social Scienc- Trends in Economics and Management Sci- es. 18( 2): 12-22. ences. 5(7):101-108. Schmitz, H. 1995. Collective efficiency: Kayanula, D. & Quartey,P. 2000. The Policy growth path for small scale industry, The environment for promoting Small and Me- Journal of Development Studies. 31(4): 529- dium-Sized Enterprises in Ghana and Ma- 566. lawi, Finance and Development Research Programme. Working Paper Series, Paper Skinner, C. 2005. ‘Constraints to Growth and

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 395 Employment in Durban: Evidence from the Bank Industry and Energy Department: Informal Economy’, Research Report #65, Washington DC. School of Development Studies. University Vearey, J. 2012. Sampling in urban environ- of KwaZulu-Natal: Durban ment. Journal of Refugee Studies. 9(3):26- Sowa, N. K., Baah-Nuakoh, A., Tutu, K.A. & 32. Osei, B. 1992. Small enterprise and adjust- Wollack, E. 2011. US trends and controlled ment, the impact of Ghana’s economic re- movements. Journal of Social Sciences. covery programme on small-scale industri- 23(8): 34-49. al enterprises. Research Reports. Overseas Development Institute: London Zhao, Y. 2008. Role of migrant networks in labor migration: the case of China. Conte- Steel, W. F. & Webster, L.M. 1991. Small en- porary Economics Policy. 21( 4): 500-511. terprises in Ghana: responses to adjustment industry. Series Paper, No. 33. The World

396 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 LOCAL GOVERNMENT AND CRIME PREVENTION: AN EVALUATION OF POLOKWANE MUNICIPALITY’S INVOLVE- MENT IN CRIME PREVENTION

KA Mothibi

University of Venda

ABSTRACT

Several policy documents are explicit with respect to local government’s role in ensuring the safety of people living in their jurisdictions. The national Crime Prevention Strategy (1996) and the White Paper on Safety and Security (1998) gave local government responsibilities such as coordination and implementation of crime prevention programmes within their areas of jurisdiction. The White Paper on Local Government (1998) determined that municipalities should cooperate with the South African Police Service, other national and provincial departments, private sector, and non-governmental and community based organisations in developing and implementing strategies aimed at reducing crime. This article evaluates the municipality’s involvement in crime prevention and also assesses to what extend it is involved in crime prevention. It further identifies policy implications hindering municipality’s active involvement. Qualitative exploratory study design was adopted wherein the unstructured in-depth interviews were conducted with 30 safety officials from Polokwane Municipality. The research found that most safety officials are not familiar with the tenets of the proposed legislations mandating their involvement in crime prevention.

KEYWORDS Crime, Crime Prevention, Policy, Implementation, Evaluation. 1. INTRODUCTION that countering high levels of criminality in South Africa has become a central focus Crime prevention is a complex concept of government policy. Crime increased that often means different things to differ- dramatically in the country from the mid- ent professionals and practitioners. The defi- 1980s, peaking in 1996, then stabilising at nition of crime prevention hinges around high levels. Increasingly, a key component the understanding of crime and its causes of the government’s policy focus on crime (Morgan, 2011: 12). Crime is a social and le- control, is on preventive actions, aiming to gal concept that refers to a number of an- undercut the causes and costs of lawless- ti-social behaviours, that may be planned ness (Masuku & Maepa, 2004:13). or unplanned and that occur under different circumstances. Shaw (1998, 08) argues

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 397 Masuku and Maepa (2004:14) further state ernment. The years 1996, 1997 and 1998, that crime can be prevented either by al- respectively, saw the creation of the Con- tering the environment in which it occurs, or stitution of South Africa, which sets forth the by intervening more broadly to change so- aims of local government. The Constitution cial or other conditions, which are thought envisages an important role for organised to have causal significance with regard to local government in the democratic South crime. Preventing crime demands a pro- Africa, with unique focus on developmen- cess of analysis to determine the cause of tal service delivery. Polokwane Municipality specific types of criminal actions (and their was established in terms of the Local Gov- costs for particular groups of victims), as well ernment Municipal Structure’s Act, 1998 as the coordination of the resources and (Act 117 of 1998) as amended by notice skills of a range of role-players to develop 307 in the Extraordinary Provincial Gazette and implement appropriate interventions. No 615 of 1 October 2000 (Swift, 2004:01). These requirements suggest that crime The focus on local government as a key prevention programmes are most likely to driver in local crime reduction initiatives be effective if developed in the localities is in line with international developments. where the problem occurs, rather than at Municipalities have a logical role to play national level. They require a targeted ap- as coordinators of local crime reduction proach that focuses various activities to- efforts. Crime is generally more concen- wards a single crime problem. Specifically, trated in urban areas, and involves victims, it also suggests that local players, and in perpetrators and circumstances specific to particular local government, have a signifi- a particular locality. Local government is cant role to play. also responsible for social and infrastructural services that are at the heart of preventing crime and enhancing public feelings of In South Africa, democratic elections were safety.While the theory behind local gov- held in 1994, and the ruling party the Afri- ernment’s role in crime prevention makes can National Congress (ANC) embarked good sense, the practice is much more on successive programmes to rebuild the challenging. The integrated, multi-agency economy. Even before the elections, how- approach to crime prevention advocated ever, in 1993, representatives of 26 political by the various policy documents is new for groups who assembled at Kempton Park, most government departments. The way near Johannesburg, produced an interim government operates can inhibit the imple- Constitution of the Republic of South Afri- mentation of an integrated approach that ca, 1994. A by-product of the discussions at involves joint departmental activities. Local Kempton Park was the Local Government governments are required to develop inte- Negotiating Forum (LGNF), which in turn grated development plans (IDPs). The IDP brought about the Local Government Tran- is the principal five-year strategic plan that sition Act (LGTA) 209 of 1993. The South Af- guides and informs all planning, budget- rican Local Government Association (SAL- ing, management and decision-making GA) came into being in November 1996 to processes in a municipality (Pelser & Louw further the aims of democratic local gov- 2001, in Masuku & Maepa, 2004:12).

398 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 This paper evaluates the municipality’s in- required capacity to drive prevention proj- volvement in crime prevention and is thus ects; obtain the support of major local role crucial, as it may enhance the literature players in committing themselves to crime pertaining to crime prevention policy and prevention; meet the management, moni- the involvement of local government in tor and assess requirements of their chosen crime prevention. Crime prevention is be- strategies, programmes and implementa- yond doubt an important subject matter tion methodology; facilitate reporting and in criminology and thus, deserves to form coordination in respect of provincial NCPS part of this evaluation. Criminologists, pol- (1996) structures and processes; review and icy-makers, government officials, scholars, enhance strategies, and programmes and and students could be able to use the find- activities continuously . Furthermore, the ings of this study to understand crime pre- municipality should set up a coordinating vention policies in South Africa. This study committee comprising of senior represen- would also be valuable in assisting the lo- tatives from structures of the local author- cal municipality in ensuring that the goals ity, area and stations of the South African of the crime prevention policies are being Police Services offices, local community achieved. This paper seeks to document policing forums, local branches of govern- the challenges within the proposed policies ment departments responsible for welfare, that affect the municipality’s’ involvement education, housing, health, justice, and in crime prevention. appropriate non-government bodies.

3. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The White Paper on Safety and Security (1998) stimulated city-level interventions This study is about the involvement of the against crime by allocating responsibili- Polokwane Municipality in crime preven- ties for by-law enforcement as well as the tion. The National Crime Prevention Strate- coordination and initiation of crime pre- gy (NCPS) (1996) and the White Paper on vention projects for local government. The Safety and Security (1998) laid the foun- White Paper covered a range of activities dation for local level crime prevention relevant to municipalities, including social initiatives. The NCPS (1996) broadly pro- crime prevention, by-law enforcement, vided that local government should play and crime prevention through environ- a leading role in crime prevention in their mental design (CPTED). The passing of the area of jurisdiction. It determines that lo- South African Police Service Act 68 of 1995 cal government, in collaboration with lo- allow local government to establish munici- cal partners, should set priorities for crime pal police services in their areas. Crime pre- prevention within their jurisdictions; pro- vention through social development or so- mote, coordinate and oversee depart- cial crime prevention focuses on the social, mental and agency involvement in effec- economic, and cultural factors that con- tive crime prevention in their respective tribute to criminality. This approach tackles localities. Local government should also individual, family and community risk fac- acquire the necessary skills to engage with tors that lead to crime and victimisation. crime prevention issues and develop the

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 399 For many of the programmes and projects, engaging in crime prevention, because municipalities will need to work jointly with by-laws regulate how the city is used, and the departments of Education and Social monitor the social patterns and behaviour Development as well as non-governmen- of those who use it. Some municipal law en- tal organisations. According to the White forcement activities include: working with Paper on Safety and Security (1998), some SAPS and the National Prosecuting Author- of the key risk factors that can be tackled ity (NPA) in identifying crime hot spots and through social crime prevention are: inad- designing joint projects on how to police equate living conditions including over- them, enforcing traffic laws and assisting crowding; factors that affect the family the SAPS with joint roadblock operations, such as poverty, poor parenting, and al- enforcing by-laws such as those relating cohol abuse; individual personality and to health and safety, land and housing, in behavioural factors such as aggression, line with specific crime prevention goals in lack of social skills, lack of critical reasoning specific parts of the city, using zoning regu- and problem solving skills; school- related lations to control where and when certain factors such as the optimal functioning of activities take place, such as the sale of al- school, school drop-out and poor school cohol and participating in forums aimed at performance; peer association; creating improving local safety, such as community employment opportunities by providing policing forums or sector policing forums skills training; and programmes and proj- are also municipal law enforcement ac- ects directed at children and youth at risk of tivities. Shaw (1998:01) in Newham (2005) being offenders. Crime prevention through states that the White Paper on Local Gov- environmental design is a form of situation- ernment encourages municipalities to form al crime prevention. In this case, crime is partnerships with other government depart- reduced through appropriate planning, ments and civil organisations that can as- design and management of the physical sist in carrying out preventive programmes. environment. It can include reducing the Moreover, the Local Government Transition amount of vacant land or open spaces in Act 209 of 1993 compels municipalities to an area; ensuring that public spaces such develop negotiated Integrated Develop- as residential streets and public parks are ment Plans (IDPs), which typically includes well lit and maintained; developing safe projects relating to crime and safety for pedestrian routes and trading centres; their areas of authority. A major task for mu- designing safe public transport nodes; im- nicipalities is to understand their local crime proving surveillance systems in crime “hot problems and how particular programmes spot” areas; and, applying crime preven- can produce crimes. The problem is that tion principles when designing new towns these aspects of safety are in place in the and residential areas. research area but their implementation has never been evaluated. Therefore aim of the paper is to evaluate Polokwane Munic- The White Paper further indicates that by- ipality’s involvement in crime prevention. law enforcement presents municipalities A review conducted in four cities namely with their clearest and most direct tool for Johannesburg, Tshwane, Cape Town and

400 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Durban in 2002, which looked at how the important of all are some of the provisions strategies proposed in the White Paper relating to the “police service”, which are on Safety and Security (1998) were imple- contained in Chapter 11: mented, motivated the researcher to un- • Section 205 (1) provides that the police dertake the present study. Polokwane City service is a “national police service is the capital of Limpopo Province where which must be structured to function in the majority of people are concentrated the national, provincial, and where ap- and where the vast majority of recorded plicable, local spheres of government.’’ criminal activities take place. It is therefore logical to determine the extent to which • Section 205 (2) provides that the ‘‘pow- policies are being followed by the local ers and functions’’ of the police service government. Furthermore, Ndebele (2008) must be established by national legis- maintains that the focus on cities as the key lation which must “enable the police to crime prevention is directly in line with service to discharge its responsibilities international developments in the area of effectively, taking into account the re- crime prevention. Polokwane Municipality quirements of the provinces.’’ holds geographical and strategic position, due to its proximity as a major centre for the neighbouring countries such as Botswana, Bruce (1997:02) argued that while providing Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Swaziland. for policing largely to be regulated at the This strategic location makes it the ideal national and provincial levels of govern- business criminal gateway or destination. ment, the constitution does provide some indication that local authorities do have responsibilities relating to safety and security. 4. LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORKS For example, in addition to the reference to “local spheres of government’’ in Sec- There are various legislative frameworks tion 205 (1), Section 152 (1) (d) provide that governing municipal crime prevention. This the “objects of local government’’ include paper focused on the following: the provision of “a safe and healthy environment.’

4.1 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (1996) and Local Government 4.2 The national crime prevention strategy The Constitution of the Republic of South (1996) Africa Act 108 of 1996 was approved by The National Crime Prevention Strategy the Constitutional Court in late 1996 and (NCPS) (May 1996) argued for a closer inte- finally came into operation in early 1997. gration and transformation of the criminal The Constitution provides a framework for justice system as a prerequisite for prevent- understanding the relationship between ing crime adequately. It represents a major key governmental institutions, which is im- step forward in the debate on criminality in portant in understanding safety and secu- South Africa, placing the concentration on rity issues at the local level. Perhaps most

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 401 preventive as opposed to reactive mea- ca, and suggested areas for revision of the sures to counter crime. The NCPS (1996) has original NCPS, based, in part on the expe- thus brought a new focus on the prevention riences captured in the 1997 NCPS review. of victimization and offending, as well as In addition to making changes in respect on coordinated, long-term strategies that of the institutional arrangements within the involve a range of participants beyond the Department of Safety and Security, and traditional criminal justice system. The NCPS shifting the emphasis of policing to crime (1996) sketches a specific role for local investigation, visible policing and improved government. Municipalities must; set prior- service to victims, the White Paper made ities for crime prevention within their juris- a number of policy proposals in respect diction, promote, coordinate and oversee of crime prevention. Local government, is departmental and agency involvement in closest to the citizenry, is uniquely placed to effective crime prevention for their locali- actively participate in social crime preven- ties, acquire the necessary skills to engage tion initiatives and to redirect the provision with crime prevention issues and develop of services to facilitate crime prevention. the required capacity to drive prevention Specifically, the 1998 White Paper on Safe- projects, obtain the support of major local ty and Security outlines three areas of inter- role players in committing themselves to vention for municipalities: crime prevention crime prevention, meet the management, through social development or social crime monitor and assess requirements of their prevention, crime prevention through envi- chosen strategies, programs and imple- ronmental design and law enforcement. mentation methodology, facilitate report- Crime prevention through social developing and coordination in respect of provin- ment or social crime prevention focuses on cial NCPS (1996) structures and processes, the social, economic and cultural factors continuously review and enhance strate- that contribute to criminality. This approach gies, programs and activities, and Setting tackles individual, family and community up a coordinating committee which could risk factors that lead to crime and victim- compromise of senior representatives from ization (Masuku & Maepa, 2004:16). Crime structures of the local authority, area and prevention through environmental design station SAPS offices, local community- po is a form of situational crime prevention. In lice forum and area boards, local branch- this case crime is reduced through appro- es of government departments responsible priate planning, design and management for welfare, education, housing, health, of the physical environment. It can include and justice, and appropriate non-govern- reducing the amount of vacant land or mental bodies. open spaces in an area amongst other things. Criminal law enforcement is the prerogative of the Criminal Justice System 4.3 White paper on safety and security departments namely, the SAPS, and the (1998) department of Justice and Correctional

The 1998 White Paper on Safety and Se- curity deepened government’s policy approach to crime prevention in South Afri-

402 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Services. Nevertheless, municipalities ought tion and ensure that the plans are integrat- to collaborate with the Criminal Justice Sys- ed into other administrative functions. tem as far as law enforcement in their areas of jurisdiction is concerned. 5.2 Amenity or Maintenance 5. LOCAL GOVERNMENT’S ASPECTS OF CRIME PREVENTION Homel (2010:15) finds that local government assumes a key role in the provision There are numerous areas of local govern- and maintenance of diverse local ameni- ment with key responsibilities for aspects of ties. The provision of local infrastructure can crime prevention that provide an overview help promote a sense of community and in- of what role local government can play in crease interaction between local residents. the prevention of crime. Effective maintenance of these amenities 5.1 Governance and the local area more generally will help prevent the decline of particular locations. Garner (2008:01) writes that the practices It is generally accepted that rubbish and of local government will contribute to per- damage to property contribute to further ceptions of good governance. Corrupt lo- degradation and crime. Examples include cal government practices might contribute maintaining local areas through rubbish to perceptions of permissiveness in an area. removal, rapid repair of damage and reg- Such a milieu could be conducive to crim- ular clean ups, initiate a rapid graffiti -re inality more generally. Consequently, the moval policy, including assistance to local overall performance of local government businesses and residents. Garner (2008:01) is important in building trust in the state and highlights that local government is better for promoting responsible government and positioned to conduct a risk assessment on business activities. Furthermore, local gov- council properties and implement appro- ernment assumes a significant role in the priate strategies to reduce malicious dam- governance of crime prevention. Homel age. and Fuller (2015, 33) positions that local government can be effective in coordi- 5.3 Planning or Design nating crime prevention strategies through Garner (2008:01) further maintained that their coordination and management of lo- local government has responsibility for as- cal advisory groups. Information gathered pects of the planning system. Through ap- from these advisory groups and resident proval of development applications and panels can then be utilized to inform the establishing local design guidelines (i.e. work of various sections of local govern- development control plans and local en- ment. Examples include maintaining good vironmental plans), considerable influence relationships with key stakeholders, includ- can be brought to bear on the built envi- ing police, corrections, housing, transport, ronment. Centre for Scientific and Industrial welfare and business representatives. Es- Research CSIR (2000: 77) maintains that the tablish, manage and review the operation local government plans should incorporate of crime prevention advisory committees; crime prevention through environmental and develop clear plans for crime preven-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 403 design principles. For example, training of en that the policies have already been relevant council staff in crime prevention proposed for local government especially through environmental design and produc- municipalities to be involved in crime pre- ing a specific development control plan on vention (Trochim, 2006:01). Formative eval- crime prevention. uation examines programme implementation including the design, and the extent to 5.4 Social or Community Condition which a programme is being delivered. It State’s government is responsible for the can provide input to future planning and provision of key social, educational, welfare implementation, thus forming the project’s and health services. Cherney and Sutton future. This kind of evaluation forms the pro- (2007: 17) writes that community services gramme, meaning that it helps to improve it that are managed and supported by local at those points where the programme does government can contribute significantly to not seem to meet the criteria originally set the quality of life of local residents. Further- by its initiators (Maxfield & Babbie, 2005:23). more, community building activities are Process and impact approach were also frequently sponsored and initiated by local used. This is the most common approach government. Through this relationship with to crime prevention evaluation. It seeks to local residents, local government also ac- answer two questions: has the programme quires significant insights into the needs of been implemented as planned (process)? its residents. Garner (2008:02) argues that and is the programme achieving its in- this information can be used to lobby oth- tended objectives (impact)? (Fetterman, er tiers of government and to respond to 2000:12). specific concerns, including fear of crime. Examples include developing relevant social policies and plans; providing social 6.2 Population programs and services including child care The population comprised 30 Polokwane facilities, libraries and programs for young Municipality safety officials and managers people; and responding to emerging so- who have been mandated by the pro- cial needs through the coordination of the posed policies to be actively involved in delivery of local services. crime prevention. Since the study is investigative in nature no sampling method was used. 6. METHODOLOGY 6.3 Data Collection Method 6.1 Research Design The study being formative evaluation, The research is qualitative in nature adopt- qualitative methods of data collection ed the exploratory study design. It consists were used. Structured in-depth interviews of a literature study and structured in-depth were conducted to provide insight into un- interviews. Primary documents such as leg- explored dimensions of the problem. Ques- islations, municipal reports, journals and the tions in formative evaluation are common- internet have been used. The researcher ly open-ended and exploratory, aimed at used a formative type of evaluation, giv-

404 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 uncovering the processes by which the vention activities should be enhanced by programme take shape, establishing what the SAPS and that the municipality exists to has changed from the original design and help where necessary and this. This indicat- why. Audiotaping was used primarily as ed lack of knowledge regarding the pro- backup. Arrangements regarding the in- posed policies. terview dates were made with the respon- The coordinating committee had been set dents. up but not by the municipality whilst oth- 6.4 Data Analysis er officials asserted that there are -no co ordinating committees comprising of senior After collecting data, it was then classified. representatives. This finding still showed The researcher dissected the information, lack of knowledge regarding their duties in looking for themes under which to place crime prevention. Garner (2008:01) found various statements and assertions. Data re- that to prevent crime successfully, the mu- sulting from evaluation are intelligible until nicipality should establish, manage and re- they are analysed and summarised in terms view the operation of the crime prevention of their descriptive and inferential charac- advisory committee; and develop clear teristics. Upon completion, data was criti- plans for crime prevention and ensure that cally and objectively interpreted the infor- the plans are integrated into other ad- mation in order to achieve objectives of ministrative functions. Furthermore, not all the study. respondents understood Polokwane City Council’s responsibility in providing for safety and security. The municipality acquired 7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION the necessary skills to engage in crime pre- Unstructured interviews with safety officials vention. Skills were acquired through work- revealed that although South African Con- shops, presentations and training. Howev- stitution does provide some indication that er, the acquired skills are not put to work local authorities do that have responsibil- and lack of monitoring and evaluation ities relating to safety and security, safety was suggested as a cause. The municipal- officials were not aware of how the munic- ity has set priorities for crime prevention ipality oversees departmental and agen- within its jurisdiction. By-law enforcement cy involvement in crime prevention and was mentioned as amongst the priorities. their reason being that they do not know The finding is in line with the tenets of the the procedure on how to do that. Section White Paper on Safety and Security (1998) 152(1) d provides that the object of local whereby by-law enforcement is outlined government includes the provision of a as the responsibility of the municipality. By- safe and healthy environment. The munic- laws are a product of social conventions ipality does not continuously review and that determine people’s interactions with enhance strategies, programs and activi- the city through explicit regulatory mech- ties. However few respondents argue that anisms. The respondents mentioned that the municipality does review but not con- there are by-law officials whose priorities tinuously. They maintained that crime pre- are to inspect buildings which have been designated as problematic because they

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 405 are either in a bad state, overcrowded or funding, are those that relate to the ca- fail to comply with building regulation, ille- pacity of local government. The pressure gal dumping, and illegal hawking. for service delivery and development on new (and often weak) local government Municipal crime prevention strategy has structures is immense. Development proj- not been developed by the municipality. ects (notwithstanding some of the funding This was partly due to the challenges the problems outlined above) are in fact in a municipality faced in the implementation position to take account of crime preven- of the local crime prevention strategy. The tion requirements without necessarily in- respondents outlined funding, capacity, creasing the resources that are allocated political support as amongst the challenges to them. Thus, addressing crime prevention faced by the municipality. Shaw (1998:07) need not necessarily be seen as an addi- found that the way local crime prevention tional or heavy burden. The issue of politi- is funded is critical not only for the actual cal support for crime prevention is poten- implementation of programs, but more im- tially problematic. On the other hand, a portantly, for shaping the role which local great deal of political leadership is required government plays as the coordinator of ini- in order to ensure that crime prevention is tiatives to prevent crime. prioritized. Where political support is miss- Crime prevention is often considered an ing, crime prevention initiatives are often “add-on” when funding for these initiatives undercut. On the other hand, politicians, is drawn from outside the local government under a great deal of public pressure, are budget through foreign donors. This lim- tempted to raise expectations about what its accountability for delivery, weakening local level crime prevention can achieve local government’s responsibility towards in the short term. Programs with too many crime prevention. There is also the danger objectives, which are poorly funded at the that crime prevention, precisely because same time, are likely to become overload- it crosses over so many local government ed, achieving little actual prevention. line departments, is in danger of not receiving specific allocations of financial support from local government itself. Departments NCPS (1996) was never reviewed nor de- are simply told to take account of crime fined by the municipality and this is cap- prevention without receiving the neces- tured well when all indicated that the te- sary support. Crime prevention is seen as nets were never implemented and this an unfunded mandate in that safety and finding is in line with the findings by Rauch security is a national government function. (2002:20) who indicates why various crime This ignores both the fact that safety is a prevention policies were not implemented key “quality of life” issue where local gov- in South Africa. The ANC inherited bureau- ernment can contribute, and that many crats from the old order who have either functions of local government are involved been passively or actively resistant to im- more broadly with issues of governance, plementation of certain policies, or have and thus also of crime prevention. Close- been, at times, simply incapable of doing ly related to the problems associated with so as they lacked the same vision as the

406 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 policy makers. The NCPS policy demands :Coordination with the SAPS and other en- the establishment of programs and policies forcement agencies will require the Mu- which cut across various government de- nicipal Police Service (MPS) to carve out partments and ignores the extent to which its area of jurisdiction, agree on joint and a new political leadership struggles to as- separate priorities, share resources and sert vertical lines of accountability within minimize turf conflicts with the SAPS. One of individual departments and bureaucracies the obstacles to coordination between the which were inherited from the former gov- police agencies is the different geographic ernment. Added to this, are the budgetary jurisdictions in which they operate. Building constraints, which demand an uncomfort- an effective working relationship with the able process of prioritisation if the massive SAPS is one of the most critical challenges tasks of redressing historical inequities at facing MPS leaders at this stage. This may the social, political and economic levels be complicated by the fact that both or- are to be undertaken. Rauch (2002:21) ganizations share the legal mandate for maintained that budgetary constraints fos- “crime prevention” and there is no shared ter intense competition between various understanding of that mandate. departments. This often motivates against Another issue which may cause difficulties cross-departmental co-operation. A relat- in terms of relationship between the SAPS ed problem was the extent to which any and municipal police services is the idea crime prevention strategy was ultimately of “burden sharing” as introduced in the dependent on the key processes of inter- 1998 White Paper on Safety and Security, nal transformation of government’s crim- and the need for some SAPS funds to be inal justice institutions. This objective pre- linked to the relocation of certain function sented government with competing needs from the SAPS to Metro Police Services. which were difficult to prioritise. While- ef Balancing enforcement and crime preven- fective crime prevention was dependent tion activities are equally weighted in the on institutional transformation, popular legislative mandate to metropolitan police confidence in the processes of transforma- services. If the national government poli- tion was dependent on successful crime cy of requiring city governments to co-or- fighting. Polokwane Municipality did not dinate “social crime prevention” remains establish municipal policing. Even though intact, the MPS may have to embrace so- the SAPS Act of 1995 (Amended Act 83 cial forms of prevention which have not of 1998) allow local government to estab- been their traditional preserve otherwise lish municipal police services in their areas, the social crime prevention function will many other municipalities in South Africa have to be accommodated elsewhere in fails to do so. The respondents indicated the municipality. Existing MPS’s are focus- that it would be impossible for the munic- ing almost entirely on traffic enforcement ipality to establish its policing due to the and traditional law enforcement methods challenges previously faced by other South of combating crime, with little attention African municipalities: Rauch, Shaw and given to prevention. Municipalities wish- Louw (2001) identified the main challenge ing to establish Metro Police Services will to establishing municipal policing such as need to find increased resources for pub-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 407 lic safety provision, without direct finan- to prevent offending by changing the social assistance from the national fiscus. In cial rather than the physical environment. some municipalities such as the Polokwane Interventions in this case provide tools for Municipality, additional levies have been communities to use in an effort to reduce proposed. It remains to be seen whether criminal behavior by changing social con- local taxpayers will be willing to pay more ditions. The aim is to strengthen communi- in order to have a local police service. De- ty bonds, increase levels of informal social fining the conditions of service of - Munic control and thus deter actual or potential ipal Police Officers will require the -Polok offenders. The interviews revealed that the wane Municipality to provide pay parity for municipality does not tackle the factors members of the Municipal Police Services that affect the family such as poverty, poor who do the same work and hold the same parenting and alcohol abuse through so- rank. At present, the inherited labour rela- cial development. The municipality looks tions arrangements in many municipalities to the Departments of Health and Depart- mean that officials can be earning very dif- ment of Social Development to tackle fam- ferent packages for doing the same work. ily factors. Palmary (2001:33) also found Workable agreements with labour unions that the crime prevention projects aimed pertaining to conditions of service should at addressing deeply entrenched social in- be pursued. Issues concerning disciplinary equalities such as poverty or family instabil- procedures have already come under the ity have not been tackled by South African spotlight in Johannesburg and Cape Town, cities. Given the complexity of these proj- cities which faced union unhappiness with ects, it is appropriate that they are under- various aspects of their process to establish taken in partnership with other agencies the metropolitan police. and organisations with specialised skills in the area. Such an approach does require local government at least to be aware of The municipality does cooperate with the the full range of crime prevention projects CPF. The municipality attends to the recom- happening in their jurisdictions in enabling mendations by the CPF in crime prevention effective synergies for social prevention. such as maintaining street lights, cutting off Many government and NGO projects are grass and information sharing. Community not being monitored for this impact, mak- Policing Forum Act 68 of 1995 requires the ing it difficult to determine their effective- municipality to do the following: participate ness. Local governments may be able to in neighborhood initiatives to safeguard assist with such monitoring and evaluation, the area in which they live, work and play; as they coordinate at the city level, which take ownership of community policing fo- is extremely difficult when few other agen- rums and support the SAPS in the enforce- cies operate in city-sized units. ment of the law; attend community police The optimal functioning of schools, school sub forum meetings to discuss action plans drop-out, and poor school performance in order to deal with crime, and participate are not tackled by the municipality as in problem solving and information shar- mandated by the white paper on safety ing. Social crime prevention measures seek and security. The Department of Education

408 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 and Social Development, NGOs are left to ernment practitioners and initiatives in the deal with such school related factors, and field. This can lead to duplication and wast- peer association such as association with age of resources. The research revealed friends who are involved in crime. There that the municipality reduces the amount are no projects initiated by the municipality of vacant land or open spaces in an area that are directed at children and youth at by cutting off grass, developing the area, risk of being offenders. However, the mu- selling, and regularly cleaning it. The munic- nicipality creates employment opportuni- ipality ensured that public spaces such as ties by providing skill training. The research residential streets and public parks are well revealed that the municipality together lit and maintained. The street patterns are with the Department of Human Settlement designed and modified to reduce oppor- tackles inadequate living conditions in- tunity for crime. National Crime Prevention cluding overcrowding. Other respondents Council (2004) argues that properties well believed the municipality ignores inade- maintained create a perception of owner- quate living conditions. These findings in- ship and safety. The council also found that dicated that the municipality is struggling lighting should be consistent and located to tackle the proposed risk factors. The mu- where it can provide maximum visibility. nicipality maintained that social issues are being directed to other departments such as the Department of Social Development Safe pedestrian routes and trading cen- and Home Affairs. The findings showed that ters were designed by the municipality. The there is no cooperation, because SAPS has findings indicated that this was achieved its own objectives in social crime preven- through different role players in particu- tion. There are no social crime prevention lar planning and design professionals. This projects initiated by the municipality. The finding is in line with those by Landman and respondents outlined various challenges Lieberman (2005:06) who found that effec- as the reasons why they fail to implement tive coordination of local environmental the tenets of the social crime prevention design initiatives is vital. Due to their nature policy. One of the major stumbling blocks of work, professionals involved with shap- has been the difficulty of coordinating so- ing the built environment generally, have cial crime prevention projects. The coordi- experience in coordinating the activities of nation problem has a number of aspects: various role players. These professionals are The first aspect is that city boundaries do therefore well placed to coordinate and not match the jurisdictional boundaries drive environmental design initiatives. of other government agencies which are critical to the crime prevention enterprise namely, the SAPS and Departments of Surveillance systems was improved in some Health, Education and Welfare. This makes of the crime hot spot surveillance systems it extremely difficult to establish city-wide have been improved by installing CCTV leadership structures. Secondly, there has and designing visibility in crime hot spots been, in some cases, a failure to link gov- throughout the city. The installation of CCTV ernment-initiated projects with non-gov- is in line with the tenets of the White Paper

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 409 on Safety and Security (1998) whereby ory where CPTED is viewed as a crime pre- CCTV is indicated as an effective method vention approach, limiting opportunity for of managing crime hot spots in the city. The committing crime by implementing natural importance of design visibility are in line with surveillance, natural access control, terri- the findings by the National Crime Preven- torial reinforcement, and target harden- tion Council (2004:09) which indicated that ing. Natural Surveillance, which is a design designing visibility in the built environment concept, is directed primarily at keeping means allowing for clear sight lines and intruders easily observable. This is promot- avoiding isolated or hidden spaces. Re- ed by features that maximize visibility of cessed doorways can result in corners that people, parking areas and building en- are hidden from causal surveillance. Sharp trances, doors and windows that look out “blind” corners create the same problem, on to streets and parking areas, pedestrian especially on stairs or corridors where there friendly sidewalks and streets, front porch- may be no alternative routes of escape. es, and adequate night-time lighting. Sudden changes of grade on walkways can also create “blind spots”. Certain improvements can be made. For example, The second principle is natural access con- columns and walls can be tucked into the trol, which is a design concept directed built design as protrusions can hinder visibil- primarily at decreasing crime opportuni- ity. Visibility can also be improved through ty by defying access to crime targets and modification such as creation of windows creating in offenders a perception of risk. and other openings in otherwise blank walls This is achieved by designing streets, side- and removal of protrusions along walls. Im- walks, building entrances and neighbor- proving visibility through such modification hood gateways to clearly indicate public will permit natural surveillance. Similarly, the routes and discouraging access to private location and design of fences, shrubbery areas with structural elements. The third and beams must also be carefully stud- principle is territorial reinforcement, which ied when designing visibility. In blind spots asserts that a physical design can create where no modification to the building is or extend a sphere of influence. Users then possible, the use of security mirrors or other develop a sense of territorial control while devices such as video cameras would be potential offenders perceive this control as necessary even though these are not opti- discouraging, promoted by features that mal solutions. define property lines and distinguish private spaces from public spaces using landscape plantings, pavement design and gateway The municipality applied crime prevention treatments. The last principle is target hard- principles when designing new towns and ening, which is accomplished by features residential areas. The principles of (CPTED) that prohibit entry or access: window locks, were considered and the respondents out- dead bolts for doors, interior door hinges lined amongst others access control and and other preventive methods. natural surveillance. These findings are in line with those of the routine activity the-

410 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Research revealed that the municipality is matches, parties or festivals, the munic- working with the SAPS in identifying crime ipality has to be notified in advance and hot spots and the installation of CCTV and to either permit the activity to take place providing visible policing are some of the or to deny them. The respondents indicat- joint projects they developed to police the ed that the municipality participates in fo- hot spot. The municipality enforces traffic rums aimed at improving local safety. How- laws and assists the SAPS with joint road- ever, some of the respondents indicated block operations. State of the art equip- that the municipality waits for the SAPS to ment such as automatic number plate initiate crime prevention activities, attend recognition machines, which scan vehicle meetings and attend to recommendations registration numbers, is available at road- made to prevent crime. Participating in fo- blocks. Using this equipment, a number of rums aimed at improving local safety bene- transgressions are identified: outstanding fit the municipality in many ways including: warrants; stolen vehicle; hot-listed vehicles, improving the identification of hot crime and false number plates. spots and the root causes of crime at the local level, allowing for greater manage- By-law enforcement such as those relating ability given that the precincts will be divid- to health and safety, land housing, in line ed into smaller areas and better coopera- with specific crime prevention goals in spe- tion between the police and communities cific parts of the city. Amongst the by-laws at the local level to address specific crime the municipality focuses on is the enforce- problems. ment of hawking by-laws in the inner city and the formalization of informal traders. There has been a general move away from These findings indicate that the municipality the prosecution of informal traders towards should review and define the NCPS (1996) their incorporation in council planning and and implement a local crime prevention development. Polokwane Municipality has strategy by managing and coordinating provided an environment conducive to in- strategic plans. For the municipality to be formal traders and these have been proactively involved in crime prevention, they vided with access to sanitation, water etc. should attend to the different challeng- Building of shacks behind a house is forbid- es identified by other municipalities: politi- den and health inspectors are assigned cal support, budgetary constraints, lack of to inspect places serving food. Building in- monitoring and evaluation, capacity etc. spectors also inspect buildings that are ei- The municipality should continuously review ther dilapidated, abandoned or that might and enhance strategies, programmes and attract criminal activities. The respondents activities. The White Paper on Safety and Se- indicated that the municipality uses zon- curity (1998) outlines several ways in which ing regulations to control where and when social crime prevention can be achieved certain activities take place. The munici- in the South African context. : designing pality engages with the liquor board which out crime, CCTV, urban renewal and the checks whether the owner has a license to city improvement districts, breaking the cy- operate or not. If other activities are to take cle of violence, promoting social cohesion, place in the city, such as promotions, sport

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 411 supporting youth, families and groups at Cherney A & Sutton A. 2007. Crime preven- risk. Polokwane Municipality should follow tion in Australia: Beyond what works? The Australian and New Zealand Jour- several ways to achieve social crime pre- nal of Criminology. 40(1): 65–81. vention in the city. Furthermore, these findings reveal the following area which needs Constitution of the Republic of South Af- rica, 1996. http://www.info.gov.za/ further research and investigation regard- documents/constitution/96cons.htm. ing the Polokwane Municipality’s involve- > (Retrieved May 2, 2008). ment in crime prevention: the relationship Fetterman D. 2000. Foundation of Empow- between poor policy implementation and erment Evaluation. Thousand Oaks, level of crime. CA: Sage Publications.

8. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Garner C. 2008. The role of local government in crime prevention: Contrib- There is no doubt that Polokwane Munic- uting to a safer community. From< ipality ignored the tenets of the policies http://www.chdpartners.com.au/. > (Retrieved February 22, 2008). mandating their active involvement in crime prevention. Like other South Afri- Homel P. 2010. Delivering effective local can municipalities, the municipality failed crime prevention: Why understanding variations in municipal governance to overcome gaps within the policies. This arrangements matters in 2010 Interna- has led to crime prevention being spear tional report on crime prevention and headed by the SAPS. In order to successful- community safety: trends and pros- ly implement the policies, the municipality pects. Montreal: International Centre for the Prevention of Crime. should continuously review and redefine its strategies, monitor and evaluates and Homel P & Fuller G. 2015. Trends and Issues also learn from other municipalities’ ac- in crime and criminal justice. Australian Institute of Criminology. Paper no 505. tively involved in crime prevention. There are various areas which need further research regarding Polokwane Municipality’s Intergovernmental Relations Framework involvement in crime prevention. The rela- Act 13 of 2005. From < http://www. tion between poor policy implementation acts.co.za/intergovernmental_re- lations_framework_act_2005.> (Re- and fear of crime amongst the communi- trieved December 10, 2011). ty need to be assessed. Further research is also necessary on the implementation of Local Government Transition Act 209 of 1993. From < http://www.hst.org.za/ social crime prevention policy. pphc/Phila/summary/vol14-No1.htm.> (Retrieved February 3, 2008). LIST OF REFERENCES Local Government Municipal Structure Act Bruce D 1997. Community safety and secu- 117 of 1998. From < www.justice.gov. rity: Crime prevention and develop- za/.../Local_Government__Municipal_ ment at the local level. Pretoria: CSVR. Structures_ Act117of1998.pdf. > (Re- Centre for Scientific and Industrial Research. trieved May 12, 2011). 2000. A manual for community-based Masuku S, & Maepa T .2004. City safety: crime prevention: Making South Africa Nelson Mandela Metro Municipality’s safe. Pretoria: Crime Prevention Cen- Crime Reduction Strategy. Monograph tre. No 103. Institute for Security Studies.

412 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 From < http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ Palmary I. 2001. Social Crime Prevention in Mpnographs/No103/Chapz.pdf.> (Re- South Africa’s Major Cities. Report Writ- trieved May 17, 2008). ten for the Centre of Study of Violence and Reconciliation. Pretoria: CSVR. Maxfield MG, & Babbie E. 2005. Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Crim- Rauch J. 2002. Changing Steps: Crime Pre- inology. Victoria: Thompson Learning. vention Policy in South Africa. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. Morgan A. 2011. Police and crime prevention: Partnering with the community, Shaw M. 1998. The role of Local Govern- in Putt J (ed), Community policing in ment in Crime Prevention in South Afri- Australia. Research and Public Policy ca. Pretoria: Institute for Security Stud- series no. 111. Canberra: Australian In- ies. stitute of Criminology. South African Police Service 68 of 1995. Morgan A & Homel P 2013. Evaluating Available on http://www.cia.gov/ crime prevention: Lessons from large- library/publications/the-world-fact- scale community crime prevention book/geos/sf.html. > (Retrieved Au- programs. Trends and Issues in Crime gust 21, 2007). and Criminal Justice no. 458. South African Police Service Amendment National Crime Prevention Strategy (NCPS) Act 83 of 1998. Available on http:// 1996. http://www.cia.gov/library/publica- www.cia.gov/library/publications/the- tions/the-world-factbook/geos/sf.html. > world-factbook/geos/sf.html. > (Re- (Retrieved August 21, 2007). trieved August 21, 2007).

National Crime Prevention Council (NCPC) Swift N. 2004. Local Government in South 2004. Crime Prevention Through Envi- Africa: Building a new structure after ronmental Design Guidebook. Singa- apartheid. From < http://www.city- pore: NCPC. mayors.com/government/sa_locgov. html. > (Retrieved May 10 2008). Newham G. 2005. A Decade of Crime Pre- vention in South Africa: from a nation- Trochim W. 2006. Research Methods: Knowl- al strategy to a local challenge. Re- edge Base. Available on http://www. search Report Written for the Centre socialresearchmethods.net/kb/intrev- for the Study of Violence and Recon- al.htm. > (Retrieved April 14, 2008). ciliation. Pretoria: CSVR White Paper on Local Government. 1998. Newham G. 2006. Getting into the beat: Available on http://www.hst.org.za/ Challenges facing our metro police. pphc/Phila/summary/vol14-No1.htm. South African Quarterly No 15. http:// > (Retrieved February 3, 2008). www.issafrica.org/uploads/CQNE- WHAM.PDF. > (Retrieved May 12, White Paper on Safety and Security 1998. 2008). Available on http://www.info.gov.zs/ whitepaper/1998/safety.htm. > (Re- Ndebele S. 2008. Countering high levels of trieved Accessed July 2, 2007). criminality in South Africa has become a central focus on government policy. Durban: http://www.info.gov.za/ speeches/2008/08061814451002.htm > (Retrieved September 12, 2008)

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 413 SERVICE DELIVERY PROJECTS FAILURE IN THE GREATER GIYANI LOCAL MUNICIPALITY IN THE MOPANI DISTRICT

PR Mthombeni Regenesys Business School MX Lethoko University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

This paper investigates the causes of service delivery projects failure in the South African municipalities with specific reference to Greater Giyani Local Municipality since 2006 to 2015. Communities demand better services. Politicians and the government promise communities a better life for all in the form of quality housing, clean water, electricity, better education, better health facilities, tar roads, creation of employment, fighting poverty and ending inequality created by former apartheid regime. However, these promises never come to fruition. There are projects that could not even start although they had been included in the Integrated Development Plan (IDP) for many years. Some of the projects get started but could not be finished in time as planned. The municipalities should deal with incomplete projects and render services to their communities. There are mainly three objectives to be achieved by this paper, namely: to investigate why some projects are failing to start even when budgeted for; to explain why some projects are not completed in the municipality; and to explain what is to be done to make sure that projects are well completed in time. Data is collected using face to face interviews where fourty (40) key respondents were sampled. The conclusion drawn from the paper shows that communities indicate that municipalities can reduce the rate of incomplete projects if they stick to the planned activities and projects as per the IDP.

Keywords: Communities, Integrated Development Plan, Projects, Service delivery 1. INTRODUCTION The Greater Giyani Local Municipali- villages and one township (Integrated De- ty (GGLM) has various projects to deliv- velopment Plan 2011/13). It is a deep rural er. Some of these projects were started area with the population of 247 657. 39, 6% and completed; some are still to be start- of the population is employed, 60, 4% of ed, while some are in progress. The back- the population is not working (Demarca- ground will give a true reflection of what is tion Board, 2003). Service delivery is defined happening on projects in local municipal- as the distribution of basic resources that ities, with reference to Greater Giyani Lo- citizens rely on such as electricity, water, cal Municipality. GGM consists of 91 rural land, sanitation, housing and infrastructure

414 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 (Chen, Dean, Frant & Kumar, 2014). Project palities have these water service plans, but is defined as “a unique set of co-ordinated water supply is a problem. The water was activities, with define starting and finishing supposed to be drawn from Nandoni Dam points, done by an individual or organisa- in Vembe District to Nsami Dam in Giyani tion to meet specific objectives within de- (Mopani District) as a drought relief in 2010 fined schedules, cost and performance (Mopani Herald, 2010). The Giyani area parameters”, (Project Management Body was declared a disaster area in 2009, the of Knowledge, 2015). National government in collaboration with the office of the Premier, Limpopo- Prov There is a serious need to get deep into ince confirmed the situation and gazett- causes of incomplete projects at local gov- ed the matter, R250 million was budgeted ernment level. Communities complain to for (Mathebula, 2009). The Supreme Court the local government. They are less aware of Appeal confirms what Mathebula had of the national and the provincial govern- said, the National government declared ments and their roles. The local govern- Giyani a disaster area as provided by the ment is viewed by communities as the one Disaster Management Act 57 of 2002. More that renders and provide services to them. than R284 million was to be used to source The local government is mandated by the water from Nandoni Dam to Nsami Dam Constitution of the Republic of South Afri- (Supreme Court of Appeal, 2014). This proj- ca, 1996 section 152, the objects of the lo- ect is still not finished by May 2015. The proj- cal government are: ect came to halt due to court proceed- • To provide democratic and account- ings which were concluded in March 2014. able government for local communities, Courts of law are involved because in most cases tenders are not properly awarded. • To ensure the provision of services to This is where issues of kickbacks (fraud) communities in a sustainable manner, chips in. Therefore it is not skills shortages • To promote social and economic devel- only that cause delay in finishing projects opment, as planned by municipalities (The Supreme Court of Appeal of South Africa, 2014). • To promote a safe and healthy environment and The Supreme Court of Appeal further indicates that the Greater Giyani Local Munici- • To encourage the involvement of com- pality did not follow the specifications while munities and community organisations awarding the tender, therefore the deci- in the matters of local government. sion of the municipality to award a tender Water Service Act 108 of 1997 section 3 (1) to the joint venture was motivated by bad states that everyone has a right to access faith and bias, which leaves the munic- basic water supply and basic sanitation ipality guilty of fraud and fronting as said and subsection 3 further says that every in Promotion of Administrative Justice Act water service authority must, in its water ser- 3 of 2000. According to Construction Indus- vices development plan provide for mea- try Development Board Act 30 of 2000, the sure to realise these rights. The local munici- tender in question (drawing of water from Nandoni dam to Nsami dam) required the

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 415 some members of the joint venture had a yani Local Municipality adopted Integrat- grading of 1CE PE which did not meet the ed Development Plan (2010-2013: 120). This specifications but were awarded a tender. is supported by Mopani District Municipality The awarding of a tender to constructors Reviewed Integrated Development Plan not meeting the required specifications re- (2006 – 2013:164). The Dzumeri to Kheyi road sulted in a project failure. Favouritism and is allocated project number MDM/8/2/3/88 interests should not partake in awarding (Memorandum of Demands, 2013). The a tender (The Supreme Court of Appeal, former Premier of Limpopo Province, Mr 2014). Other important Acts on service de- Cassel Mathale, then the acting Member livery are Health Act 63 of 1977, Hazard- of the Executive Council (MEC) for the Lim- ous Substance Act 5 of 1973, Environment popo Department of Roads and Transport Conservation Act 73 of 1989, Occupation also made a commitment in 2008 at Ma- Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993, Nation- geva soccer field that the Dzumeri to Kheyi al Water Act 36 of 1998, The National En- road will be tarred soon, the contractor will vironment Management Act 107 of 1998, be appointed within two months, and the Municipal Structures Act 117 of 1998, Mu- amount budgeted was R24 million to tar nicipal Systems Act 32 of 2000, Mineral and 21,9 km (Memorandum of demands, 2013). Petroleum Resources Development Act 28 From 2006 to 2015 is nine years since the Dz- of 2002, Air Quality Act 39 of 2004 and Na- umeri to Kheyi road was in the IDP. It needs tional Environment Management Waste to be found out, what causes service deliv- Act 59 of 2008. Some of these Acts are ery projects failure in the municipality. New not playing pivotal role in service delivery, and inexperienced leadership turn to cause but they are important and municipalities delay in project completion. The inexperi- should know them, including their implica- enced leaders turn to be gatekeepers and tions. The Acts that deal with local govern- do not want experienced members to be ment projects will be unpacked in detail in in the organisation, the African National literature review. Congress (ANC), they do this actually because they want to be associated with the Some politicians make empty promises in organisation while in the other hand they public. Communities listen carefully when are slowly destroying the organisation they their leaders speak. They even take notes thought they are building in reference to and dates as well as the venue where such the African National Congress (Motlanthe, a promise is made. The good example of 2007). The new incompetent leaders come the promise is when in Mafutsanyane High to focus on positions with the aim of feed- school the Mopani District Executive Mayor ing themselves rather than servicing the said in May 2009 that the Dzumeri to Kheyi people, South African Democratic Teach- road will be tarred with Xikukwani to Xivulani er’s Union (SADTU) Mopani Regional Bian- road (The Budget Vote Speech (2009). In nual General meeting (2015). New inexpe- the IDP 2010-2011 the Xikukwani to Xivulani rienced leadership allow people closer to road had a budget of R48 439 697 to tar 18,5 them to join an organisation and keep the km. The project was started. The Ndhambi experienced members aside, they even (Dzumeri) to Kheyi road had a budget of join for these members in order to keep R101 961 768 to tar 24,68 km, Greater Gi-

416 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 them (members) as their voting tools during (2010) says improper community consul- conferences. Motlanthe (2007) in this re- tation, lack of project planning, not con- gard says there are reports of gate-keep- sidering stages of project development, ing, ghost members, commercialisation not considering project implementation of membership, membership rental which pre-requisite, lack of project office, insuffi- seek to influence the elective conferences. cient application of project management It is therefore true that inexperienced lead- principles, poor organisational systems, ership can be elected in the conference, insufficient communication, lack of align- when the same leader is deployed to do ment of project objectives with that of the a municipal work, it is a crisis. Mantashe department and the sponsor lead to proj- (2010) is on the same side with Motlanthe ect failure. The relative deprivation and frus- as saying all provinces are in conflict with tration-aggression that is prolonged due to the ANC policy by manipulating the mem- rising expectations and rising gratifications bership in the favour of the branch lead- can be followed by short period of reversal ership by gate-keeping, despite their char- leading to a wide gap between expecta- acteristics. Motlanthe further says the new tions and gratifications. It brings in fear of leadership of ANC branches do not know loss and a fear that things will not continue the history and culture of the organisation to improve (Hough, 2008). The community’s they join. It is therefore necessary to steady fear that builds over time can build less trust change the organisation rather than the to the leadership. High expectations as well replacing of all old members by new lead- can damage a person’s image. Communi- ership. ty members generally talk about their dissatisfactions in community gatherings and Cohen (1996) indicates that political ap- happen to plan the way forward. pointees are also contributing to service delivery failure due to the fact that those The Matsotsosela Bridge that connects appointed do not have managerial skills. people of Matsotsosela and Kheyi villag- He goes further to say people with neces was started in 2001; it was completed essary skills, qualifications and experience in 2012/13 financial year with R9 million, should be appointed as managers. These 12 years after it was started, (Greater Gi- appointed at top management should also yani Municipality Reviewed Integrated De- be loyal to the party as they will make and velopment Plan, 2012/13). The Dzumeri to implement policies. Career managers and Kheyi road was budgeted for R30 million executives do not have a will to operate if in 2012/13 to tar 21,9km. The Xikukwani to they are not in support of the ruling party. Xivulani road was budgeted for R10 million, it covers 16km, (Greater Giyani Municipali- 2. PROBLEM STATEMENT ty Reviewed Integrated Plan, 2012/13). The This is the first paper of its kind in reference Dzumeri to Kheyi road is again budgeted to GGLM; it can therefore not be linked di- for R40 million in 2015/16, Integrated Devel- rectly to other authors work. However, there opment Plan Greater Giyani municipality are related studies in some areas done. The 2015 to 2018.The road was in the Mopani research is on service delivery. For the Lim- District Integrated Development Plan (IDP) popo Department of Agriculture Skhelele since 2006, tarring of the road is still to be

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 417 started since 2006, nine years after being stance against incomplete projects while budgeted for (Memorandum of demands, resources were allocated should be taken. 2013). Unannounced visits to check progress and quality of work to projects would be done Twala (2014:161) indicates that service de- (Budget Vote Speech by Mopani Executive livery strikes started in the Free State Prov- mayor, 2009). It is therefore true that there ince due to the lack of free basic electricity are projects that are not completed. In Rito and municipal corruption. It started in Au- (2013), the Greater Giyani Local Municipal- gust 2004 as a way activating the council- ity Mayor assured the community of Giyani lor’s performance. In some instances strikes that the municipality would do everything on land and housing issues were the main in its power to address challenges faced causes of strikes followed by service deliv- by communities. He alerted the communi- ery strikes. Some strikes are due to broken ty that there were no electricity and san- promises and due to government officials itation meant for rural communities prior ignoring protesters (Steyller, 2012). Service 1994. It is therefore imperative to find out delivery strikes are now a routine when if the promises made by political heads of people feel the project they expect is not municipalities are fulfilled. While the GGLM started as scheduled and planned. Service mayor was unpacking the 2014/15 bud- delivery protest in some instances may be get, he again reiterated that services de- caused by incomplete projects, and proj- livery projects such as roads infrastructure, ects that are not started despite being electricity, water provisions, construction budgeted for, hence this research. Incom- of culvert bridges, construction and main- plete projects harm the morale and confi- tenance of storm water drainage system, dence of the communities. In some cases, sports and recreational facilities need to be some projects fail to start. Some projects will done (Rito, 2014). He however indicated never be abandoned or left uncompleted. that the community should pay for services Therefore, this paper seeks to address the as the municipality is owed R130 million on causes of projects failure in the municipal- electricity. The resistance and reluctance ity and how to overcome these failures in by residents to pay for services then influ- order to attain the objects of the local gov- ences the service delivery and projects in ernment as set in the Constitution of the municipalities. (Greater Giyani Municipality Republic of South Africa, 1996 Section 152 Reviewed integrated Development plan, (1). The recommendations of this paper will 2012/13). Residents who do not qualify for enable the municipalities to know how to free services do not feel compelled to pay use the resources they have to implement for these services. The Greater Giyani Draft projects better and hence stability is real- Municipal Turnaround Strategy (2010) gives ised in the communities. following objectives: 3. RATIONALE FOR THE PAPER • Ensure that municipalities are able to The Mopani District Municipality Mayor ac- meet and deliver basic services to the knowledged the fact that as the municipal- community. ity the other challenges faced by the mu- • Build clean effective, efficient responsive nicipality is the unfinished projects and the

418 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 and accountable local government. 4.1. Causes of service delivery project failure • Improve performance and professionalism in municipalities. Service delivery challenges in municipalities are generally in a lack of socio-eco- • Strengthen partnership between com- nomic programme implementation in local munities, civil society and local govern- government (Mbazira, 2013). The Compre- ment. hensive Rural Development Programme • Fighting corruption and improve good (CRDP) is introduced by the Department governance. of Rural Development and Land Reform (DRDLR) to address past imbalances, in- When municipality fails to collect rates on equalities and injustices created by the properties, service rendering is adversely apartheid government (Department of Ru- affected. Services should therefore be paid ral Development and Land Reform, 2009). for (Greater Giyani Municipality Municipal According to Statistics South Africa (2011) Property Rates Policy Draft, 2007). South Africa is facing backlog on service It is necessary to conduct this paper in delivery issues such as housing, clean wa- order to assist the society to understand ter electricity supply and food security. This why they should pay for services, because is because South African municipalities are non-payment renders municipalities to be faced with challenges in the municipalities dysfunctional. despite being in a second decade of democracy (Pretorius & Schurink, 2007). 4. LITERATURE REVIEW Mbazira (2013:251) goes on to says that The Congress of the People in Kliptown in service delivery backlogs are caused by June 26, 1955 took a giant step to formu- among other things such as decentralisa- late the Freedom Charter. In some instanc- tion, mismanagement, corruption, inca- es the Freedom Charter is seen as being pacity to deliver to communities and lack skewed by the leading party by other peo- of participation by the general public in ple. From the Freedom Charter a lot can participating in decision making process- be driven that leads to service delivery pro- es. Pretorius and Schurink (2007) bring in a tests. The Freedom Charter is still to be real- solution to service delivery challenges; they ised in many facets of life economically and say interventions in programme manage- socially. The current government, the ANC ment, creating conditions for sustainable has done fairly good of course when com- service delivery, economic development ing to service delivery issues since coming and public participation can bring an end to power in 1994 ( Krugell, Ott and van der to service delivery challenges. Amundsen Merwe, 2009). South Africa is a multicultural (1999) stresses the fact that corruption in country rooted with history of different lev- poor countries is rife as compared to richer els of people, for example the rich and the countries; in other words, when the country poor, and has a potential to grow globally gets richer the level of corruption decreas- (Jackson, 2004:251). es. He further says that the more the power is legitimate the less the corruption. The

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 419 Greater Giyani Local Municipality is facing es since 1994. Marikana Commission (2015) a backlog of the following roads: Mageva says that the Lonmin mine was supposed to to Makhuva, Thomo to Hlomela, Ndhambi build houses to its employees and in doing to Xitlakati, Mphagani to Xitlakati, Baban- that the national and the provincial gov- gu to Msengi, Xikukwani to N’wadzekudze- ernment should be considered as well as ku and Mninginisi to Shangoni gate, these consulting with the local authority. Howev- roads are not at good conditions at all, er, all these infrastructure initiatives need they must be tarred (Rito, 2015:12). Backlog project management skills which can en- on service delivery can bring about com- sure that such projects are completed on munity revolt. According to Murwirapache- time, within budget and with the right qual- na and Sibanda (2014:554-6), South Africa ity. is a striking nation. They further indicate 4.2. Impact of incomplete projects to ser- that strikes are caused by mismatch be- vice delivery tween wage offers and demands in public and private institutions, the union rivalry Incomplete projects have social, econom- and the inequality, poverty and unemploy- ic and political impact. ment. Protests and strikes are caused by socio-economic challenges that emanates 4.2.1. Social from the apartheid era, these challenges The citizens should be willing to support ac- are long-lasting and have harmful effect to countability at local level (Nguyen & Lassi- the nation (OECD, 2013). bille as cited in Joshi, 2010). Citizens should Hough (2008) sites the following causes of report corruption. Unethical conduct and protests: cultural cleavage, land tenure corruption impacts South Africans nega- and economic development, political ad- tively on service delivery (Vyas-Doorgaper- aptation, social status, geography and de- sad, and Ababio, 2010). Corruption should mography, relative deprivation, the J-curve be reported, and dealt with harshly when of rising expectations and the role of ideol- such corruption is proved to be true. Na- ogy, political motivation, service delivery tional high profile politicians corrupt the promises not kept, crime, the gap between local government too, and milk it for their the rich and the poor, the conditions of gov- personal gains through illegal tendering, ernments departments derogating. When accepting bribes and unauthorised expen- President Jacob Zuma spoke at Muyexe diture (Managa, 2012). This socially put the Village in 2009, he stressed the fact that local government in a position not to offer service delivery in a form of electricity, wa- services to their constituencies. The depart- ter, flush toilets, roads, entertainment and ments of Roads and Transport, Education, sport centres, education, health, housing, Public Works and Health of Limpopo gov- energy, and shopping centres is needed in ernment were put under administration, rural areas (Zuma, 2009). Krugell, Otto and hence affecting service delivery in a neg- van der Merwe (2009) indicate that service ative way in the province (Managa, 2010). delivery in a form of formal housing, access 4.2.2. Economical to water, electricity, sanitation and refuse removal has increased across all provinc- Thobejane (2011:67) indicates that munic-

420 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ipalities should have a future forecast and capable leaders do not become leaders. not address the current demands on service 5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY delivery only. This will boost investor confidence and hence economic growth. The This study is based on a case study of Great- Limpopo provincial government had ac- er Giyani Local Municipality. The data is col- cumulated unauthorised expenditure that lected on the event, program or individual grew from R1.5 million in 2009 to R2.7 million being researched through observations, in 2011. The national government put five interviews, past records and audio-visual departments in Limpopo under administra- materials or documents. The sample of the tion as per Section 100 of the Constitution study included the following respondents: (Managa, 2012). This impacted negatively Five (5) traditional leaders, ten (10) munic- in service delivery. ipal employees and twenty-five (25) community members. The total number of inter- 4.2.3. Political views conducted was 40. The Face to face The political rivalries in municipalities devel- interview method was used with the iden- op for positions and seats in the councils tified respondents to collect data. Data once appointed or elected, this impact the analysis was done through the use of con- local government negatively (Vyas-Door- tent analysis. Kothari (2004) defines content gapersad and Ababio 2010:415). Appoint- as a way of analysing content or informa- ment in crucial civil posts such as senior tion from documented materials such as managers are political and senior civil ser- magazines, books newspapers and other vants rotate from one job to another even contents that can be verbal or printed. when they are not effective, this lead to 6. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS estrangement of the best potential managers, professionals and economists (Twa- The findings and discussions are based on la, 2014). Political connections and ap- research questions being asked and are pointments therefore impacts communities presented as follow: badly, and it is good for a particular political organisation as it will be known as an 6.1 Are all projects completed on time in employment agency. Thabo Mbeki in ANC your municipality? Today (2005) indicated that candidates at Twelve (12) respondents said yes to this local government need to be elected to question, and twenty-eight (28) said no to be councillors in order to gain access to this question. The respondents were to re- material resources and to disperse patron- spond to this question based on the proj- age. Politicians can therefore manipulate ects they know and have seen, not on ru- nomination processes in their favour. Pow- mours of projects not completed. Only 30% er hungry leaders do whatsoever to make agreed that projects they know were com- sure they are elected in leadership position pleted in time while 70% said projects were despite lacking leadership skills, and they not completed in time. in many instances they will make sure that

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 421 6.2: What can be the cause of the projects not completed in time?

The responses are captured in table 1 below.

The respondents or the 70% who said proj- projects from being completed in time. ects were not completed in time. The re- Another six (6) blamed poor management spondents were supposed to give causes of projects. Four (4) indicated the cause of projects not completed in time. Ten (10) of project not completed in time is lack of respondents poor budgeting lead to proj- project monitoring. Two respondent blame ects not completed in time. Six (6) of the poor project planning for projects not fin- respondents said court interdicts prevent ishing in time.

422 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 6. 3 Can projects fail to start even when budgeted for?

The responses to this question are indicated in table 3 below.

Table 2: Number of projects failing to start even when budgeted for

Yes/No Quantity Percentage

Yes 20 50% No 20 50%

Total 40 100%

Respondents were to say if project can for those who said yes, project can fail to fail to start when they were budgeted for. start. The question seeks a reason for proj- Twenty (20) respondents said projects can ect failing to start even when budgeted for fail to start even when budget is available. to the fourty (40) respondents. The same number of respondents, ten (10), said projects cannot fail to start when budgeted for. A follow up question was asked Table 3: Reasons for projects failing to start even when budgeted for

Main reason for projects failing to start Lack of knowledge on project planning from the Municipal level Projects may be diverted to other places and not done in the place budgeted for due to corrupt leadership. When those in authority do not benefit in that particular project they will divert it to their own area through corrupt means. Corruption and maladministration Money budgeted for cannot be available as budget are just estimates and not real things. Court interdicts are the main reasons for projects to fail to start. There is no way a court interdict can be overruled. Some managers are not having enough experience, knowledge and skills on project management.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 423 Corruption is the main reason why projects fail to start. A project is said to have been done meanwhile it was never started. Those awarding a tender are in fraud- ulent relationship with somebody who was awarded a tender for the project. Corruption and fraud When the project was wrongfully budgeted for it can fail to start.

The table 3 above indicates responses from cated the reason for project not starting as fourty (40) respondents who said projects poor budgeting. can fail to start even when budgeted for. It 6. 4 Who should carry the blame for proj- is a follow up question to question 3. Twen- ects failing to start even when budgeted for ty (50%) respondents indicated that proj- in the municipality? ects failing to start even when budgeted for. Ten (25%) respondents indicated that The respondents gave the following an- corruption can fail the project from starting swers as depicted in table 4: even when budgeted for. Four (20%) indi-

Table 4: Who should carry the blame for projects failing to start?

Responses Response 1. The mayor should shoulder the blame. 2. The mayor 3. The municipal manager 4. The mayor and his committee 5. The mayoral committee 6. The mayor is the only person to carry the blame 7. The budget committee 8. The Chief 9. Budget committee 10. The ward councillor 11. The mayor and the ward councillor 12. The mayor and the executive committee members of the municipality 13. The mayor and the municipal manager

All the forty (40) respondents gave their re- dent put a blame to ward councillor. One sponses. Thirty two (32) respondents which blamed the chief and the last one blamed constitute 80% say the mayor should carry the budget committee. the blame for projects failing to start even 6.5 Is it good for the service delivery march- when budget is available. One respon- ers to vandalise the community property dent indicated that the municipal man- such as schools and clinics during strikes ager should be blamed. Another respon- for projects failing to start?

424 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Table 5: Marchers vandalising property or not

Yes/No Quantity Percentage

Yes 4 10% No 36 90%

Total 20 100%

Only four (4) respondents responded by saying it is good to vandalise property when striking, this is 10% of the respondents. The rest of the respondents, eighteen (36) or 90% said it is not correct to vandalise property during service delivery strikes because damaging the community’s property is not beneficial. Actually the community loses even more.

6.6 How can the municipality deal with the backlog?

Table 6: Dealing with backlogs

Reason for respondent Quantity Percentage Intervention from national or provincial govern- 22 55% ment or department Ask for assistance from NGOs 4 10% Stop new projects 4 10% Stop Self-enrichment by government employ- 2 5% ees Employ qualified and experienced companies 2 5% Know the cause of backlogs 2 5% Allocate more money to backlogs 2 5% No way backlogs can be addressed 2 5%

Total 40 100%

6.7 What could municipalities do to ensure that projects are completed in time?

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 425 The responses to this question are depicted in Table 7 below:

Table 7: Actions to be taken by municipalities in percentage

Reason for respondent Quanti- Percent- ty age

Award tender on merit 8 20% Specify Time frame for completion of projects 6 15% Project monitoring 6 15% Project planning 4 10% Deduction of money from payments if projects are incom- 4 10% plete Blacklisting companies which fail to complete projects 4 10% Municipality should assess Risk in time 4 10% No to tendering, rather head hunt professional companies 2 5% Project should be well budgeted for by the municipality 2 5%

Total 40 100%

7. CONCLUSION 8. RECOMMENDATIONS

Through data analysis, it was clear that There following recommendations should municipalities still have a long way to go in be done in order to reduce municipal un- terms of ensuring that projects which are in- rest due to lack of service delivery: dicated in the IDP are implemented. Some • Government should complete planned of the challenges which the respondents projects in time. listed as hampering the success of projects in Greater Giyani Local Municipality are the • Promises made by politicians should be following: inexperienced contractors; irreg- fulfilled. ular tendering processes whereby tender are awarded to incompetent companies • Projects should be monitored. and individuals; non-existent or inadequate • End corruption and fraud. budget from the municipality for specified projects; projects are started, but are never • Do not offer tenders to friends, relatives completed and many other reasons. or family members.

Through the implementation of the recom- • Project managers must be skilled. mendations made the municipalities can • Interrelations between various govern- avoid further strikes and loss of life and in- ment spheres should be improved. juries. The government has to see to it that those injured during strikes are hospitalised, • Management of service delivery back- and those who died cost the government logs and abandoned projects. dearly. The government should then pro- • International benchmarking on how oth- vide quality services to the communities er countries deal with strikers. they serve.

426 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 • Community awareness not to vandalise ipal Property Rates Policy Draft. Greater property. Giyani Municipality: Giyani

Greater Giyani Municipality. Adopted In- LIST OF REFERENCES tegrated Development Programme. 2010- 2013. Greater Giyani Municipality: Giyani African National Congress. 2015. NEC Lek- gotla. 2015. ANC Bulletin. Greater Giyani Municipality. Reviewed Integrated Development Plan 2012/13. Amundsen, I. 1999. Political Corruption: An Greater Giyani Municipality: Giyani Introduction to the Issues. http://www.crmi. no/Publications/files/1040-political-corrup- Harris, D., Kooy, M. and Jalloh, G. 2012. tion.pdf - internet explorer. Accessed: 2 The Political Economy of the Urban Water November 2015. Pricing Regime in Freetown, Sierra Leone. London: ODI. Bromfield, L., Lamont, a., Parker, R., and Horsfall, B. 2010. Issues for the safety and Hough, M. 2008. Violent Protest At Local wellbeing of children and families with Government Level In South Africa: Revo- multiple and complex problems: the lutionary Potential? Institute for Strategic co-occurrence of domestic violence, Studies: University of Pretoria. parental substance misuse, and mental Jackson, T. 2004. Management and health problems. National Child Protection Change in Africa: A cross Cultural Per- Clearing house issues no. 33. Melbourne: spective. Routledge Publisher: London. Australian Institute of Family Studies. Joshi, A. 2010. Reviewed of Impact and Budget vote speech delivered by Execu- Effective of Transparency and Account- tive Mayor of Mopani District Municipality: ability Initiatives: Service Delivery. Institute Special Council Meeting, Tzaneen, Ma- of Development Studies. futsanyane High School, 30 May 2009. Kothari, C. 2004. Research Methodology, Cammack, D. 2012. Peri-urban Gover- Methods and Techniques. New Delhi: New nance and the Delivery of Public Goods in Age International Publishers. Malawi, 2009-11 Reseach Report. London: APPP Krugell, W., Otto, H., & van der Merwe, J. 2009. Local Municipalities and Progress Cohen, D.M. 1996. Amateur Government: with the Delivery of Basic Services in South When Political Appointees Manage the Africa. North West University: Potchefst- Federal Bureaucracy. CPM Working Paper room 96-1. The Brookings Institution, Washington D.C. Mariam, D.H. 2000. Traditional Insurance Mechanisms and the Choice of Health Greater Giyani Municipality. 2010. Draft Care Providers in Ethiopia in Leonard, D.K. Municipal Turnaround Strategy. Greater (ed.) Africa’s Changing Markets for Health Giyani Municipality: Giyani and Veterinary Services: The New Institu- Greater Giyani Municipality. 2007. Munic- tional Issues, London: Macmillan Press.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 427 Marikana Commission of Inquiry: Report on Skhalele N. D. 2010. Project failure in a Matters of Republic, National and Inter- Provincial Department of Agriculture. Ac- national Concern Arising Out of the Tragic cessed from Google on 21 January 2013 Incidents at the Lonmin Mine in Marikana, at 1h33 pm in the North West Province. North West Statistics South Africa. 2011. Using the 2011 Province: Rustenburg. Census. http://www.statsa.gov.za/publica- Mathebula, D. 2009. African National Con- tions/CensusHandBook/CensusHandBook. gress Giyani Sub-Region Political Report, pdf (accessed on 28 May 2015) Presented to the 6th Sub-Regional Confer- Steyller, 2012.Service Delivery Protest Ba- ence rometer. Local Government Bulletin Vol- Mbazira, C. 2013. Service delivery protests, ume 14. Issue 3. October 2012. Accessed struggle for rights and the failure of local from Google on 18 May 2015 at 2:21 pm democracy in South and Uganda: paral- The Supreme Court of Appeal of South lels and divergences. South African Jour- Africa Case No.: 40/13 [2014] in Neutral nal of Human Resources. 29:251-175. citation Esorfranki Pipes v Mopani District Ministry of Rural Development and Land Municipality (40/13) [2014] ZASCA 21 (28 Reform. 2009. The comprehensive rural de- March 2014). velopment programme framework. http:// Thobejane, J.N. 2011. Impact of Service www.ruraldevelopment.gov.za/phocad- Delivery on Sustainable Local Economic ownload/Documents/crdp_version1-28ju- Development (LED) Projects in Greater ly09.pdf (Accessed on 5 February, 2013) Tubatse Municipality, Limpopo Province. Mopani District Municipality Reviewed Turfloop Graduate School of Leadership: Integrated Plan 2006 – 2013. University of Limpopo.

Murwirapachena, G. and Sibanda, K. Travers, T. 2013. Local Government’s role In 2014. Exploring the Incidents of Strikes in Promoting Economic Growth. Local Gov- Post-Apartheid South Africa. International ernment Association: London Business & Economics Research Journal.13 Vyas-Doorgapersad, S and Ababio, E.P. (3):553-560. 2010. The Illusion of Ethics for Good Local OECD. 2013. OECD economic surveys: Governance in South Africa. Public Man- South Africa 2013. OECD Publishing. http:// agement and Administration, School of dx.doi.org/10.1787/eco_surveys-zaf-2013- Basic Science. North-West University: Van- en derbijlpark.

Rito. 2014. The Official Newsletter of the Zuma, J. G. 2009.Keynote address by the Greater Giyani Municipality. Issue No.2. President Jacob Zuma at the launch of Winter-Spring 2014 the Comprehensive Rural Development Programme at Muyexe village. Greater Rito. 2013. The Official Newsletter for the Giyani Municipality: Giyani Greater Giyani Municipality. Volume 2. Winter Edition.

428 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 WHAT IS IN A WORD? IMPLICATIONS OF UNIVERSITY -COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT CONNOTATIONS AT HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS

EM Nkoana

University of South Africa

FT Maswanganyi

Central University of Technology

ABSTRACT

Traditional responsibilities of teaching and learning at universities are losing hold in the evolving international debate on the role of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) or universities in society. This is more so in the context of finding solutions to wicked problems such as crime, environmental degradation, and poverty and so forth. Wicked problems, or problems that do not go away despite concerted deployment of resources, challenge the conventional teaching and research that is responsible, up until now, for societal transformation. Wicked problems compel us to think innovatively about the role of universities if we are to move society forward. In this regard, finding solutions to wicked problems necessitate the involvement of surrounding communities or external stakeholders. This has led to the emergence of University-Community Engagement (UCE)-a third mission of universities. How- ever, the contested nature of ‘community’ and ‘engagement’ and the different contexts within which UCE has evolved has thrown up questions such as-what is UCE? How can it be achieved in these different contexts? This paper reports on the process of answering these questions by developing a conceptual framework, participation typology, and principles that operationalises UCE in different contexts.

Keywords: Environmental degradation, Higher Education Institutions, Participation typology, University-Community Engagement 1. INTRODUCTION development, by dint of its role in educat- Traditionally, Higher Education Institutions ing the citizenry is losing hold in the evolving (HEIs) or universities’ responsibilities includ- international debate on the role of higher ed teaching the citizenry and conducting education in society” (Bernardo, Butch- research to aid social transformation. In er, & Howard, 2012: 187). This is more so in this process, the citizenry’s role was passive the context of finding solutions to (super) as receivers of knowledge and subjects wicked problems such as climate change, in social science research. However, “the crime, environmental degradation, pov- notion that universities contribute to social Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 429 erty, and diseases (Rittel & Webber, 1973; hemisphere), political (founding values), Levin, Cashore, Bernstein, & Auld, 2012), socio-cultural orientation (traditional/reli- and in which, the citizenry is expected to gious or secular), and social (urban, peri-ur- play an increasingly active role. Compelled ban or rural) contexts within which universi- by this reality, University-Community En- ties operate. These different contexts tend gagement (UCE) became one of the tripar- to shape the nature of University-Commu- tite missions of universities across the world, nity Engagement (UCE) at various univer- extending the responsibilities of universities sities. Failure to recognise these different beyond the traditional roles of teaching contexts has led to a high proliferation of and research (Bernardo et al., 2012). University-Community Engagement (UCE) conceptualisation and operationalisation. The varying cultural, economic, political, To make matter worst, the terms communi- and social contexts of different universities ty and engagement are highly contested across the world have shaped the evolu- in themselves (Banks, Butcher, Henderson, tion of University-Community Engagement & Robertson, 2003). Hence, it is crucial to (UCE) in their institutions and countries (Ber- operationalise University-Community En- nardo et al., 2012). An attempt has to be gagement (UCE) guided by the different made to conceptualise and operationalise contexts within which it exists and seek con- University-Community Engagement (UCE) ceptual clarity to its highly contested con- despite this apparent divergence-a task we cepts. take on in this paper. To achieve task, the authors organised this paper into the follow- 3. RESEARCH DESIGN ing sections: Section 2-outlines the problem This is a qualitative desktop study utilising this paper tackles, Section 3-highlights the systematic literature review (Kitchenham, research design, Section 4-develops the 2004: 1; Kitchenham, Pearl Brereton, Bud- conceptual framework that aids in the de- gen, Turner, Bailey, & Linkman, 2009) and velopment of UCE typology and principles, secondary data analysis methodologies Section 5-presents the UCE typology which (Onwuegbuzie, Leech, & Collins, 2012). is measure of the levels of participation in A Boolean search of Ebsco Host, Emerald UCE activities by surrounding communi- Insight, Science Direct, and South African ties and/or external stakeholders, Section Electronic Publications (SA ePublications) 6-sketches out the principles that guides scientific databases was conducted. These the policy and practice dimensions of UCE, scientific databases were considered in and Section 7-draws concluding remarks order to limited the various ‘search results’ biases such the North American bias (Ebs- co Host), European bias (Emerald Insight & 2. PROBLEM STATEMENT Science Direct), and the South African bias Bernardo et al., (2012) highlights the fact (SA ePublications). The following key search that current concepts of University-Com- words were used in the Boolean search: munity Engagement (UCE) fail to recog- ‘Community Engagement’, ‘Communi- nise the economic (public or private own- ty Engagement AND Higher Education’, ership), geographic (Southern or Northern ‘Community Engagement AND Higher Ed-

430 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ucation AND Universities’, ‘Community En- up images of warmth, friendliness and col- gagement AND South African Universities’, laboration. and ‘Community Engagement AND South It is in this line of thought that the three sens- African Higher Education Institutions’ es of community are summarised as follows: Scientific literature search yielded thirty-one 4.1.1. Descriptive community refers to the (31) peer-reviewed scholarly articles. A social scientists’ use of the term to backward snowballing approach was used describe a group or network of peo- to identify peer-reviewed scholarly articles ple, institutions, or organisations that by searching the reference sections of share something in common. This leading articles. We excluded unpublished generally involves both (social) inter- studies, conference proceedings, literature action within the group or network, not published in English, and the Web of and a sense of attachment, identi- Science journal database. fication with or belonging to. A dis- 4. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK tinction is often made between two types of communities: territorial com- 4.1. Contested nature of community munities and communities of interest When read separately, these two words that or identity. In territorial communities, form the concepts of community engage- people have their geographic loca- ment are highly contested ones (Banks tion in common, for example their et al., 2003). First, the term community re- neighbourhood, village or town. mains hotly debated, and in an attempt Whereas communities of interest or to answer the question-what constitutes identity are based on characteristics a community? - ninety four (94) definitions other than physical proximity such as have been thought up. Indeed, it is almost ethnicity (Chinese), occupation (pro- compulsory that any publication with the fessional membership organisations), term ‘community’ in the title should have religion (Catholicism), sexual orien- a section on this topic (Banks et al., 2003) tation (LGBT) and so forth. However, and this paper does not deviate from this these categories are not mutually ex- norm. One of the difficulties with ‘communi- clusive, as some communities, such ty’ is that it falls into the category called an as mining villages, for example, may ‘essentially contested concept’. As Banks be rooted in both shared locality and and colleagues point out that ‘community’ common interest. has a descriptive, active, and an evalua- Whilst we would define descriptive tive meaning. The descriptive and active community as entailing an attach- meaning refers to features of the world that ment to a group or social network, describe what it is to be a ‘community’ –for it is important to note that the term example, ‘a group of people with some- is very often used in the context of thing in common’. Its evaluative meaning policy and practice simply to refer to comprises the value connotations that at- a geographical neighbourhood (for tach to the term –that is, ‘community’ is a example, ‘the Durban community’), positive term, and when used may conjure or set of individuals (‘the Black com-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 431 munity’) who may not actually feel and need to associate with, and to any sense of attachment to or identi- live a life with others in society. Butch- ty with the area or group referred to. er’s three community values can be Strictly speaking, this is a misuse of the described as follows: term, but it is used so commonly that • Solidarity –the relationships that we need to take it into account. The sustain community members at term ‘community’ is often used in a an emotional level. Solidarity is policy context to mean simply peo- what inspires affection, even loy- ple who live in an area and/or peo- alty of an individual member to- ple who are not professionals. This is wards the group; often what is meant when reference is made to ‘community representa- • Participation –shared activities tives’, ‘consulting the community’, with others, through which individ- ‘community development workers’, uals are involved in realising com- or University-Community Engage- mon goals and playing a part in ment (UCE). This use of the term may the collective life and aspirations imply a sense of belonging or attach- of the group. ment, even though there is none. • Coherence –the embracing by in- 4.1.2. Normative community/Community dividuals of a framework of mean- as value –as already noted, ‘commu- ings and values that provide some nity’ not only has several different de- overall sense of their world. scriptive meanings, but it also has an evaluative meaning. ‘Community’ 4.1.3. The meaning of Active community generally has positive connotations, builds on and encompasses the de- conjuring up visions of warm, caring scriptive and value meanings iden- neighbourliness. However, precisely tified above. It refers to collective what values are embodied by the action by members of territorial or concept of community will vary ac- interest communities that embraces cording to the ideological position one or more of the communal values held. Butcher (1993: 14-17) identifies of solidarity, participation and coher- three ‘community values’ as: solidar- ence. This is the idea of community ity, participation, and coherence. In that public policy makers often have their strongest form, he argues, these in mind when they seek to promote are grounded in a communitarian initiatives drawing upon communi- philosophy. Although there are many ty strengths and capacities. In the different versions of communitarian- context of university community en- ism, broadly speaking they all hold to gagement (UCE), we can further dis- a view of the individual as constitut- tinguish between the internal and ed by society (Etzioni, 1995a; Etzioni, external communities. The internal 1995b). What people are, and what community refers to the ‘university they can become, is profoundly af- community’ comprised of academ- fected by their inherent disposition ics and support staff working for HEIs

432 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 or Universities and the student popu- used as a yard stick to measure universities lace. The external community refers against. Without any further adjure, Reed to stakeholders that work together (2008) warns us that, over the years, par- with the university including surround- ticipation has become loaded with vari- ing ‘communities’, corporate citi- ous meanings giving rise to a variety of in- zens, civil society organisations, and terpretations. However, intentions of any government departments (Abu Man- programme, such as University-Community sor, 2014). Engagement (UCE), determine the degree of participation by both external and inter- It should be mentioned forthright nal ‘community’ members or the university that we adopt the active definition community. First, these participation objec- of community as it encompasses tives might include mere information and the descriptive and normative (val- consultation in which information or knowl- ue) meanings identified in previous edge flows in one direction, either from the paragraphs. These meanings will be external community members (ECMs)to used in the later paragraphs to de- the university community members (UCMs) rive the normativity, procedural, and or vice versa. Second, during the involve- empowerment principles. Hence, the ment stage, the external ‘active’ commu- term external ‘active’ communities nity members (ECMs) and the university to refer to outside individuals, groups, community members (UCMs) collaborate institutions, and organisations which in the University-Community Engagement universities engage with in Universi- (UCE) initiative and information or knowl- ty-Community Engagement (UCE) edge flows in both directions. Third, the last initiatives. This conceptual clarifica- stage of University-Community Engage- tion of the concept of ‘community’, ment (UCE) is ownership of the UCE initia- or external ‘active’ community, will tive by the external ‘active’ community assist in the conceptualisation and members (ECM) resulting in empowerment operationalisation of the term ‘en- (see Table 1). Last, various University-Com- gagement’. munity Engagement (UCE) activities should 4.2. Engagement typology be judged by this engagement/participation typology. Again, the levels or degree Definition from the Merriam-Webster dic- of external ‘active’ community members tionary unequivocally denotes that, in en- (ECMs) participation in the University-Com- gagement, two or more partners, such as munity Engagement (UCE) activities de- people, institutions, or nations, enter into pends upon the objectives or intended an asymbiotic agreement or mutual de- outcomes/results of the UCE activities. Ex- struction, as in the case of armed hostilities. amples of UCE activities might include, but The essence is that, in engagement, both are not limited to, student internships, volun- parties actively participate. Engagement is teer services, and social programmes and akin to participation albeit more restrained so forth (Bernardo et al., 2012; Abu Mansor, than the latter. Developing a participation 2014; Mtawa et al., 2016). typology might lead us to the operational definition of engagement which can be

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 433 5. 0 CONCEPTUALISING AND CONTEXTUALISING UNIVERSITY-COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT (UCE)

In the previous paragraphs we conceptualised the terms community and engagement by drawing on works from leading scholars in these fields (Abu Mansor, 2014; Bernardo et al., 2012; Banks et al., 2003). Our definition of an active community squarely fits the purpose (at least on paper) that universities have in mind when they engage external ‘active’ communities. We also distinguished internal community (i.e. university staff) to external community (i.e. non-university staff/outside partners). Whether or not universities practice what they preach by engaging external ‘active’ communities in a two way reciprocal process of participation remains to be tested-and it is a subject of another paper. The contested nature of community and overwhelming definitions of participation are daunting as concepts on their own, however, putting them together, as in the case of community engagement, makes for a challenge of daunting proportions-a task we took on this paper. We derived a University-Community Engagement (UCE) typology through the synthesis of scientific literature. We present this typology in Table 1 below. Table 1: University-Community Engagement (UCE) Typology in the context of social science research

Stages of participation Main purpose of Characteristics of the stage Type of partici- participation pation (i.e. degree of participa- (i.e. direction of communication flows) tion/rungs of the ladder) (i.e. objectives of (i.e. theoretical participation) basis/pragmatic participation etc.) Non participation Manipulation Powerful stakeholders uses powerless Non-participa- Community stakeholders to legitimise decision making tion Therapy Information/knowledge flows in one direc- Services tion from the powerful stakeholder to the powerless stakeholders Information/knowledge flows in one direction from the university community mem- Communication (Inform- Information bers (UCMs) to the external community/ ing) stakeholders (ECMs). Passive partici- Information/knowledge flows in one direc- pation (degrees tion from the external community/stake- of tokenism) Consultation (& placation) Extraction holders (ECMs) to the university community members (UCMs). Community Out- reach

Flow of information/knowledge is arranged in both directions: from the UCMs Co-construction/co-de- Co-development to the ECMs and vice versa, in a process Interactive par- sign/Involvement (dele- (characterised by of shared learning (co-learning/collabo- ticipation (delegated power & partner- reciprocity of ac- rative learning). gated power & ships) tions) partnership) External community/stakeholders (ECMs) Active participa- are responsible for the UCE initiative(s). tion/self-organ- Community Decision/Empowerment Ownership isation/citizens (citizens control) control (Citizens Engagement control) (Researchers’ own synthesis inspired by Abu Mansor, 2014; Bender, 2008; Reed, 2008; Arn- stein, 1969)

434 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 6. 0 PRINCIPLES OF UNIVERSITY-COMMUNITY external stakeholders with which universities ENGAGEMENT (UCE) work? Do university staff members under- We can derive the guiding principles of stand their roles and responsibilities as moral University-Community Engagement (UCE) champions of university values? Let us use from the above conceptualisation of com- Bernardo et al., (2012) case study to shed munity and engagement and the resultant light into how founding values can affect typology. Guided by these concepts and University-Community Engagement (UCE) typology we present the normativity, pro- policy and practice at the institutional lev- cedural, and empowerment principles of els. Bernardo and colleagues compare Uni- University-Community Engagement (UCE) versity-Community Engagement (UCE) at both the supranational (i.e. country) and 6.1.Normativity principle of University-Com- institutional (i.e. university) levels between munity Engagement (UCE) an Australian university and Philippine uni- Universities across the world pride them- versity. Both universities were founded by selves as guardians and champions of so- Catholic missionaries albeit they exists in cietal values such as equality, equity, hu- different economic (developed and devel- man rights, and (social) justice and so forth oping country), socio-cultural (religious ver- (Bernardo et al., 2012). Societal values are sus secular country), and political contexts. abstract ideals which evoke emotional re- These diverse contexts have shaped UCE actions and are typically expressed in terms in these institutions differently, with the Aus- of good or bad, better or worse, desirabili- tralian university pursuing a Mission-Based ty or avoidance. They define or direct us to Model to UCE, and the Philippine univer- goals, frame our attitudes and views, and sity responding to the basic needs of its provide standards against which human surrounding community through a Needs- behaviour can be judged (Waas, Hugé, Based Model-because of the high poverty Verbruggen, & Wright, 2011: 1646). At the levels in that country. Catholic religious val- institutional level, the normativity principle ues on which these two (2) were founded can be applied as a useful tool to interpret continue to influence their organisational the organisational culture or institutional culture and institutional values expressed in values (i.e. founding values) of universities their UCE policies and practice, hence, the as espoused in their University-Community importance of the normativity principle in Engagement (UCE) policies and/or frame- UCE. works. These policies and/or frameworks 6.2. Procedural principle spells out how external stakeholders, more in particular external ‘active’ communities, Ever since their founding, universities have should be treated humanely or otherwise. driven the societal transformation agenda This principle tells us about the social jus- through scientific research (Bernardo et al., tice or injustice built-in the policies and/or 2012). They have continued to be sought frameworks of universities and their ultimate after as centres of knowledge generation expression in University-Community Engage- for the common good of human kind. How- ment (UCE) practice. Is UCE empowering or ever, wicked problems, or problems that exploitative to the active communities or seem not to go away despite concerted

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 435 deployment of resources, have compelled occurrence is a scientific fact but its mag- universities to seek new solutions. Wick- nitude and timeline remains contested and ed problems include, but are not limited this is made more contentious by sceptics to, crime, climate change, environmental and their deep pocketed special interest degradation, poverty, diseases and so forth donors. In recognition of this, universities (Rittel & Webber, 1973; Levin et al., 2012). would have to engage external ‘active’ These wicked problems challenge the mo- communities and solicit their indigenous or dernity-era ‘ivory tower’ research that treats local knowledge about climate change research participants from external ‘active’ impacts and coping and adaptation strat- communities as passive guinea pigs to be egies. Research conducted within the am- experimented on. Post-modernism and bits of University-Community Engagement post-normal research (Wals, 2007) recog- (UCE) seems to be the ideal platform to nises the contributions that lay people (i.e. realise this. Reasons for such an approach non-experts) from external ‘active’ commu- has a theoretical grounding in scientific lit- nities can make in scientific research. Be- erature, as Kloprogge & Sluijs (2006) and fore we go any further, it is worth mention- Wals (2007) mention that the procedural ing that we focus on the research aspect of principle states that there are benefits that University-Community Engagement (UCE) accrues by the involvement of lay people because research is one of the core busi- from external ‘active’ communities in any nesses of any university and in certain cases initiative including in University-Community it is carried our through University-Commu- Engagement (UCE). These benefits include nity Engagement (UCE) projects. We clarify empowerment of actors, stronger social this because of the fierce debates around ties between the actors, ownership of proj- what constitutes and what does not con- ects post university staff intervention, better stitute University-Community Engagement decision making, and informed policy and (UCE)-a subject of another paper. practice and so forth. Table 1 does indicate the different levels at which University-Com- We then zoom into climate change as the munity Engagement (UCE) can occur super wicked problem of the 21st centu- whereby the university staff and community ry (IPCC, 2007; UN, 2007; Levin et al., 2012) members move from mere information and to argue the procedural principle of Uni- consultation to collaboration and partner- versity-Community Engagement (UCE) in ships and ultimately leaving the decision environmental change research. Climate making process in the hands of the com- change research, or impact assessment munity members bolstering ownership of studies to be particular, acknowledges that the UCE initiative. solutions to this wicked problem will not only come from the scientists but also from ex- 6.3. Empowerment principle ternal ‘active’ communities. This is made The empowerment principle is borne out more apparent by measurement issues in of values such as equity and equality es- climate change, unlike in other sciences poused in the normativity principle. The em- such as physics and its exact laws of gravity, powerment principle states that both ac- climate change science is open to contes- tors in University-Community Engagement tation from different schools of thoughts. Its

436 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 (UCE) initiatives should derive tangible and ment’. This conceptualisation aided the intangible benefits from this exercise.- Nor process of operationalising University-Com- mally, in the context of social science re- munity Engagement (UCE) by developing search, university academic would publish a participation typology for- and princi- scholarly articles using field notes obtained ples of- University-Community Engagement from lay people in external ‘active’ commu- (UCE). The UCE participation typology nities. In fact, this has been the traditional sketches out the various levels at which uni- approach to university research since time versity community members (UCMs) can immemorial. The blurring of lines between engage with external ‘active’ community University-Community Engagement (UCE) members (ECMs). The University-Communi- and scholarly research throws up opportu- ty Engagement (UCE) principles can guide nities for universities to once more claim the the processes of policy development and moral high ground by living up to this prin- implementation through UCE practice. ciple. This is crucial, more especially, in this These conceptual framework, participation era of research fatigue and apathy caused typology, and principles will guide Univer- by many years of thief-like behaviour of sity-Community Engagement (UCE) here university academics. Community engage- and elsewhere. ment offers universities the chance to re- LIST OF REFERENCES energise and reinvigorate external ‘active’ communities. However, this cannot only Banks, S. 2003. ‘What is Community Prac- be achieved if the University-Community tice’- in Banks, S., Butcher, H., Henderson, P. Engagement (UCE) relationship is asym- & Robertson, J. (eds) Managing Community biotic-meaning to the benefit of both ac- Practice: Principles, policies, programmes. tors. In fact, the perception that universities Bristol: The Polity Press, (13-15). treat lay people in external ‘active’ community justly can help this cause. Hence, Butcher, H., Glen, A., Henderson, P. & Smith, the empowerment should be an integral of J. 1993. Community and Public Policy. Lon- University-Community Engagement (UCE) don: Pluto Press. principles at all universities. The procedural Butcher, H. 1993. ‘Introduction: some ex- principle can play an important role in at- amples and definitions’, in Butcher, H et al., taining empowerment by fostering partner- (eds) Community and Public Policy. Lon- ships and collaborations based on equity don: Pluto Press, (3-21). and equality between University-Communi- ty Engagement (UCE) partners. Hence, the Etzioni, A .1995(a). New Communitarianism typology in Table 1 is crucial when planning Thinking: Persons, Virtues, Institutions, and University-Community Engagement (UCE) Communities. Charlottesville, USA: Universi- as it proposes ways of engaging external ty Press of Virginia. ‘active’ communities. Etzioni, A. 1995(b). The Spirit of Community. 7. CONCLUDING REMARKS London: Fontana

In this paper, we conceptualised the prob- IPCC. 2014. Africa. In: Climate Change lematic terms of ‘community’ and ‘engage- 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerabil-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 437 ity. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution per Wicked Problems: Constraining our Fu- of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment ture Selves to Ameliorate Global Climate Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Change. Policy Science, 45: 123-152. doi: Climate Change (1199-1265). United King- 10.1007/s11077-012-9151-0. dom and New York. URL Link: http://www. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2016. ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/ Definition of Engagement. URL Link: http:// WGIIAR5Chap22FINAL.pdf Accessed on www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/en- 21st March 2016. gagement Accessed on 21st March 2016. Reed, M. S. 2008. Stakeholder Participa- Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Leech, N. L., & Col- tion for Environmental Management. A lins, K. M. T. 2012. Qualitative Analysis Tech- Literature Review. Biological Conserva- niques for the Review of the Literature. The tion. 141 (10), 2417-2431. doi:10.1016/j.bio- Qualitative Report, 17 (56): 1-28. URL Link: con.2008.07.014. http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR17/onwueg- Rittel, H. W. J., & Webber, M. M. 1973. Dilem- buzie.pdf Accessed on 21st March 2016. mas in a General Theory of Planning. Policy United Nations. 2007. Climate Change: Im- Sciences, 4 (2): 155-169. pacts, Vulnerabilities, and Adaptation in Kitchenham, B. 2004. Procedures for Per- Developing Countries. (1-68). Bonn: Germa- forming Systematic Reviews. Keele Univer- ny. URL Link: http://unfccc.int/resources/ sity Technical Report TR/SE-0401. ISSN:1353- docs/publications/impacts.pdf Accessed 7776. URL Link: https://scholar.google. on 21st March 2016. co.za/scholar?q=procedures+for+per- Universities South Africa. 2016. Public Uni- forming+systematic+reviews+kitchen- versities in South Africa. URL Link: http:// ham&hl=en&as_sdt=0&as_vis=1&oi=schol- www.universitiessa.ac.za/public-univer- art&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiHzqq7xIvMAh- sities-south-africa Accessed on 09th April VHuhQKHWBlAKgQgQMIGDAA Accessed 2016. on the 21st March 2016. Waas, T., Huge, J., Verbruggen, A., & Wright, Kitchenham, B., Pearl Brereton, O., Budgen, T. 2011. Sustainable Development: A Bird’s D., Turner, M., Bailey, J., & Linkman, S. 2009. Eye View. Sustainability, 3 (12), 1637-1661. Systematic Literature Review in Software En- doi: 10.3390/su3101637. gineering-A Systematic Literature Review. Information and Software Technology, 51 Wals, A. E. J. 2007. Social Learning-Towards (1): 7-15. doi: 10.1016/j.infsof.2008.09.009. a Sustainable World: Principles, Perspec- tives, and Praxis. Netherlands: Wageningen Kloprogge, P., & Sluis, J. P. Van der. 2006. Academic Publishers. The Inclusion of Stakeholder Knowledge and Perspectives in Integrated Assessment of Climate Change. Climatic Change, 75 (3): 359-389. doi: 10.1007/s10584-006-0362-2.

Levin, K., Cashore, B., Bernstein, S., & Auld, G. 2012. Overcoming the Tragedy of Su-

438 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 STATE AND CIVIL SOCIETY RELATIONS PERSPECTIVES FOR GOOD GOVERNANCE: PROPOSITIONS FOR THE AFRICA AGENDA 2063 ASPIRATIONS

SD Ndou

University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

There is a growing role of civil society in inspiring citizen action across Africa and the world. This has seen a momentum considering the growing connectedness, enhanced by information and communication technology innovations. Though there is a worrying sluggish progress by established institutional powers within nations, for engagement with civil society, there is recognition of good governance avenues, cited in the role of civil society on supplementing and regulating the state and the market. This importance is also noted by multilateral and global institutions such as the African Union, African Development Bank, United Nations and the World Bank. This paper explores state-civil society relations literature, in order to inspire scholarly perspectives for good governance towards achieving the African Union Agenda 2063. The paper is narrative in its nature. Hence governance is applied as a theoretical stance. The paper argues that there is a positive acceptance of civil society as a strategic partner in achieving national and regional aspirations, as with it is with the Agenda 2063. The paper concludes by adding that new multi-levels engagements and dialogues are needed to contextualise and steer new socio-political ideologies for a radical wake of a new social labs to facilitate the agenda of a unified civic driven Africa.

Keywords: Civil Society, Governance, Africa Agenda 2063, State

1. INTRODUCTION Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Governments and their constituencies are The year 2015 was the watershed year for central to the achievement of such global the global development discourse, and commitments. Therefore the development thus marked the winding down of the Mil- of governance approaches within regions lennium Development Goals (MDGs). It also remains critical to position collective repre- marked the wake of a new agenda which sentation and guided participation in the will shape global development for years global political economy (NEPAD, 2001; to come – more precisely the post-2015 Pere, Pressend, Ruiters & and Zondi, 2008).

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 439 Africa has been no exception in this case. tive Africa driven by civic power than insti- The development of the Organisation of Af- tutionalised government hegemony. This is rican Unity (OAU) in 1963, followed by the in the sense that civil society engagement African Development Bank in 1964 and the with the state and other constituencies cre- conversion of the OAU to the African Union ate avenues for a people centred and re- (AU) in 2002 indicated Africa’s unity in the sponsive governance than just government idea of a collective and integration for stra- (Biekart & Fowler, 2009; Vincent-Jones, tegic global participation (Tieku, 2007; AU, 2006). The role of civil society in inspiring, 2013; AU, 2016). This idea has been support- supporting and promoting practices of civ- ed by states and often their conceptuali- ic driven development and democracy sation is influenced by socio-political ideol- has continued to thrive, despite challenges ogy trade, through civic dialogue among of dealing with obstinate governments and diverse forces (Nyaxo, 2004; Moyo, 2007; market-economy powers. Englebert, 2009). Civil society organisa- This explores perspectives of African state – tions play a great role in the achievement society relations in order to inspire proposi- of the desired inclusive Africa (AU, 2015). tions for good governance towards the Afri- This is evident in inculcating the idea of ca Agenda 2063. The paper uses a narrative Africa’s collective identity, culture, politics literature review approach as a method. and economics in the discourse and activ- Scientific literature review papers are meth- ism within civil society organisations (Hearn, odological studies which use database 2001; Adetula, 2016). However the idea of search to retrieve results of research, and integrations remains a complex phenome- have their main goals, objectives and theo- non, hence Africa presents a complex so- retical discussion of a specific topic (Green, cio-political and economic environment. Johnson & Adams, 2006; Cronin, Rayan & Notwithstanding that Africa is part of a Coughlan, 2008; Randolph, 2009). Narrative complex world and is subject to the trends literature review describes and discusses and emergence of interconnected and the state of science in a specific topic from dynamic realities that are prevalent today. a theoretical and contextual point of view Contexts of state–civil society relations in Af- (Gray, Bebbington & Collins, 2006; Enferm, rica presents complex and diverse scenario 2007; Randolph, 2007). Narrative analysis is because of its colonial history. African states more qualitative, while on the other hand have been in the past and to some extent systematic literature reviews are systemat- continue to be sensationalised (particularly ically planned to answer specific research by the media) as a place of coups, famines, question using specified methodology for corruption and gross inhumanity (Hearn, identifying, selecting and critically evaluat- 2001; Ellis, 2007; Meagher, 2007; Englebert, ing of studies in a specific topic. 2009). This was accompanied by largely underrepresentation in global forums, marginalisation in global negotiations, debates and decision-making process (AU, 2013: 2). The idea of state–civil society partnership presents a renewed sensation of a collec-

440 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 2. THE IDEA OF CIVIL SOCIETY IN AFRICAN Fowler, 2009). Though there are arguments CONTEXT that the concept has ancient roots (Silig- man, 1995; Kean, 2013), the recent idea of The concept of civil society continues to re- civil society originates with the enlighten- ceive deferent definitional connotations for ment of the 18th century. In the context of scholars and discourse. Civil society has pre- the enlightenment civil society was referred sented wide contestations of its meaning to as associational life organised sponta- and application, (Gebre-Egziabher, 2001; neously by community based on their com- Sievers, 2009; Benequita, 2010; Jaysawal, mon interests and values (Pearce, 2002; 2013) to an extent that some has rendered Edwards, 2009; Colas, 2013; Hall, 2013). This it to mean anything that is not done by the notion emphasised communities’ require- state or the market. Therefore exploration ment of cooperative behaviours for survival of the concept of civil society must be con- (Sievers, 2009), notably independent from sidered in order to contribute valuable in- the state, family and the market. The con- puts, particularly for a partnership with the cept has however thrived to be comment- state. The point being that there is to some ed about in other sectors, including private extent confirmable understanding of what sector, public sector and political discours- the state and market are than the emerges. ing so called civil society (Althusser, 2006; Kapferer, 2011). Civil society as a sector is In order to make effective contributions broadly understood as the occupation of the paper lean on the definition provided the space between, family, market and by the London School of Economics and the state (Gray, Bebbington & Collins, 2006; Political Science, Centre for Civil Society CAFSA, 2012). Civil society encompasses (LSE). The LSE puts it that “Civil society refers the way in which society organises itself to to the arena of uncoerced collective ac- promote or discourage discourses in their tion around shared interests, purposes and communities. Commonly it is viewed as the values. In theory, its institutional forms are voluntary sector where communities organ- distinct from those of the state, family and ises, provides services, undertake policy di- market, though in practice, the boundar- alogue and advocacy. ies between state, civil society, family and market are often complex, blurred and Political theories like John Locke, viewed negotiated. Civil society commonly em- civil society as when society strives to define braces a diversity of spaces, actors and and develop political legitimacy, where institutional forms, varying in their degree politics represents the order of a good life of formality, autonomy and power. Civil desired by society (Gebere-Egziabher, societies are often populated by organi- 2001),in which case society determines the sations such as registered charities, devel- rules and norms of political legitimacy. Civil opment non-governmental organisations, society is social spaces where commons in- community groups, women’s organisations, teract in ideological transactions, to deter- faith-based organisations, professional as- mine a suitable state of public affairs within sociations, trades unions, self-help groups, their polity. These interactions are constitut- social movements, business associations, ed by ongoing dialogues, producing civic coalitions and advocacy groups” (LSE, driven change in governance (Biekart & Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 441 2006 cited in Merkel, 2012: 335; Jaysawal, can engage in business like operations, 2013: 2). The paper leans on this definition which benefits society rather than individ- considering that it covers most of the con- uals. ventions about what civil society is in contemporary literature. In order to ensure that this adopted definition covers adequately 2.2. Shared Interests, Purposes and Values what has been viewed as civil society, the Civil society represents groups and organi- paper unpacks and compares the defini- sations, which act independent of the state tion with used definitions of the concept. It and market to promote diverse interests in is worth noting however that each stance society (Jaysawal, 2013; Ndou, 2014). Civ- is worth special attention as a focus of re- il society organisations promotes shared search about civil society. Hence the focus interests, purposes and values of collec- of this paper is on the civil society-state in- tives, in self-generating, self-supporting and terface on the issues highlighted on the Af- state-independent organisations that al- rica Agenda 2063. lows its members to act collectively in the public sphere. Civil society as opposed to the state and the market, it represents cul- 2.1. Uncoerced Voluntary Actions tural forces that emanates from societal LSE begin their definition noting that “civil values, beliefs and norms (Kanyinga, Mitul- society is an arena of uncoerced collective lah & Njagi, 2007). This makes civil society to action around shared interests, purposes form associations to promote social justice, and values”. This is from the view that peo- moral generation, education, human rights ple in civil society organisations are volun- and cultural protection groups. While at the tary actors, who seeks not profit in return other hand the state represents political of their service or participation (Kanyinga, forces and the market economic forces. Mitullah & Njagi, 2007; Scholte, 2007). Mem- bership to civil society organisations is thus stimulated by the free will of participation 2.3. Civil Society Institutions are Distinct from by members, with consciousness to the the State, Family and Market non-monitory or material beneficiation. Civ- Civil society though public in their activity, il society formation should not be bound to they are private in their institutional form, state rules or regulation but by spontaneous in that they are not public as government actions of community members. These ac- institutions. The distinction mainly is evident tions are those that are collectively under- in their funding models. Civil society organi- taken as a means of promoting or discour- sations’ funding is mainly privately sourced, aging discourses that affects citizens’ lives as opposed to public tax based funding (Cuong, 2008; wollebae & Selle, 2008, Ed- for government institutions (Colhoun, 2011). wards, 2009). Although civil society organi- Civil society organisations are self-gov- sation may generate revenue they may not erned, in the sense that they operate with- seek for profit, but rather give back to the in a legal framework, independent of the organisation to further serve its social caus- state, and are under no interference by es in society. Thus civil society organisation

442 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 other organisations, including that of family protection is a central issue in modern busi- and market except in contexts where the ness and policy practices. More other issues state funds activities of civil society (Gray, that mark the proliferation of civil society Bebbington & Collison, 2006). In which are important for both the public sector case, civil society is required to account and the market, these include education, for such funding to the state. However the politics, policy and human rights. state would not interfere in the operations of the civil society organisation concerned. Further it is non-profit, in that there are no 2.5. Civil Society Embraces a Diversity of material benefit speculated to the founders Spaces, Actors and Institutions of civil society organisations. Civil society as Civil society has been conceived as locat- opposed from business (private sector) it ed in the space between the family, mar- does not engage in business operations to ket and the state. In Cameron (2008) civil benefit individuals, but for the benefit and society is described as the space of collec- pursuit of social cause (Coung, 2008). Civil tive public actions as well as the actors and society organisations are organised society institutions that populate such a space. with institutional realities, which distinguish As noted issues confronted by civil society them from informal structures such as the cannot be subjected to one sector. How- gatherings, movements and families (An- ever civil society activities are carried out in cheier, 2000). various settings, which affect varied organisational set-ups and players. Many civil society organisations are made of many institu- 2.4. Blurred, Complex and Negotiated tional memberships, and individuals drawn Boundaries with the State and Market from many sectors including the public sec- Civil society is regarded as promoting so- tor, political society and economic society cially coordinated public action among (Salamon, 2010; Low & Smith, 2013; Hassan, their members and other citizens (Krishna, 2015). Civil society is now organised in dy- nd: 1). Cameron (2008: 1) contextualises namic and productive spaces, most nota- civil society as the sphere of social interac- bly the cyber space (Garratt, 2006; Ellison, tion between the economy and the state. Lampe & Steinfield, 2009; Clark, 2012). Inter- The edges of interface between the state, net aided interactions and dialogues have the market, the family and civil society are seen proliferation, accounting to advances often blurred, complex and negotiated, in information and communication tech- due to the interactions and mutual influ- nologies. ences among these sectors (Coung, 2008). The context in which civil society relates to the state and the market are more com- 2.6. Civil societies are often Populated by plex and sometimes difficult to notice. This Organisations of May Forms and Purposes is because most of problems today cannot Civil society is often recognised by its pop- be associated with one sector. For instance ulation. For instance there are a number of civil society’s interest in advocacy for sus- authors that cites civil society as the aggre- tainable development and environmental

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 443 gate of a range of organised groups and office. Therefore political parties are- ex institutions that are independent of the cluded from civil society and form part of state, self-generating and self-reliant. Civil political society. society is constituted of organised societies, possessing institutional reality (Anheier, 2000; Pekkanen, 2006; Edwards, 2009). In 3. CONTEXTS OF STATE-CIVIL SOCIETY RELA- this case the populations or types of organ- TIONS isations that must be included or excluded Civil society is concerned with public rath- in civil society must be clear. For instance er than private ends. It is thus deferent from civil society has been viewed as not seek- parochial society (Diamond, 2009: 8). Civ- ing to win state control, power or positions, il society also relates to the state in some but persuades the state concessions, ben- way, which is blurred, negotiated and com- efits, policy change, institutional reforms, plex. In its relations to the state it does not redress, justice and accountability. In this seek to control over the state. Thus civil soci- regard civil society excludes all groups and ety does not seek to govern the polity as a individual who run for power in government whole (Diamond, 1997: 8). Coung (2008:16) differentiates between civil society, political society, economic society and institutions of the family. To explain the context of state-civil society relations, the paper adopts How- ards’s (2003) model of defining civil society position in a social system.

Figure 1.1 Model to define civil society position in a social system

.1 Model to define civil society position in a social system r adopts Coung’amily. to e state consessions, benefits, policy chaSource: Howard (2003: 38).

From this framework Howard, displays the interface of three sectors, from which the diverse spaces and groups of civil society can be located (Cameron, 2008; Coung, 2008). This model provides a clear picture that civil society is the acts in between several spheres of society,

444 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 depending on a particular interests, which ment to promote effective and inclusive ranges from social, political and economic governance, civil society therefore informs (Biekart & Flower, 2009; Hassan; 2015). In or- provides platforms for dialogue and con- der to classify therefore the approaches of tinued social inquiry (Anheier, 2000; Habib, state-civil society relations, on the basis of 2003; Biekart & Fowler, 2009). Government this framework, there is a need to identify is the custodians of the social welfare of the reasons for interactions. For instance a the people. Development of social policies civil society that is found between civil so- that are embedded in the social, political ciety and political society or that which is and cultural contexts of society requires found between economic society and po- inclusion of practical and lived experienc- litical society. These former are interested in es of the society (Simmons, Dobbin & Gar- influence the state, in their institutional and rett, 2007; Deci & Ryan, 2012). This context social formation. The later instead is interest- resides within grassroots organisations that ed in influencing either government or the gather the social values and norms of so- economic society in the affairs of the econ- ciety and preserve them. Civil society is so- omy. Basically there are three positions that cially resourced to build social capital, from motivate the interface between the state which political society can draw public and civil society. Which are discussed in the leaders, who understand the social aspira- following: tion of society.

3.1 The Social Context of State-Civil society 3.2 The Political Context of State-Civil Soci- Relations ety Relations

The basic assumption about civil society is Good governance of public affairs, empha- that it emanates from the social behaviours ses the importance of the extent to which that accumulate and preserve coopera- governments programmes are directed by tive attitudes, social values and interests. It the society they are served to (Stoker, 1998; equips individuals with the necessary skills Gridle, 2007; Castell, 2008). Civil society in to understand their inadequacies, to learn this case channels the voices of the poor to act collectively with others to achieve and marginalised people in society. These agreed objectives (Hearn, 2001; Brown & ensure that the views of the poor are wit- Jagadanadana, 2007; Calhoun, 2011). This nessed in the development, implementa- provides the state with good citizens which tion and examination of the application require minimal state intervention (Wang & of state policy. States that strives towards Young, 2006; Ataei &Enshaee, 2011; Zhang, good governance improves its legitimacy Xue, Wang, Zhang & Gao, 2012). The state through civil society’s participation in deci- therefore is required to provide guidance sion making, as civil society is regarded as and support for flourishing civil society, preservers of public interests (Arko-cobbah, which does not compromise principles of 2006; Steffek & Nanz, 2008). Evidently civ- good governance and democracy (Rau, il society ensures strong transparency and 2006; Satterthwaite & Mitlin, 2013). In most effectiveness in all democratic process- cases it is the main objective of govern- es, from elections to service delivery itself

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 445 (Brown & Jagadanandana, 2007). At times civil society dose provide public services 3.4 African State-Civil Society Relations to communities, which are primary roles of government. Government can thus pro- The African state-civil society relations pres- mote such services by funding civil societies ent an interesting and yet complex con- act to supplement and complement public text. Africa in general has been viewed by service. the world as largely under developed and lacking coherent governance systems (El- lis, 2007; Meagher, 2007; Obadare, 2011). 3.3 The Economic Context of State-Civil So- Civil society reports shows growing hostility ciety Relations by states towards civil society and social A market economy cannot operate effi- cause. In order to ensure the achievement ciently without civil society and the state of the paper’s objectives, the paper will en- for many reasons, including regulations of gage contexts of state-civil society relations unfair competition, protection of society, approaches, seeking aspects of state-civil collective labour bargaining, and consum- society relations that can contribute insights er protection (just to mention a few). Trans- to partnership towards the Africa Agenda action in any economic system requires the 2063. There are clear cut context that char- participation of good citizens and agreed acterises civil society as distinct from the mutual trust mong such citizens (Castells, state and the market as demonstrated in 2008; Cuong, 2008; Somers & Wright, 200). the earlier discussion of the paper. Howev- For government to develop economic pol- er there are interfaces that have been re- icy, it requires strong participation of both markable about civil society and the state the economic society and civil society, to (Scholte, 2004; Finke, 2007; Calhoun, 2011). contextualise policy positions that balance In most instances civil society arguments the interest of both the sectors. In the recent are placed that governments has a role to developments, there is a growing concern play in the creation of environment where about the contribution of industry to envi- civil society should flourish. In order to do so, ronmental challenges. This has manifested government should interact with civil soci- in the growth of policy and civil society or- ety, the market and other stakeholders to ganisations that are driven by the environ- ensure that activities of every sphere of so- ment agenda (Allen, 1997; Edwards, 2009; ciety are beneficial to the public in general. Kean, 2013). State-civil society relations are Recent literature of the context of state-civ- critical in developing sustainable commu- il society indicates emergence and un- nities. Improving economic growth require predictable patterns (Moran & Elvin, 2009; a strong entrepreneurial culture, which can Pahl-Wostl, 2009; Loorbach, 2010; Ghosh, be cultivated from economic NGOs. Gov- 2011). These are evident in the rage of pub- ernments’ ability to ensure an enabling en- lic unrests over socio-political upheavals. vironment for such kind of civil society, has The relations between the state and civil far reaching benefit for citizens, which is the society in Africa present tensions and trials. ultimate goal of government. Most are known of imbalances of power and privileges. Funding constrains continue

446 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 to hamper civil society’s performance. In other civil society across the globe. many instances civil society is marked by in- At the centre of the Agenda 2063 are seven ternational funding and influence, with less aspirations, which the continent is commit- relevance to local communities. ted to act together and achieve (AU, 2015: 2). These aspirations are:

4. AFRICA AGENDA 2063 AND COMPLEX • A prosperous Africa base on inclu- GLOBALISATION CONTEXTS sive growth and sustainable de- As part of lessons learned from the review of velopment past Pan-African plans, the African people • An integrated continent, political- through the African Union introduced an ly united and base on the idea of African Agenda 2063. In the Agenda 2063, Pan-Africanism and the vision of the AU calls for mobilisation of the people Africa’s Renaissance and their ownership of continental programmes at the core. It promotes the princi- • An Africa of good governance, ples of self-reliance and Africa financing its democracy, respect for human development; the importance of capable, rights, justice and the rule of law inclusive and accountable states and insti- • A peaceful and secure Africa tutions at all levels and spheres and holding the government and institutions for results • An Africa with a strong cultur- (AU, 2015:1). In this Agenda, Africa rededi- al identity, common heritage, cate itself to the enduring Pan African vision shared values and ethics of “an integrated, prosperous and peace- • An Africa whose development is ful Africa, driven by its own citizens and people-driven, relying on the po- representing a dynamic force in the inter- tential of African people, espe- national arena (Airhihenbuwa, 2006; Adog- cially its women and youth, and ambe, 2008; James, 2012). In this views and caring for children contexts of Africa, it is well established that Africa is seeking a strategic role playing in • Africa as a strong, united and in- the global political economy. Hence the fluential global player and partner establishment of civic driven change is at In all these aspiration, a strong partnership the centre of the call for people and their between the state and civil society, can ownership of development programmes in create progressive alliance, and be re- the continent. Civil society remains organi- sponsive to emerging community needs. sations at grassroots in which African states The aspirations in their setting underpin the can set the Agenda for an integrated pros- development agenda in the global are- perous and peaceful Africa (Shivji, 2006a; na presented in the post-2015 Sustainable Ellis, 2007; Young, 2007; Glasius, 2010). The Development Goals. Therefore a strong value of civil society is increasingly rec- state-civil society relation has a potential ognised in international communities. Civil of making Africa a strategic player in glob- society continues to play a diplomatic role al issues. If Africa committedly engages in in conflict resolution and cooperation with these aspirations, to unify its socio-political Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 447 and economic discourses, it will be a dy- of government; it is rather the deference namic force in the global political econo- in the process (Rotberg, 2009; Bevir, 2011; my and decision-making. Crook & Booth, 2011; Monga, 2012). The process of governance recognises the role of multiple stakeholders in decision mak- 5. STATE-CIVIL SOCIETY RELATIONS CON- ing, implementation and evaluation, while TEXTS FOR PROMOTING THE AGENDA 2063 government is in pursuit of public interests through the political society. In the case In order to achieve the objectives of the of government the state is dominant and Agenda 2063, governments of African their decisions are commonly state-centric. states should organise themselves to im- In governance political society, economic plement such an agenda. This can be society and civil society interact to shape achieved only if conducive environments the behaviours of a minimal state (Makinda for dialogue and interactions between all & Okumu, 2007; Kaufmann, Kraay & Mastru- sectors of society are provided (Shivji, 2006b; zzi, 2009; Monga, 2012). This is a context in Rotberg, 2009). African state commitment which government works with organisations to these aspirations and their achievements and institutions that represents contexts and require strong governance principles, which lived expressions of the public. Governance are recognised by the African community. creates a condition for states and civil soci- Governance principles in Africa should be ety to recognise their joint responsibility to embedded in the idea of unity in Pen-Af- tackle socio-political and economic chal- ricanism (Carmichael, 2007; Adogamhe, lenges of society. Governance is a propo- 2008; Shijvi, 2009; Martin, 2012; Sherwood, sition for what Stoker (1998:18) recorded as 2012). This is to secure a governance con- five propositions for governance as - athe text that recognises Africa is a unique and ory. The propositions includes viewing gov- complex society, with its own cultures that ernance as : 1) a set of institutions and ac- does not compromise, human rights and tors that are drawn from but also beyond their collective identity (Stoker, 1998; Shivji, government; 2) Identifying the blurring 2006a; Young, 2007). The concept of gov- boundaries and responsibilities for tackling ernance remains critical as an approach social and economic issues; 3) identifying of achieving agreed programmes, like the the power dependence involved in the re- Agenda 2063. Contextualising contexts in lationships between institutions involved in which government and civil society inter- collective actions; 4) Autonomous self-gov- act, in the decision making and their imple- erning networks; and 5) recognises the ca- mentations are critical for Africa today. pacity to get things done which does not Governance as opposed to government rest in the power of government command signifies a change in the condition - ofor or use its authority. In this context, it is clear dered rule. Governance is concerned with that state require some level of coopera- the creation of conditions for ordered rule tion with civil society and the market to get (government) and collective action (Civil programmes going. society and the market). The outputs of governance are rather not deferent from those

448 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 5.1 Embedding the Africa Agenda 2063 in sector is critical. This will also help reduce State-Civil Society Relations misuse of civil society by private individuals and capital. This should be done with In order for African states to develop strong clear intentions for the promotion the seven governance position, it should develop gov- African aspiration outlined by the Agenda ernance contexts that will guide the partic- 2063 ipants on the role for promoting the Africa Agenda 2063. Civil society as described in 6. CONCLUSION the above interacts with the state in various The aspirations outlined by the Agenda contexts that includes social, political and 2063, can only be achieve if African states economic pursuits. The prevalent challeng- involve communities in their governance. es of the continent are marked by multiplier Upholding principles of good governance effects, which demarcate them within var- that promote the view that government ious spheres (Yartey & Adjasi, 2007; Booth, needs regulation and support from diverse 2012). In order to pursue the Agenda 2063, forces of civil society. Governance as new African sates need to create a conducive approach of public administration is criti- environment, allowing a free flow of rela- cal and needs to be conceptualised in the tions between actors. This can be through context of the African people. This is on the establishing partnerships with civil society view that if African governance should be that promote principles of good gover- one which serves the interest of Africans, nance (Arguden, 2011; Brinkerhoff, 2011). most notable within the contest of Pan-Af- Civil society can be useful in shaping and rican views. Civil society, states and mar- monitoring the state and thereby promot- kets in Africa needs to reinvent themselves ing democracy and protecting human to fit such contexts of African governance rights. Promotion of a vibrant and capable embedded in the Agenda 2063. New civil society to supplement African states multi-levels engagements and dialogues in their developmental mandates, require are needed to contextualise and steer new established funding and support (Davara- socio-political ideologies for a radical wake jan, Khemani & Walton, 2011; Scholte, 2011; of a new social labs to facilitate the agen- Grindle, 2012; Van Rooy, 2012). Develop- da of a unified civic driven Africa ment of legal frameworks that guide civil society relations with the public and private

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Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 453 GOVERNANCE OF BLENDED PEDAGOGIES IN THE 21ST CENTU- RY FOR PARTICIPATION IN THE KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY

TM Ramoroka, JP Tsheola and MP Sebola

University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

The implementation and operationalization of educational Information and Communica- tion Technology (ICT) is assumed to be helpful in increasing opportunities for teaching and learning as well as improving the participation and engagement of countries in the global knowledge economy. Effective integration of technology into pedagogically appropriate teaching and learning activities is founded on the premise that classroom environments could be transformed into “collaborative and interactive spaces” for development of skills associated with creativity, innovation, adaptability and flexibility among learners. Further- more, the integration of ICT in education is capable of building talented teacher communities through which best practices and success stories can be shared and thus, motivating each other and also improving the quality of pedagogy. However, all these aspirations cannot happen through osmotic processes, a number of preconditions such as planning, governance, infrastructure, skills and culture plays a crucial role in the implementation of blended pedagogies. This paper theoretically argues that in addition to other preconditions necessary for successful implementation of blended learning, governance is key. For the purpose of this paper, international experiences related to the governance of blended pedagogies are discussed in order to establish the models adopted and also the inclusion of non-state organizations and communities. The paper concludes that adaptive governance model holds the potential to be suitable for blended pedagogies because it provides for continuous and unexpected changes, with unpredictable consequences as well as co-management with a number of stakeholders.

Key Words: Governance, Blended Pedagogies, Digital Transformation, Education System, Knowledge Economy

454 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 1. INTRODUCTION an economic context, knowledge itself be- For effective engagement in the knowl- comes the economic value and source, edge economy necessary for national de- which inevitably creates a change in the velopment purposes, the most important principles of production and the division sector that requires changes is education of labour (Susar, 2014: 2295) thus, creating (Button, Harrington & Belan, 2014; Wolff, correlations between pedagogy and the Wagner, Poznanski, Schiller & Santen, 2014; economy. Glušac, Makitan, Karuović, Radosav & Mi- lanov, 2015; Skryabin, Zhang, Liu & Zhang, 2015; Valtonen, Kukkonen, Kontkanen, Sor- The extent to which learners acquire knowl- munen, Dillon & Sointu, 2015). In the context edge is largely influenced by compatibility of information societies, Information and of their learning styles and teachers’ didac- Communication Technology (ICT) is per- tic methods (Pegrum, Oakley & Faulkner, ceived as one of the most important tools 2013; Button et al., 2014; Peeraer & Van Pe- in changing the education sector (Button tegem, 2015; Glušac et al., 2015; Gu et al., et al., 2014; Skryabin et al., 2015). Therefore, 2015; Kearney, Burden & Rai, 2015; Valtonen many countries have implemented educa- et al., 2015; Wolff et al., 2015). However, tional ICT related policies and plans, also in- conventional didactics offer the level and vested resources in necessary infrastructure standard of education that deny learners in schools with the hope to build learners’ the opportunity to compete in the knowl- 21st century skills necessary for knowledge edge economy arena (Gu et al., 2015; Wolff economy (Button et al., 2014; Wolff et al., et al., 2015). Additionally, lack of integra- 2014; Glušac et al., 2015; Valtonen et al., tion of digital technology in teaching and 2015). A number of factors had an effect on learning compromises ICT skills develop- the changing nature of the economy from ment of both teachers and learners which agricultural and industrial to knowledge are now paramount in global capitalist de- which include, among others, “progress in velopment (Pegrum et al., 2013; Peeraer ICT levels”, “fast developing new technol- & Van Petegem, 2015; Glušac et al., 2015; ogies”, “global competition”, “liberalization Gu et al., 2015; Wolff et al., 2015). The intel- of markets”, as well as “raising the quality lectual capabilities needed for knowledge of life” (Achim, 2015: 1201). Therefore, the economy, inclusive of analytical, interac- current economic structures depends on tive and computing skills, among others, the increasing importance of knowledge cannot be acquired through convention- and technology as the primary means of al didactics (Pegrum et al., 2013; Button et production and economic development al., 2014; Peeraer & Van Petegem, 2015; and growth instead of labour and/or land. Glušac et al., 2015; Gu et al., 2015; Kearney Knowledge economy is regarded as the et al., 2015; Valtonen et al., 2015; Wolff et stage of “global economic development” al., 2015). Therefore, the implementation of which emerged after the agricultural and educational ICT is assumed to be helpful in industrial ages which were mainly based on increasing opportunities for teaching and land as well as capital and labour (Weber, learning as well as for reducing the gap be- 2011; Achim, 2015). Accordingly, “In such tween socioeconomic factors and educa-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 455 tional system outcomes (Button et al., 2014; ever, institutions have prioritised adequate Wolff et al., 2014; Dolenc & Aberšek, 2015; access to digital technologies and resourc- Glušac et al., 2015; Skryabin et al., 2015; ing ahead of the identification and exe- Valtonen et al., 2015). Furthermore, the in- cution of planning approaches and gov- tegration of ICT in education is capable ernance models regarding integration of of building talented teacher communities e-learning pedagogies with conventional through which best practices and success teaching and learning methods (Gu, Shao, stories can be shared and thus motivating Guo & Lim, 2015; Oyedemi, 2015; Valtonen each other and also improving the quality et al., 2015). That is, the provision of ade- of education (Button et al., 2014; Skryabin quate digital technologies and computer et al., 2015). However, the integration and resourcing is only a necessary condition to implementation of ICT in education is to a ensure successful implementation of blend- large extend, determined by the planning, ed pedagogies. governance, infrastructure, skills and culture. Therefore, this paper theoretically argues that in addition to other preconditions nec- Many countries have incorporated e-learn- essary for successful implementation of ing in education, relating to various cur- blended learning, governance is key. The ricula; however, complexities concerning paper consists of five sections including computer and information literacy among this introduction and the conclusion. Re- both learners and teachers have hindered spectively, the second and third sections the advancement of the envisaged peda- discusses the models of governance and gogic efficacies (Button et al., 2014; Wolff international experiences of governance et al., 2014; Glušac et al., 2015; Valtonen et of blended pedagogies. The fourth section al., 2015; Siddiq, Scherer & Tondeur, 2016). discusses the governance of digital trans- Notwithstanding Noh, Mustafa & Ahmad’s formation in South Africa’s education sys- (2014) belief that ICT makes for good teach- tem then, the paper concludes that adap- ing and learning, challenges for developed tive governance model holds the potential countries, where infrastructure is not prob- to be suitable for blended pedagogies be- lematic, planning and governance have cause it provides for continuous and unex- become critical to the successful imple- pected changes, with unpredictable con- mentation of blended pedagogies (Button sequences as well as co-management with et al., 2014; Dolenc & Aberšek, 2015; Val- a number of stakeholders. tonene et al., 2015; Webster & Son, 2015). 2. MODELS OF GOVERNANCE Besides, Webster & Son (2015) show that ICT resourcing does not necessarily yield posi- Governance within and beyond the state tive implementation in classrooms. Indeed, has focused on non-hierarchical coordina- “the presence of institutional enablers is tion modes and the involvement of non- essential” to the successful blending of state stakeholders in the formulation and e-learning pedagogies with conventional implementation of public policies and plans didactics (Button et al., 2014: 1312). How- for development (van Kersbergen & van

456 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Waarden, 2004; Börzel & Risse, 2010; Termeer, al., 2014). This governance model is based Dewulf & Lieshout, 2010; Kok & Veldkamp, on the top-down development strategy, as 2011; Pereira & Ruysenaar, 2012; Stojanovs- a result, the state identify challenges and ka, Miovska, Jovanovska & Stojanovski, areas of need in order to decide on policy 2014). The participation of both state and goals and other response mechanisms nec- non-state stakeholders is supposed to im- essary for implementation of development prove both quality of public policies and policies and plans (Termeer et al., 2010). effectiveness of their implementation in de- Apparently, monocentric governance velopment (Kok & Veldkamp, 2011; Pereira model is characterized as a system which & Ruysenaar, 2012; Stojanovska et al., 2014). is made up of limited number of jurisdictions Governance is the various institutionalized of hierarchical government levels whose modes of social coordination to produce task never overlaps (van Kersbergen & van and implement collectively binding rules for Waarden, 2004; Kok & Veldkamp, 2011; the provision of public goods and services Termeer et al., 2010; Pereira & Ruysenaar, (Börzel & Risse, 2010). Governance reflects 2012; Stojanovska et al., 2014). More often, increasing decentralization of power and most states have a three level system which control to non-state actors who now par- consists of the national, provincial and local ticipate in a more complex structures and levels wherein the power allocated to the processes rather than a system character- lower levels is restricted and limited by the ized by hierarchical command and con- higher level government (van Kersbergen & trol or market-based anarchy (Termeer et van Waarden, 2004; Kok & Veldkamp, 2011; al., 2010; Kok & Veldkamp, 2011; Pereira & Termeer et al., 2010; Pereira & Ruysenaar, Ruysenaar, 2012; Stojanovska et al., 2014). 2012). For this model, the scale of the gov- Generally, there are three models of gover- ernment matters for governance capacity nance that deal with institutional processes and representation of the society. Mono- and rules for authority decision making, in- centric governance is also referred to as formed by different stakeholders, specifica- the government perspective, hierarchical tions and norms namely: the monocentric, governance, command and control sys- multilevel and adaptive models (van Kers- tems of governance or the classical mod- bergen & van Waarden, 2004; Termeer et ernist approach of governance (Termeer et al., 2010; Kok & Veldkamp, 2011; Pereira & al., 2010; Pereira & Ruysenaar, 2012). Ruysenaar, 2012).

1.2. Multilevel Governance 1.1. Monocentric Governance While the monocentric governance model Monocentric governance is referred to as a puts power and control of national devel- model in which the state is at the centre of opment on the state, multilevel governance political power and authority and that has model asserts that policy and administra- control over society, economy and resourc- tion starts internationally infiltrating down to es (van Kersbergen & van Waarden, 2004; and between different policy and admin- Kok & Veldkamp, 2011; Termeer et al., 2010; istrative levels (national, regional/provin- Pereira & Ruysenaar, 2012; Stojanovska et cial and local). According to Termeer et al.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 457 (2010: n.p.) multilevel governance is “a pro- atic process for improving management cess of continuous interactions among gov- policies and practices by learning from the ernments and private entities, operating at, outcomes of management strategies that and between, several administrative levels have already been implemented”. Adap- and ultimately aiming at the realisation of tive governance model is an integrated, collective goals”. Multilevel governance multidisciplinary approach meant to con- model puts emphasis on the threefold dis- front complex and uncertain natural re- placement of state power and control as sources issues (Termeer et al., 2010; Kok follows: upwards to international actors and & Veldkamp, 2011; Pereira & Ruysenaar, organizations; downwards to provinces, 2012; Stojanovska et al., 2014). The model municipalities and communities; and, out- acknowledges that managed resources wards to civil society and non-state actors will change due to human activities, inter- (Termeer et al., 2010; Pereira & Ruysenaar, vention and consumption and as a result 2012; Stojanovska et al., 2014). This model surprises and new uncertainties will also denotes that the dispersion of governance emerge (Termeer et al., 2010; Kok & Veld- to different levels is more efficient, effective kamp, 2011; Pereira & Ruysenaar, 2012). and superior to monocentric governance Therefore, adaptive governance model (van Kersbergen & van Waarden, 2004; Ter- assumes a world characterised by contin- meer et al., 2010; Kok & Veldkamp, 2011; uous and unexpected changes mostly with Pereira & Ruysenaar, 2012; Stojanovska et unpredictable consequences (Termeer et al., 2014). It is usually impossible to find fixed al., 2010; Pereira & Ruysenaar, 2012). The matches between levels on administration, model accepts challenges of uncertainty ecological and development scales thereby preparing for continuous and unexpect- fore, the operation of governance at mul- ed changes through adaptive capacity to tiple scales captures and accommodates deal with the consequences related to the variations (van Kersbergen & van Waarden, implementation of development plans (Ter- 2004; Termeer et al., 2010; Kok & Veldkamp, meer et al., 2010; Kok & Veldkamp, 2011; 2011; Pereira & Ruysenaar, 2012; Stojanovs- Pereira & Ruysenaar, 2012; Stojanovska et ka et al., 2014). Additionally, multilevel mod- al., 2014). Contrary to monocentric and mul- el activates cross-level interactions and tilevel governance models, scale is not lim- have more potential to collectively deal ited to spatial and jurisdictional scales only with complex multiscale problems (van but includes institutional, management, Kersbergen & van Waarden, 2004; Termeer network and knowledge scales (Termeer et al., 2010; Kok & Veldkamp, 2011; Pereira et al., 2010; Kok & Veldkamp, 2011; Perei- & Ruysenaar, 2012; Stojanovska et al., 2014). ra & Ruysenaar, 2012; Stojanovska et al., 2014). Apparently, blended pedagogies and participation in the global knowledge 1.3. Adaptive Governance economy require such unlimited flexibility for national development. The succeeding In addition to the two approaches, there is section evaluates governance models ad- adaptive governance model. Pahl-Wostl et opted in various countries for the manage- al. (2007: 4, cited in Termeer et al., 2010) de- ment of blended pedagogies. fines adaptive governance as “a system-

458 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 2. GOVERNANCE MODELS FOR BLENDED ness of their implementation in teaching PEDAGOGIES: THE INTERNATIONAL EXPERI- and learning environments (Clarke, 2004; ENCES Misko et al., 2004; Baker, n.d.; Baker, 2009; Accordingly, governance within and be- Blackley & Walker, 2015). Seemingly, Aus- yond the state should focus on non-hier- tralia has adopted the adaptive model archical coordination modes and the infor the governance of the country’s edu- volvement of non-state stakeholders in the cational ICT based on the evidence that it formulation and implementation of public has been improving its policies and plans policies and plans for development. There- for e-learning since 1999 until 2008 (Minis- fore, the participation of both state and terial Council on Education, Employment, non-state stakeholders is supposed to im- Training and Youth Affairs, 1999; Ministerial prove the quality of public policies and Council on Education, Employment, Train- effectiveness of their implementation for ing and Youth Affairs & Ministerial Council blended learning. As already discussed for Vocational and Technical Education in the preceding section, there are three 2008; Clarke, 2004; Misko et al., 2004; Baker, models of governance that deal with in- n.d.; Baker, 2009; Department of Education stitutional processes and rules for authori- and Early Childhood Development, 2009; ty decision making, informed by different Blackley & Walker, 2015). In addition to the stakeholders, specifications and norms changing policies and plans due to unex- namely: the monocentric, multilevel and pected challenges, Australian government adaptive models. Thus, this section discuss- in partnership with business have a number es the governance models which are ad- of initiatives that also assist in the gover- opted by four countries as per the level of nance of e-learning in schools. The initia- Human Development Index (HDI) inclusive tives include the Victorian Essential Learning of Australia with very high HDI, Brazil with Standards, ePotential ICT Capabilities Re- high HDI, Vietnam with medium HDI as well source, School ICT Progression Strategy and as Kenya with low HDI as follows in the fol- Ultranet, among others which mostly focus lowing sub-sections. on support of e-learning, development of both teachers’ and learners’ skills as well as 3.1. Australia the use of technology (Department of Edu- The Australian governance of educational cation and Early Childhood Development, ICT is within and beyond the state with the 2009). For Australia adaptive model seem involvement of non-state stakeholders in the to be appropriate for the governance of formulation and implementation of public blended pedagogies as it allows the coun- policies and plans for development in this try to make changes and adjustments due regard (Clarke, 2004; Misko, Choi, Hong & to the changing circumstances related to Lee, 2004; Baker, n.d.; Baker, 2009; Depart- education and technology. ment of Education and Early Childhood De- velopment, 2009). The participation of both state and non-state stakeholders is believed to have positive effects on both quality of educational ICT policies and effective-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 459 3.2. Brazil distribution of personal computers or Tab- lets to both teachers and learners through In the current society based on the large the Capes (Ronaldo et al., 2013; Bujokas & movement of information and knowledge, Rothbeg, 2014; Ronaldo et al., 2014; Garbin through information and communication et al., 2015). Even though the provision of technology, a policy of continuing educa- Internet and computers or Tablets is not yet tion for the use of technology in the educa- standardized throughout the country, the tional process is necessary in Brazil (Ronaldo, Capes’ recent actions include extensive Salvador & Luz, 2013; Ronaldo, Salvador, funding for providing access to internet and Souza & Luz, 2014; Garbin, Garcia, do Ama- computers to almost all Brazilian schools ral, da Silva & de Abreu, 2015). The Brazilian within a short period of time (Ronaldo et al., Ministry of Education established a depart- 2013; Bujokas & Rothbeg, 2014; Ronaldo et ment known as the Capes (Brazilian abbre- al., 2014). The governance of e-learning by viation for Coordination for the Improve- the state within higher education institutions ment of Higher Level Personnel) responsibly and schools aimed at the implementation for the implementation of e-learning in the of blended learning suggests that Brazil has country since 2007 (Ronaldo et al., 2013; Bu- adopted the monocentric model. Seem- jokas & Rothbeg, 2014; Ronaldo et al., 2014; ingly, the government without the interven- Garbin et al., 2015). The Capes’ Directorate tion of the private sector is in control of the of Elementary Education is funding inno- implementation of blended pedagogies in vative and creative approaches through the country. The decision making authority programmes conceived to change poor and management of blended learning de- educational performances in the country velopments is the responsibility of the gov- (Bujokas & Rothbeg, 2014; Ronaldo et al., ernment. 2014; Garbin et al., 2015). Furthermore, Ron- aldo et al. (2013: 46) asserted that “Reso- 3.3. Vietnam lution CNE/CP No. 1/2002 of the National In 2001, Vietnam officially recognized the Council of Education suggests that qualify- need to improve IT competencies primari- ing for the teaching activity should include ly through the implementation of blended the use of information and communication learning (Thanh, 2010; Peeraer & Van Pete- technologies”. In support of the Resolution, gem, 2015). The Ministry of Education and recently Brazil’s National Conference on Training in the country has encouraged the Education emphasized the importance of adoption and implementation of technol- e-learning as well as the effect of a policy ogy-based learning in order to realize the of “Teacher Education Program” for the targets outlined in the national ICT plan use of technology by in-services teachers (Thanh, 2010; UNESCO, 2013; Peeraer & Van in preparation for technological knowl- Petegem, 2015). In order to achieve its re- edge transfer to learners (Ronaldo et al., sponsibilities associated with national edu- 2013; Ronaldo et al., 2014). To speed up cation planning and initiatives, the Ministry the implementation of blended pedago- of Education and Training has collaborat- gies, the Brazilian science and technology ed with international organizations such as policies are implemented by providing low United Nations Educational, Scientific and cost access to high speed Internet and the

460 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to improve dictable consequences. In most cases the access and implementation of e-learn- changes are a result of the countries’ limited ing in the Vietnamese education (UNES- experiences, infrastructure, skills and culture CO, 2013). The Ministry of Education and for the implementation of blended peda- Training launched the “Year of ICT” in 2008 gogies. Thus, the country created a scope which was dedicated towards producing for flexibility to be able to make changes a breakthrough in educational innovation and adjustments in terms of their plans and by providing all schools with basic Internet resources for blended pedagogies as they access and funding several academic re- continuously learn and improve from their views of ICT policy and implementation experiences. (Thanh, 2010; Peeraer & Van Petegem, 3.4. Kenya 2015). During this period, the Vietnamese Telecom company known as Viettel got The Kenya government appreciates and involved in the implementation of blend- recognizes that for its country to participate ed learning by providing Internet access in the knowledge economy, an ICT literate to all schools in the country. As a results of labour force is needed (Ministry of Educa- the company’s contribution to educational tion, Science and Technology (MOES&T), ICT, by the end of 2012, all schools with sta- 2004; NEPAD e-Africa Commission, 2009; ble electricity had been supplied with free Onderi, Ajowi & Malala, 2013; Nyagowa, Internet access (UNESCO, 2013; Peeraer Ocholla & Mutula, 2014). Therefore, the & Van Petegem, 2015). Additionally, Intel government invested in efforts that ensure contributed to the educational transforma- that education is used as a natural plat- tions by offering training programme which form for providing the nation with ICT skills consists of a series of modules intended to to be able to build a sustainable economic train teachers to integrate basic ICT in their growth (MOES&T, 2004; Ministry of Informa- classrooms and further demonstrate how tion & Communications, 2006). The invest- technology can serve as an effective tool ment are driven by the National Information in pedagogy (Thanh, 2010; UNESCO, 2013; and Communication Technology Policy Peeraer & Van Petegem, 2015). Although housed in the MOES&T and it incorporates the state seem to be driving the blended contributions made by various stakehold- learning initiatives through the Ministry of ers (Ministry of Information & Communica- Education and Training, business and other tions, 2006; MOES&T, 2004). In cases where organizations are also involved. The part- there are partnerships of ICT development nership between the state, business and between the state and local and/or inter- non-governmental organizations suggests national organizations, this policy frame- that Vietnam has adopted the adaptive work also ensures that Kenya fully benefits model for the governance of blended from the partnerships and Kenyan-led solu- learning. Vietnam’s adoption of the adap- tions are always given priority (MOES&T, tive model reveals that the country is aware 2004). To facilitate rapid development of of its socio-economic circumstances char- ICT skills in the country, the MOES&T works acterised by continuous and unexpected with and coordinates other stakeholders in changes mostly accompanied by unpre- establishment of ICT capacities across the

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 461 country. The education and training sector pedagogy are discussed. plays a major role in the implementation of the proposed ICT policy as the country depends on a well-developed and a compe- 3. GOVERNANCE MODELS FOR DIGITAL tent human resource trained by this sector TRANSFORMATION IN THE EDUCATION SYS- (MOES&T, 2004; NEPAD e-Africa Commis- TEM OF SOUTH AFRICA sion, 2009; Onderi et al., 2013; Nyagowa et In a knowledge society, “individuals, groups, al., 2014). To realise the goals of the policy, organizations and government” must work the adoption of the New Partnership for De- as partners, rather than opponents in the velopment (NEPAD) and its recommenda- provision of quality life (Department of Arts, tions for ICT development were welcomed Culture, Science and Technology, 1994). by the country. With multiple stakeholders Community networking, stakeholders’ col- headed by the MOES&T, the NEPAD e-Af- laboration and common purpose and un- rica Commission ensured the implementa- derstanding of “healthy competition, open- tion of the e-School (MOES&T, 2004). Collec- ness and accountability” should be the tively, the efforts of various stakeholders to guiding principles for building a sustainable provide adequate infrastructure as well as knowledge economy (Department of Arts, access, content, training of teachers at all Culture, Science and Technology, 1994). levels of education were recognised in the Accordingly, ICT must “build and sustain national ICT policy (MOES&T, 2004; NEPAD social, legal and economic structures and e-Africa Commission, 2009; Onderi et al., processes that support innovation”, collab- 2013; Nyagowa et al., 2014). For the gover- oration and creativity, “competitive while nance of e-learning in the country, Kenya sustaining the natural environment and has adopted the adaptive model which lead to wellbeing for the greatest number also take into consideration the participa- of people” (Department of Arts, Culture, tion of various stakeholders at different lev- Science and Technology, 1994: n.p.). Most els. Kenya’s adoption of the adaptive mod- importantly, the sustainability of the 21st cen- el for governance of blended pedagogies tury skill for participation in the global knowl- confirms that country allows itself to learn edge economy requires citizens to develop and make changes along the processes and frequently update their “knowledge, of implementing educational ICT. Further- competencies, abilities and skills” that are more, the choice of governance model necessary for the production of innovative confirms that educational technology is a products and services. For a country to be foreign phenomenon for the developing able to “envision a desired future, examine countries and as a result they are still work- its possibilities, select preferred results, and ing towards familiarizing themselves with it pursue its choices vigorously”, collaboration and its related practices. For a develop- of various stakeholders in the process of con- ing countries, inclusive of South Africa, an cern is crucial (Department of Arts, Culture, adaptive model seem to be appropriate Science and Technology, 1994: n.p.). With for the governance of blended learning. the national government leading the pro- In the next section, South Africa’s gover- cesses of ICT implementation in the country nance models for digital transformation in as the principal stakeholder, a number of

462 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 its departments plays a crucial role in en- and thus, an all-inclusive strategy is need to suring that South Africa participates in the diffuse it in all areas of society and econ- knowledge such as the central policy de- omy (Department of Arts, Culture, Science partments, agencies, science, engineering and Technology, 1994; NPC, 2012). A single and technology institutions and state cor- “cohesive strategy” is needed to ensure porations. Moreover, the involvement and the distribution of ICTs in all areas of society participation of the private and education and the economy and the participation of sectors as well as the non-government or- various stakeholders in its governance. Like ganizations is equally regarded as import- energy and transport, ICT is an enabler that ant (Department of Arts, Culture, Science can speed up delivery, support analysis, and Technology, 1994). build intelligence and create new ways to share information, learn from and among At a national level, a policy goal is to en- each other and globally engage with oth- sure that ICT infrastructure and systems ad- er parties. Additionally, South Africa’s poli- equately support the needs of the econ- cies revealed that the “ICT revolution had omy and allow for parties beyond the a major impact on the way in which societ- public sector to participate in the provi- ies are organised and managed, resulting sion processes (NPC, 2012). Over the last in fundamental and far-reaching” changes decade, the government, private sector, that are key to wealth creation and social parastatals, and non-governmental organ- and economic development (OECD, 2008: isations have responded positively to the 330 cited in Vandeyar, 2013). Therefore, the challenge of bridging the digital divide in governance of educational ICT in this re- South Africa (NPC, 2012; Department of gard cannot be left to chance. Given the Communications, 2014). According to the international experiences from both devel- NPC (2012: 190) “The ecosystem of digital oped and developing countries discussed networks, services, applications, content in the preceding section, the most appro- and devices, firmly integrated in the- eco priate model adopted for the governance nomic and social fabric, will connect pub- of educational ICT is the adaptive model. lic administration and the active citizen; Therefore, it would be appropriate for South promote economic growth, development Africa too to adopt the adaptive model for and competitiveness; drive the creation of governance of successful implementation decent work; underpin nation building and and operationalization of blended peda- strengthen social cohesion; and support lo- gogies. Although the national government cal, national and regional integration”. In is leading the implementation of blended South Africa, ICT should reduce the spatial pedagogies, it is important for South Africa exclusions and enable unified participa- to actively involve non-state organizations tion by the majority of citizens in the glob- in the governance thereof for unpredict- al ICT system (Department of Arts, Culture, able consequences as well as co-manage- Science and Technology, 1994; NPC, 2012; ment with a number of stakeholders. Department of Communications, 2014). ICT is an enabler which speeds up delivery, develops intelligence, create ways to “share, learn and engage” knowledge

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Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 467 SOUTH AFRICA’S ROLE IN THE SADC COMMUNITY REGIONAL INTEGRATION

NS Matsiliza Cape Peninsula University of Technology

ABSTRACT

This paper noted the role of South Africa in fostering the Southern African Development Community’s (SADC) regional integration. Regional Integration is a process in which neighbouring states enter into an agreement in order to upgrade cooperation through common institutions and rules. The objectives of the agreement could range from economic to political to environmental, although it has typically taken the form of a political economy initiative where commercial interests are the focus for achieving broader socio-political and security objectives, as defined by national governments. The current economic situation internationally and within SADC depicts unstable economic and political prospects due to economic down-turn in some major development countries and in Africa. This paper argues that South Africa’s role in leading SADC regional integration is undoubtedly steady and notable in as far as peace, political and economic stability. This article recommends that regional leaders should draw more positive energy towards practising good governance. Findings from this article contribute towards regionalism and government relations.

Keywords: Agreements, South African Development Community, Economic integration, Trade, Political-structure.

1. INTRODUCTION

Past experience within the Southern African ic Integration Agenda. South Africa and region has raised a need for more regional- Botswana has the potential of necessary isation. Regionalism implies much emphasis economic capability and levels of diversifi- on the political and economic liberalisation cation that are required to drive econom- through trade. The overall objective of re- ic integration in a manner that is equally gional economic integration strategy (REIS) beneficial. Landsberg (2012:3) asserts that of SADC is to endorse sustainable economic Mandela and Thabo Mbeki’s administration growth and poverty reduction in the SADC When Thabo Mbeki pursued a unique variant Region. This objective corresponds to the of Africanism and Continentalism which is general objective of the SADC Treaty, the unique in the African Affairs. RISDP and the various Protocols that constitute the basis of SADC’s Regional Econom-

468 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Historical factors that have shaped each enabled South African companies to oper- of the SADC member states differ across ate in other parts of Africa to capture - and the region and continue to influence the in some cases to dominate - the opportuni- institutional arrangements in the differ- ties offered by the global economic system. ent countries (Vanheukelom & Bertels- In reality, SADC integration path should be mann-Scott, 2016). The failure to regional different from some other regions experi- partners to commit to agreed earmarked ences if ever they want to divert from the programme objectives can have negative type of investment that is imperialist driven. economic and social impacts, especially Using a qualitative approach, this article where domestic regulatory frameworks are draws literature from diverse secondary insufficient or not implemented effectively sources like official SADC strategic reports, by leaders. The main goals of SADC are to policy documents and agreements, articles foster greater economic cooperation be- from accredited journals and books. This ar- tween the member states and to reduce ticle is responding to the question of - what their independence on the north countries is the Role of SA in forging strong ties with like G-8. However, SADC seek to self-reli- SADC in pursuit of the mission driving region- ance and the forging of fostering links and al integration. partnerships among its member states to create genuine equitable regional-cooperation. The SADC structure has transformed 2. CONCEPTUALISATION from the original structure of the Southern Development Coordination Conference The SADC political structure indicates how (SADCC) to the latest SADC structure with its main organs function to exercises its more members like South Africa joined. powers to govern in as far as politics and Despite SADC’s depending on the donor decision making. In a general sense, it refers countries, member states have managed to institutions or groups and their relations to inculcate regional identity amongst to each other, their patterns of interaction themselves. within political systems and to political regulations, laws and the norms present in political systems in such a way that they constitute the political landscape of the political South Africa consider regional interest entity (www.wikipedia.com). According when carrying their tasks regarding politics to Goldstein (1991) a Political structure is a and economic activities within their coun- term commonly used in political science. tries domestic and regional needs, in order In a general sense, it refers to institutions or to respond to the emerging challenges af- groups and their relations to each other, fecting the member states. This article argue their patterns of interaction within political that SADC’s main problem is to be able to systems and to political regulations, laws effectively address the economic develop- and the norms present in political systems ment path of their predecessors, that is not in such a way that they constitute the po- favourable any more, and is based mainly litical landscape of the political entity. In on the market economy and the neo-liber- the social domain, its counterpart is Social al economic approach. These perspectives structure. Political structure also refers to the

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 469 way in which a government is run. The main between countries of the same region or arms of the SADC structure include the Troi- economic zone. In recent years countries ka, Summit of the heads of states and the within economic-trade regimes such as secretariat. ASEAN in Southeast Asia for example have increased the level of trade and commod- Regional Integration is a process in which ity exchange between themselves which neighbouring states agree to cooperate reduces the inflation and tariff barriers as- through an understanding or agreement sociated with foreign markets resulting in in terms of observing common rules and growing prosperity. institutions (Wikipedia, 2016). The ratio- According to Ndulu, Kritzinger-van Niekerk nale for regional integration can vary from and Reinikka (2005: 101) regional integra- economic to political to environmental, tion can be understood along three dimensions: although it is important for the member states not to lose their sovereignty and fo- (i) Geographic scope- which illustrates the number of countries involved in an arrange- cus on some form of a political economy ment (variable geometry) and can deter- initiative where commercial interests such mine the capacity and the strength of the as trade and infrastructure can be main region to engage in political and econom- focus for achieving broader socio-politi- ic activities. cal and security objectives, as defined by (ii) The substantive coverage or width that national governments. Grant, Cornelissen is the sector or activity coverage (trade, labour mobility, macro-policies, sector poli- and Shaw ( 2013: ) elaborate on the new cies, etc.), and conception of regionalization by affirming (iii) The depth of integration to measure the that it is drawing their perception into mul- degree of sovereignty a country is ready to tiplicity and multi-layered characters of re- surrender, that is from simple coordination gions, and its emphasizing the significance or cooperation to deep integration. of non-state actors and spaces. Region- al integration has been organized either The Regional Indicative Strategic Develop- via supranational institutional structures or ment Plan (RISDP) and the Strategic Indic- through intergovernmental decision-mak- ative Plan for the Organ (SIPO) remain the ing, or a combination of both. Past efforts guiding frameworks for SADC Regional In- at regional integration have often focused tegration, providing SADC Member States, on removing barriers to free trade in the SADC Secretariat and other SADC Institu- region, increasing the free movement of tions with consistent and comprehensive people, labour, goods, and capital across programs of long-term economic and so- national borders, reducing the possibility cial policies (SADC, RISDP 2015). of regional armed conflict (for example, 3. THE SADC HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS through Confidence and Security-Building Measures), and adopting cohesive region- South African Development Community al stances on policy issues, such as the en- (SADC) is a political and economic institu- vironment, climate change and migration. tion that provides a framework for regional integration. They embarked on as Frontline Intra-regional trade refers to trade which States whose objective was political liber- focuses on economic exchange primarily

470 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ation of Southern Africa. In May 1979 con- or spheres. Some general characteristics sultations were held between Ministers of will be identified that could assist member Foreign Affairs and Ministers responsible for states to reconsider their existing intergov- Economic Development in Gaborone, Bo- ernmental relations, thus improving co-ordi- tswana. In July 1979, a meeting was held in nation amongst different public institutions Arusha, Tanzania which led to the establish- and obtain more efficient and effective ment of SADCC on April 01, 1980 in Lusaka, public service delivery (http://www.sadcre- Zambia BARRATT. The main objectives of view.com). SADC are to achieve development, peace and security, and economic growth, to alleviate poverty, enhance the standard and Hartzenberg (2011) asserts that the African quality of life of the peoples of Southern leader’s ambition and commitment on the Africa, and support the socially disadvan- ambition to integrate Africa, and to devel- taged through regional integration, built on op the continent through import substitution democratic principles and equitable and industrialisation, was a key feature of the sustainable development. immediate post-colonial period that leads to regionalisation. The Southern African The Southern African Development Co-or- Development Co-ordinating Conference dinating Conference (SADCC) was es- (SADCC) was established in 1980, by the tablished in 1980, by the so-called front so-called front line states with the specific line states with the specific aim of reduc- aim of reducing economic dependence ing economic dependence on apartheid on apartheid South Africa, which later was South Africa, which was still excluded from changed to the Southern African Develop- the African integration plan. However, in ment Community (SADC). The proposed anticipation of South Africa’s democrat- framework for African integration and con- ic transition in the early 1990s, The specific tinental industrialization was the division of objective of SADC regionalisation is to cre- the continent into regional integration arate an enabling environment through the eas that would constitute a united African SADC Secretariat to enhance the move- economy, the African Economic Communi- ment of people, goods and services with- ty (Hartzenberg, 2011). To achieve this the in SADC, facilitate investment, and secure Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) sup- WTO compatible market access arrange- ported three regional integration arrangements between SADC EPA countries and ments; the Economic Community of West the European Union (EU). On the political African States (ECOWAS) for West Africa, front, SADC endorses the ideals of democ- which was established in 1975, predating racy, good governance, respect for the the LPA; the Preferential Trade Area (PTA) rule of law, and respect for human rights. covering East and Southern Africa, which Although violence occurs in some member was the precursor of the Common Market states, most of the region has enjoyed rela- for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA); tive peace and stability. It is aimed in iden- and the Economic Community of Central tifying the organisational structures in the African States (ECCAS) for Central Africa. fourteen countries and indicating the re- The Arab Maghreb Union (AMU) was estab- lationship amongst the different levels/tiers

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 471 lished in 1989, completing continental cov- best contribute to the overall objectives of erage ((Hartzenberg, 2011). SADC – achieving Regional Integration and Poverty Alleviation. The SADC Secretariat’s The main organs involved in the SADC inte- performs its functions guided by the Vision, gration are the Secretariat; Summit heads Mission and Mandate of SADC, in as far as of states; the Troika system; the SADC organ its strategic planning and management of on Police, Defence and Security and the the programmes of SADC through sectoral Council of ministers. The Southern African and administrative roles. The vision of SADC Development Community (SADC) Secre- is to be a reputable, efficient and respon- tariat is the Principal Executive Institution of sive enabler of Regional Integration and SADC, responsible for strategic planning, fa- Sustainable Development. However, the cilitation and co-ordination and manage- mission of SADC is to provide strategic ex- ment of all SADC Programmes. It is head- pertise and co-ordinate the harmonisation ed by the SADC Executive Secretary and of policies and strategies to accelerate is located in Gaborone, Botswana ( ). The Regional Integration and sustainable de- SADC Secretariat structure is designed to velopment. Treaties and agreements are maximise and support the facilitation of the binding documents used by the SADC to Member State policies and programmes to resolve their problems and conflicts in the region. In fostering

Figure 1: Milestones of the Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan.

Source: SADC Regional milestones (www. its enabling environment and the interde- sdc.int) pendence with other sectors to maximize the direct and indirect value addition in the industrial sector broadly defined to include 4. EXPOSITION: ADC REGIONAL INTEGRA- related support services. In so doing, indus- TION: trialization will need to be situated within the global dynamics of competitiveness, quality of products as well as flexibility to respond The long-term transformation of the SADC to internal and external demand dynamics. economies requires focused qualitative The positive spill-overs from industrialization and quantitative shifts in industrial structure, will stimulate employment and substantially

472 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 raise income levels which will improve the 41 million people - 23 per cent - of the 181 standard of leaving for the poor people in million rural populations in the Southern Af- the region. However, there are challenges rican Development Community (SADC) are that need to be addressed, like the political food insecure, and out of this figure, more stability, industrialisation, economic and so- than 21 million are in urgent need of assis- cial stability and the infrastructure. tance (SADC Press Release, 2016).

4.1 Political stability 4.2 Industrialisation Strategy and the economy Saurombe (2010: 122) argue that South Af- rica has one of the strongest economy in Southern Africa hence the regional and The notion of industrialisation entails the pro- global interests lie at the heart of South Af- cess in which a particular society, region or rican’s foreign policy resulting in the need country transforms itself from being only an to create compromises that may disadvan- agricultural society into being also a base tage the SADC block. The SADC regional for manufacturing of goods and services. mission depends by large extend on the A sustainable industrial sector of the future cooperation and commitment of the ac- should be resilient and with high propensity tors in bringing peace and stability in the for continuous modernization. SADC coun- region. They have adopted multi-sectoral tries are equally challenged to substantially governance in order to include all actors enhance their competitiveness to supple- in decision-making. Some member states ment their inherited comparative advan- like Botswana and South Africa are also in- tage in natural resource-based production volved in bilateral trading talks with EU in as and exports. Action should therefore target far as trade and economic development. the competitiveness of firms as well as the economies at large. Deeper regional integration reinforced by industrialization and enhanced competitiveness should provide In the last few decades the African conti- the context for the region’s development. nent has faced many challenges that en- Enabling the productive and distribution capsulate civil wars, economic and political capacities of the process will help remove instability. Given this environment, many of structural impediments and enhance fac- the African nations’ attempts to industrialise tor productivity. have been disappointing. However, political willingness to forge a strong regional integration system is a necessary ingredient The SADC adopted the Industrialization needed to spur intra trade and economic Strategy and Roadmap 2015 - 2063 with a integration within the region as it creates long term perspective to align to national, a conducive environment for the industri- regional, continental and international di- alisation roadmap. Regional members will mensions. The Strategy recognizes that for need to take a more realistic proactive trade liberalization to contribute to sustain- approach that re-examines the countries’ able and equitable development, and thus industrialization targets they have set for to poverty reduction, it must be compli- themselves. However, it is estimated that mented by the requisite capacities to pro-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 473 duce, and to trade effectively and efficiently (www.sadc.int). The primary orientation 4.3 Infrastructure sector of the Strategy is the importance of technological and economic transformation of Infrastructure includes the sectors of trans- the SADC region through industrialization, port, water; communication, power and ir- modernization, skills development, science rigation - and it indicate a large portfolio in and technology, financial strengthening terms of finance and activity in the SADC and deeper regional integration. However, region. The SADC has made great strides in there is a concern that SADC need to de- developing its infrastructure in the past develop its human resources to be able to fulfil cades although there is still digital divide in its industrial strategy, in as far as retaining some parts of the region. The importance competent professional and technically of infrastructure development in regional qualified human resource support with best integration cannot be overemphasised. expertise. The community of SADC has integrated efficient communication and transport infra- Due to political instability since the 1980s, structure facilitates mobility (SADC Activity industrial output in Africa has actually de- Report, 2011-2012). It is acknowledged that clined in its share of global production (UNI- reduction of poverty and economic growth DO report, 2016). Nezeneimana and Nhe- in the region hinge on infrastructure devel- ma (2016: 3) suggest that for these SADC opment. SADC members are facing inter- countries to take off industrially, the process nal structural problems which contributed must be characterised by high levels of se- to the depressing of performance in the riousness, commitments, willingness and past decades. Currently, South Africa is a smooth economic cooperation within mem- major consumption of energy in the region. ber states. However, multiple memberships It gets assistance of water supply from Leso- of other states between ECOWESA and tho and Mozambique to curb the shortages SADC indicate lack of unity and trust. South of water and energy. Africa also while its trading with SADC countries, it is also trading with EU and BRICS. This can also threaten other members in terms Chingono M & Nakana (2009: 398) assert of trusting SA to be fully committed on the that almost all of the SADC countries de- regional integration. With the end of apart- pend on South Africa’s railways, port (air- heid, South Africa has made a great trans- ports and seaports), high ways and other formation from being the greatest conflict transit facilities. South Africa exports far more area to being the greatest peace-maker in to the SADC region than it imports. The two Africa and its joining of SADC was expected of its members Angola and Mozambique to boost the organization’s capacity. South have been involved in disturbing civil war, Africa’s communication and technology that have virtue destroyed their productive has improved over the years with. and agricultural capacity. South Africa has hosted a number of SADC activities since 1994. Botswana and South Africa has better infrastructure that is conducive for forg-

474 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ing better economic partnership than oth- economic potential. Indeed, Angola is al- er member states. It has surfaced among ready the 10th largest supplier of imports other nations that South Africa attempts to to South Africa. The region trade is support- wield its economic power when negotiated by imports and exports of goods and ing with partners in both SACU and SADC its wealth of minerals. However, The total (Saurombe, 2010: 127).This has alleviated value of these imports amounted to R11.7 fears from other member states that South billion in 2009 - while R11.1 billion worth of Africa is dominating in the decision-making goods had been imported by August 2010. since its driving most of the strategic activi- Key sectors include mining, tourism, finance ties like the Africa’s Partnership for Develop- and energy (Cornellisen, 2013). The region’s ment and Growth. economy can be largely trade diverting rather than trade creating. The majority of 4.4 Trade and the economic development the countries in the region (with exception However, South Africa’s relations with SADC of South Africa and Zimbabwe) tend to have improved since the end of apartheid be primary product exporters depending in region. It has been a dream that South Afri- the Countries’ resource benefaction. An- ca must mobilise it economic and political other success story of South Africa is the powers to assist in the development of the improved access to the foreign direct in- African content (Grant and Cornelissen, vestment (FDI) which is hoped to attract all 2013). It came with no surprise that South the countries in the region and benefit from Africa will take a leading role in SADC re- improved access to South Africa’s mar- gional integration. Currently, the legacy of ket and its business community. Yet, there apartheid poor infrastructure in rural South are occasionally mixed feelings about FDI Africa is not a stumbling block because SA as some fear a South African “take over” has provided direction on regional collab- of the domestic economies. Currently, the oration and institutionalisation while the ra- region’s economic growth of DGP is below cial hegemony suffices. Notable, Angola the estimates benchmark of 6%. Table 2 in- - which is capable of rich resources includ- dicate the member states sectoral contri- ing oil, diamonds and other minerals - is a bution to GDP as in 2013. strategic partner for South Africa with huge

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 475 Table 2: Sectors’ contribution to GDP (%), 2013

Country Agriculture Industry Services Angola 10.83 56.98 32.18 Botswana 2.54 36.91 60.55 DRC 25.16 35.09 39.75 Lesotho 7.83 36.57 55.60 Madagascar 29.11 16.00 54.89 Malawi 26.96 18.79 54.25 Mauritius 3.27 23.07 73.66 Mozambique 29.25 23.66 47.09 Namibia 7.07 29.64 63.29 Seychelles* 2.09 15.42 82.49 South Africa 2.39 27.58 70.03 Swaziland* 7.48 47.69 44.83 Tanzania 27.00 25.18 47.82 Zambia 17.68 37.25 45.07 SADC (simple aver- 14.07 30.74 55.19 age)

The region does not meet the commonly 5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS accepted prerequisites for economic inte- The main purpose of this article was to as- gration. It appears as if economic integra- sess South Africa’s role in the SADC’s efforts tion would improve the current status in the to realise its mission on regional integration, region. According to the Global Econom- through the lenses of its major activities on ic Prospects (REP) (2016: 29), the regional political, infrastructure, economic and so- growth in the Southern Africa have slowed cial sectors. This study notes that South Af- noticeably to 3.0 percent in 2015, down rica has made strides in supporting SADC from 4.5 percent in 2014, and 0.3 percent- and its member states in various sectors age point lower than January estimates. such as support of regional existing polit- Notable, the slowdown was most severe in ical, economic, infrastructure and trade oil exporters (Angola), where low oil prices sectors. The main problem with regional sharply slowed activity (World Bank 2016f). integration is that it refers to wide expecta- Also, the decline in metal prices led to a tions and the benefits it should generates. substantial fall in revenues and exports in This in turn leads to a discussion of the pa- non-energy mineral exporting countries rameters used to assess success or failure. (REP, 2016:29). Other adverse development Also, some members vest their interest on challenges included drought (South Africa, the region to alleviate their problems that Zambia), and electricity shortages in South they have self-created. Progress in these Africa and Zambia. member states is recorded as having di-

476 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 verse impacts in as far as economic and on their communities through their ministries social influence on their country of origin. It to engage the broader society on regional should also be recorded that the econom- integration and current SADC activities. ic down-turn has affected most of regional performance. However, we can note some REFERENCE LIST improvement in the SADC infrastructure, economic growth and development in the Chingono, M., Nakana. S. 2009. The chal- last five years. It can be argued that SADC lenges of regional integration in Southern Africa. African Journal of Political Science need strong commitment and contribution and International Relations. 3 (10): 396-408 from the entire member stated in order to Cornellisen, S. 2013. South Africa’s realise regional integration. While some economic role in the Southern Africa: Evolv- countries like South Africa has progressed ing conditions of structural power. In Hag, G in terms of practising good governance & J. Jansen (eds). State of the Nation: South Africa 2012-2013. HSRC Press: Pretoria through democracy, some member states like DRC had their political instability which Grant, J.A., Cornelissen, S. and T.M Shaw. also is bothering the Southern States. South 2013. The Ashgate Research Companion to Regionalisms. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. Africa should use its position to upgrade its economy to negotiate for better options in other regional blocks like EU and the BRICS Hartzenberg, T. 2011. Regional Integration Forum, in order to improve its capacity and in Africa. Trade Law Centre for Southern that of SADC. South Africa has also man- Africa (tarmac). World Trade Organization Economic Research and Statistics Division. aged to bring to their economic agenda and trade competitive trade partners like Landsberg, C. 2012. Afro-Continentalism: the EU, USA and the first world. South Africa Pan-Africanism in Post-Settlement South Af- rica’s Foreign Policy. Journal of Asian and is ideally placed as a neighbour and leader African Studies. 47(4):436-448 to the benefit of the whole region. Although its seem to be difficult for now to foster good governance in some other region, it Ndulu, B., Kritzinger-van Niekerk, L. and is strongly recommended that SADC polit- Reinikka, R., 2005. Infrastructure, regional integration and growth in Sub-Saharan ical structure must continue to forge more Africa. . The National, Regional and Inter- efforts on commitment and compliance to national Challenges. Fondad, The Hague, apply good governance and peer review December 2005, www.fondad.org mechanism in order to realise their regional integration. Another recommendation is to pay more attention on civic participa- Nizeimana,J.B. 2016. Industrialising the Southern African Development Community tion to continuously engage on discussion (SADC) Economies: Prospects and Chal- on issues concerns the involvement of civ- lenges. Journal of Social Science Studies. il society. Its participation in interregional 3(2).1-7 summits must not be through presentation of position papers to ministerial or head of SADC .2012. Report of the Executive Secre- states assemblies. The Ministerial heads that tary Activity Report of the SADC Secretariat represents their countries must touch base 2011 - 2012. Botswana: SADC Secretariat.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 477 SADC Secretariat. SADC Press Release No2 Industrial Development Organization. 4.4 million people are Food Insecure in Southern Africa. 16th June 2016. Vanheukelom J and Bertelsmann-Scott T. 2016. The political economy of regional SADC Secretariat. Industrialization Strategy integration in Africa. The Southern African and Roadmap 2015 - 2063. SADC. Development Community (SADC) Report. (Http: //ecdpm.org/peria/sadc. download- ed on the 10th May 2016). Saurombe A. The role of South Africa in World Bank. 2016. Global Economic Pros- SADC regional integration: the making pects: divergences and risks. Washington: or braking of the organization. Journal of International Bank for Reconstruction and International Commercial Law and Tech- Development. nology .5(3):124. Coleman WD and Underhill G. 1998. Re- gional and Global Economic Integration: Europe, Asia and America. London: Rout- United Nations. 2016. The Role of Technol- ledge. ogy and Innovation in Inclusive and Sus- tainable Industrial Development. Industrial Development Report 2016. United Nations

478 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016

EXPLORING STATUS OF CHIEFTAINCY IN THE MODERN ERA

P Mulaudzi

University of Venda

LB Juta

North West University

AP Tsanwani

University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

Traditionally, chiefs and other traditional leaders were held in high esteem. However, with the advent of democracy based largely on western perception, the role and therefore status of chiefs have seemingly declined considerately as a result of the introduction of new policies such as Traditional Leadership and Government Framework Act, Communal Land Right Act and amalgamation of formal local government and traditional chieftaincy institutions have weakened the status of chiefs. The paper used qualitative approach as it needs to feed the deeper feeling of participants. This paper looks at the then and new functions and roles of traditional leaders, and hopes to come up with possible strategies that can assist in restoration of the powers of traditional leaders. The paper explores the status of chieftaincy in the modern era and the nature of collaboration between the chieftaincy institution and formal local government actors. The paper assessed the status of chieftaincy in the modern era. The paper relied on related data from both primary and secondary sources. Purposive sampling technique was adopted to select officers like chiefs, members of traditional council (royal council) and community members. To do this, the study employed techniques such as questionnaire administration, interviewing and focus group discussions to gather data for analysis. Written documents were also relied upon in the development of the paper. The results showed that the amalgamation of chieftaincy institutions with local government resulted in the decline of the status of traditional leaders. The system is weakening and undermining the authority and position of the chiefs. The role of chieftaincy is no longer recognised in the current decentralised system of government. There is lack of proper consultation between the chiefs and formal local government. This paper concludes that democratic government seems to undermine the authority of the traditional leaders.

Keywords: Traditional leaders, By-Laws, Chieftaincy, Customary systems, Royal council

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 479 as static, diametrically opposed categories. The emergence of the new dispensa- 1. INTRODUCTION tion has led to the decline of the powers of Chief refers to a person, who, hailing from the chieftaincy or traditional leadership in the appropriate family and lineage has general. This paper concludes that demo- been validly nominated, elected or select- cratic government seems to undermine the ed, and enstooled, enskinned or installed as authority of the traditional leaders. a chief or queen EX mother in accordance with the relevant customary law and usage (Dawda, 2013). People in tribal ar- 2. TRADITIONAL LEADERSHIP AND GOVERN- eas which by then were called homelands MENT FRAMEWORK ACT 14 of (2003) were led and guided by customary laws. As a result respect and honour to traditional According to the Traditional Leadership and leaders use to carry the real meaning to the governance Framework Act, No. 41 of 2003, nation. Today the existence of the institu- “traditional leadership” means the custom- tion of chieftaincy or traditional leadership ary institutions or structures, or customary seems to depend on the history of a partic- systems or procedures of governance, rec- ular community Matshidze (2013). Nations ognised, utilised or practised by tradition- are finding it hard to associate democracy al communities; “tribe” means a tribe that with chieftaincy as these are two institutions was established. A chief is by his very nature that operate within the same jurisdiction father of all the citizens in the area under his differently which is local government and sway. The chief has the obligatory respon- chief. Bottah (2006) define democracy as sibility of treating good and fairly the com- a respect for the rule of law, it means local munity under his or her custody. Chiefs by participation in decision-making affecting their very nature are not like political parties the interests of the people; allowing dis- that exist to articulate and advance cer- trict people to elect their own represen- tain parochial policies that are drafted in tatives. Traditional leaders are responsible an attempt to copy everything white and for the maintenance of order, community few non-monarchical European countries consultation and participation in decision but have the responsibility of unifying and making, impartial and unbiased decision upholding their communities. According to making rulers and promotion of commu- the Traditional Leadership and governance nity welfare before individual gain which Framework Act, No. 41 of 2003 the institu- never contradict the notion of democracy. tion of chieftaincy exist to provide for the Williams (2009) alluded that there are multi- recognition of traditional communities; to ple sources of legitimacy that all traditional provide for the establishment and recogni- leaders, chiefs as well as elected officials, tion of traditional councils; to provide a stat- can use to justify their rule. Each of these dif- utory framework for leadership positions ferent sources offer people a particular set within the institution of traditional leader- of characteristics (symbols, values, political ship, the recognition of traditional leaders principles, institutions, rules, and processes). and the removal from office of traditional Currently, these sources are characterized leaders; to provide for houses of tradition-

480 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 al leaders; to provide for the functions is an important asset on which all other proj- and roles of traditional leaders; to provide ects depend and the assistance given by for dispute resolution and the establishment chiefs to make the acquisition of land easi- of the Commission on Traditional Lead- er makes their contribution to infrastructural ership Disputes and Claims; to provide development very important. Chiefs and for a code of conduct; to provide for elders also play a very important role in amendments to the Remuneration of Pub- serving as links between their communities lic Office Bearers Act, 1998; and to provide and other development partners. People for matters connected therewith. All these seem to be misinterpreting the Communal show the significance of the existence of Land Rights Act [No.11 of 2004] on the issue the institution of chieftaincy which in prac- of ‘provide for the democratic administra- tice seem to be rhetoric. The powers and tion of communal land by communities’. authorities of the institution of chieftaincy Chiefs are custodians of the land and tra- are no longer recognised as stipulated in ditional belief systems that guard against the Act. phenomenal contamination of the country’s traditional customs, values, norms and 3. COMMUNAL LAND RIGHT ACT No.11 of practices. 2004 4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE INSTITUTION OF The traditional leadership continues to wield CHIEFTAINCY real economic power as the custodian of all the lands under their authority. As cus- In post-apartheid South Africa, numerous todians of the land the chiefs also hold the chiefs have become adept in combining land as trustees on behalf of the peasants, the resource of tradition with appeals to dispensing equitable distribution of land to western models and the discourse of libera- the citizenry under their care. Chiefs remain tion politics. Thus, chiefs project themselves as better adjudicators of who gets what as guardians of African custom, but simulta- and where regarding native lands and by neously as pioneers of rural development. that they can be accountable to the peo- This dual role has become necessary to fit ple. The Communal Land Rights Act [No.11 into the political and moral framework as of 2004] provides the chieftaincy institution developed by the ANC, where chiefs can with the responsibility of taking charge of become an important part of change, de- the land within the institution area of juris- velopment and even restitution in rural ar- diction. eas. This however, rides on the chief holding legitimacy, both historically and within the Dawda (2013) asserts that the powers of local community (Godsell, 2013). Chieftain- the chiefs mandate them to facilitate the cy institution has been in existence through- release of land for development projects. out the African history and may be referred Land is very important for the establishment to as indigenous rulers. It is the highest form of such projects as educational and health of traditional authority at the communi- infrastructure and boreholes. From long ty level and it plays a dominant role in the Chiefs play an important role in the release social, political and economic affairs of its of land for any development purpose. Land citizenry. The institution represents the gov-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 481 ernment at the local level. Traditional lead- of 2003, defines “traditional leadership” as ers serve as links between their communities the customary institutions or structures, or and other development partners. Chiefs customary systems or procedures of gover- also contribute in the areas of mobilising nance, recognised, utilised or practised by communal labour for the construction of traditional communities; “tribe” means a projects that are demand driven. The major tribe that was established function of the traditional councils is to advise government, at the local and nation- Traditionally, the chieftaincy institution is the al levels, on local “custom and tradition”. one that provides for the basic community They also engage in development work, needs. The institutions serve as the medium particularly in the struggle against HIV/AIDS. for national development and the fostering Chiefs act as intermediaries between the of greater national unity. Chieftaincy institu- local people and the government at the tion has the responsibility of embracing cul- centre. They explained government poli- ture which the community identifies with. cies to their subjects and in turn informed According to (Williams, 2009) chieftaincy as the government of the wishes, demands or an institution of leadership has the source reactions of their local subjects. They are of legitimacy which justifies its rule. Through instruments of their local government, pre- customary laws the chieftaincy institution is sided over native law courts which applied able to maintain order; community consul- traditional laws; they collected local taxes tation and participation in decision making; and made laws for the good government impartial and unbiased decision making of their chiefdoms. and promotion of community welfare. And the source, which according to chieftaincy 5. CHIEFTANCY AND CULTURE institution is customary laws, offer people a particular set of characteristics (symbols, Accountability on cultural heritage will al- values, political principles, institutions, rules, ways be the responsibility of chieftaincy in- and processes). Old customs and traditions stitutions. Chieftaincy institution has been surrounding the institution of the chieftaincy in existence throughout the African history should always be recognised. and may be referred to as indigenous rulers (Harris, 2005). It is the highest form of tradi- 6. DIFFERENT ROLES AND POWERS PLAYED BY tional authority at the community level and TRADITIONAL LEADERSHIP AND MUNICIPAL- it plays a dominant role in the social, politi- ITIES cal and economic affairs of its citizenry. The The institution of chieftaincy had great re- nation without the tradition of its own lacks sponsibility of providing human basic needs identity. It is significant to maintain and re- including socio-economic development; fine the culture as there is a great value on and can also serve as the medium for na- it. People’s own roots should be regarded. tional development and the fostering of The institution of chieftaincy maintains what greater national unity William (2009) Tradi- distinguishes the nation from other people. tional chieftaincy and political relationship It portrays the uniqueness of the country, should be centred on the idea of unity. Wil- nation and statehood. Traditional Leader- liam further indicated that, the chieftaincy ship and governance Framework Act,No.41

482 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 has the responsibilities of maintenance of 6.3 Sampling technique order; community consultation and partic- The sampling method used was purpo- ipation in decision making; impartial and sive. This sampling method allowed the re- unbiased decision making and promotion searchers to screen women based on the of community welfare before individual identified characteristics in order to solicit gain. According to (Williams, 2009) there the required information (Strydom &Venter, are multiple sources of legitimacy that all 2002). leaders, chiefs as well as elected officials, can use to justify their rule. Each of these dif- 6.4 Data collection method and techniques ferent sources offer people a particular set of characteristics (symbols, values, political For the purpose of collecting data, in-depth principles, institutions, rules, and processes). interviews were used to elicit facts or state- Chieftaincy will remain a central figure in ments from the interviewees. This technique the lives of many particularly the rural com- assists the researcher to gain insight into munities in South Africa, therefore its author- the “subjective understanding” of those ity and powers should be maintained in the being interviewed through using leading midst of political changes. questions and listening (Seidman, 2008). Open-ended interview was used as it was 6. METHODOLOGY helpful in describing the status and power of the chiefs as compared to the powers 6.1 Design of municipality. Field editing was employed In this paper qualitative research method on in-depth personal interviews to rectify was used to understand the status of chief- the errors and omissions, while the interview taincy in the modern eras (Creswell, 1994). was in progression as recommended by Tu- The paper relied on related data from both stin et al. (2005). primary and secondary sources. Purposive 6.5 Data analysis sampling technique was adopted to select officers like chiefs, members of tradition- Thematic analysis was used to identify, al council (royal council) and community analyse and report patterns (themes) with- members. To do this, the study employed in data and interpret various aspects of techniques such as questionnaire admin- the research topic as stated by Braun and istration, interviewing and focus group dis- Clarke (2006). cussions to gather data for analysis. Written documents were also relied upon in the de- 7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS velopment of the paper. 7.1 Chieftaincy in South African communities

6.2 Population and location of the study The study revealed that pre-1994; South Africa was divided into homelands. Each The population of this study consisted of and every homeland had a king who had chiefs, royal council members and commu- the subordinates of chiefs. The structure nity members of Vhembe District (Vuwani of chieftaincy remains the same even to- and Ndzhelele). day. The respondents indicate that kings

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 483 and chiefs had all the powers and author- contributing factors that affect the chief- ity over the citizenry. The kings and chiefs taincy institution negatively in South Africa, had all respect and honour. The chiefs from especially in Venda, Limpopo province: different areas of Vhembe district in Lim- 8.1 Lack of Resources popo province indicated that the powers and authority of chieftaincy institution have Among the key challenges inherited by been weakened. Chiefs and royal council South Africa’s post-apartheid sphere of complained of not properly consulted by rural local governance is the significant the local governments for the projects that lack of basic infrastructural services (roads, affect their areas of jurisdiction. It was fur- healthcare facilities, accessible water, ther mentioned that the utilisation of land electricity etc.) and extreme poverty. This is not satisfactory. The chiefs also indicat- situation prevails especially in the densely ed that local government do not educate populated rural communal areas that fall them on how local government operates under the jurisdictions of tribal (tradition- including the recent demarcation process al) authorities (Williams, 2009). Post-1994 that raised disputes in Vuwani. The chiefs democratic era, people living in the for- and royal council alluded that they were mer homeland regions largely depend on not consulted by the local government various kinds of state social grants for their representatives about the shifting of certain basic survival needs. Though some sporad- wards to a new municipality. The outcomes ic instances of success might be observed of the incident, this resulted in many van- that may be able to yield positive rural de- dalisation of government properties includ- velopmental outcomes the issue of budget ing educational infrastructure which led to comes in. The democratically elected local the absence and disturbance of teaching structures of governance in the post-1994 and learning especial for grade 12 learners. rural political landscape have created a The chiefs and royal council mentioned power impasse which has led to misuse that local government give the ward coun- and abuse of communal natural resourc- cillors powers that make chieftaincy insti- es by ‘outsiders’ and locals. The locals who tution look undermined. Ward councillors could access lands are not equipped to convene meetings with the community make use of the land and the outsiders are without the approval from the royal coun- using the land for the development of their cil. The chiefs, royal council and communi- own countries. e.g. Indians would make it ty members of the areas indicated that the a point that they take their investment to lack of recognition of tribal areas is a serious their own countries. The institutions lack the challenge that affects their development system of checks and balances demand- negatively. ed by modern day systems of governance. Generally, they also have no economic or 8. CHALLENGES OF CHIEFTANCY IN THE administrative capacity to provide services MODERN ERA or develop the communities they are sup- According to the results presented in this posed to govern. These affect the status of paper, the following challenge were indi- the chiefs as the challenges hinder the in- cated by chiefs and royal council as the stitution in socio-economic development of

484 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 the community. Chieftaincy institution is not 8.3 Accountability provided with basic infrastructure and the According to Hendricks and Ntsebenza institution is not modernized and equipped. (1999) Western influences, starting with colonialism has robbed chiefs and Kings vital growth inputs to the extent it has turned 8.2 Lack of education and knowledge some of them to become unaccountable The challenge is compounded by lack of to anyone. Compounding on this challenge knowledge of the nation of South Africa. is the ambivalent role of traditional leaders Democracy is not well interpreted to the within the sphere of democratic local gov- nation. Too many democracy means abol- ernment in rural South Africa. Even during ishment of one’s tradition for the adop- the early years of South Africa’s democra- tion of the western culture particularly the cy .The interface between traditional au- Americans. The relationship that is sup- thorities and democratic state structures posed to be maintained by the municipal- is still filled with uncertainties and tensions ities and the institution of chieftaincy is not post-1994. The municipal demarcations are well recognised. Traditional house seems not clear to the institution of chieftaincy. to be of low status particularly chiefs that Municipalities would claim some portions are of age. Nonetheless, it is realised that of the land which were thought to be un- chiefs provided an important communica- der the custody of chieftaincy and thus tion link between the community and the affect the authority of the chiefs. From the local municipality. The institution is consid- interviews conducted it was indicated that ered during election so that it serves as in- sometimes even the community would be strument to convince its people in voting confused as the municipality may some- for a particular party. Lissoni (2013) alluded times claim to own the same land that was that however, in the national elections of allocated to the household by the chief. The 1994 and 1999 it became clear to the ANC empirical literature sources highlighted one that the chiefs exercised an important influ- common phenomenon that though munic- ence over their followers during elections. ipalities have financial resources to carry In some rural constituencies, such as the out rural development but development Northern (Limpopo) province, chiefs con- seems impossible at the village level with- tributed to an overwhelming ANC victory out the involvement and consent of chiefs. of close to 98%. Williams (2009) indicates The tensions produce centralization of con- that the government is trying to cede par- trol of communal resources. The challenge tial authority to the chiefs to gain access is that little is understood about the inter- and this eventually lead to, in the eyes of face between community management the government, gaining legitimacy in the and local governance, particularly in rural eyes of rural people because of the de- governance contexts where community livery of services. Instead chiefs use this to development is championed by traditional further ingrain themselves in the emerging authorities. political sphere and to carve out a role for themselves in the democratic state that the government cannot currently full fill.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 485 8.4 Responsibilities without power and re- goal of local development and become sources sources of conflicts (Conteh, 2016).

The Constitution of the Republic of South Af- The Introduction of Party Politics contributes rica, 1996, recognised the position of chiefs to the decline in the authority and pow- in a democratic South Africa, but lacks of ers of Chiefs in the country. Chiefs are now resources dilute their powers. Government looked upon as ‘vote-catching’ agents officials do not put traditional authorities that can win the support of the electorate in the picture when planning for develop- for political parties at local level as each rul- ment activities. Chieftaincy institution is not ing party demands the political allegiance well represented at the local government, and support from them. Power Struggle and not able to generate its own revenue between Chiefs and Other Personnel in the and thus limit their ability to participate in Locality has greatly increased. development planning and implementa- 9. CONCLUSION tion at the local level.The poor representation of chiefs at the local government, The institution of chieftaincy plays a vital make the chieftaincy institution perceive role in society and is still held in high regard the local government system as not trans- in rural communities, often overlooked by parent in its undertakings. Majority of the the central government. The coercive forc- chiefs (90%) actually feel that the Municipal es of the state should always be under the government impose on traditional admin- command and control of civilians. The role istration since they are mostly not consult- of the chiefs is more important as the role ed in most projects. Chiefs perceive local of the local government as chiefs contrib- government system as a threat to tradition- ute to the maintenance of law and order al governance system as the system seems through the settlement of disputes, mobil- to be taking over most of the functions of isation of human resources for communal traditional authorities in the communities. labour and facilitating the release of land The lack of formal space for traditional au- for infrastructural development. The Consti- thorities within the mainstream local gover- tution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 nance structure to engage the local gov- gives an indication of the importance it ernment remains a serious challenge to attaches to the institution of chieftaincy; it chiefs in the decentralised process, as the safeguards the institution as established by chieftaincy institution is not well informed customary law and usage. Finally, in order about the operations of the municipalities. for chiefs and their council to play a major Thus, the challenge is how to effectively in- role in good governance and the decen- tegrate traditional authorities into the main- tralisation process and to deepen democ- stream local governance structure without racy at grass root level, their chiefdoms compromising their non-political role. More should be provided with basic infrastruc- so, unclear linkages and modes of engage- ture and their institutions (like the Chiefdom ment and cooperation between traditional treasuries, the Chiefdom police and local authorities and formal local governmental courts) modernised and equipped. structures prevent effective contribution of traditional authorities towards the common

486 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 10. RECOMMENDATIONS ernment affairs for voters’ mobilization and implementation of projects for the benefit The institution of chieftaincy could be revit- of the few should be highly opposed. Re- alised by exploring for them means to open vision of their compensations is also vital as for funding, resources, accountability, pop- they also face the challenge of underpaid. ular participation, public debates, mo- Review of their background might provide rality and responsiveness to the people’s insight for understanding current political aspirations. The traditional systems should dichotomy. There is the need to build the be modernised. For instance, chiefs were capacity of Chiefs and their elders. The Na- responsible for the welfare of their people tional and Regional Houses of Chiefs and before the birth of democratic regime and the District Assemblies should be resourced they would provide each household with by the government and tasked with the re- a land/ field, the same land can be mod- sponsibility of organising seminars and ca- ernised and be given to the skilled people pacity-building programmes for chiefs and together with modern resources for produc- their elders. This would equip them with ba- tion that will benefit the whole community. sic knowledge of their roles in their interac- If the institutions of the chieftaincy could be tion with other development partners. This well resourced and strengthened then the would also enhance their ability to analyse chiefs’ voice would heard as the institution their own circumstances, plan and imple- would be contributing to the nation. Tradi- ment development projects and strength- tional rulers can be of more service if some- en linkages with other development part- how they are integrated into local admin- ners. istration. Therefore, cooperation between them and the district assemblies should not LIST OF REFERENCE be in principle but literal. The experience and wisdom of chiefs should be utilised fully Conteh M.N 2016. Paramount chieftaincy in at levels of government as chieftaincy insti- Sierra Leone: History and electoral process. tution is the structure that the local people Lambert Academic Publishing: Nepal. identify most with. They should be made part Dawda T.K. 2013. Challenges of the collab- of central government by being involved oration between formal local government in every development, in planning and im- actors and the chieftaincy institution in plementation of programs so that they and Ghana: Lessons from the Sissala East District their people can benefit from government of the upper west region of Ghana. Inter- projects. Cultural heritage championed by national Journal of Humanities and Social chiefs should be embraced. The manner Sciences.3 (12): 238-246 in which chieftaincy and local populations were engaged in the negotiations of the in- Godsel S. 2013. New traditional strategies troduction of specific norms, rules, process- and land claims in South Africa: A case es, and institutions that are fundamental to study in Hammanskraal. University of Witwa- the ANCʼs policies of transformation and tersrand: Johannesburg democratization as it is in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996, should Harries, P. 2005. Consolidating Democracy be looked at. Incorporation of chiefs in gov- and Building the Nation. Chiefs in South Afri-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 487 ca. University of Basel: Neuchâtel. Republic of South Africa. 1996. The Constitu- tion of the Republic of South Africa of 1996. Hendrics, F and Ntsebeza, L. 1999. Chiefs Pretoria: Government Printers. and Rural local government in post-apartheid South Africa. African e-Journals Proj- Republic of South Africa. 2004. Communal ect. 4(1): 99-126 Land Right Act No.11 of 2004. Pretoria: Gov- ernment Printers. Inglehart R and Welzel C. 2005. Modern- ization, cultural change and democracy: Republic of South Africa. 1998. Remunera- the human development sequence. Cam- tion of public office bearers Act, No.20. of bridge university press. Cambridge. 1998. Pretoria: Government Printers.

Lissoni, A. 2013. Chieftaincy and resistance Republic of South Africa. 2003. Traditional politics in Lehurutshe during the apartheid Leadership and Government Framework era. University of Johannesburg: Johannes- Act, No. 41 of 2003. Pretoria. Government burg Printers.

Skosana, D.E. 2012. Why are chiefs rec- Williams J.M. 2009. Chieftaincy, the state, ognised in South Africa’s new democra- and Democracy: Political Legitimacy in cy? Issues of legitimacy and contestation Post-Apartheid South Africa. Indiana Uni- in local politics: A case study of chiefly and versity Press: Bloomington local government in Vaaltyn. An unpublished Master’s thesis. University of the Wit- watersrand: Johannesburg.

488 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 CHALLENGES AND CONSEQUENCES OF MANAGING PRIMA- RY ELECTIONS IN EMERGING MULTIPARTY DEMOCRACIES: A CASE OF UGANDA

S Kyohairwe

Uganda Management Institute

ABSTRACT

Management of elections is conceived as a daunting administrative task implemented in a politically charged atmosphere which if not consciously handled in a professional manner may result in much undesirable consequences. In Uganda, similar to most of sub Saharan Africa, primary elections have been carried out within respective political parties with a remarkable difference from the practice in the Western world.The Uganda’s political past has intermittently been punctuated by both party and non-party eras with unique modes of elections. The remarkable period however begins in 2005, when Uganda held a referen- dum and changed electoral process from the movement non-party to Multi-party political system. Under multiparty democracy, political parties were expected to hold primary elections to select competent candidates who would compete with other flag bearers from other parties in the general elections. Since then, primary elections have been conducted particularly in the dominant National Resistance Movement (NRM) Party took effect in 2006, 2011 and 2016 elections. Emerging realities in the electoral processes and electoral outcomes indicate that managing primary elections in Uganda has proven to be a great challenge for both the local councillors and the parliamentary level representatives. A growing level of “independent” candidates and the irreconcilable conflicts among political contenders within same parties leave deplorable gaps for understanding, managing and practicing party primary elections. Empirical evidence from primary and secondary data is examined in this paper to reveal the challenges of managing primary elections and possible consequences thereof.

Keywords: Primary elections, multiparty democracies, political parties, independents, electoral processes

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 489 1. INTRODUCTION tions to select competent candidates who would compete with other flag bearers from Concerns of democratising governments other parties in the general elections, an are keenly underlined in the existing litera- arrangement that took effect in 2005 and ture with a global surge and dramatic po- 2006 respectively. In an attempt to ensure litical changes most felt in the last decade that multi-party dispensation takes root and of the 20th century. In United States, meth- be more democratic like elsewhere, pri- ods of nominating candidates have also mary elections have been organised prac- evolved overtime in the 20th century (Davis ticed in the 2006, 2011 and 2016 local and 1997). LeDuc, Niemi and Norris (1996) also national elections. However, as evidences offer highlights of the literature with signif- from assessment of the primary elections icant changes in democratisation and particularly at parliamentary level were to a electoral processes in Europe regarding great extent mismanaged and this resulted transformations of party systems, and con- into the steadily growing of “independent” stitutional structures with the fall of commu- candidates a substantial number of whom nist and authoritarian regimes gave a grad- in a surprise turn won the general elections. ual the expansion of democracy within and IPU (2011) notes that the number of inde- across the European continent (Gunter Di- pendent MPs increased from 37 in 2006 to amandouros and Puhle 1995). Subsequent 44 in 2011 general elections. Because the dramatic changes were also observable in 2016 elections experienced related chal- South Africa with end of apartheid (Southall lenges in primary elections, this study was 1994) in South American countries as well set to examine the challenges and con- as in Asia and the rest of Africa (Diamond, sequences experienced as a result of the Liz and Lipset 1995). While these elections practices in the emerging multiparty de- have been in place, from the time of inde- mocracy in Uganda. pendence in 1960s todate Uganda’s political landscape has been punctuated with regimes of minimal democratic practices. 2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES Till the coming of the National Resistance Movement (NRM) into power in 1996, elec- The study was to investigate the challenges tions less democratic. From 1986, Uganda of managing the primary elections in Ugan- was under No-party dispensation and elec- da. It was also aimed at establishing the toral processes would be based on individ- consequences from such primary elections ual merit and electoral colleges for mar- challenges as perceived from the actors’ ginalised groups like women, and youth point of view. The conclusions derived at (Uganda Constitution, Kyohairwe 2009). gradually would be substantially informed to guide subsequent primary elections but also offer grounded facts for future re- In the year 2005, Uganda held a referen- searchers on the subject matter dum and changed her governance from the movement to Multi-party political system. Under this arrangement, political parties were expected to hold primary elec-

490 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 3. THE STUDY METHODOLOGY pled areas. The study focused onto 2016 elections. This study was conducted through a phe- nomenological design, purely qualitative in Questions set for respondents in an inter- nature intended to understand the voters view schedule covered a range of issues and election officials’ view-points based that explored which level the respondents on their experience in primary elections were engaged in electoral process, and participation. Interpretive methods of anal- also sought to find out the capacities they ysis were then used. The study carried out were involved in the elections. The broad in-depth interviews from 30 respondents and specific questions also focussed on the including voters, electoral officials and po- political parties that these individuals were litical candidates. The political candidates involved, sought their own views on the selected purposively, conveniently and by way the primary elections were conducted use of snowball techniques included those in their areas of jurisdiction. The respondents who were defeated at primary elections were also asked what they considered as and those who managed to go through the consequences of such processes. In addi- elections successfully. Use of non-probabili- tion to the interviews, a document analysis ty techniques indicated here was largely in- was used to triangulate the face to face influenced by that fact that it was quite diffi- terviews carried out by the researcher cult to obtain adequate sampling frames of the entire population involved in the electoral process in the categories considered. 4. LITERATURE RELATING TO THIS STUDY The respondents included those who run for local councillors’ positions at district or A number of studies have been done to municipal level as well as the parliamentary establish key determinants of supply and candidates. The respondents were drawn demand of candidates in the electoral pro- from the districts of Bushenyi and Sheema cesses. Among the many studies is detailed in Western Uganda, Mityana from central literature in Pippa Norris and Joni Rovendus- Uganda and Mbale and Iganga and Toro- ki’s works (1993, 1995), on the British legisla- ro districts from the Eastern Uganda. There tive processes which suggest that mem- was also an excerpt of an interview earlier bers of the British House of Commons are carried out by a news reporter with a parlia- demographically unrepresentative of the mentary contestant from Rukungiri district in British population in terms of gender, race, Western Uganda. Drawing samples from education and class. Pippa and Joni Rov- different regions was intended to establish enduski’s (1993) article specifically takes the comparative opinions of the respon- a close look at the reasons why this is the dents on the primary electoral processes case, based on data from the British Candi- across the two dominant party divides – date Study of 1992,that analyses the back- National Resistance Movement (NRM) and ground, experience and attitudes of MPs, Forum for Democratic Change (FDC). This candidates, applicants, party members was because other parties’ structures at the and voters. The strata is compared to indi- grassroots were quite limited to enable rev- cate whether the outcome of the selection elation of substantial findings from the sam- process reflects the supply of those willing

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 491 to stand for Parliament or the demands of roots party members act as gatekeepers local party activists when adopting candi- to determine who should access a politi- dates for local constituencies. Pippa Norris cal office. She distinguishes this category subsequent works (1996) observe that elec- from non-party gatekeepers like interest toral bodies are evaluated as representa- groups, media financial supporters and civ- tive according to widely differing principles ic notables that may also have influence based on alternative democratic theories. in electoral process. In yet a further view, She identifies two key models that may help she considers the nature of electoral sys- us to understand legislative recruitment. tem either being a single–member districts The first model is the responsible“ party gov- or open-party lists to have a substantial ef- ernment model” where voters are given fect on primary elections. A legal system the choice of alternative party platform or that specifies the criteria for eligibility and elections and individual candidates are re- that establishes other standards for select- garded as members of their collective or- ing politicians is an additional factor affect- ganisations. She argues that under such a ing electoral processes at all levels. (Nor- model, who stands for elections is less im- ris, 1996 in LeDuc, et al 1996, 192-197). All portant than what their party stands for and these factors seem to be a pool of structur- she relates this condition to be manifesting al, systemic and procedural determinants in democracies characterised by high de- of primary and higher level elections which gree of discipline. The second model that have a great impact on who is selected Norris mentions is the district delegate mod- or left out of political positions, and close- el where elected members are seen primar- ly examined are the sources of challenges ily as agents of geographical areas, from of primary elections and their dire conse- which they are elected than their party or- quences. ganisations. This model is characterised by 5. REALITIES ON PRIMARY ELECTIONS IN less collective responsibility for government UGANDA but rather is inclined to social representation based on simple grounds of equity regard- Interviews conducted with voters, polit- ing salient cleavages like gender, ethnicity, ical contestants and electoral officials class, race and the like (Norrris revealed inter-related views on the per- , 1996 in LeDuc, et al 1996, 184-5). ceptions commonly held on primary elections in Uganda. The key findings are in the excerpts in the below. Further explanations advanced by Norris 5.1 Views from voters on the way the pri- on the legislative recruitment determinants maries were conducted: include individual factors that influence the willingness of potential candidates to One of the respondents from the Eastern re- purse public office. This is what she refers gion who participated in the elections as a to as “supply–side factors”. On contrary candidate in the primary elections for par- she also identifies the “demand factors“ liamentary seat pointed out a number of effect where party national leaders, party factors that brought challenges in the NRM managers constituency officials and grass- ruling party primary elections as follows:

492 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 1. Failure to follow the two key be giving people money to vote you. principals governing primary elec- The money should be to facilitate the tions: On this issue, he pointed out process of election. It should be for NRM failure to a) assessing the pop- posters, transport etc not votes”. In ularity of the party and; b) assessing actual fact in his own interpretation, the popularity of the individuals be- he referred to the use of money and ing fielded to run for the party- posi winning elections on that basis as de- tions. To stress the second principle ceptive popularity. Reiterating the he stated: “if the other candidate is argument on money culture effect, more popular, then you also need he further said “… so take away the to elect a popular candidate. You money, you don’t see the power of also need to compare the registered the candidates”. He mentioned that voters and identify the possible vot- during the NRM elections, the village ers likely to vote your candidate….. party members, parish coordinators, this was missing because there was sub county team, district and nation- a lot of external influence for one to al task force were all “paid” in the be voted for.” He also added, “NRM electoral process. rushed to stop those who had not Relatedly, a respondent from the central passed through primary elections to region, while giving his experience on the protect their flag bearers”. He made primary elections stressed that actors for a reference to particular cases who choosing candidates are not defined. To had intended to stand as indepen- him, choice of flag bearers is influenced dents after being defeated in the pri- by a critical factors which he identified as maries to become flag bearers. This, , “ choosing candidates based on mon- to him was considered as a clear ey, those who can be resisting, those being indication of external influence and supported by top politicians etc”. a big challenge of protecting those candidates who were fielded by the 3. Party structures: For another re- party without necessarily being pop- spondent from the central region the ular. There was a fear that given an problem of party primary were large- opportunity, the independents could ly structural. He pointed out that the out-compete the party selected flag structures that are in place currently bearers. favour the NRM government that is in power. Referring to the local council 2. Money culture in politics: The structures, he observed: “look at the respondent’s other view was that LC system for instance. From LC1 to there was improper use of money in LC5, all the structures are a creation the entire electoral process including of the Movement which has been the primaries was disastrous. He con- in power for the last 30 years. Those demned the act of giving money to who occupy those positions are part the voters and to those involved in of the NRM,…the structures are sim- the electoral process. His own opin- ply historical“. This expression implied ion was that, “Naturally you shouldn’t

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 493 that going through primaries is more amongst candidates of opposition procedural than a staid exercise ca- parties. It was seen as a challenge pable of bringing competitive candi- for primary elections because such dates for the current multiparty poli- candidates were seen as having no tics. He further regarded the current clear agenda for the public and thus politics in Uganda as being still imma- would attract less support. ture. He categorically stated: “Unfor- tunately, even the government is not promoting the multiparty. If the gov- 5.2 Excerpt of an interview with a prominent ernment was willing, they would be politician supporting and facilitating the other parties to establish their structures”. A long standing parliamentarian who lost in the recent primary elections was interviewed by a news reporter. In a Newspaper excerpt the MP contestant /politician and 4. Reasons for joining politics. The a news reporter is as below: other emerging views during the interviews in this study were largely to do Reporter: Your defeat shocked many with the motivations for individuals’ who thought you were powerful fig- involvement in the electoral process. ure in the national Resistance move- One respondent from the western ment (NRM) and kingmaker of Rukun- region for instance stated: “In mul- giri District tiparty system, primary election are mandatory. You have to participate Politician: I was shocked, too. Now in order to choose a candidate who I know that there were many understands for your principles as a party”. hand activities before and during Another respondent holding a diver- elections. But I still accepted results gent view however said: “People join for many reasons I will not discuss parties because they are only defiant here. Some of these reasons are very but not because of the parties’ inter- important for my people, my party ests”. I particularly found these views and my country intriguing. A clear indication was that people who vote, those who stand for elections are either doing it Reporter: Did electoral commission as a ritual because it is an obligation, (EC) rig you, for example? do select to stand to defend their Politician: While the electoral com- party ideology or because they mission had the responsibility to en- have a grudge with another party. sure that everything was free and The last category here sounds more fair, I believe what went wrong was interesting because their motivation beyond just electoral commission. for voting or running for a political of- First, we had some internal party di- fice is basically not to participate in visions that threatened the fabric of the parallel party. This was common our campaign. Then we had religious

494 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 leaders leading the flock the sectari- NRM considering that this is the area an path. We also had the opportun- where Besigye the strongest opposi- ists who are royalists kept changing tion candidate comes from and , un- with the weather. We had misled til recently , Kanungu where Amama youth who were easily manipulated. Mababazi comes from. We also had misled party members You must note that underhanded ac- who still yet to understand and ap- tivities did not affect me alone. They preciate the importance of hold- affected the party too. Whether it ing the party interest over individual was to do with the register, , whether ones. I also feel that our voter pop- it was to do with the presiding officers ulation allowed themselves to be whatever it was it affected both the distracted from the real pertinent is- presidential, the parliamentary and sue. We can no longer afford to vote other candidates in the lower organs or give support based on religion or tribe. My intent is to weed these evils out. Uganda should vote on pertinent issues. They should value royalty Reporter: Now your defeat has to party. They should argue with log- boosted the Forum for Democratic ic, not emotion, and inject their pas- Change’s (FDC) strength in Rukungiri sion in delivery Politician: Not really. There was no We have young people whose mind- actual gain by FDC numerically be- sets we must take care of more seri- cause, for the first time, we received ously than ever before Instead of us people crossing from FDC to NRM. contesting on our promise and track And not small people. Many crossed record, the rules of the game were from FDC, even those who had gone changed. That , in a summary is what to “Go Forward” returned. We did went wrong not lose any to FDC

Reporter: People say the NRM’s dis- Reporter: What do you feel now that mal performance in Rukungiri should you will not be an MP? be blamed on you as NRM district Politician: What do you mean? Mps chairman are not more than 400 in a popula- Politician: There is no Uniform rea- tion of 36 million or so? That is a very son for the performance of particu- small portion. Aren’t people going lar party in in every area. And the about their business and living well case of Rukungiri and Rujumbura (my without having a responsibility of the constituency) in particular I do not constituency? For some of us, it is a think one would call 48% for Musev- service, it is not a job. So that is why it eni a loss. This is instead a significant is not a loss. May be the people have number and an achievement for lost a dedicated person, a selfless MP

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 495 So I do not think about it. It is just like 6. OPINIONS ON CONSEQUENCES ON PRO- a responsibility which has been tak- CESSES OF CONDUCTING PRIMARY ELEC- en away. It gives me more time to TIONS IN UGANDA do other things. I may even serve in Respondents identified a number of conse- the same area better. I go there and quences emerging from the primary elec- talk to young people. You know ev- tions and the related electoral processes. ery situation comes with lessons. I will One of such consequences was the split- also have more time to focus on the ting of the party. Some of the losers in the ministry, increase its effectiveness, primaries dared to stand as independents consolidate the party members and holding a view that the electoral process work with them on mending fences was never a fair one and that the ground and putting the house in order I am was not levelled for all competent inter- quite excited about it, actually. ested candidates within the parties. One of the respondent from the eastern region noted about NRM party that, “cohesion of Reporter: But will you miss parlia- the party was shaken” and that the par- ment? ty has to work on this in order to be strong Politician: Well, may be interacting again. This view was shared by all respon- with colleagues and talking freely dents who kept emphasising the fact that because when you are in parliament, this is the very reason why many individuals you can say whatever you want be- wanted to run as independents. A specif- cause you have privileges. But who ic response from one respondent from the knows? May be I will remain an MP? central region was that some of the NRM You know when you are appointed selected flag bearers were gradually- de a minister you become an MP au- feated by those who dared to stand as tomatically and still enjoy the same independents because of “let the ballot privileges. decide” slogan from the independent con- testers. This affected all categories of can- Otherwise I do not think will miss so didates especially at the local level and much because I have built many mostly in the ruling party. relationships with the members that have not ended with this incident. I Incidentally, running as independent can- believe I will be more effective this didates in any party during the primary time, having time to leverage on elections proved an uphill task also. It was those linkages in order to grow Ugan- noted by some respondents that some da’s brand people after failing in main primary elections would stand as independents but their electorate would deny them votes. One of the respondents had a critical view of this. She observed “This is very serious. If you reb- el against your own party, how I am sure as a voter that you will not defy my wishes.”

496 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 That is how some of the independents can- religious leaders, the opportunists/royalists, didate failed to make it. the “misled youth and party members” who seemed not to understand and appreciate Another consequence was that the prec- the importance of holding the party inter- edent of financial culture and money poli- est over individual ones is a crystal clear tics has been set. Most of the respondents view of the lack of collective responsibility were also of the view that the parties will as theorised in of Norris’s district delegate have to invest heavily in every subsequent model where elected members are seen election. This was considered as a huge primarily as agents of geographical areas. test to democracy because only candi- All through, we see the respondents hinting dates with money to pay voters will often on the primary elections issue of falling short be elected. It was also considered as a fu- expected principals governing primary ture challenge of representative where elections. Party structures, political systems, the elected councillors and parliamentari- the legal system are all implied as challeng- ans will be less responsive to the electorate. es of the primary elections. Outstandingly, One respondent emphasis on this pointed we recognise the effect of the gatekeepers out “politicians have bought the vote; you on the “demand side” of the electoral pro- have been paid in return…. Soap, sugar, cess that very influential in determining who salt, and these petty things… even money becomes a flag bearer and who influence in cash…so how can the voter ask for any the legal system to protect the selected services? How can they hold their council- candidates by barring the independents lors accountable, or even their members of from freely joining the competitive elec- parliament?” This view is a good indication tions. on the failure of accountable and responsive representatives for the electorates. The consequences of such structural, legal and process dynamics are the ultimate weakening of the existing parties that has 7. WHAT THEN DO WE CONCLUDE OUT OF led to party factions. The financial culture THE FINDINGS FOR THIS STUDY? and money politics make matters of primary election worse to an extent that the fu- The interview between the journalist and ture sustainability of multiparty democracy the politician above bring out issues that the in Uganda remains under a threat. What other interviewees had hinted on. First the requires to be done is for the government statement that there were many underhand legal framework and the responsible par- activities before and during elections that ties to review these challenges and put brought the politician down suggests the in- into practice mechanism to realise com- tra party conflicts which may be an effect petitive candidates for parties, strengthen of the different gatekeepers within the rul- party ideologies and parties, establish and ing NRM party during the primary elections. streamline party structures and minimise Indeed the politician noted the existence monetised politics. of some internal party divisions that threatened the fabric of the party campaign. His identification of specific categories like the

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 497 Norris,P and Lovenduski, J. 1993. ‘If Only More Candidates Came Forward’: Sup- LIST OF REFERENCES ply-Side Explanations of Candidate Se- lection in Britain. British Journal of Political Alvarez, R. Michael, Thad E. Hall and Su- Science. 23: 373-408. san D. Hyde. 2008. Election Fraud Detect- ing and Deterring Electoral Manipulation. Norris P and Lovenduski, J. 1995 : Political Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. Recruitment: Gender, Race and Class in the British Parliament. Cambridge: Cam- Atkeson ,L.R. & Saunders, K.L. 2007. The bridge University Press. effect of election administration on voter confidence: A local matter. Norris, P. 1996. Legislative Recruitment. Comparing Democracies. L. LeDuc, R. G. Davis, James W. 1997, U.S. Presidential Pri- Niemi and P. Norris. Thousand Oaks. Lon- maries and the Caucus Convention Sys- don. New Delhi: Sage Publications. tem: A Sourcebook 1. publ. ed. Westport, Conn. U.K.: Greenwood Press. Print. Southall R 1994 . South Africa 1994 elections in an African perspective. Africa Diamond, L,. Liz J, J,. and Lipset , S,M. insight 24: 86-98 1995. Politics in Development Countries. Comparing Experiences with Democracy. Umaru Kahaka Interview With Jim Muh- Reinner: Boulder, CO wezi Entitled: My Loss Was Due To Under- handed Methods, Section: Interview, Satur- Gunter R,. Diamandouros, P,N. and day Vision, April 2, 2016 Puhle,H J . 1995. Southern Europe in Com- parative perspective : Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press

IPU 201. The impact of political party control over the exercise of the parliamentary mandate. Report by Zdzisław Kędzia and Agata Hauser. http://www.ipu.org/english/ surveys.htm

Kyohairwe,S. 2009. Gendering Political Insti- tutions: Delineation of the Legislative Re- cruitment Processes and the Significance of Female Councilors in Uganda Bergen, Bergen.

LeDuc, L, Niemi,. P, and Norris, P. 1996 Introduction: The present and future of democratic elections. Comparing Democ- racies. Thousand Oaks. London: New Delhi, Sage Publications.

498 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 THE INCREASED ROLE OF TEACHER UNIONS IN PARTY POLITICS IN BOTSWANA: THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY.

K Dipholo and K Molosi University of Botswana

ABSTRACT

Botswana has been experiencing declining performance of the education system typified by consistently declining Botswana General Certificate of Secondary Education (BGCSE) results since 2005. This decline in the overall performance for government schools has become a defining feature of Botswana’s public education. This paper critically explores the potential impact of teacher unionism on the academic performance of learners in public schools. The paper argues that while trade unions seek to serve the interests of their members particularly by working towards improving their conditions of work and terms of employment, unionism has tended to make teachers and school administrators to become pre-occupied with pursuing their immediate needs thus diverting their focus from the classroom towards having a stake in the public policy making process and playing a much bigger role in the social, economic and political spheres. This has invariably drawn teachers into active partisan politics in the process distracting them from the core business of teaching. It is contended that teachers’ legitimate involvement in partisan politics as a way of influencing and pressuring the government to meet their demands has impacted negatively on educational output. In consequence, trade unionism has indirectly caused many teachers to become collectively lethargic and carefree in the full knowledge that their vocal, resourced and belligerent unions are always willing and ready to defend their lack of enthusiasm, complacency and apparent reluctant attitudes towards work which has resulted in many experienced teachers entering classrooms every day and sleepwalking learners into the examination rooms at the end the term.

Keywords: Botswana, Government schools, Declining performance; Trade union, Partisan politics.

1. INTRODUCTION

It is in order to state that until as recently as the early 21st century; the labour movement in Botswana has, by and large, been relatively apolitical. Since trade unions register members from different political persuasions, they have sought to demonstrate very little bias if any towards particular political orientation. Trade union members have belonged to different political parties necessitating the need to subscribe to the philosophy of political pluralism by leaving partisan politics to individual members. Individual union members are free to join

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 499 any political party of their choice. The lead- tiate with employers over wages and work- ership is also free to associate with any po- ing conditions. litical party but they may not explicitly use • Industrial action: Trade unions may their positions to intimidate members to join organize strikes or resistance to lockouts in particular parties. To the uncritical mind, this furtherance of particular goals. seems a noble and righteous arrangement that makes it possible to organize workers • Political activity: Trade unions may from all walks of life, with varying political promote legislation favorable to the inter- orientations. Champions of this arrange- ests of their members or workers as a whole. ment would like to argue that it is good in To this end they may pursue campaigns, solidifying unity and a collective endeavour undertake lobbying, or financially support in the struggle for fair and dignified treat- individual candidates or parties (such as ment at work. Consequently, trade unions the Labour Party in Britain (http://www. in Botswana have never really been a sig- cs.mcgill.ca); the African National Con- nificant factor in political and economic gress (ANC) in South Africa) for public office development except as loose associations (Hamutenya, 2003) and Umbrella for Dem- of irrational voters and abused self-loathing ocratic Change (UDC) in Botswana (Basi- workers (Dipholo, 2010). manebotlhe, 2014).

Their ability to influence government policy Broadly, trade unions are formed to serve has always been negligible and as a result the interests of their members (the work- government was under no obligation to ers) especially by working towards improv- advance the interests of labour because it ing the working conditions as well as terms did not recognize them as significant social of employment of the workers. They often forces. However, progressive trade unions seek to maintain some sort of balance in are known to have intimate relationships employment relations that are often char- with political parties that are favourably dis- acterized by tension emanating from imbal- posed to their interests. Trade unions have ances in power between the workers and developed into a number of forms, influ- the employers. It is posited that in much of enced by differing political and economic the world the labour movement operates regimes (Limb, 1992). They also have vary- in a very hostile political and economic ening objectives and activities which includes vironment which requires trade unions, like the following: other members of the civil society (Young- man, 2008), to be politically hyper active in • Provision of benefits to members: Ear- order to influence policy in their favour. Af- ly trade unions provided a range of social ter remaining apolitical for some time, pos- benefits to insure members against- unem sibly until the early 21st century the labour ployment, ill health, old age and funeral ex- movement in Botswana ultimately came penses. to recognize that under no circumstances of whatsoever would the government take • Collective bargaining: Where trade them on board of its own free will. It then unions are able to operate openly and are dawned upon the labour movement that recognized by employers, they may nego- they must demand what is rightly theirs- a

500 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 legitimate role in influencing public policy terized by active partisanship. direction or a stake in the policy making This paper seeks to argue that while trade process (Limb, 1991). unionism is inseparable from economic and To do so, trade unions took a radical de- political development, the involvement of cision that required them to revise their teachers in partisan politics as a way of in- position on political neutrality because it is fluencing and pressuring the government generally accepted that political neutrali- to meet their demands could have impact- ty is negative in nature precisely through ed negatively on educational output. The its disorienting and paralyzing effect on introductory section contextualizes the dis- the workers. The reality is that the internal cussion by providing a historical picture of dynamics of trade unions are conditioned the transformation of the labour movement by the economic and political framework in Botswana. The next section discusses the within which they exist. This means that legal framework for trade unionism in Bo- trade unions must necessarily be responsive tswana arguing that until very recently, civil to changing circumstances and constant- servants were by law prevented from joining ly transform themselves in order to remain trade unions. The nature and role of trade relevant. At times the economic and politi- unions is then presented to provide the pa- cal environment may justify politically neu- rameters for understanding labour relations tral trade unions while other circumstances from a general perspective. This is followed of an economic and political nature could by a discussion on teacher unionism and its demand the labour movement to be ac- likely impact on educational performance tively involved in politics. in Botswana. Challenges and prospects for teacher unionism are discussed with a view In consequence, Botswana trade unions set to interrogating circumstances that may out to recommit themselves to playing a collude to support or denounce the motive much wider role beyond the confines of the for unionism. Concluding remarks are made immediate needs of their members if they to bring out the main issues discussed. were to achieve their objectives. In effect, trade unions sought to recommit and inspire themselves to building a better future not 2. THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR TRADE only for them but for the entire nation by UNIONS IN BOTSWANA fighting to create a regime that responds to the needs and aspirations of the people. The International Labour Organization was Underpinning this renewed commitment formed in 1919 as part of the League of and inspiration was an unambiguous dec- Nations to protect worker’s rights. Its guid- laration to form alliances with political par- ing principle is that “labour is not a com- ties, in particular opposition parties that are modity” to be traded in the same way as thought to be favourably disposed to their goods, services or capital, and that human interests. This marked a unique, unprece- dignity demands equality of treatment and dented paradigm shift that resulted in trade fairness in dealing within the workplace. Ar- unions and by extension their members as- ticles 23 and 24 of the United Nations Dec- suming definite political posturing charac- laration of Human Rights spell out specific

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 501 rights for workers across the world among join trade unions and outlaws discrimination them the right to unionize and the right to on the basis of trade union membership. just and favourable conditions of work and 2.3 Trade Disputes Act of 2003 remuneration. The ILO has drawn up numerous conventions on what ought to be It outlines the trade disputes settlement the labour standards adopted by countries mechanism at both individual and col- party to it (http://www.iol.org). Countries lective level. It also encourages collective are then obliged to ratify the Conventions bargaining in the sense that it does create in their own national law. It is against this a possibility for the establishment of Joint rectification by the Botswana Government Industrial Councils between employers inthat trade unions sought to promote an en- dustries and trade unions recognized by vironment under which such rights could be such employers/industries and it also states demanded, enjoyed and defended. Bo- the legal significance of collective labour tswana has enacted various pieces of leg- agreements. More significant is the fact islation governing labour relations and the that it discourages strike action by failing rights and activities of trade unions. These to outline circumstances under which strike include the following: action will be deemed to be lawful.

2.1 Employment Act of 1982 2.4 Factories Act of 1979

The Act sets out the basic minimum terms/ It provides for the regulation of the condi- conditions of employment for private sections of employment with particular regard tor, parastatal corporations and local gov- to safety, health and welfare of persons em- ernment employees. In particular, it outlines ployed in factories and for the safety and the duties of the parties to a contract of inspection of certain plant and machinery employment, maximum hours of work, their in order to ensure that workplace safety is entitlement to various types of leave with observed at all times. pay, minimum wages as well as legally per- missible ways of terminating employment contracts. 2.4 Worker’s Compensation Act of 1998 The Act obliges employers to keep all their 2.2 Trade Unions and Employers’ Organiza- employees insured or for them to set aside tions Act of 2003 sums of money as may be determined by the Commissioner of Labour for purposes It embodies the rules on formation and reg- of compensating the employees for inju- istration formalities for trade unions, amal- ries suffered or occupational diseases con- gamation of trade unions, federations of tracted in the course of their employment trade unions as well as employers’ organi- or for death resulting from such injuries or zations. It also spells out the consequences diseases. of registration of the aforementioned bodies. More importantly, it reiterates each employee’s entrenched right to form and/or

502 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 2.5 Public Service Act of 2008 commitment in recent decades. Others, such as such as Watson (2000, in Spooner, The Act sets out in general terms the criteria 2000) argues that the trend has been in the for appointment to the public service, ter- opposite direction, as evidenced by trade mination of appointments and retirements, union campaigns on human rights, wom- as well as the terms and conditions of ser- en’s rights and participation in pro-democ- vice for public officers. The Act also defines racy movements. misconduct and unsatisfactory service and the appropriate penalties therefore. It is the only statutory enactment that seeks to ad- Historically, trade unions have argued that dress sexual harassment in the workplace. a consistent defense of their members’ in- There have not been any major changes to terests demands a long-term struggle for the labour legislation having a bearing on a social and political context at national the workers and/or trade union rights over and international levels that is favorable to the past decade (adopted from Friedrich the well-being of people and society as a Ebert Stiftung, 2008). As already stated, the whole. They claim to be serving the interests law governing the establishment and the of society in general, as would NGOs, in act- functioning of trade unions in Botswana is ing on the desire to advance and improve found in the Trade Unions and Employers’ the human condition. The modern concept Organizations Act. The Act does provide a of labor rights dates back to the 19th centu- relatively friendly mechanism for recogni- ry after the creation of labor unions follow- tion of trade unions as negotiating bodies ing the industrialization processes (Walker on behalf of their members. Once the trade and Morell, 2005). Nevertheless, a difficult union has satisfied minimum requirements question about the independence of trade as outlined in the Act, the employer will be unions is whether they come under govern- bound to deal with the trade union as the mental influence. Individual governments negotiating body, on behalf of its mem- do at times try to influence the labour move- bers, on all matters that have a bearing on ment in a particular field specifically by -es the relationship between the members and tablishing trade unions that promote their the employer. The next section discusses policies. Also, especially in more repressive the nature and role of trade unions. countries, trade unions may find it very difficult to act independently. I some cases even when they act independently they are 3. THE NATURE AND ROLE OF TRADE UNIONS often chastised for pursuing hidden political Although trade unions are primarily con- agendas especially agendas associated cerned with conditions in employment with political opponents. Beyond these ob- and the workplace, they have always had vious situations, there is a widespread preju- broader social and political concerns over dice that government funding or some oth- a wide range of national and international er forms of assistance leads to government issues. Spooner (2000) argues that there has control (Dipholo and Tshishonga, 2013). been a partial retreat of the labor move- Ordinarily, trade unions may appear to be ment from this broader social and political independent when they design their own

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 503 programs, but government influence often 1994 general elections (Basimanebotlhe, arises indirectly or directly if their activities 2014). However, this suspicion was never sup- are is designed to make it more likely that ported by the facts on the ground because government assistance of any kind will be there was never a public declaration of the forthcoming. This means that there is always alliance. To the extent that the trade union some tussle between the government and movement did not have alliances with any trade unions with the former attempting to political party, it did not have any political exert influence and control over the latter power. However, in the aftermath of what while on the other hand trade unions may was considered, by Botswana standards, a seek to retain and consolidate their inde- historic industrial action in 2011 organized pendence. This on its own has the potential by The Botswana Federation of Public Sec- to strain relations and foster mistrust, suspi- tor Unions (BOFEPUSU), the Federation took cion and acerbic relations that may com- a stance to support the opposition block, promise productivity in the workplace. Umbrella for Democratic Change (UDC) in its endeavor to unseat the ruling Botswana Democratic Party (BDP) at the 2014 Gener- In Botswana, the labour movement has rela- al Elections. The labour movement argued tively been autonomous from government. that such alignment was necessary to en- That is, there have not been any significant sure that their members use their votes as incidents of government interference in bargaining weapon in order to make an the activities of trade unions, even in a pur- impact of a political nature and enhance ported attempt to enforce the law (Trade their negotiating powers. This bold decision Unions and Employers’ Organizations Act) meant that the labour movement became that governs the establishment and regis- actively involved in partisan politics. This tration of trade unions, notwithstanding the was however without problems. Some crit- fact that it does permit some measure of ics from both within and outside of the la- government interference in the activities bour movement contended that by frolick- of trade union. Perhaps this is because un- ing with politics, trade unions ran the risk of til as recently in 2014, the Botswana labour betraying the workers struggle and worsen- movement can be argued to have been ing frayed tempers between the employer politically neutral in that it has not, thus far, and union members (Bule, 2015). This deci- formed any alliances of a political nature sion also had the potential of creating op- with any particular political party in the portunities for the government to interfere country, including the ruling party. in union business to deliberately weaken them so that their support for the opposition parties did not endanger the ruling party’s This notwithstanding, public perception, es- hegemony. This probably marked the ad- pecially in the mid-1990’s was that Botswa- vent of strained relations characterized by na Mine Workers Union and Manual Workers sabotage and counter-sabotage. Union, leaderships aligned to the Botswana National Front, the then main opposition political party and a strong contender in the

504 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 4. TEACHER UNIONISM AND EDUCATIONAL tent and operational spheres for which a PERFORMANCE IN BOTSWANA teacher is permitted to stray from the classroom. Community service for the teaching Concern about the consistent decline in profession thus becomes a highly contest- students’ academic performance in Bo- ed and charged subject especially when tswana since 2005 particularly with respect academic results are consistently disap- to Botswana General Certificate of Second- pointing as is the case with the Botswana ary Education (BGCSE)1 examination results General Certificate of Secondary Educa- has become an established occurrence. tion (BGCSE). However, this cannot distract Whereas this unfortunate trend has trig- from the bigger picture of the responsibili- gered a verbal sparring characterized by ties of the teacher as a citizen. blame and counter-blame, the school and in particular the teacher has had to endure One definition of politics is that it is the the most stinging criticism (Moswela, 2014: public allocation of values (Nnoli, 1986:5). 46). Moswela (2014), states that part of the Politics is also defined as the competition blame game manifests in teachers being among individuals, groups and states pur- blamed for focusing more on activities that suing their interests. The implication of this are of secondary importance, [especial- definition is that individuals and/or groups ly the unionisation of the teaching profes- are constantly in competition for the atten- sion], at the expense of the core business of tion of the employer to meet their sectional teaching. This is an accusation that cannot needs, requiring them to organize them- be simply wished away in the same way as selves in order to have a collective voice teachers’ participation in civic life cannot and exert pressure on the state and other be dismissed whimsically. Agreeing that the powerful institutions to meet their needs. teacher as a member of the larger commu- As was stated earlier, trade unions are nity within which the school is situated and formed to serve the interests of their mem- therefore has a role to play in community bers implying that teachers deliberately activities, it represents the starting point to formed and joined trade unions to attend embrace community service normally re- to their welfare and perhaps most impor- ferred to as ‘service to the community’ as tantly to seek other concessions beyond an inherent duty of a teacher. This argu- their immediate interests. Thus, teachers ment then acknowledges the relationship can become politically active and active- between the school and the community ly participate in partisan politics to seek to the extent that the teacher cannot be support for the education sector that is of- deprived to the responsibility of citizenship, ten grossly underfunded and neglected. inclusive of politics. Moswela (2014:53) argues that it has be- A teacher is above all, a citizen and by income a truism that education cannot be ternational law cannot be disenfranchised. separated from politics. Therefore, teachers This seems a readily acceptable proposi- are an essential component in the education. Perhaps the controversy lies in the ex- tional spectrum that has to be recognized 1 at the high school student’s level. BGCSE is based on the United Kingdom as an important part of the education-pol- The BGCSE is an internationally recognised certification taken‐ itics nexus. General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) model. The examina tions are designed to be taken after three years of senior secondary or Conferencehigh school study, Proceedings which is the of equivalence the International of the South Conference African Grade on Public12. Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 505 Beare et al, (1998:235) states that, cifically the Ministry of Education and Skills Development, teachers vowed to end the It is no wonder that the image of the political career of the then education Min- education is bad when its own mem- ister accusing her of bringing the teaching bers are unthinking about its public profession into disrepute, undermining the standing. This begets political atten- profession and failure to convince the Bo- tion…it is not a secret that some pol- tswana Examinations Council to agree to iticians choose to cut public educa- improved remuneration for invigilation while tion funding, balance the budget on government handsomely pays non-teach- the back of students and slash the ing invigilators way beyond what teachers education workforce, inflicting the get (Tsimane, 2010). This mirrors a similar in- tremendous harm…to our students stance that occurred earlier in 2003 when and risking our children’s future. We teachers threatened to resign en masse have to understand that politics will if their proposed strike did not get desired always play a part in our education, results (Ditsheko, 2003). These cases point we have to tolerate that. On the oth- to frayed tempers and acidic relationships er hand, education needs to be free that cannot offer a conducive environment enough and independent enough for teaching and learning. so politics cannot abuse it On the other hand, the government through Balancing the legitimate role of the teacher the Minister of Education and Skills Devel- in politics through among others, unionisa- opment threatened to dismiss teachers tion with effective delivery in the classroom who link the improvement of their welfare would naturally satisfy key stakeholders. to good examination results. The Minister is However, this endeavour will always pres- reported to have retorted in the vernacu- ent a daunting task which invariably leads lar that, ‘yo ke tla mo fitlhelang a re ene o to heightened tension as government at- lekanya tiro le madi o tla ya ga mmaag- tempts to initiate various measures that are we’ (Modikwa, 2013), loosely translated perhaps well-intentioned to reorient the to mean that she will dismiss from work all teachers to focus more on the core busi- those teachers who deliberately become ness of teaching while on the other hand lazy, lacklustre and under-performing be- teachers’ organizations use every muscle cause of what they consider to be poor to reinforce their legitimate role in civic life pay – a case of matching work to remuner- like every other citizen. ation/compensation. When this happens as it inevitably often This unhealthy tug of war between teachers does, teachers are more likely to become and the government meant that students’ radical and militant to the extent that the learning was compromised resulting in core business of teaching is inadvertently poor academic performance. As Moswe- relegated to the side lines in the profession- la (2014) observes, when teachers and the al and personal life of a teacher and sub- government are engaged in ‘war’ the core ordinate to the struggle with the employ- business of teaching suffers, pointing out er. For instance, at the height of teachers that students also lose focus on their learn- skirmish with the government in 2010, spe-

506 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ing as they become interested third parties with primary school teachers being the in the rivalry between the two. When this most frustrated, manipulated and humil- happens, invariably students support their iated or even abused (Kologwe, 2012). teachers’ course (Moswela, 2014: 53) wors- These comments resonates with the view ening the situation by making learning the that a demoralized teacher cannot deliver biggest casualty. (Moswela, 2014) and one can add that a demoralized politically conscious teacher This has been the trend over the last few is unmistakably dangerous and a disservice years as evidenced by the following media to his/her profession and a guarantor for reports: poor performance; ‘Teachers step up war over pay’ Mmegi, ‘Teachers down tools over marking allow- 15th August 2003, which reports about the ances’ Sunday Standard, 10th December intensification of teachers struggle with the 2012, which gives a report about the stand- government for better terms of service. On off between teachers engaged to mark the this occasion the teachers’ organizations 2012 Botswana General Certificate of Sec- vowed to adopt radical forms of protest to ondary Education examinations and the shake the government into favourable ac- government over pay. This was in relation tion (Ditsheko, 2003); to a resolution taken by Botswana Sectors ‘Trade Unions get a P2 billion deal to avert of Education Union to boycott marking the tools down’ Sunday Standard, 19th Septem- examinations (Motlhabane, 2012); ber 2010, which reveals the government’s ‘Dow meets teachers’ unions’ Daily News, interventions aimed at averting a complete 25th March 2014, reports about the new Min- shutdown of the public service including ister of Education and Skills Development, public schools (Sunday Standard Reporter, Honourable Unity Dow attempts to mends 2010); fences with the teachers’ unions specifical- ‘Teachers, Education fight takes new twist’ ly the Botswana Teachers Union (BTU) and Mmegi, 12th March 2012, which carries a the Botswana Secondary Teachers Union report alleging intimidation of teachers by (BOSETU). The Minister is reported to have officials of the Education Ministry (Moeng, stressed the necessity of engaging teach- 2012); ers’ unions and recognizing each other as partners in developing education by col- ‘BTU to intensify war with government over lectively devising solutions to the challeng- working conditions’, Sunday Standard, es that currently characterise the educa- th 16 April 2012, which reports about a res- tion system. The Minister further remarked olution by the Botswana Teachers Union that ‘all stakeholders involved in the edu- (BTU) to intensify their battle against the cation system must shoulder the responsibil- government over bad working conditions ity of the recent plight of poor performance for primary school teachers. The resolution in schools by not pointing fingers, but rather observed that primary school education collectively identify and devise solutions to in Botswana is the most ignored, under- these challenges in order to restore pub- mined, unrecognized and compromised lic confidence in the education system’

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 507 (Kgautlhe, 2015:2).

To this, representatives of teachers’ unions are reported to have retorted that they appreci- ated Minister Dow’s consultations that offer an opportunity for honest dialogue that could go a long way in solving challenges in the education sector, stating that building trust in the education sector would ensure parents trust the teachers to deliver results;

‘Teachers want Dow’s head’ The Patriot, 4th April 2016, which comments that shortly after taking the reins at the Ministry of Education and Skills Development, Unity Dow quickly made enemies among students and teachers (Staff Writer, 2016). The reports highlight that the new Minister was worse than her predecessor and was likely to do more harm than good to the Botswana education system. These select media reports about the ‘war’ between teachers’ unions and the government sum up the extent of the strained relations that has a bearing on educational output specifically in the declining academic performance. Using figures from the Botswana -Ex aminations Council 2015 Summary of Results for the Botswana General Certificate of Sec- ondary Education (BGCSE) one is able to notice a worrying trend in declining academic performance in the examinations (occurring synchronously with teachers’ union militancy) as shown in the tables below. Table 4.1 shows the number of grades issued following the 2015 examination which were grade C or better. The corresponding number in previous years is also shown. In each case, the percentage change compared to the previous year is indicated.

Table 4.1 Number of Grades which are C or better

Year 2015 2014 Year 2012 2011

Total grades 255,245 251,451 240,123 225,376 211,618 awarded

Number of grades 69609 64,753 67,010 65,798 65,303

C or better

% of grades C or 27.27 25.75 27.91 29.19 30.86 better

508 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Table 4.2 shows the number of grades issued which were grade A or better in comparison with previous years.

Table 4.2 Number of grades which are A or better

Year 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011

Total grades 255,245 251451 240,123 225376 211,618 awarded

Number of grades 5631 5796 6,194 5,802 6440

A or better

% of grades A or 2.21 2.31 2.58 2.57 3.04 better

Figures from the above tables show a consistent fall in the academic performance of the learners in examinations. This drop in academic performance in examinations occurred at the same time with increased teacher unions’ activism perhaps indicating the likelihood of a positive correlation between increased activism and poor academic performance. This also seems to support the observation that when teachers are at war with the government the core business of teaching suffers leading to poor examination results. The existence of trade unions and their propensity towards militancy in their engagement with the government on matters pertaining to their welfare provides fertile grounds for a hostile workplace environment that may not support effective teaching and learning resulting in poor academic results. Unionism provides opportunities for organised collective resistance and insulates members against victimisation hence their willingness to participate in activities that could be harmful and counterproductive. By international labour law, industrial action is lawful and unionized teachers are alive to the reality that their participation in industrial action is protected by law, particularly because trade unionism and its inherent rights are safeguarded by the Labour Relations Act.

5. CHALLENGES FOR TEACHER UNIONISM

Teachers have, with all other citizens the responsibility to participate in general elections to choose representatives. This is both a privilege and a duty. However, teachers’ active involvement in politics is sometimes branded an unnecessary distraction when students’ academic performances are less than satisfactory as has been the case with the Botswa- na education system. When the academic performance of students in examinations dips, the school is the first to receive the blame (Moswela, 2014). This is in spite of the factors that academic performance in schools is dependent on a variety of factors (Agunloye, 2011).

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 509 This presents a key challenge to teachers’ est concern for the public good. It will help unions. They are faced with the challenge others appreciate that the teachers’ war of justifying their legitimacy, relevance and against the government is justified and a motive especially when performances in necessary evil. the classroom take a nosedive. They have In this regard, teachers unions must make to make the government and the commu- every effort to reconstruct their relationships nity at large respect the rights and respon- with the communities within which they sub- sibilities of teachers as citizens entitled to sist. This is in view of the perpetual stereo- take part in politics at the community level. type propagated by the government that They have to convince others that a teach- the teachers are inward looking, self-con- er is entitled to the privilege and duty to tained and hardened delinquents who are vote itself an important aspect of the politi- detached from the core business of teach- cal development of a nation. Teachers are ing due to their participation in active par- also faced with the challenge to justify their tisan politics. Teachers’ organizations must demands as well as their entitlements to use work in addressing this stereotype that fer- teachers’ unions in pursuance of their legit- ments misunderstandings, fears, mistrusts imate demands. and resentment.

Additionally, teachers’ organizations must 6. PROSPECTS FOR TEACHER UNIONISM seek to educate the community about the rights and responsibilities of the teacher as In spite of the challenges facing teach- a citizen who is entitled, as with all mature er unions as discussed above, there exists citizens, to have a say in the choice of their opportunities consolidate the gains so far political representatives. Moreover, teach- made and woo sympathizers especially the ers’ organizations must mobilize and ed- communities they serve to understand their ucate the community so that community cause. This is necessary to mobilize public members can appreciate that teachers are opinion to support their cause and invari- members of the communities and cannot ably restore the credibility of their organi- be disconnected from the world of other zations which have come to be dismissed citizens. Thus, the role of the teacher goes as rabble-rousers. The best way for teach- beyond the confines of the school premises ers to make their organizations accepted and this aspect of community service is in- by detractors is to initiate measures that will tegral to both their professional and public result in improvement of the academic per- lives. formance of students and/or mobilize the communities in their collective efforts to ex- Teachers’ organizations must seek to culti- ert pressure on the government to avail ad- vate and sustain a climate that recognizes equate resources for the public education and value the school-community nexus that system. This will cause community members appreciates the centrality of a symbiotic re- to appreciate that contrary to popular be- lationship where the school is rightly viewed lief, teachers unions are not self-centred or as an essential fabric of civilization while selfish as to concern with the immediate the community acts as the surrounding needs of their members without the slight- to which the school belongs. Each needs

510 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 the other and perhaps none can function new management techniques. London: without the other. An appreciation of this Routledge. school-community nexus would help in re- Bule, E. 2015. Union Leaders betraying moving stereotypes, fears, undue appor- workers struggle. Botswana Guardian, 4th tionment of blame and public resentment. May 201. Gaborone. 7. CONCLUSION Botswana Examinations Council. 2016. Thus, while legitimate and necessary, unions 2015 Provisional Summary Results. Gabo- may at times do more harm than good by rone: BEC radicalizing their members and causing Dipholo, K. & Tshishonga, N. 2013. Unten- them to become feisty, lackadaisical, der- able marriage: Situating Civil Society in elict and law unto themselves. This has the Botswana and South African political land- potential to distract from the core business scape. Journal of Public Administration. 48(1), 51-62. of teaching leading to poor academic performance as has deliberated in this discussion. Dipholo, k. 2010. Trade unions should form The Good: The increased role of teachers’ alliances with political parties. Sunday th unions in party politics is an essential com- Standard, 7 March, 2010. Gaborone. ponent of political development. Ditsheko, E. 2003. Teachers Step up war th The Bad: The increased role of teachers’ over pay. Mmegi, 15 August 2003. Gabo- unions in partisan politics may distract from rone. the core business of teaching. Hamutenya, M. M. 2003. Country Report on The Ugly: Government’s attempts to brow- the Labour Relations in Namibia: Prepared beat teachers to stay away from active for the ‘Trade Union Training Course on ILS politics may increase teachers’ militancy and the ILO Declaration on Fundamental and cause most of them to be biased and Principles and Rights at Work and its Fol- to take personal prejudice to the class, ulti- low-Up’. mately orchestrating decline in academic results. Katz, H. C., Kuruvilla, S. & Turner, L. 1993. LIST OF REFERENCES Trade unions and collective bargaining: Basimanebotlhe, T. 2014. BOFEPUSU will Policy Research Working Paper Series 1099. vote UDC. Mmegi, 2nd September 2014. The World Bank. Gaborone. Kgautlhe, C. 2015. Dow meets teachers’ th Beare, H., Caldwell, B. J. and Millikan, R. H. unions. Daily News, 25 March 2015. Gabo- 1989. Creating an excellent school: Some rone: Government Printers. Kologwe, O. 2012. BTU to intensify war with government over working conditions. Sun- day Standard, 16th April 2012. Gaborone.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 511 Limb, P. 1992. Alliance Strengthened or Di- Spooner, D. 2000. A view of Trade Unions minished? Relationships between Labor & as part of Civil Society. Social Development African Nationalist/Liberation Movements Publications, DFID, UK. in Southern Africa. A paper from the conference on “The Dynamics of Change in Sunday Standard reporter. .2010. Trade Southern Africa,” University of Melbourne, unions get a P2 billion deal to avert tools 18-20 May. down. Sunday Standard, 19th September Modikwa, O. 2013. Venson threatens 2010. Gaborone teachers. Mmegi, 28th January 2013. Gabo- The Patriot .2016. Teachers want Dow’s th rone. head. The Patriot, 4 April 2016. Gaborone.

Moeng, G. 2012. Teachers, Education fight The International Labour Organization. http:// takes new twist. Mmegi, 12th March 2012. www.ilo.org/public/english/region/eurpro/ th Gaborone. brussels/. Date accessed, 27 April 2016.

Moswela, B. 2014. Students’ academic Trade Union. http://www.cs.mcgill.ca. Date th achievement: whose responsibility and accessed, 27 April 2016. accountability? International Journal of Business and Social Science. 5(10): 46-57. Tsimane, E. 2010. Teachers threaten Minis- ter Venson-Moitoi’s political career. Sunday Motlhabane, D. 2012. Teachers down tools Standard, 15th October 2010. Gaborone. over marking allowances. Sunday Stan- dard, 10th December 2012. Gaborone. Youngman, F. 2008. The Political Economy of Adult Education and Development. Lon- don: Zed Books. Nnoli, O. 1986. Introduction to Politics. Hong Kong: Longman Republic of Botswana. 2008. Public Service Act. Gaborone: Government Printers.

Republic of Botswana. 2003. Trade Disputes Act. Gaborone: Government Printers.

Republic of Botswana. 1997. Trade Unions and Employers’ Organizations Act. Gabo- rone: Government Printers.

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Republic of Botswana. 1973. Factories Act. Gaborone: Government Printers.

512 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016

MONITORING PERFORMANCE OF THE PRO-POOR FUNDED COMMUNITY FOOD SECURITY PROJECTS IN THE GAUTENG PROVINCE

LB Mzini North West University

ABSTRACT This paper forms part of the study (thesis) conducted by the author in 2010 which evaluated the “impact of public participation of community food security projects”. The author explored the way performance monitoring systems actually function on pro-poor funded food security projects. The paper assessed the design, process and mechanism involved to monitor the established projects with particular reference to community food garden projects in the Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (GDARD). Food security projects forms part of the government social safety nets for alleviating poverty and in promoting long-term growth in low-income households. The projects further seek to increase the household livelihood and income generation through active and meaningful participation. Government invests massive funding for these projects, whereby financial and non-financial support is offered to the respective beneficiaries. The established food projects comprise of household food gardens, school based projects and community based projects. A theoretical and empirical approach was applied to attain the set objectives. A follow-up interview was conducted to inquire about the institutional arrangements for the Department to undertake performance monitoring on implemented food security projects. The author observed that performance monitoring improve poverty targeting of government expenditures and responsiveness to community needs. However, some of these projects loose project objectives and the intended goals. The study conducted by Mzini in 2010, observed that some of these funded projects were discontinued due to lack of incentives and the collaboration from the beneficiaries. The underlying development assumption is that the availability and use of reliable evidence and data can make planning decisions more pro-poor and responsive to local needs. This study intends to recognize the role of monitoring practices in the success and sustainability of the projects. It also increases awareness of the importance of performance monitoring and to explain the basic tools used in monitoring. This paper serves as a contribution to international learning on the design and functioning of poverty monitoring systems for enhancing accountability for poverty-reduction strategies.

Keywords : performance monitoring, pro-poor funding, design, process and mechanism

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 513 1. INTRODUCTION performance of such projects may be seen This paper explored the way performance as a worthless action especially when such monitoring systems actually function on funds are used for charitable obligation. It pro-poor funded food security projects. is essential to have practical management The article examined the design, process tool for reviewing performance. Such tools and mechanism involved to monitor can also enable learning from experience, the established projects with particular which can be used to improve the design reference to community food garden and functioning of projects. The funding projects in Gauteng Province. The poverty institutions seek to develop the ability to reduction agenda has coloured the achieve and maintain high performance development discourse in broad terms. and productivity in organisations is a key The global development community challenge facing management today. made the reduction of poverty its primary objective in the late 1990s and no country 2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE AND RESEARCH has been able to sustain a rapid transition METHODOLOGY out of poverty without raising productivity The general objective of this study was to in its agricultural sector. Recent years have explore the way performance monitoring witnessed a trend in explicitly specifying systems actually function on pro-poor the results (outcomes and impacts) of funded community food security projects. both broader country strategies and more The author concentrated on the design, specific programs and projects. The use of process and mechanism involved to monitor agriculture as a mechanism for reducing performance of established projects. The poverty in a sustainable fashion has also research methodology applied in this is undergone a quiet revolution in the past essentially of a qualitative nature where decade. Over the years, the South African secondary sources were consulted from government has invested on food security existing research to highlight the nature of projects, whereby financial and non- performance monitoring and community financial support is offered to the respective food security. The author reviewed the beneficiaries. Particularly with the titles and abstracts and of all identified establishment of community food security documents and examined citations from projects as a way of helping local people these documents for additional references. improve their own lives and livelihoods. Literature material was sourced from a Food security projects forms part of the number of peer reviewed journals; food government social safety nets for alleviating security intervention projects reports poverty and in promoting long-term growth and donor condition guideline manuals in low-income households. The FSP further regarding food security projects. The seeks to increase the household livelihood literature builds on the research done by and income generation through active and Kimweli (2013:9) which assessed “the role meaningful participation. The established of monitoring and evaluation practices to food projects comprise of household the success of donor funded food security food gardens, school based projects and intervention projects in Kibwezi District, community based projects. Assessing the Kenya”. The literature gave the study

514 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 its background information necessary matters for maximizing economic capacity to evaluate the variable under study. In to poorly nourished population (Jones, et addition an empirical component is added al., 2013:481). to illustrate practices observed in the Public sector specifically in the GDARD. Semi In South Africa, the national Department structured interviews were conducted and of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries is supported by a questionnaire containing responsible for developing food security eleven (11) questions with open ended policies. In Gauteng province, community questions was used for qualitative data food security projects are led by the collection. The researcher contributes thus Gauteng Department of Agriculture and to the article body of knowledge as a Rural Development (GDARD). The two main participant observer. mission the Department aims to expand access to agricultural opportunities; 3. BACKGROUND OF PRO-POOR FUNDING maximising food security” (GDARD, AND COMMUNITY FOOD SECURITY PROJECTS 2015:9). Food security is implemented The Government’s fiscal policies and under the Programme 2: Agriculture and strategies over the time have been Rural Development. The Programme area: developed with major emphasis to support Agriculture and Rural Development is pro-poor population especially those in responsible for two of the major mandate rural areas. Such policies and strategies areas of the GDARD, i.e. development have been implemented through the of agriculture and development of rural government budget, whereby various areas (GDARD, 2015:45). The Programme interventions have been pursued at all is established to respond directly to the government levels to support pro-poor GDARD’s Strategic Outcome Oriented growth. Food security projects forms part Goal 1 which seeks to modernise and of the social safety nets. Social safety nets transform agricultural sector by increasing serve as an “important role in alleviating food security, economic inclusion and poverty and in promoting long-term growth equality in the province” (GDARD), by providing households with the protection 2015:46). Community food security projects that markets and informal networks may strives to raise labour productivity, pulls up not supply” (Bickel, Nord, Price, Hamilton wages, and gradually eliminates the worst & Cook, 2000:2). Bickel, et al., (2000:2) dimensions of absolute poverty (Timmer, described food insecurity as a “complex, 2005:3). multidimensional phenomenon which varies through a continuum of successive 3.1 Pro-poor funding stages as the condition becomes more Van Domelen (2007:i) indicated that the severe”. Food security matters immensely. It pro-poor funding projects “have gained is a “topic of keen interest to policy makers increasing attention for their capacity to around the world in large part because the support poor communities, especially in the consequences of food insecurity can affect context of scaling up efforts to end extreme almost every facet of society” (Jones, Ngure, poverty”. Donors continue to “spent huge Pelto & Young, 2013:481). Food security also amounts of money to finance food security

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 515 intervention projects” (Kimweli, 2013:10) in a whether the project goals are met. The quest for alleviating poverty in low-income central activity of performance monitoring household. The financing of a project is the collation of data to facilitate the involves the arrangement of adequate reporting of performance indicators (Turabi, funds to pay for the development and Hallsworth, Ling, and Grant, 2011:2). operation of a clearly defined project. The maintenance of such projects also requires Monitoring is seen as a practical funding. The structure and form of finance management tool for reviewing will be influenced by the nature of the performance. Performance monitoring is project. The majority of funding comes from an integral component of performance national, provincial and local government management, whereby management sources. However, contributions may be control systems respond to performance funded by the private sector in which the information in a manner conducive to the private sector aims to own and control improvement of performance (Anthony, some or all of the assets. In Gauteng, 2011). Monitoring in community food the GDARD provides funding in order to security projects allows project teams create and upgrade social and economic to run projects effectively, ensuring they infrastructure, promote income-generating have the desired results for beneficiaries activities, and support the development of (Kimweli, 2013:9). Monitoring is critical to a civil society and social capital (Costella & project’s success. In this case it is steered Manjolo, 2010:1). The nature of performance towards assessing the contribution monitoring is described in the next section. of humanitarian assistance and the difference made in populations and 4. OVERVIEW OF PERFORMANCE MONI- beneficiaries lives to address their needs (Wait, 2011:22). The rationale is to TORING identify any need for corrective actions to ensure project execution towards attaining There is an increased demand for results its objective (International Tropical Timber from donor funded projects in the 21st Organization (ITTO), 2009:9). century. Government departments perform their mandates with tight budgets and A project can be monitored internally many competing priorities. Progressively, or externally. Internal monitoring is programme owners are being required undertaken by the project’s implementing to document the needs to which they partners, whereas external monitoring is are responding and the extent to which carried out by external agents (European they are effective in addressing those Union (EU), 2007:7). Internal Project M&E needs. Performance monitoring also is built into the design of a project and is forms part of community food security undertaken by the team that is responsible assessment activities undertaken by policy for management and implementation of implementation officers and funding the project. External Project monitoring is institutions (Wait, 2011:22). Community carried out by an outside team, which is not food security assessment encompasses directly responsible for the management the collection of data that will determine or implementation of the project. External

516 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 M&E should assess the effectiveness of the in relation to the expected results. This type internal M&E put in place by the project permits project managers to address any management team (The Department of developing problems. It also allows for Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF), 2005:5). adjustments to be made where required Internal and external monitoring is done to in order to correct the challenges faced ensure that the project meets deadlines, with such projects. Activity and financial stays within the budget and achieves its monitoring assesses if resources o r objectives, activities, outputs and impacts. inputs are being used at the p l a n n e d The responsibility for internal monitoring rate. It also inspects whether the project is is with the central management of the implemented in line with a c t i v i t y funding institution. plans to deliver outputs. Public funding is a scarce resource. Therefore it is 4.1 Types of monitoring particularly important for managers in Performance monitoring “continuously terms of determining resource allocations collects and analyse data to compare (Wait 2011:21). Policy makers often deal how well a project is being implemented with human who are beneficiaries of the against expected results” (Organisation for implemented projects. It is essential include Economic Co-operation and Development the element of such beneficiaries when (OECD), 2002:5). Project performance monitoring performance of projects. The monitoring is a critical component in a abovementioned types allow projects well-functioning project. Performance managers to verify the actual situation monitoring seeks to ensure that the project in relation to the planned situation (ITTO, is performing in accordance with the set 2009:9). Performance monitoring also helps goals as specified by the mission statement to establish a long-term monitoring system of the funding institution. There are different with a clear set of indicators. Monitoring is a types of monitoring available, including key function of proper project administration; but not limited to: result monitoring; activity however the process may be complicated. monitoring; financial monitoring; and The next section summarises the causes beneficiary monitoring (Wait, 2011:21). and impact of inadequate monitoring.

5. CAUSES AND IMPACT OF INADEQUATE A proper evaluation of program impact MONITORING cannot occur without continual monitoring There is an increased demand for results and collection of information. Programme from pro-poor funded projects. The monitoring often focus on inputs and end success of donor funded projects on food results. The result monitoring assesses the security intervention continues to face “effect and change brought about serious challenges (Kimweli, 2013:9). Some by the project, in terms of the three levels institutions lack capacity for assessing of results, namely: outputs, outcomes the implemented projects. Levinson and and impact” (Wait 2011:21). Results Herfort (2013) further argues that “the monitoring provides information on the monitoring of community food security progress towards achieving objectives projects is important given the paucity of and on the impact the program is having

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 517 data documenting successes and failures in that the mandate of the institution is such projects”. Primarily, monitoring of such implemented in a proper manner. The projects allow project teams to run projects department make use of extension officers to effectively in order to ensure that they have support effective policy and programming the desired results for beneficiaries (Kimweli, decisions regarding food security issues 2013:9). The study conducted by Hinton in their community. When asked about (2003:i) indicated that the deficiencies the composition of the dedicated staff, in monitoring are related to violations of the department indicated that there are good management principles. Inadequate internal and external officers appointed to monitoring is often the result of the following: monitor such projects. The team comprises internal and external officers. The internal • poorly established criteria for officers include the extension officers in evaluating vendor performance; the Directorate of Agriculture. Whereas • perception of oversight as a the external officers consists of the team responsibility to develop a partnership who work in the Directorate Monitoring rather than enforce rules, regulations, and Evaluation Unit. External monitoring or contract provisions; is undertaken by the portfolio committees • focus on rules and regulations rather established in the Gauteng Legislature. These than outcomes; teams could identify sensible indicators • failure to conduct follow-up reviews to measure project relevant impact and to ensure that corrective action was carry out the key monitoring necessary taken; and, for tracking progress (Levinson & Herforth, • failure to identify the risk and level of 2013:1). These teams could identify sensible review necessary for each vendor. indicators to measure project impact based on the type of activities in the programme, Government departments can mitigate the carry out the key monitoring necessary for risks by developing an effective monitoring tracking progress, and feed back to the system. Good management and supervision project management (Asian Development are essential to eliminate surprises. The next Bank. 2007). Extension officers are in a section describes the results and practices better position to undertake an analysis of of the GDARD on performance monitoring problems and solutions as they are closer for the implemented food security projects. to the implementation of activities, and should work with management take those 6. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS solutions forward (Wait, 2011:22). Another This section presents the results and question inquired about the appointment discussion of the research conducted in the of the monitoring team. This question was GDARD. important because the lifespan of a project 6.1 Institutional arrangements is lengthy, therefore institutions cannot have The department was asked if there are part-time officers for implementing the dedicated staffs that monitor the project projects. In this case the extension officers performance. The department have are full-time employed. Furthermore, the agricultural professionals who ensure author probed a question which inquired

518 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 about the description of the establishment resource department and finance unit. (how many) of the monitoring team. Such workshops enable the monitoring It was indicated that undertakings are team to obtain skills in order to supervise categorised in a form regions, which are: the projects being evaluated. Field staff Pretoria; Germiston (consisting of Ekurhuleni typically requires continuous information Metropolitan Municipality and Sedibeng on trends in beneficiary-level conditions District Municipality); and Randfontein. All to plan and make necessary adjustments these regions forms part of the Gauteng to their activities. Program managers province. require information for basic supervision and accountability requirements, program It was also important to request clarity on planning, and design, as well as internal how the monitoring teams are involved resource allocation decisions (Riely, Mock, especially with the setting of the categorised Cogill, Bailey and Kenefick, 1999:10). regions. The department indicated that Participatory performance, assessment, each region is attached to a dedicated monitoring, evaluation, and impact can extension officer in order to avoid be used as systematic evaluation in order duplication of functions and malpractice. to assess, monitor, and evaluate the Monitoring is critical to a project’s participants performance and impacts, and success. The involvement of the team in the the quality and success of the rural network monitoring process was found to impressive. development will be evaluated both The monitoring team owns the established quantitative approach with questionnaire projects, in a sense that they become part and observation forms (Thiengkamol, of the infant stage (emerging farmer) of 2010:549). Capacity development also the project until the project graduates to enables the monitoring team to be aware subsistent farmers and commercial farming. of the following important monitoring processes: 6.2 Capacity development • monitoring the implementation of The author also made inquiries to ascertain strategies, policies, projects and whether there are arrangements made to actions; offer capacity development for enhancing • monitoring the utilization of financial the functions of the monitoring team in resources and other resources; the department. Good project monitoring • monitoring output, outcome and builds on good project design (EU, 2007). impact; The GDARD strives to enable and support • monitoring the quality of products the agriculture sector to actively contribute and services delivered; to economic growth, inclusion, equality • monitoring processes, infrastructure, and the creation of work. The response supplies and payments; from the department announced that • monitoring internal and external risks; there are programmes earmarked towards and capacitating the team. Firstly the extension • monitoring compliance with officers are employed with their professional legal, contractual and voluntary qualifications. Secondly, the department obligations. also facilitate training through the human

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 519 Indicators and Annual Targets for 2015/16 Effective performance management for food security. The following table requires managers to have access to provides a profile of established community performance information that gives food security projects in Gauteng province. a balanced view of organisational In Gauteng province, there are six types performance without overwhelming of food security projects established in the managers with data or overburdening their GDARD: organisation with reporting requirements • households benefiting from (Turabi, Hallsworth, Ling, and Grant, agricultural food security initiatives; 2011:2). Monitoring activities may be • hectares cultivated for food influence by a number of principles, production in communal areas and key to institutional policy, including land reform projects; accountability, independence, and • individual homestead gardens; Learning”. Accountability requires a strong • school food gardens; element of disclosure of evaluation findings • community food gardens; and and the determination of the impact of • women benefitting from community the organization’s programme activities food gardens (GDARD, 2015:53-52). to inform donors and the general public (United Nations Environment Programme 7. FREQUENCY OF MONITORING (UNEP), 2008:3). The appropriate monitoring Monitoring is critical to a of food security is critical for supporting early project’s success. This section inquired warning and global monitoring systems about frequency of monitoring undertaken and for informing government policy across in the department. The point at issue was many sectors (Jones, Ngure, Pelto & Young, to understand the frequency of reporting 2013:481). and the period in which monitoring is undertaken, establish the link between 6.3 Project Details the reports and monitoring and ascertain Since the department leads the mandate if the department utilise progress reports of food security in the province, it was submitted important to make inquiries about number of established projects and how are the 7.1 Frequency of monitoring projects established since monitoring is Monitoring can be carried out on day essential. In terms of the strategic objective to day basis or at a regular set interval. and annual targets a department must Although the monitoring process is present its intentions as to how the policy concurrent, there can be peaks of activity projects will be implemented for food (Pattnaik, 2007:1155). Respones given security. The author was presented with an indicated that the frequency of monitoring annual performance plan of the GDARD must correspond with the guidelines for in order to record the true reflection of reporting performance. The GDARD is the department mandate. Table 1 below required to prepare, approve (by MEC) and presents an outline of the sub-programme submit legislated performance reports to food security Programme Performance Provincial Legislature within set timeframes. “All required Plans and Reports submitted

520 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 within set timeframes” (GDARD, 2015:26). before a review process in order to capture Monitoring schedules also assist the the available data and for rectification department to analyse information regularly (ITTO, 2009: 11). The department use and correct issues before they become the following reports for monitoring problems (Wait, 2011:22). Scheduled performance of established projects, monitoring also help public officials and namely: inception report, yearly plan policy makers to assess the changing of operation, progress report, technical needs for assistance and the effectiveness report, financial reports and completion of existing programs Scheduled monitoring reports. Among these reports the essential enables monitoring team to integrate risk one is the inception report and the progress reduction and adapt into their community- report. For the successful implementation level work. Monitoring food security can of the project the monitoring need to be help to identify and understand the basic assessed during project formulation stage aspect of well-being of the population and (Pattnaik, 2007:1154). The inception report to identify population subgroups or regions is important as it provide details about the with unusually severe conditions (Bickel, how the project commenced. It comprises Nord, Price, Hamilton and Cook, 2000:2). confirmation that informs whether the all The periodic project review constitutes conditions were met, provisions in place an important element in the process as it and formalities that were concluded integrate all stakeholders towards gaining when the project was implemented. The deeper and more direct insight into the Progress Report is reported bi-annually. progress of the set goals. Progress reports present information which is required by managers. It account about 7.2 Link between the reports and monitoring the executed Activities, achieved Outputs It was found that there is a link between in the period covered by the report meant the reports and monitoring. Review, as for higher levels of administration (ITTO, monitoring does, should in particular 2009:12). examine systematically the indicators of achievement of each of the Project 9. DISCUSSION: THE FRAMEWORK FOR elements “Outputs, Specific Objective(s) MONITORING PERFORMANCE and Development Objective” (ITTO, This section looks at the design, process 2009:11). The link of such report assess and mechanism involved to monitor pro- whether the project is proceeding poor projects. Monitoring is at the centre of according to the work schedule and to sound governance arrangements. provide recommendations and approve any change in actions which would help 9.1 Design support the success of the project. The design and monitoring framework is a powerful tool that brings structure and 8. UTILISATION OF PROGRESS REPORTS logic to any project. It makes development SUBMITTED interventions focus on achievable and An up to date progress report should be measurable results through performance submitted by implementing directorates. targets and indicators and it draws attention Such reports must be submitted four weeks to the risks that projects may face during

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 521 implementation (Asian Development including the number of monitoring staff, Bank. 2007:iii). It is important that project their responsibilities and linkages to other design incorporate a framework of management activities, and incentives and monitoring and evaluation to cope up develop a budget for monitoring activities with unexpected events. Project design (Thiengkamol, 2010:549). Monitoring allows project managers to cope with all methodologies and project frameworks future eventualities through an appropriate are dependent on well-developed sets monitoring and evaluation system. The of indicators (Pattnaik, 2007:1154. The institutional responsibilities for monitoring establishment of effective Monitoring and evaluation should be judiciously systems will lead to better accountability, addressed during the management as well as improvements in program design planning process. The funding institutions and management (Riely, Mock, Cogill, have guidelines on how project monitoring Bailey and Kenefick, 1999:10). and where all stakeholders must be involved in the monitoring process. The proper 10. PROCESS management of community food security Monitoring is an on-going activity that is will lead to community competency concurrently carried out during project building, self-reliance and sustainable implement stage. Monitoring processes development as well (Thiengkamol, refer to the set of activities, or functional 2010:548). Community food security areas, through which project inputs are includes a general guide to community used to obtain the expected results of the assessment and focused materials for program. These processes can be broken examining the assessment components down according to specific functional related to community food security. A areas which are fairly generic in their well-designed project is consistent with application across programme types goals and includes measurable objectives (Riely, Mock, Cogill, Bailey and Kenefick, from which evaluation strategies should 1999:23). Monitoring occurs at several flow (Pattnaik, 2007:1154). Designing the levels and a performance measurement framework for performance monitoring framework need to be developed with includes a number of key steps. An institution project stakeholders, outlining clearly what should ensure that it define the purpose and will be monitored, when, how, and by scope of the monitoring system and the whom (Pattnaik, 2007:1155). The process for information and outputs expected, provide performance monitoring is characterised a general description of key stakeholder by a monitoring plan. Institutions are audiences and the types of performance required to develop a monitoring plan information they each expect, when that to enable the project team to be able to information is required, in what format, and prepare and execute monitoring functions who is responsible for collecting it, define in a timely manner. Monitoring plans are the performance indicators to be collected becoming standard practice in the sector. and analysed for each stakeholder, detail It can provide the project team and their the necessary conditions and capacities stakeholders with a number of benefits: required to manage the monitoring, • data collection, analysis and

522 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 reporting is more efficient when thinking has gone into what data 11. MECHANISM INVOLVED TO MONITOR PRO-POOR PROJECTS should be collected and how it will be used in a planned way; The institutional responsibilities for • help project managers plan the use monitoring should be judiciously addressed of resources to avoid staff overstretch; during the management planning • avoid over-promising on data and process. Monitoring is at the centre of then under-delivering; sound governance arrangements. The • allows a crosschecking of log frame best targeting mechanism will reflect content to ensure it is realistic; the local context, including institutional • act as a form of knowledge framework, information availability, degree management and transfer; of inequality, governance factors, and the • highlight opportunities for demographic profile, including presence coordination of indicators, of ethnic minorities. Design of a targeting data gathering and sharing of mechanism should be explicitly linked to data collected across projects/ a programme’s objectives. For the sake programmes within department of organizing indicators in any monitoring (Wait, 2011:49). system, it is often useful to begin by organizing the programmes according to Performance monitoring of the food security their component parts. For most social funds projects should also contribute to further programmes there will be three standard harmonization of monitoring and evaluation pillars of a poverty targeting mechanism processes across the department. such as geographic targeting, the menu Performance monitoring is a joint effort and eligibility criteria and an inclusive and within any institution. The author observed participatory micro project identification that the role of planning for performance and implementation process (Van Domelen, monitoring enhances: collaboration and 2007:ii). Geographic Targeting is the most harmonization; results orientation and common form of targeting method used performance management; focus on in social fund and community-driven contributions of individual and collaborative programmes. It is relatively low cost and efforts; and collective accountability. A administratively simple, particularly when strengthened performance monitoring using an existing poverty map. However it culture contributes to improved design has some drawbacks because countries of results-oriented programmes, while the may lack reliable and timely data. generation of monitoring and evaluation Geographical data on poverty may not be information supports informed management sufficiently disaggregated to be of much and decision-making for strategic planning value as a poverty predictor. Also in need of and programming. Working relationships consideration is whether or not Governments are essential for Performance monitoring to have the political will to follow through develop links between activities and results with pro-poor resource allocations, even of efforts of department. when a good map exists (Van Domelen, 2007;iii). Monitoring methodologies and

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 523 project frameworks are dependent on well-developed sets of indicators and a functional performance unit (Pattnaik, 2007:1154).

11.1 Indicators Indicators are categories of information for which data are being collected. The indicators are primarily useful to demonstrate changes over time. They provide insight into the dynamics of key factors that will contribute to resilient outcomes. Indicators provide the basis for pre and post analysis and describe the effects (positive and negative) on the ecosystem and various project implementation parameters. They are necessary for the achievement of evidence-based policy making, budget decisions, management, and most importantly accountability and transparency (Pattnaik, 2007:1154). In particular, it is important to clarify the distinction between programme inputs and outputs, and between programme inputs and impacts, in order to effectively identify impact indicators (Riely, et al., 1999:23). There are a number of other possible uses of food security-related information and indicators that can be developed for project performance monitoring. Table 1 demonstrates the indicators developed by GDARD for monitoring performance.

Table 1: Quarterly Targets for 2015/16 Performance indicator Reporting Annual Quarterly targets period target 2015/16 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Number of households Quarterly 12 000 1000 2000 4500 4500 benefiting from agricultural food security initiatives Number of hectares Quarterly 500 - - 500 - cultivated for food production in communal areas and land reform projects Number of individual Quarterly 12 000 1000 2000 4500 4500 homestead gardens supported Number of school food Quarterly 65 10 23 20 15 gardens supported Number of community Quarterly 65 10 20 20 15 food gardens supported Number of women Quarterly 600 100 200 200 100 benefitting from community food gardens GDARD, 2015:53-54 Indicators of food production and food availability have been used to assess food security at national and regional levels. Unfortunately, these methods, besides being very expensive, do not provide information reflecting the access by poor households to available food supplies. Therefore, the need for food security measures that provide data at the project level should be redeveloped to ensure accuracy and commitment (Melgar- Quinonez & Hackett, 2008:28). Some indicators are too ambiguous. It is also essential to

524 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 have small but balanced set of indicators with good project management skills. It to support strategic decision-making. enables learning from experience, which These performance indicators should can be used to improve the design and focus attention on activities of greatest functioning of projects. However, some importance to an organisation and its of these projects loose project objectives stakeholders, thereby minimising the data and the intended goals. The author also collection burden (Eckerson & Watson, observed that some of these funded 2006:2). projects were discontinued due to lack of incentives and the collaboration from the 11.2 Monitoring Unit beneficiaries. Successful implementation Community-based targeting is not a of these projects requires collaborative separate targeting method, but rather part involvement of all beneficiaries in order to of a mechanism that places community attain the MDG goals as they are geared to agents in charge of assessing eligibility generate large cash flows. For performance and/or implementing delivery. Institutions monitoring to be applied to the projects, must have a functional monitoring unit. the projects implementing departments A two- tier mechanism for monitoring should conduct trainings to the community the performance of projects should be to build up their capacity in understanding adopted as under: Projects Monitoring Unit and participation in the monitoring and (PMU); and Performance Review Unit (PRU). evaluation system. The PMU should be created at the level of the project authority or the government The establishment of institutional department which has granted the mechanisms to design, promote, monitor concession. The PMU should have sufficient and evaluation is a pre-requisite for capacity, resources and skills to oversee and successful management planning as monitor implementation of the PPP contract well as for implementation of a project. assigned to it. The PMU is accountable to Institutions can develop a framework of the Performance Review Unit. Institutions three components involving the use of may hire consultants to provide the requisite specific monitoring tools and processes to assistance as necessary. assess organisations performance against the Service Agreement requirements. The 12. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS three components are: service agreement The author explored the way performance monitoring; assessment of identified risk; monitoring systems actually function on and responses to performance issues. pro-poor funded food security projects. The Firstly, service agreement monitoring article also described the design, process will allow public institutions to develop and mechanism involved to monitor service agreement monitoring checklist, the established projects with particular conduct desktop review and attestations reference to community food garden to funded institutions. As a participant projects in the led by GDARD. Performance observer the author noticed that some of monitoring in food security projects therefore the established projects were discontinued contributes to the success of food security and the infrastructure was vandalized. projects though it should be complemented

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 525 Secondly a relook re-assess identified risk process will allow the monitoring team may Costella, C.V. and Manjolo, I. 2010. Design either propose new recruits who are eager and implementation of public works to participate in a project. The team may programs through social funds. Washington, also propose an alternative activity in the D.C.: The World Bank. project premises. Thirdly, institutions must create remedial actions and service review Department of Water Affairs and Forestry processes come up with a response to (DWAF), 2005. Project monitoring and performance issues observed. As indicated evaluation. Pretoria: Government Printers. above, most projects do not meet the set goals, it is proper for the PMU and the Eckerson, WW and Watson, H.J. 2006. RPU to set up remedial actions to solve Performance Dashboards: Measuring, the problems arising. The service review Monitoring, and Managing Your Business provides an opportunity for the department Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. and the organisation to meet, jointly to raise issues and determine an action plan. The European Union (EU). 2007. Strengthening intent is for both the department and the project internal Monitoring. How to enhance organisation to jointly develop solutions to the role of EC task managers. Luxemburg: key issues and problems. Accountability and European Communities. quality assurance are integral components of monitoring, which help to ensure that Gauteng Department of Agriculture project objectives are met, and key outputs and Rural Development (GDARD). 2015. and impacts are achieved. Annual Performance Plan 2015-16. Pretoria: Government Printers. LIST OF REFERENCES Anthony, R.N. 2011. Management planning Hinton, R.W. 2003. Components of an and control systems: A Frame work for effective contract monitoring system. Analysis. Cambirdge: Harvard Business Atlanta: Department of Audits and School Press Accounts Performance Audit Operations.

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Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 527 THE ROLE OF TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN ACHIEV- ING GENDER EQUITY IN THE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH LIMPO- PO PROVINCE. F Golele

Department of Health

M Rachidi

University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

Gender equity has become one of the South African government’s priorities. South Africa has developed the Employment Equity Act no 55 of 1998 (EEA), with the purpose of promoting equal opportunities for both males and females. The act is also aimed at eliminating unfair treatment and discrimination of women in the workplaces. However, since 1998 when the EEA was introduced not much has been done in trying to close the gap between men and women in terms of employment. This paper hopes to contribute in several ways in highlighting the issues pertaining to a gap that exists in female leadership research and gender based research. The aim of the study is to investigate the significance of transformational leadership style in pursuing gender equity in the Department of Health, Limpopo Province. The objectives of the study included, examining if the Department of Health in Limpopo is committed to addressing issues of gender equity as well as the importance of organisational transformation in relation to gender equity and challenges faced by the department in its attempt to achieve gender equity in leadership positions will also be probed. The study followed a combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods. It was conducted at the head office of the Department of Health based in Polokwane, Mopani District Municipality and Capricorn District Municipality. The study focussed only on academic hospitals in the province.

Keywords: Gender equity, Commitment, Transformational leadership, Organisational transformation.

528 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 1. INTRODUCTION physical survival and that men still have more opportunities to develop themselves Gender equity is still a global challenge, es- than women. Therefore, this study would pecially in developing countries like South like to investigate the reasons why gender Africa. Jacobsen (2011) states that gender transformation within organisational leader- inequality pervades the world and that a ship positions is still a challenge, what are lot still has to be done to rectify this anom- the challenges faced in trying to implement aly. Furthermore Bryan and Varat (2008) this act and whether transformational lead- found that women are more at a disad- ership can be helpful in achieving gender vantage especially in developing countries equity. According to the World Bank (2013). where they have limited bargaining pow- In Nigeria, almost half of the women (48%) er in markets and often lack opportunities are employed, in South Africa about 44%, to improve their socioeconomic position. and in the UK 56% of women are employed. However, governments have come with a Women still hold fewer jobs and hardly any number of interventions and policies to ad- leadership positions in the corporate world. dress gender inequality and to bring about This raised interest to find out from employ- transformation in organisations. Neverthe- ees in the department of health whether less, change has taken place at a slow they think that their organisation is com- pace. So, this paper presents a study that mitted to gender equity, and if they think is still ongoing, that advocates that transfor- transformational leadership can play a role mational leadership is needed to drive the in addressing issues of gender equity. pertinent issues of gender equity within organisation, specifically the department of health for purposes of this study. 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Gender equity has become one of the de- Schedlidlizki and Edwards (2014)indicat- partmental priorities. South Africa have deed transformational leadership concept veloped the Employment Equity Act no 55 was first developed through consideration of 1998 (EEA), with the purpose of promot- of accounts of revolution and revolt in so- ing equal opportunity and fair treatment ciety by Downton in 1973. Thereafter Burns in employment through the elimination of in 1978 articulated the idea and suggested unfair discrimination, and implementing af- that transformational leadership is linked to firmative action measures to redress the dis- psychological fulfilment and moves people advantages in employment experienced up the hierarchy of needs and addresses by designated groups. Since 1998 when the people’s higher-order needs for achieve- (EEA) has been developed, not much was ment, self -esteem and self-actualisation for done in trying to close the gap between self-fulfilment. In 1985 Bass expanded the men and women in terms of employment. idea and suggested that transformational This is supported by the results stated by the leadership is a process of changing how Commission on Gender Equity (2015) stat- people feel about themselves which in turn ing that men still have more institutional and raises their motivation and enables them social power, more access to all sorts of re- to achieve a performance beyond nor- sources-including those needed for basic mal expectation. According to Burns (1978)

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 529 transformational leaders should encourage of followers and connect followers’ sense of employees to put in extra effort and to go self and identity. According to Bass, (1985), beyond what they (employees) were ex- transformational leaders achieve the great- pected before. By so doing these gives the est performance from subordinates since employees of transformational leaders the they are able to inspire their subordinates feeling of trust, admiration, loyalty, and re- to raise their capabilities for success and spect toward leaders and are motivated to develop subordinates’ innovative problem perform extra-role behaviours (Katz & Kahn, solving skills. In addition, managers exercis- 1978; Bass, 1985). Several authors have ing transformational leadership style focus studied the idea and expanded it (Bennis on the development of value system of em- & Nanus, 1985; Saskin, 1988; Avolio & Bass, ployees, their motivational level and moral- 1993; Alban-Metcalfe & Alimo-Metcalfe, ities with the development of their skills (Is- 2000; Alban-Metcalfe & Alimo-Metcalfe, mail, Halim, Munna, Abdullah, Shminan & 2001). In expansion of the ideas Bass (2004) Muda, 2009). Therefore this leads to better and Avolio (1993) developed a model organisational performance because there called Full Range Leadership model (FRLM) is a good working relationship between the (Schedlidlizki & Edwards, 2014). employer and the employee.

According to this model transformation- There is clear evidence that a supportive al leadership encourages people to look management and staff perception of hav- beyond self-interest for the common good ing effective leaders creates a climate that (Avolio & Bass, 1994). The FRLM has been is associated with health care excellence. identified as the leadership development According to a study conducted by McK- solution for all managers regardless of or- ee, West, Flin, Grant, Johnston, Jones, and ganisational and national boundaries (Avo- Yule (2010) senior management and CEO lio & Bass, 1999). Researches have shown values and attitudes have a central role in that the FRLM has positive results in many relation to patient safety and staff well-be- applications (Avolio & Bass, 1998; Barling, ing. The Businesswomen’s Association of Weber, & Kelloway 1996; Dvir, 1998). To sup- South Africa (2016) reported that the Board port this idea, Kelloway (2003) also found of Heath Funders in South Africa has only that transformational leadership has the two (02) women in their board of eigh- positive effects on performance and atti- teen (18) members, the Health Professional tudes. A transformational leader has spe- Council of South Africa (HPCSA) has only cial ability to bring about innovation and three (03) women in their leadership posi- change, their impact is greater in organisations out of a total of ten (10). Furthermore tions where moderate to high levels of en- research on health care sector illustrated vironmental uncertainty are present (Dun- that the majority of medical school entrants ham-Taylor, 2005). They are able to bring are now women. However, very few wom- about significant change in both followers en enter specialists programs. In addition, and organisations. Dorn (2012) further as- out of 86 medical schemes in the country, serts that, transformative leaders cause only 23 have women principal officers. changes in individuals and systems. They en- According to Govier and Nash (2009) the hance motivation, morale, performances

530 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 key components of transformational lead- come up with agreements and commit- ership are influencing and inspiring others. ments made by several countries and gov- Leaders and followers are able to raise ernments to address among others, gender each other to the highest level of achieve- equity. These international commitments ment and development. This approach to include, but are not limited to: the Vien- leadership not does not improve perfor- na Declaration and Programme of Action mance only and production only but also (1993); the International Conference on makes positive difference in the lives of or- Population and Development (1994); the ganisational members and the community Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action at large. Transformational leaders achieve (1995, revised in 2005 and 2010); the Millen- outstanding results because they have the nium Development Goals (2000); United ability to motivate and transform people. Nations Conference on Sustainable Devel- This is supported by Bass and Riggos (2006) opment, which culminated in an agenda that people who embrace the principle that states that commitment to women is- of transformational leadership have staff sues should be fast-tracked (United Nations with higher level of satisfaction, motivation Human Rights Report, 2014). In line with in- and performance, as well as lower levels of ternational commitments, South Africa also stress and burnout. They further urged that its own acts and policies that guide the pro- such teams are more innovative, collab- motion of the status of women. According orative and effective which yields to their to the Bill of Rights in the Constitution of the organisations being able to respond fast Republic of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996) and productively to change. In addition, everyone has the right to equality and per- Alimo and Alban (2008) who conducted a son should not be discriminated against. No comprehensive research to investigate the discrimination means everywhere including impact of transformational leadership on in the workplace. Furthermore, the South Af- organisational performance in the Nation- rican government adopted a policy frame- al Health Services also found similar results work which outlines South Africa’s vision for stating that a culture of transformational gender equality and how the country in- leadership significantly predicts increased tends to realise this ideal of gender equality levels of staff motivation, satisfaction and (Kornegay, 2000). Policy frameworks were commitment. Moreover Gavier and Nash also developed with the aim to achieve (2009) concluded that effective transfor- the integration of gender consideration mational leadership is pivotal to the suc- into the transformation process, namely cess of healthcare organisations as first line South Africa’s National Policy Framework practitioners lead teams to provide quality for Women’s Empowerment and Gender care and deliver service improvement. Equality (2002), referred to as the Gender Policy Framework. Following national de- 3. THE REGULATORY FRAMEWORK ON GEN- velopment and adoption of the framework DER EQUITY on gender equity, provincial governments The issues and challenges faced by women also adopted their own. The following prin- have been at the forefront of internation- ciples and guidelines are stipulated in the al discussions and conferences that have Gender Policy Framework:

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 531 • When the need arises, addition- of political empowerment South Africa was al legislation is to be developed ranked number one in Africa, with 42% of to attain women empowerment its cabinet ministers and 33% of its members and gender equality. of parliament being women. In terms of the corporate environment the picture seems • The Constitution of South Africa is less impressive. Only 46% of women were to enshrine the equality of all peo- found to be employed in South Africa, it ple, through a non-sexism and also appears that these women earned on non-racism approach. average less than half of that of their male • Women are not a homogenous counterparts (Van der Walt, 2007). Globally group. This principle must guide a lot has been done to incorporate women policies and programmes that into all levels of governance; nonetheless will result in the implementation of they are still underrepresented in many gov- gender equality. ernment organizations, mostly in positions of higher authority and leadership (De La Rey, • Women’s rights are to be seen as 2005). To support this, statistics obtained by human rights. Sadie (2005) on the Southern African Devel- • Affirmative action programme opment Community (SADC) parliamentary with regards to women empow- structures show that the targeted 30% rep- erment are to be developed and resentation of women in political and res- implemented. olution making structures in member states was not met except in South Africa and • Policies and procedures that hin- Mozambique. In 2004 the percentage of der women’s access to basic women in parliament was 15.4% globally, needs, the economy and deci- 12% in Botswana, 14.4% in Lesotho, 15.9% sion making are to be reviewed in Angola, 17.14% in Malawi, 25% in Mauri- and change in terms of gender tius 22.3%, in Namibia, 16%, in Tanzania and equality. Zimbabwe, 32.8% in South Africa and Mo- • Economic empowerment of zambique had the highest at 37.2%. women is to be promoted.

• Efficient machinery is to be put in Gouws and Kotze (2007) in their studies of place to effect and implement women in leadership positions in South Af- this policy on national and provin- rica assert that one of the findings of a sur- cial levels, as well as in the private vey done by the South African Commission sector. on Gender Equality (2005) indicates that Currently, in South Africa, promotion of over 30% of the sample are of the opinion gender equality is legally binding and com- that women are too emotional to be able mitment to it is high on the agenda. By 2007 to handle high level leadership positions. South Africa was ranked 18th out of 115 They thus contend that there are stereotyp- countries in terms of narrowing the inequal- ical ideas about women’s abilities that hin- ity gap between men and women. In terms der the performance of women in leader-

532 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ship positions. These stereotypes also make 53%. Their study also showed that, accord- people to be sceptical about women in ing to return on sales and return on invest- managerial and leadership position (Gou- ed capital, companies with more wom- ws & Kotze, 2007). Thus, it would seem that en board directors outperformed those despite all the enabling legal framework with the least by 42% and 66% respective- that is in position in South Africa, nationally ly. These results were supported by Baxter and provincially, there are still challenges in (2007) that women bring an added dimen- reaching gender equity targets. This paper sion to the workplace because they have a presents an ongoing study that intends to unique management approach that adds explore reasons why equity targets are still significant value to the business. However not met, specifically in the department of Mkhize and Msweli (2010) did not find any health in Limpopo. In addition, as shown difference in performance of that listed here, transformational leadership has been South African companies with a high per- to be seen to be effective in helping in or- centage of women in leadership positions ganisational change efforts. So a further when compared to similar companies with question is whether it (transformational a low percentage of women in leadership leadership) can help in promoting gender positions. equity efforts. A Grant Thomton International Business Re- 4. LITERATURE REVIEW port (2016), which surveyed 5520 businesses in 36 countries including South Africa, re- Many of the questions about women’s lead- vealed that the number of women in top ership positions have often arisen in a num- management positions has increased by ber of studies. However, there is limited infor- only 3% over the past five years. Eastern mation on the challenges faced by women European countries stand out in terms of leaders in leadership or management posi- representation of women in top positions, tion both in the public and private sectors. -35% of such roles are occupied by wom- This study provides information on how the en. In Russia, 45% of senior roles were filled health department in Limpopo is address- by women, with 39 % in Lithuania, 37 % in ing issues of gender equity. It will also de- Estonia and 35% in Latvia. In South East- termine the significance of organisational ern Asian countries, 35% of senior positions transformation in relation to gender equity. are held by women in leadership positions. In terms of the Employment Equity Act No 55 However the Philippines and Indonesia of 1998, as well as required organisational made it to the top ten worldwide with 39 policies and guidelines, female candidates %, 37% and a 36% respectively of women should be given preference to their male in leadership positions. Although govern- counterparts. Authorities in South Africa ful- ment is putting efforts to increase female ly understand the need to urgently address leadership in business, the group of seven gender inequality in the labour market. Joy countries fall below the global average of and Wagner (2007) found that, according 24% (Grant Thomton International Business to return on equity, companies with more Report, 2016). According to a report by the women on board directors outperformed European Commission (2012), in the Euro- those with the least number of women by pean Union, women constituted only 13.7%

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 533 of board seats. In 2010, for the Asia-Pacific study revealed that there was a significant region, women comprised only 6.5% of the improvement in terms of women in chief fi- board members, whereas for the Middle nancial positions in South Africa with a rate East and North-Africa, this number was only of 14% in 2012 which doubled to 32% in 3.2% (Corporate Women Directors Interna- 2013. According to Business Women’s Asso- tional, 2010). In Australia, female represen- ciation (BWA) of South Africa (2015), South tation within government boards was 38.4% Africa is still without adequate representa- in 2012. Women’s parliamentary represen- tion of women in JSE listed corporations. The tation represented only 20% of ministers report revealed that only 8.79% of JSE list- globally (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2013). ed companies have 25% women directors. However according to Census 2015 there is According to the U.S. Bureau of Labour Sta- improved representation of women noted tistics (2013), 75.8% of those employed in in State-owned Enterprises (SOEs) with the hospitals in 2011 were women. Furthermore, SOEs demonstrating the highest gender eq- women occupied nearly 71.3% of first- and uity at directorship level. Business Women’s mid-level officer and management -posi Association SA (2015) also indicated that tions and 53.3% of executive and senior of- companies have not, as yet, recognised ficer positions in the private hospital indus- the impact women have on the company try in 2012 (Equal Employment Opportunity performance as a result of the feminine at- Commission, EEOC, 2012). It was reported tributes they import into the organisation. in the Grant Thomton International Business Report (2013) that 21% of South African According to the Grant Thomton Interna- businesses that were surveyed in 2013 had tional Business Report (2016), women in se- no women in senior management posi- nior management position globally have tions. However during the same period, out increased from 19% in 2004 to 24% in 2016. of the 31% of businesses surveyed globally, In contrast South African women in senior supported 50/50 representation of women management positions in the business in- in decision making structures. Furthermore dustry have decreased from 26% in 2004 to only 15% of South African women are rep- 23% in 2016. This trend of women in leader- resented on boards as compared to 19% ship positions is illustrated in table 1 underrepresentation globally. Despite this, the neath Table 1: Women in Top and Senior Management Positions

South Africa(% of women in top and se- 26 29 28 27 28 28 26 27 23 nior positions) Year 2004 2007 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Global(% of women in top and senior po- 19 24 24 20 21 24 24 22 24 sitions)

From: Grant Thomton IBR (2016)

534 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 So the representation of women globally and in South African top and senior positions is very low. The question of whether organisations are committed to gender equity issues or not thus remains. The decline in women leadership representativeness in South Africa makes the question of why that is the case even more important to address. A survey conducted by BWA of South Africa (2015) also shows (in figure 1 underneath) the depressing underrepresentation of women in significant leadership positions in South Africa. The State- Owned Enterprises (SOEs) seem to be doing better than other South African organisations.

two major academic hospitals in the province (total of 11 hospitals). 5. RESEARCH DESIGN • From a qualitative perspective, This paper presents a study that will follow individual, one-on-one interviews a combination of quantitative and qualita- will be conducted with manage- tive research methods, i.e. mixed methods. ment in the Department of Health Mixed methods do not only involve collect- to explore their commitment to ing, analysing, and interpreting both quali- gender equity in the department. tative and quantitative data but also inte- So the target population consists grating conclusions from those data into a of all managers in the provincial cohesive whole (Leedy & Ormrod, 2014). department of health (= 4 in to- The targeted population and sample will tal); CEOs, Clinical Managers; be as follows: Limpopo Province has five Nursing Services managers and (5) district municipalities comprising of 44 the Allied Health Managers of the hospitals. The study will focus on the head 11 hospitals that area found within office of the department (based in- Polok the district municipalities that are wane); Mopani district municipality, which targeted for this study. has nine (9) hospitals; and the Mankweng and Polokwane hospitals as they are the All four (4) branch managers from head

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 535 office will be included in the study. A 6. PRELIMINARY RESULTS quota sample from the other hospital After data analysis, results will be recorded level managers will be selected to even- by looking at themes and use of statistical tually have two (2) managers from each graphs and charts. In the meantime, the management category, making a total study performed a preliminary analysis of of eight participants. So the total sample the existing positions in the provincial de- will be (12). partment of health to assess how far they • For the quantitative approach are in terms of gender equity. The depart- questionnaires will be designed ment has also developed gender main- and administered to non-mana- streaming policies, in line with the national gerial health professionals to find policy framework, in an attempt to address their opinions about whether they gender equity. However transformation ap- see their organisation to be com- pears to be at a slow pace as suggested by mitted to gender equity or not. preliminary analysis. The organisation structure is presented in figure 2 underneath, For the sample, a list of the participants which illustrates the number of males and will be generated from the database, females in the management positions in the followed by simple random sampling to provincial department of health, Limpopo. end up with 60 participants.

So the total sample for the qualitative part will be twelve (12) while the total for the quantitative part will be 60. A research guide will be designed for face-to-face interviews with the identified participants for the qualitative part of the study and data for the quantitative part of the study will be collected using a designed self-administered questionnaire. For the qualitative part of the study content analysis will be used to classify data according to prominent themes. This will be combined with use of the NVIVO statistical package. For the quantitative part of the study the statistical analyses of the data will be conducted using the IBM Statistical Package for the So- cial Sciences (SPSS) version 23.

536 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Fig 1: No of male and female managers in the Limpopo Provincial Department of Health

Source: http://www.provincialgoverment.co.za/survey63

Key words:

• Male: (M) = Male Female: (F) = Female

• MEC = Member of Executive Council HOD = Head of Department

• NHI = National Health Insurance

The figure above shows that of the ten positions that are available in the department only three (3), i.e. 30% are occupied by females. So as much as the Department of Health is trying to close the gap between men and women in leadership position there is still a lot that needs to be done.

Table 2 underneath presents the number of CEO positions in hospitals in the targeted districts.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 537 Table 2: Percentage of females in targeted districts

District Total no of hospitals No of CEOs who Percentage (%) of are Female Female CEOs ( No of CEOs) Mopani 8 3 37.5% Vhembe 8 1 12.5% Capricorn 5 0 0 Total 21 4 19.1%

As illustrated in table 2 above, the total percentage that is female is even more disheartening. This further highlights the need for a study like this one that wants to find out if this organisation is perceived to be committed to addressing gender equity issues and whether there are any challenges and/or enabling factors in their endeavour to address these issues.

7. CONCLUSION

Gender issues, and specifically gender equity, is a pertinent topic that is being discussed the world over. Countries and organisations within those countries are constantly monitored to see if they comply with national equity targets. So the importance of finding out the challenges that organisations face in implementing equity plans cannot be emphasised enough This paper has presented an outline of a study that is still on-going. The purpose of the study is to find out how committed the department is to addressing gender equity and the challenges encountered. Data is still being collected and results will be available. How- ever, a preliminary investigation gives a gloomy picture in this department. This highlights that this study is important.

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Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 541 THE IMPACT OF SERVICE DELIVERY STRIKES IN SOUTH AFRICAN MUNICIPALITY

R Ndou and MT Silima

University of Venda

ABSTRACT

Service delivery protests have recently been occurring at a high rate, with their roots from Apartheid resistance movements. The South African government find it even very hard to determine the underlying causes of public or service delivery protests. In this paper, the researcher made use of qualitative method. In arguing the standpoint of this paper the authors use literature reviews to provide and analyses the link between the current service delivery protests with the historical public protests in the country. That includes the apartheid caused protests and the influence it has on current public protests. This paper conclude that protests have a huge impact on service delivery, and also, the manner in which services are delivered have an impact on the occurrence of service delivery protests.

Keywords: Apartheid, Service delivery, Protests, Public service delivery

1. INTRODUCTION

The rate at which service delivery strikes have been recently occurring precipitated an investigation of this nature in the public service to determine how the government will be able to achieve its constitutional mandate of promoting the general welfare of the people through effective and efficient service delivery. Standing or protesting against poor service delivery by communities is good to influence good governance, but strike (violent protest) as the mechanism used by people, is improper and ineffective register public concerns. This paper will focus on service delivery strikes, from a point of influence or causes, impacts, and to the recommendations as to what can be done to prevent service delivery strikes. It will also be approached from the legal perspective as to what does the government or law says about the right to protest. With the government or the law providing the right to strike or protest, it is necessary to answer the question of; “are service delivery strikes justifiable or not?” The right or legal provision for the citizens or communities to protest or strike requires a need to differentiate strikes from protests. The role of Thulamela Municipality in service delivery as provided by the Municipal Systems Act, as well as its influence in the service delivery strikes will be discussed in order to understand the occurrence of service strikes within local government.

542 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 2. POLITICAL TACTICS OF COMMUNITY PAR- litical parties deceive the public to vote for TICIPATION them into power. Modern pressure groups cultivate mass public opinion through pub- This section provides political tactics of com- lic relations operations and spend millions munity participation. These tactics include of money every year to create favourable lobbying, mass propaganda, demonstra- climates of opinions for the political objection, strikes and boycotts; non-violent civil tives. disobedience, and violent protest. 2.3 Demonstration 2.1 Lobbying According to the Centre for Political and According to Ranney (1996: 9) the means related Terminology in Southern African of influencing government that is most- of Languages (2004:14) demonstration is conten associated with interest groups is lobby- cerned with publicly manifesting a feeling ing in which interest groups representatives in a form of a procession and mass meeting influence actions of public officials. There showing solidarity and support for a partic- are three types of lobbyist which include: ular cause. Demonstration includes tactics the contact man, the informant, and the such as picketing, mass marching, chant- watchdog. A successful lobbying requires ing slogans, heckling opponents, blocking a hearing from the government authorities. roads and occupying public buildings. As After gaining access, various techniques of a tactic of political action, demonstrations persuasion should be applied such as mak- can have severe effect such as overreac- ing a formal presentation of their group’s tions for opposing groups and from the po- position, marshalling facts, figures and - ar lice, which may arouse sympathy for the guments to show it in the most favourite group from outsiders who care little about light. Interest groups do their own lobbying the group’s issues but dislike anything that through contacting public officials, present- smacks of repression in brutality. Demon- ing briefs of petitions, participating in public strations as a tactic, is employed primarily hearings, soliciting wider public support for by interest groups who do not have access their cause, financing court cases, and ar- to free advertising space and time and lack ranging demonstrations and strikes (Bauer, the funds to purchase such publicity . 2003: 40). 2.4 Strikes and Boycotts 2.2 Mass Propaganda A strike usually means a collective work Heywood (1997: 188) defines propaganda stoppage by industrial workers for econom- as information disseminated in a deliberate ic goals but also can be employed to serve attempt to shape opinions and, possibly, a political purpose, such as forcing the gov- stimulate political action, communication ernment to reject certain policies or even or manipulation. From Heywood’s definition sparking a revolution. It can be a process of notes that the public or communities are in- stopping services by community members fluenced to take part in government affairs in order to attract government attention on that benefit the government through- de a particular issue (Hornby 2005:1465). ception. For example, during elections po- A boycott is an organised effort to achieve

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 543 a social economic or political objective by pression Institute, 2007). refusing to deal with a person, organisation 3. LEGAL FRAMEWORKS INFLUENCING MU- or nation seen as the offending party. In NICIPAL ADMINISTRATION South Africa, a boycott of paying for services and rents by blacks placed an enor- This section presents for the legal frame- mous burden on the so-called illegitimate works influencing local government or mu- black local authorities, leading many of nicipal administration. them to collapse (Freedom of Expression In- stitute, 2007). 3.1 Constitution of Republic of South Africa of 1996 2.5 Non-Violent Civil Disobedience The Constitution of Republic of South Africa This is the refusal to obey certain laws or Act (1996), as the supreme law of the coun- government orders, the purpose being to try, has a big role to influence or shape the influence the government policy and is usu- administration or governance of municipal- ally deployed as follows: firstly, the interest ity or local government in general. As pro- groups need to explore all the possibilities vided earlier in the transformation of local for negotiation and arbitration with its oppo- government from the prior to post-Apart- nents and with the government. Secondly, heid local government system, it is clear that if no measurable success is achieved, then the new democratic constitution has heav- an ultimatum is issued by the interest group, ily influenced the municipal administration which sets out exactly what its next steps in the country. Chapter 7 of the Constitution will be and why it has decided on such a provides for the governance of local gov- course of action. And lastly, the course of ernment; from the status of municipalities, action entertained by the interest group in- objects of local government, developmen- clude amongst others, peaceful disobedi- tal duties of municipalities, establishment ence of some laws – traffic regulations or of municipalities, powers and functions of prohibitions against blocking streets (Bauer, municipalities, composition and election of 2003). municipal councils, membership of municipal councils, terms of municipal councils, 2.6 Violent Protest internal procedures, privilege, publications Any group that resorts to making use of vi- of municipal by-laws, organised local gov- olent protest to achieve its political aims ernment and other matters. should keep in mind that violent tactics 3.2 White Paper on Local Government of are more likely to achieve the goals of the 1998 group. It is also important to remember that resorting to violent protest, as a means of The White Paper on Local Government achieving a political aim is not commonly plays a very crucial role in the new dem- associated with interest groups. In many ocratic local government of South Africa. cases, it is a reaction that requires a psy- The White on Local Government asserts chological build-up, nurtured by poverty, that the basic services enhance the quali- discrimination, frustration and a sense of ty of life of citizens and increase their social personal or social justice (Freedom of Ex- and economic opportunities by promoting

544 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 health and safety, facilitating access to • Fees, charges or tariffs are levied in re- work, to educate, to recreation and stimu- spect of such a service or not. lating new productive activities (White Pa- 3.5 Batho Pele Principles per on Local Government 1998). These principles were drawn in the White 3.3 Municipal Structures Act 117 of 1998 Paper. The White Paper, also known as the Local Government: Municipal Structures Batho Pele, is a document on the transfor- Act (Act 117 of 1998), has a crucial role to mation of public service delivery that was play in the administration of local govern- published in October 1997, notice 1459 of ment. This Act sets up the basis for the es- 1997. The content of this White Paper deals tablishment of municipal categories, which primarily with how public services are pro- are; category A (Metropolitan), category vided, and specifically with improving the B (Local municipalities), and category C efficiency of the delivery of services. The (District municipalities). It defines the way document seeks to introduce a fresh ap- municipalities are established and estab- proach to service delivery, an approach lishes the way councils are to function, inthat will put pressure on systems, procedures, cluding committees and mayoral options. It attitudes and behaviour within the public also determines the division of powers and service and re-orientate service delivery in functions between municipalities who have the customers’ favour, an approach that concurrent jurisdiction. puts the people first. The Batho Pele policy framework consists of eight service deliv- 3.4 Municipal Systems Act 32 of 2000 ery principles, namely: consultation; service According to the Municipal Systems Act, standards; access; courtesy; information; 2000 (Act 32 of 2000) municipal services are openness and transparency; redress; and defined in two different definitions. The first value for money (Fox et al 2007: 20). is the basic municipal services which mean 4. LEGAL PROVISIONS FOR THE RIGHT TO municipal services that are necessary to en- PROTEST sure an acceptable and reasonable quality of life and, if not provided, would endanger This section provides for the legislation public health or safety or the environment. which promotes public protest. Only the The second definition, of a municipal - ser Constitution of Republic of South Africa as vice, is wider in its scope. A municipal ser- well as the Regulation of gatherings Act are vice is a service that a municipality in terms discussed. of its powers and functions provides or may 4.1 Constitution of Republic of South Africa provide to or for the benefit of the local of 1996 community irrespective of whether: Freedom of Expression Institute (2007: 4) ar- • Such service is provided, or to be pro- gues that there is a need for the people to vided, by the municipality through an know as to whether they have the right to internal mechanism or by engaging an protest or not. The Constitution of Republic external mechanism; and of South Africa Act (1996), as the supreme law, provides for the fundamental human

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 545 rights and ensures that indeed the citizens the law. In respect of this provision, the po- are granted their human rights. Chapter 2 lice have and or are entrusted with the Section 17 of the constitution provides that right to arrest protesters who deviate from everyone has the right, peacefully and un- the legal protest procedures to maintain armed, to assemble, to demonstrate, to order (Ministry of Police, 2011: 6). It is clear picket and to present petitions. With this that the constitution provides for the right vested rights granted by the constitution, to protest, not to strike (violent protest), and people have the right to engage in ac- violence is strictly prohibited. So the Consti- tions expressing disapproval or dissatisfac- tution says people have a right to protest, tion of or objection to the service delivery. as long as it is done peacefully. The old Although the constitution provides for the time Apartheid laws that made it difficult right to protest, it also enshrines the rights of for people, especially blacks, to gather and everyone to be free from all forms of vio- protest have now gone (Nleya et al 2011). lence, from either public or private source; With the constitution providing for the right not to be tortured in any way and not to of the public, peacefully and unarmed, to be treated or punished in a cruel, inhuman assemble, to demonstrate, to picket and to and degrading way. This prohibits any form present petitions as well as entrusting the of violence by the citizens of South Africa. police service to maintain order, Freedom As protests can be either legal or illegal and of Expression Institute (2007: 4) argues that violent or non-violent, protesters are usually there is a need for the police (law enforc- prompt to become violent when protesting. ers) and the public (protesters) to create a For this reason, protesters should make sure good relationship between them in order to they abide by the procedures that they maintain these rights. should be legally and non-violent when 4.2 The Regulation of Gatherings Act 205 of they are protesting (Freedom of Expression 1993 Institute, 2007). After a lot of political violence in South Af- Nleya et al (2011) argues that unresolved rica in 1991, President F.W. de Klerk, set up service delivery issues usually result in some the Goldstone Commission of Inquiry to in- members of the community or public ex- vestigate the cause. The Goldstone Com- pressing themselves through structured and mission recommended for a new law, the non-structured public gatherings, marches Regulation of Gatherings Act, which be- and sometimes public protests. However, came a law on 14 January 1994 and start- the constitution calls for maintaining order ed being used in November 1996 (Freedom during public protests, even when the issue of Expression Institute, 2007: 5). is meritorious or justifiable. The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Section 205 The Regulation of Gatherings Act, 1993 (Act and sub-section 3 clearly provides for the 205 of 1993) regulates matters associated objects of the police service which are to with gatherings that express any form of pro- prevent, combat and investigate crime, to test, contest or criticism in a public space. maintain public order, to protect and se- According to the Gatherings Act, the word cure the inhabitants of the Republic and “gathering” has a specific meaning; it is a their property, and to uphold and enforce march, picket or parade of 16 people or

546 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 more taking place in any public space. A today, but it only become a right through gathering requires prior notification to the a culture of defiance (Ebenezer, 287).The relevant local authority. A public space people are granted the right to protest le- may be a street or road, a park, a public gally and peacefully, and the government square, the steps or grounds of a building. supports the right to protest than to strike (vi- The Act provides that every person has the olent protest). From this point it is clear that right to assemble with other persons and the government has seen it necessary to to express his views on any matter freely in provide for mechanisms that govern pub- public and to enjoy the protection of the lic gatherings or protest to reduce service state while doing so (Hepple et al , 2015: delivery violence. The provision of the leg- 196). islation proves for the dissatisfaction of the people with the service delivery, as anoth- The Act provides that protest may be direct- er democratic means to improve service ed at an individual or an institution, such as delivery and promote good governance a municipal Executive Mayor, a police offi- through public participation (Managa, cer, a private company or a municipality. 2012: 6). Protests occur as an expression of dissatisfaction or disapproval about an issue, i.e. 5. THE ROOTS OF PROTESTS IN SOUTH AFRICA water delivery, electricity rates or specific South Africa was racially separated during laws and municipal policies. The Act ex- Apartheid regime from 1948 till 1994. This re- plains in detail exactly what must be done gime saw people classified due to their co- in order for a gathering to be considered lours (race), with the whites being the first legal by the authorities. It sets out clear pro- preference and regarded as superior than cedures and guidelines regarding appli- the other races. Thus Apartheid was a policy cations to conduct public gatherings and or system of segregation or discrimination identify key role-players who must make in- on grounds of race. Nleya et al (2011) ar- puts towards a final decision for approval. gue that apartheid period could be regard- As part of the problem that the protestors ed as the period that brought the culture or the police sometimes do not follow the of strikes or violent protests in South Africa. laws about protesting and deviate from le- Black people were denied their fundamen- gal procedures provided. It tells both sides tal human rights which saw them excluded what they should do, and how they should from government matters with no say, thus do it. It tries to make sure that they talk they had no freedom of speech or no right about the protest before it happens, and to participate in government matters. This work out a way to make it peaceful. ill-treatment or hardship for black people The Constitution and the Regulation of led to many struggles by black communi- Gatherings Act, provides for the enabling ties to resist Apartheid through riots (Oxford means for the public to voice their de- University, 2006: 56). mands to the government through protest. From the 1940s to the 1970s, resistance to Zhekelele Maya, a member of the Dipal- apartheid took many different forms. In iseng Youth Forum in Balfour, argues that the 1940s, the resistance movement was protest is a democratic right in South Africa still moderate, but in the 1950s, it turned to

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 547 open, but non-violent, confrontation. In the according to the words of Archbishop Des- early 1960s it took up arms in the struggle. mond Tutu, Afrikaans was the language of The state met every attempt to fight against the oppressor. On the morning of the 16th resistance by increasing its repression. De- June 1976, between 10000 and 20000 black spite the South African government’s harsh students walked from their schools to Or- policies and growing poverty and hardship lando Stadium for a rally to protest against of the African people, there was little or- having to learn through Afrikaans in schools. ganised black resistance against the state The protest was planned by the Soweto Stu- until things began to change in the 1940s. dents’ Representative Council’s (SSRC) Ac- There were many popular struggles during tion Committee, with support from the wid- this time, including housing protests and er Black Consciousness Movement (BCM). bus boycotts. As time went by the situation During the protest, violence raised and the worsened as black people were involved in police fired on the crowed. Hector Pieter- serious riots (Oxford 2006: 56). The three im- son, who was 13 years old, was the first child portant protests that took place during the to die. The students responded violently and period of resistance to Apartheid, which unrest swept through the country (Oxford proves where protests come from, will be University, 2006: 71). Although the uprising discussed below, which is 16 June 1997 was eventually crushed by the police it had (SOWETO) uprising; Sharpeville Massacre; great results. It was the biggest challenge to and Women’s Anti-Pass March to the Union the government and the Apartheid system. Buildings, Pretoria. The uprising established the leading role of the African National Congress (ANC) in the 5.1 16 June 1976 (SOWETO) Uprising anti-Apartheid struggle, as it was the body In 1974 the Minister of Bantu Education best able to channel and organise students and Development, M.C. Botha, ordered seeking the end of Apartheid. The govern- that South African schools must teach half ment could no longer ignore resistance. of the subjects in standards five and six in The United Nations Security Council passed Afrikaans by issuing the Afrikaans Medium Resolution 392 which strongly condemned Decree (Oxford University 2006: 71). This the incident and the apartheid govern- was supported by the Bantu Education Act, ment. In many ways, the Soweto uprising 1953 (Act 47 of 1953), which provided for was a major turning point and marked the the racially separated educational facili- beginning of the end of Apartheid. In pres- ties. Bantu education was created to limit ent-day South Africa, 16 June is celebrated a black man’s thinking capacity, with the as a Youth Day public holiday (Oxford Uni- idea that if given better education, blacks versity 2006: 71). will no longer submit to the oppressive laws of the Apartheid and whites could lose power. 5.2 Sharpeville Massacre of 1960

People opposed learning in Afrikaans as As the laws, policies or Acts of Apartheid the medium of instruction because they were initially made to discriminate blacks, believed that the children’s education one of these Acts that made it possible to would suffer. They also opposed it because; discriminate blacks was the Pass Laws. The

548 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Pass Laws Act of 1952 was a form of internal point in the anti-Apartheid struggle. There passport system designed to segregate the was a massive outcry, both nationally and population, severely limit the movements of internationally, about the police actions the black populace, manage urbanisation, there. The government responded by de- and allocate migrant labour. It was initiat- claring a state of emergency and banning ed to require black South Africans over the ANC and PAC. In present-day South Africa, age of 16 to carry a pass book, known as 21 March is celebrated as a public holiday ‘dompas’, everywhere and at all times. The in honour of human rights and in commem- Pass Laws largely applied to African men oration of the Sharpeville Massacre. and later applied to both African men and 5.3 Women’s Anti-Pass March to the Union women. These laws were opposed by the Buildings, Pretoria black South Africans with groups such as revolutionary syndicalist and the Black Na- Not only has the Pass Laws led to the Sharpe- tionalist. This resistance led to a protest of ville Massacre, but also to the women’s an- which turned into a great massacre in the ti-pass march to the Union Buildings. As it Sharpeville Township, known as Sharpeville was mentioned earlier that the Pass Laws Massacre. was initially applied to the African men before it was applied to women, women had The Sharpeville Massacre occurred on the to take actions against the application of 21st of March 1960, at the police station in the pass laws which required them to carry the South African township of Sharpeville in a pass book, dompas, everywhere and at Transvaal, today known as Gauteng. The all times. During the 1950s women within the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) had organ- Congress Alliance came together to com- ised a protest against the pass laws. Still bat the inherent sexism that existed within using the methods of non-violent protest; various anti-Apartheid groups, such as the they planned to march to the local po- ANC. For this reason South African women lice station. After the day of demonstration of all races organised a march to the Union against the pass laws, a crowd of about Buildings to submit their petition. On the 9th 5000 to 7000 black African protesters went August 1956 over 20,000 women marched to the police station, handed in their passes peacefully through the streets of Pretoria to and they gave up themselves for arrest. The the Union Buildings to hand over a petition South African police fired on the crowd and to J.G Strijdom, South Africa’s Prime Minis- killed 69 people and wounded 180 people. ter of the time, over the introduction of the Sources argue that the crowd was peace- pass laws and the Group Areas Act No. 41 of ful, while others state that the crowd was 1950. This Act enforced different residential violent, throwing stones at the police and areas for different races and led to forced that shooting started when the crowd start- removals of the people, native South Afri- ed moving towards the fence around the cans, living in wrong areas. The petition was police station (Oxford University, 2006: 64). not received by Strijdom as it was intended, Although the massacre did not result in an but was eventually received by his secre- instant abolishing of the pass laws, it had the tary as Strijdom had arranged to be else- effects on the then government. Thus the where. This march was led by Lilian Ngoyi, Sharpeville massacre marked the turning

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 549 Helen Joseph, Rahima Moosa, Albertina government with regard to service delivery. Sisulu, and Sophia Williams-De Bruyn. The From the historical view of protests in South women left bundles of petitions containing Africa, it can be seen that protests may more than 100,000 signatures at the office take place from a political perspective as a door of the Prime Minister. They silently stood means to sabotage the government. Paton for thirty minutes singing a protest song that (17 February 2014) reported that in Bekkers- was composed in honour of the occasion: dal, Mothutlung and Bronkhorstspruit pro- “Wathint’ abafazi, Wathint’ imbokodo, uza tests leaders had another axe to grind aside kufa!” which means ‘’you strike women, you from poor living conditions. Whether on the strike the rock, you will die’’ (Oxford 2006: losing side of some or other ANC battle or 62). Although this march proved to be the shut out from local business opportunities height of passive resistance against Apart- by more powerful factions, each leadership heid in South Africa, it was largely ignored grouping had its own battle to fight over by the Apartheid government. But it can power and money, and mobilising service be argued that although it was ignored, delivery protests was the best vehicle avail- this march had the effects to the govern- able to do so. Other than that, Shaidi (2013: ment, which later saw the Pass Laws finally 36) argues that with the Apartheid policies, repealed in 1986. In present-day South Afri- which left black communities poor, it is now ca, 9 August is celebrated as the National the responsibility of the local government Women’s Day public holiday to commem- which caters for all South Africans to deliv- orate the 1956 women’s anti-pass march to er services to the previously disadvantaged the Union Buildings. The first National Wom- groups in a manner intended to alleviate en’s Day was celebrated on the 9th Au- poverty. With this responsibility, Managa gust 1994. Managa (2012) maintain that a (2012: 1) maintains that poor communities huge responsibility faced the Government have high expectation from municipalities. of National Unity (GNU) to undo the apart- Managa further explains that they (poor heid policy legacies, which are poverty, in- communities) expect the local government equality and racial segregation of service to provide everything for them since they in order to create a single, efficient public cannot afford for themselves. This depen- service that delivers on the basic needs of dency has gone too far to such an extent all citizens. that the municipalities are failing to meet the demands of indigent communities. For 6. CAUSES OF SERVICE DELIVERY STRIKES this reason, Shaidi (2013: 76) believes that Although protests have turned to seem like communities engage in protests to voice a hobby in many communities in South Af- their expectations or demands. Although rica, Nleya et al (2011) are of the view that these protests may seem to be caused by people engage in service delivery protests different reasons, but the main cause of for different reasons with some communi- these protests is dissatisfaction with munic- ties protesting for a meritorious reason whilst ipal services and the manner in which they others not. Shaidi (2013: 1) argues that ser- are delivered. Van Der Berg (February 03, vice delivery protests are the actions by the 2015) divides causes of service delivery pro- communities to voice their demands to the tests into three, which are: systemic (cor-

550 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ruption); structural (poverty, dependency); improving the efficiency of the delivery of and governance (dissatisfaction with mu- services. One of the eight Batho Pele princi- nicipal services). This study discusses gover- ples, service standards, provides that peo- nance as the main cause of service deliv- ple should be told what level and quality ery protests, influenced by systematic and of public services they will receive so that structural causes. they are aware of what to expect. Service delivery protests as defined by Craythorne 6.1 Dissatisfaction with Municipal Services (in Shaidi 2013: 16), refers to community ac- Beard et al (2008: 23) maintain that the tion through which the residents of an area government has a constitutional mandate decide to voice their dissatisfaction with to ensure that the general welfare of the the manner and scale at which public ser- people is promoted. The national govern- vices are rendered to them.This implies that ment has allocated functions to the local service delivery protests arise due to dissat- government to ensure that, since the lo- isfaction and these dissatisfactions are the cal government has communal affairs with result of unfulfilled expectations (Managa their communities, quality services can be 2012). Thus dissatisfaction with municipal delivered to the people. The Constitution of service delivery leads to communities en- Republic of South Africa 1996 (1996) chap- gaging in protests to voice their dissatisfac- ter 10 section 174 (1) provides that local tion. Onebamoi (2015) states that unfulfilled government shall be established for the expectations are often the root cause of residents of areas demarcated by law of frustration. When people have expecta- a competent authority. The aim a munici- tions and these expectations are unmet or pality is to render services to the residents unfulfilled, frustration often results. Managa within its jurisdiction. The Constitution states (2012: 1) reported that over the years, the that municipalities have the responsibility majority of protests have been marked by to make sure that all citizens are provided exceptionally high levels of violence and with services to satisfy their basic needs. vandalism, as people vent their frustration Cloete (1997: 5) argues that once an insti- and anger. tution has been created, it has to deliver Dissatisfied communities engage in strikes on what it was set up to do. Thus the estab- to convey a message of dissatisfaction. It is lishment of municipality brings expectations argued, as reported by Paton (17 February to its residents with regard to the services 2014) that, the government as a political or- to be rendered. With these expectations gan of the state, politics plays a vital role to municipalities should deliver services to influence the public service strikes. Managa the satisfactory of its residents. Satisfaction (2012: 2) concurs to this arguing that during is reached when communities are provid- election campaigns politicians deceive ed with quality services they expect from communities to vote for them by promising municipalities (Managa 2012). The White them good and quality services that they Paper on Transforming Public Service Deliv- will provide when they get into power. When ery (1997) provides for the Batho Pele prin- politicians get into power they ignore what ciples which deal primarily with how public they have promised the electorates which services are provided, and specifically with prompt the electorates to protest violently

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 551 because they are angered by the politi- inadequate provision of basic services and cians’ deception (http://www.ldoceonline. a wider spectrum of concerns including; com/Politics-topic/propaganda. The Insti- housing, infrastructural developments and tute for Security Studies in their article: “The corruption”. From this definition Van der reasons behind service delivery protests in Berg argues that the main cause of service South Africa (August 5, 2009)” concurs to delivery protests is dissatisfaction influenced this, saying that dissatisfaction comes in the by corruption. wake of political promises during election 6.2 Allegations of Rampant Corruption period that all or most of the electorates’ issues will be addressed once the new gov- NEHAWU believes that one of the reasons ernment is in place. why communities are dissatisfied with - mu nicipal services is because of corruption, The Constitution provides for the goods and arguing that corruption is a disease against services considered basic needs for an in- service delivery. Paton (2014), reported dividual to survive which include: sufficient that service delivery protests in Bekkersdal water; basic sanitation; refuse removal in was due to municipal corruption. Smith denser settlements; environmental health; (2007: 16) defines corruption as behaviour basic energy; health care; housing; and which deviates from the formal duties of a food and clothing. The municipalities face public role because of private-regarding challenge (Managa, 2012: 4), in delivering (personal, close family, private clique) pe- services such as lack of community partici- cuniary or status; or violates rules against pation in local government. The Center for the exercise of certain private-regarding Sociological Research at the University of influence. In chapter 10 Section 195 (1) (a) Johannesburg, in its review of four protests in of the Constitution states that a “high stan- mid-2009, found that each protest only oc- dard of professional ethics should be pro- curred after unsuccessful attempts by com- moted” in governing public administration munity members to engage with local au- with democratic values and principles. Klit- thorities over issues of failed service delivery gaard (1988: 11) admits that corruption is (Ebenezer 2013: 287). According to Green at its heart on ethical problem. Andrew (in (1982: 23) there is very little evidence to Mafunisa 2008: 68) defines ethics as -stan suggest that government actually respond dards that guide the behaviour and ac- to citizen participation contacts. Managa tions of public officials in public institutions, (2012) argues that if people or communities and which may be referred to as moral are satisfied with municipal service there is a laws. The Municipal Systems Act, Schedule little opportunity for protests to take place. 1 provides for the code of conduct in local Thus dissatisfactions with municipal services government which prescribes how munici- could be influenced by excessive depen- pal councillors, ward committees, and ad- dency in municipal services and allegation ministrative officials must behave, and the of rampant corruption. According to Van penalties for improper behaviour. In gener- der Berg (2015) “service delivery protests al code of conduct requires that councillors refer to the collective action taken by a must perform their duties: in good faith (or group of community members, and direct- with a desire to act fairly towards others); ed against a local municipality over poor or

552 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 honestly; transparently; and in the best in- created space for tenderpreneurs to loot terest of the municipality (which includes millions of Rands from taxpayers ( Seoko- the interests of the community). Managa ma, 2010). According to Corruption Watch (2012: 4) maintains that when municipal (February 3, 2014) although the basic right officials do not perform according to the to sufficient water is enshrined in South Af- code of conduct it heavily affects the com- rica’s Constitution, gaining access to that munities and the communities are prompt clean water has been a long struggle for to protest in a manner to fight against cor- millions of people. The public service is the rupt activities in local government. Richard axis around which the government’s effort (2010: 258) maintains that the problem of in rendering services to promote the gener- unethical behaviour in the government inal welfare of the community turns. The ma- stitutions cannot be left unresolved, partic- jor pitfall in South Africa’s quest for develop- ularly because it is intolerable and harmful ment and betterment of the welfare of its to the entire society, because it undermines populace is corruption in its public service the nation’s efforts to remedy the suffering (Richard 2010: 265). of its poor and vulnerable population. 6.3 Tender Corruption Government departments and public ser- One cannot talk of corruption in local gov- vants are meant to be seen as foot-soldiers ernment and do not talk of tender corrup- of delivery but are more susceptible to cor- tion. In South Africa tender corruption is re- ruption (NEHAWU). Corruption in general ferred to as tenderpreneur. According to could mean the promotion of private gains the general secretary of the Congress of or selfish interest at the expense of the pub- South African Trade Unions (Cosatu), Zwel- lic interest, against the overall objectives of inzima Vavi (in Ribeiro, Dwyer, Borges & Vi- the government, by whoever is in charge ola 2015: 223), tenderpreneur is one who and responsible within the area of work through political connections wins tenders Mafunisa (2008: 11). Cloete and Mokgoro unfairly and provides shoddy service to (1995: 161) concur that public officials use communities while more genuine entrepre- their powers and authority in their positions neurs are side-lined as well as their skills and to serve themselves not the general public. proper services. The Constitution, in chapter Richard (2010: 258) maintains that corrup- 13 section 217 (1) provides that “when an tion manifests itself in many different forms, organ of state in the national, provincial or including patronage and nepotism. Rich- local sphere of government, or any other ard further explains that there is variety of institution identified in national legislation, reasons for this, including idleness, incom- contracts for goods or services, it must do petence, and contravening or deliberately so in accordance with a system which is ignoring the appropriate rules, regulations, fair, equitable, transparent, competitive and legislature.For Malan and Smit (2001: and cost-effective”. The arbitrary actions 17) favouritism to relatives, to people of by politicians undermine the constitution in same ethic orientation, and to people of awarding the tender. sex, gender, belief, political parties and associations is rife. Lack of proper monitoring The government do not just deliver nor pro- and evaluation systems within municipalities vide services as it wishes, it does so through

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 553 procurement. Procurement is defined by eliminated; we must instead set our sights Ambe and Badenhorst-Weiss (2012: 244) on preventing most corruption, or signifi- as the function whereby public sector or- cantly curbing corruption that is already ganisations acquire goods, services and present. Ackerman (1978: 95) speaks of the development and construction projects need for personal honesty and a devotion from suppliers in the local and internation- to democratic ideals. Clarke (1983) sug- al market, subject to the general principles gests that anti-corruption campaigns must of fairness, equitability, transparency, combe introduced and conducted properly petitiveness and cost-effectiveness. Due to with the aim to alleviate corruption. Cloete the corrupt officials, tenders are awarded (1994: 26) argues that this is only possible to the entrepreneurs unfairly. The procure- if the citizens are knowledgeable and pre- ment reform processes were embedded in pared to take drastic measures against any Section 112 of the Municipal Finance Man- institution that treats them unsatisfactorily. agement Act, 2003(Act 56 of 2003 and Sec- Richard (2010: 262) maintains that certain tion 76(4) (C) of the Public Finance Man- anti-corruption interventions must have par- agement Act, 1999(Act 1 of 1999 and the ticular relevance to specific sectors. Clarke Preferential Procurement Policy Framework (1983: 297) proposes that culprits should Act, 2000(Act 5 of 2000). be demoted, transferred to less lucrative or totally unsuitable jobs, or reprimanded. From the above discussion, Harvey (2013: But Mkhombo (2008: 16) recommends for 643) argues that communities protest in ad- the implementation of imprisonment as a vocating their constitutional right to have way to correct unethical officials. As Cools access to municipal services and prohibit et al (2011: 211) maintains that corruption unacceptable immoral conduct in promo- is bad and is unacceptable and intolera- tion of self-interest by public officials at the ble. Rich’s (in Mafunisa 2008: 56) observa- expense of the general public. Since cor- tion is that when certain kinds of behaviour ruption is intolerable, it can be justified when are viewed as bad, to extent that folkway communities engage in protest to voice and mores are insufficient to control them, their dissatisfactions resulted from corrupt the criminal justice process, with its inher- officials who deviate from their formal du- ent threat of punishment, is used to prevent ties, which is to serve the public, to enrich such bad behaviours. The Constitution of themselves with public resources (Cools Republic of South Africa Chapter 9 pro- et al 2011: 211). Corruption requires or de- vides for institutions to ensure that democ- mands mechanisms that are effective in racy runs smoothly. These are constitutional checking and minimizing it (Richard: 2010). mechanisms for the government to mini- Mbeki (2005) in his State of the Nation Ad- mize unethical conducts. dress (SONA) stated that “as long as the political bosses avoid their own accountability, or fail to take stern action against errant officials, there is faint hope for improved service delivery”. In a quest to address corruption problem, Richard (2010: 262) argues that corruption will never be completely

554 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 8. RECOMMENDATIONS . As this research study was intended to benefit the municipality, the municipal- This section presents the recommendations ity must partner with research and tertiary on violent protests, strikes, service delivery, institutions for the improvement of service strategies on how best can strikes be re- delivery standard. duced and also promote service delivery and corruption. These recommendations • The municipality should promote social are made based on the findings of the justice in terms of service delivery. study. • Addressing the issue of poverty and un- 8.1 Violent protests employment, especially to the youth. This will promote the ability of communi- • Education on conflict management ty members to support the municipality should be given to the community and by paying service charges. the municipality. 8.3 Strategies to reduce protests • Modes of conflict resolution should be provided. • The municipality should comply with the anti-corruption strategies provided by • The municipality and the community the government. should work on the basis of consensus. • The municipality should regard people • Tactics of community participation first in all its dealings. This means that the should be known by the community principles of Batho Pele are important in members and the municipality. this regard. • The municipality and the community • Community development programmes should have good and positive attitude. should include training on conflict man- • The community should learn to follow agement and resolution as well as pro- procedures prescribed by the legisla- cedures to be followed when there is a tions. problem.

8.2 Service delivery • Regular meetings between the municipality and the community should be • The municipality should be effective, ef- held. ficient and economical in all its -opera tions. • Appointing officials on the basis of merit should be emphasised. • The municipality should be fair and reasonable in all its dealings with all com- • The municipality should fulfil its promis- munity members. es made during election campaigns. People feel betrayed if the municipality • The municipality should respect demo- does not fulfil its promises and they end cratic principles. up resorting to service delivery violence. • The municipality should follow the legislations affecting local government.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 555 8.4 Strategies to curb corruption . The other best way to deal with corrupt officials is to gain trust from officials. Corruption was mentioned in chapter two The municipality can gain trust from offi- and identified in chapter four as one of the cials through treating them fairly and giving major causes of service delivery violent pro- them fair opportunities to prove themselves tests (strikes). The researcher recommends because they need to feel being part of the following strategies to minimise or curb the organization. corruption: 8.5 Promoting active community participa- . Eliminating the mentality from people tion that no matter how hard the government can work in a quest to fight corruption, cor- Community participation has been identi- ruption will never be completely eliminated. fied as a crucial aspect that fuels effective This mentality does not promote the minimi- and efficient public service delivery. It has zation of corruption. been mentioned in chapter two that the lack of community participation is one of • Promotion of merit system of employ- the crucial factors leading to the challeng- ment to get qualified staff with compe- es faced by the municipality in rendering tency and capacity to serve people. services to its communities. The research- • It is the role of municipal executive staff er recommends the following to improve to lead by example. If leaders possess community participation in local govern- ethical behaviour, probably their subor- ment, and the government in general, in dinates will do the same. Ethical princi- order to enhance public service delivery: ples of municipal administration should • Community participation awareness be promoted. campaigns: for people to actively and • Promoting openness and transparen- effectively participate in municipal af- cy. Operation in secrecy provides for a fairs, and government in genera. Com- room for unethical conduct. If the public munities should know about their rights has access to information about munic- to participate in local governance, The ipal affairs, officials are less likely to devi- campaigns should be intended to pro- ate from their formal entrusted duties for vide knowledge about legislations that personal gains. provide for the right(s) of the people to participate. • Prosecuting and sending corrupt officials to prison • Training and development of municipal officials to get required skills to be able • Municipal officials should receive to interact with diverse communities and enough or sufficient benefits for their understand the dynamics of the society. work performed. It is clear that corruption sometimes takes place as a means • Openness and transparency in munici- for officials to earn life. This requires the palities to allow for a room of communi- municipality to fairly remunerate its em- ty participation. ployees. • Targeting interest and pressure groups

556 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 which seek to influence government ac- Beard, V.A., Miraftab, F. and Silver, C. 2008. tivities in their own chosen directions. Planning and Decentralization: Contested Spaces for Public Action in the Global • Promoting civic associations at grass- South. Oxford: Routledge. roots level. For the active performance, Butjwana, S. 2010. Service Delivery Protests: these civic associations should be run People need Services. 31 March 2010. by potential citizens, such as educated CEPTSAL. 2004. Modern Political Dictionary. people who are equipped with sufficient Johannesburg: CEPTSA, Rand Afrikaans knowledge about government matters. University. Meaningful participation will probably Clarke, M. 1983. Causes, Consequences, influence the public to take part in gov- and Control. France: Frances Publishers Ltd. ernment affairs. Cloete, F. and Mokgoro, J. 1995. Policies for Public Service Transformation. Kenwyn: 9. CONCLUSION Juta & Company.

A descriptive, qualitative and interpretive Cloete, J.J.N. 1994. Past Failure and Struc- methodological approach was used in this tures for Development of Accountable paper to assess the impact of service de- Public Administration under the new Dis- pensation, Public Lecture, 05/94 University livery strikes and present possible remedies of North West. to prevent service delivery strikes in the future, so that there will be a good relation- Cloete, J.J.N. 1997. South Africa Municipal Government and Administration. Pretoria: ship and interaction between the commu- J.L. van Schaik Publishers. nities (recipients of public service) and the municipality; finding the roots and causes Cools, M., Easton, M., Pauwels, L., De Ruyver, B. and Ponsaers, P. 2011. EU Criminal J u s - of service delivery strikes withi municipali- tice, Financial & Economic Crime: New Per- ties which enables the researcher to under- spectives. Vol. 5. Apeldoorn: Maklu. stand what necessary mechanisms (rec- Corruption Watch. 2014. Corruption Fuels ommendations) are needed to a service Poor Service Delivery. 03 February 2014. delivery strikes; provide knowledge to com- Ebenezer, O. 2013. The Handbook of Civil munities as to what exactly is public service Society in Africa: Vol. 20 of Non-profit and , and, inter alia, to prevent the occurrence Civil Society Studies. Kansas: Springer Sci- of service delivery strikes. ence & Business Media.

10. LIST OF REFERENCES Fox, W., Bayat, S., Ferreira, I.W. and Ferreira, N. 2007. A Guide to Managing Public Poli- Ackerman, S. R. 1978. Corruption: A Study in cy. Cape Town: Juta and Company Ltd. Political Economy. New York: Academic Press. Freedom of Expression Institute. 2007. The Right to Protest: A Handbook for Protestors Ambe, I.M. and Badenhorst-Weiss, J.A. and Police. Johannesburg: Freedom of 2012. Procurement Challenges in the South Expression Institute. African Public Sector. Pretoria: Universi- ty of South Africa (UNISA). Green, G. 1982. Municipal Administration in Receptivity to Citizens and Elected Offi- Bauer, C. 2003. Introduction to Political cials’ Contacts. Public Administration Re- Science: In PLS5001 Study Guide. Pretoria: view, July August. Vista University. Harvey, K. 2013. Encyclopaedia of Social

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 557 Media and Politics. California: SAGE Publi- Frustration Proof Your Life. Bruxelles: Sceptre cations. Publications.

Hepple, B., Le Roux, R. and Sciarra, S. 2015. Oxford University. 2006. Understanding Laws against Strikes: The South African Apartheid: Learners Book. Johannesburg: Experience in an International and Com- Oxford Press Southern Africa. parative Perspective. Rome: Franco Angeli. Paton, C. 2014. Business Daily Live. Service Heywood, A. 1997. Politics. London: Mac- Delivery Protests: Why Now? 17 February Millan. 2014.

Institute for Security Studies. 2009. The Rea- Ranney, A. 1996. Governing: An Introduc- sons behind Service Delivery Protests in tion to Political Science. 7th Edition. Engle- South Africa. 5 August 2009. wood Cliff: Prentice Hall.

Klitgaard, R. 1988. Controlling Corruption. Republic of South Africa. 1950. Group Ar- Berkeley: University of California Press. eas Act, 1950 (Act 41 of 1950). Pretoria: government Printers. Mafunisa, M.J. 2008. Public Service Ethics. Kenwyn: Juta & Company Ltd. Republic of South Africa. 1952. Pass Laws Act of 1952. Pretoria: Government Printers. Malan, F. and Smit, B. 2001. Ethics and Lead- ership in Business and Politics. Lansdowne: Republic of South Africa. 1953. Bantu Edu- Juta and Company Ltd. cation Act, 1953 (Act 47 of 1953). Pretoria: Government Printers. Managa, A. 2012. Africa Institute of South Africa (AISA) POLICY Brief. Unfulfilled Prom- Republic of South Africa. 1993. Regulations ises and their consequences: A Reflection of Gatherings Act, 1993 (Act 205 of 1993). on Local Government Performance a n d Pretoria: Government Printers. the Critical Issue of Poor Service Delivery in South Africa. Briefing No.76. Republic of South Africa. 1996. Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Act Ministry of Police. 2011. Policy and Guide- 108 of 1996). Pretoria: Government Print- lines: Policing of Public Protests, Gatherings ers. and Major Events. Pretoria: Government Printers. Republic of South Africa. 1997. White Paper on Transforming Public Service Delivery Mkhombo, O.Z. 2008. A Critical Analysis of (Government Gazette No. 18340), 1997. Imprisonment as a Mechanism for Combat- Pretoria: Government Printers. ing Corruption in the South African Public Service. Thohoyandou: University of Venda. Republic of South Africa. 1998. Batho Pele White Paper. Pretoria: Government Printers. National Education Health and Allied Work- ers’ Union (NEHAWU). Corruption is a Dis- Republic of South Africa. 1998. Local Gov- ease Delivery. ernment Municipal Structures Act, 1998 (Act 117 of 1998). Pretoria: Govern- Nleya, N., Tapscott, C., Thompson, L., Pip- ment Printers. er, L. and Michelle, E. 2011. Reconsidering the Origins of Protest in South Africa: Republic of South Africa. 1998. White Paper Some Lessons from Cape Town and P i e t - on Local Government. Pretoria: Govern- ermaritzburg, Africanus. 50 (1): pp 14-29. ment Printers.

Onebamoi, R. 2015. Anatomy of Frustration: Republic of South Africa. 1999. Public Fi- Discover How to Transform Frustration into nance Management Act (PFMA), 1999 (Act Creative Opportunities & Unlock the Power 1 of 1999). Pretoria: Government Printers. to Succeed: A Straight-Talking Guide to Republic of South Africa. 2000. Municipal

558 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Systems Act, 2000 (Act 32 of 2000). Preto- Shaidi, E.W. 2013. Investigation into Causes ria: Government Printers. of Service Delivery Protests in Municipali- ties: A Case Study of Nelson Mandela Republic of South Africa. 2000. Preferen- Bay Municipality. A Thesis Presented to the tial Procurement Policy Framework Act Faculty of Arts at the Nelson Mandela (PPPFA), 2000 (Act 5 of 2000). Pretoria: Metropolitan Municipality in Fulfilment of Government Printers. the Requirements for the degree: Doctor Republic of South Africa. 2003. Munici- Philosophiae. pal Financial Management Act (MFMA), Smith, D.J. 2007. Culture of Corruption: Ev- 2003(Act 56 of 2003). Pretoria: Government eryday Deception and Popular Discontent Printers. in Nigeria. New Jersey: Princeton Uni- Ribeiro, G.L., Dwyer, T., Borges, A. and Viola, versity Press. E. 2015. Social, Political and Cultural Chal- Sunday Times. 2010. Corruption causes poor lenges of the BRICS. Bamenda: Langaa RP- delivery: Samwu. Reported by Sapa on 5 CIG. March 2010.

Richard, A.C. 2010. Political and Civil Lead- Thabo Mbeki. 2005. State of Nation Address ership: A Reference Handbook. Volume 1. (SONA), February 11 2005. California: SAGE Publications. Van Der Berg, R. 03 February 2015. UFS re- SA Municipal Workers’ Union (Samwu). 2010. search sheds light on service delivery pro- Corruption causes poor delivery. 5 March tests in South Africa. Johannesburg: 2010. University of the Free State.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 559 GOOD GOVERNANCE AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION

IN AFRICA T Silima

University of Venda

ABSTRACT

This paper provides an analytical argument about good governance and conflict resolution in Africa. The paper aims to explore and explain governance as an act of governing and an applicable practice in Africa. The paper is conceptual in nature and will critically engage the application of good governance principles which need to be applied African countries. The paper support the notion that good governance is characterised by respect of human rights and creating democratic institutions of promoting good governance and conflict resolution in Africa.

Keywords: Good governance, Government, conflict resolution, Human rights, 1. INTRODUCTION ing governments have led to the inclusion of not only other government departments, Governance has become a pivotal concept but also the non-profit and private sectors within the study of Public Administration, as well as community-based organisations. Development Administration, and Political This change is a reflection of an emphasis Science. It is because government plays a away from looking at government, per se, major role at just about every main juncture to looking at the concept of ‘governance’. of our lives and, therefore, in a democracy, governance should be the concern of all of us. A high level of citizen understanding, 2. GOVERNANCE AS AN ACT OF GOVERN- co-operation and participation is essential ING if a democratic government is to be really successful. In the past, governments as- Kooiman (2006) describes accurately that sumed principal responsibility for the devel- governing issues are not just ‘public’ (state) opment and delivery of public services. This anymore. They are frequently shared, and has mainly been provided through large- governing activity at all levels is becoming scale government departments and other diffused over various societal actors whose public institutions. Over time, governments relationship with each other is constantly became aware of the benefits of working changing. This may sound very confusing more closely with each other and other de- to you, but what it simply means is that the livery agencies. The complex problems fac- Government is not the only entity which is

560 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 rendering services and products to soci- 3.1 Democratic governance ety anymore. Government is but one actor According to the Centre for Political and or partner in this network of organisations, related Terminology in Southern African agencies, society and businesses. Languages (2004) a democracy is a form Kooiman (2006:4) defines ‘governing’ as “… of government where the power to form the totality of interactions, in which public a government and to make decisions by as well as private actors participate, aimed legitimate representatives lies with voters at solving societal problems or creating - often referred to as “the people”. Thorn- societal opportunities; attending to the in- hill et al (2014:413) refers democracy as a stitutions as contexts for these governing political system in which decision-making interactions; and establishing a normative power is widely shared among members of foundation for all those activities”. Kooiman the society. The word literally means “rule (2006:4) further defines ‘governance’ as by the people.” A constitution, free and “…the totality of theoretical conceptions fair elections, the right to vote, freedom of on governing”. It is also known as the inter- expression, freedom of the press, freedom actions between government and society. of association, and equality before the law In other words, the moment government characterise effective democratic gover- implements policy to render services, it is nance. busy with its governance function. This is, Voters determine the broad governance however, a very simplistic way at looking at framework by which government works. The things. A government is thus one of the ac- quality of this process, and thus the quality tors in governance. Pierre (2000:14) is of the of governance, depends on well-informed opinion that ‘governance’ can be used as citizens that can influence the outcome of a blanket term to signify a change in the policy decisions. meaning of government. In simple terms “governance” means the process of deci- 3.2 Corporate governance sion-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (service delivery) Corporate governance describes the man- as well as a network of actors which are inner in which boards or their like direct a volved in this process. corporation, and the rules applying to that direction. It thus consists of the set of process- 3. TYPES OF GOVERNANCE es, customs, policies, laws and institutions affecting the way people direct adminis- Governance can be used in several con- ter or control a private sector organisation. texts such as democratic governance, cor- Corporate governance also includes the porate governance, global governance, relationships among the many role-players and so forth. There are different types of involved and the corporate goals. Typical governance to provide a more holistic per- role-players include the shareholders, man- spective of governance this paper provides agement, and the board of directors. Other democratic governance, corporate gover- stakeholders include employees, suppliers, nance and Networked, holistic or third par- customers, regulators, the environment and ty governance. the community at large. According to Horn-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 561 by (2005) governance is shared involves or work approach to New Public Manage- is shared by all members of a group. ment (NPM) has emerged. Networks can be regarded as a ‘mode’ of governance, 3.3 Networked, holistic or third party gover- expressing new government-society inter- nance actions (Kooiman, 2006:105). The networks, Public management lies at the centre of a also known as ‘third sector’ organisations, web composed of many different relation- are embedded within the fabric of civ- ships that extend to the citizen, to the state, il society constituting what is called “third to society and its values, to the economy party governance” (Gildenhuys & Knipe, and its development, and more. In their 2000: 68). These are organisations which work ‘Public Management in an Intercon- are neither government nor markets, hav- nected World’, Bailey and Mayer (1992) ex- ing a great impact on government policy. plain this complex web of actors involved Network analysis makes it clear that people in matters that affect our daily lives. They working in government and administration explain that the environment is dynamic will have to learn to think of organisation and the public managers should constantly as an external, not internal activity. The adapt and adjust to solve complex prob- prospect is that hierarchical control will be lems. At the heart of this web is interaction replaced by continuing processes of bar- and interdependence. No single actor, gaining among interested parties within public or private, has the knowledge, infra- most fields of public administration (Peters structure and skills required to solve com- & Pierre, 1998:31). plex, dynamic and diversified societal chal- Leat, Seltzer and Stoker (2002:212) explored lenges. The public manager should learn to the challenges that networked or holistic think clearly about these relationships and governance brought. They summarised the values and balances they affect, for these challenges as follows: “Holistic gov- they constitute the synthesis that is public ernance is a major commitment for the management. Because of these broad re- reform of policy-making, civil service and lationships, public management must con- local government structures, budget, work stantly and correctly define and redefine its processes and professional networks, sys- role in society. Not even in Socialistic states tems of staff development, management does a government try to do everything; practices, information systems including the in the democratic state, government does design and use of digitial information tech- what it should or must, according to the will nology, and for the accountability of pub- of the people. lic officials at every level”. From this quote, The 1990s brought network analysis as a new it should be clear that serious challenges way of looking at and analysing traditional lie ahead to institutionalise holistic gover- government and public sector structures, nance – especially to collaborate, coor- thus discovering new governance patterns. dinate and integrate functions between It focuses on diversity, fragmentation, inter- different actors involved in governance. dependency, mutuality and the need for Leat, Seltzer and Stoker (2002:14) are of the consensus-building, co-production and in- opinion that especially the following devel- teraction in public service delivery. A net- opments gave rise to the development of

562 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 holistic governance. They are – • Anticipation and prevention: for increased institutionalisation of foresight and • Problem-solving government: that cer- anticipation, and the use of more preven- tain felt problems should be addressed tive mechanisms in the design of policies and solved by government action, rath- and specific interventions in particular cas- er than the argument being accepted es. in advance that these problems are insoluble or that any solution would be worse than the problem; In holistic governance, there are the is- • Effectiveness in policy design and imple- sues that should be integrated to become mentation: for effectiveness of govern- a ‘whole. In South Africa this would mean ments’ social, domestic and economic that all tiers of government should work policies in their publicly stated terms and closer together, that there is better coor- for their publicly stated goals of social dination within government functions such problem-solving, rather than for other as security (so-called ‘cooperative gov- implicit goals, symbolic reassurance or ernance’). This would mean, for example, simply to provide selective benefits to that the South African Police Service, Cor- important interest groups; rectional Service, and the South African Defence Force collaborate or where every- • Rational design: for systems of account- body involved in health provision (i.e. Dept ability, evaluation, data collection on of Health, private medical institutions, local performance and outcomes, and fi- clinics, social care, etc.) work together to nancing within governance systems that achieve joint outcomes. Furthermore, holis- are designed to service that end; tic governance also means that the pub- • Integration: for more specific coordina- lic sector work closer with the private section between agencies as a key feature tor, non-governmental organisations, and of that design; community-based organisations.

• Prioritisation: for more effort to devise 4. PRINCIPLES OF GOOD GOVERNANCE systematic, even formula-based strate- According to the Development Assistance gies by which to settle priorities between Committee (DAC) of the OECD, good gov- problems and available solutions for the ernance has eight major characteristics. attention of politicians, for the allocation of resources, for the allocation of effort 4.1 Participation in scrutiny and oversight, rather than Participation is the act of taking part in an simply relying on politics, pressure, me- activity or event (Hornby 2005:1062). Par- dia interest and the diligence of interest ticipation by citizens is the cornerstone of groups and lobbies and a responsive good governance. It is thus important that culture of democratic political govern- governments create mechanisms to facili- ment that allocates according to popu- tate participation in decision-making. Par- lar concerns, interest group’s voices and ticipation could be either direct or indirect media pressure; and through elected representatives. Citizens

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 563 could participate through groups or asso- 4.3 Openness and Transparency ciations (e.g., trade unions, chambers of According to Du Toit et al (2002) public ser- commerce, nongovernment organizations, vants are obliged to inform citizens about political parties) and as individuals (e.g., the administration and management of through letters to newspaper editors, par- national and provincial departments, what ticipating in radio and television talkshows, it costs to run them, and who is responsi- voting). At grass roots level, participation ble for running them. Transparency means should help local government to make de- that governments can defend the deci- cision regarding the design and implemen- sions that were taken and that mechanisms tation of public programmes and projects. were created to facilitate a say in the mak- This increases legitimacy of government ing of those decisions. It means that gov- and “ownership”. Often, citizens could ac- ernment-related information must be freely tively participate in these service delivery available and directly accessible to those projects, by, for example, help with the who will be affected by such decisions construction of houses in an area. and their enforcement. It also means that 4.2 Rule of law and respect for human rights enough information is provided and that it is provided in easily understandable forms The doctrine of the rule of law is import- and media. ant in governance ( Kleyn and Viljoen 1998). Good governance requires fair legal Transparency refers to the availability of in- frameworks that are enforced impartial- formation to the general public and clarity ly. It also requires full protection of human about government rules, regulations, and rights, particularly those of minority groups decisions. Transparency in government de- in society. To ensure impartiality requires cision-making and public policy implemen- an independent judiciary and an impartial tation reduces uncertainty and can help and incorruptible police force. The rule of inhibit corruption among public officials. To law encompasses well-defined rights and this end, rules and procedures that are sim- duties, as well as mechanisms for enforcing ple, straightforward, and easy to apply are them, and settling disputes in an impartial preferable to those that provide discretion- manner. It requires the state to be as much ary powers to government officials or that bound by, and answerable to, the legal sys- are susceptible to different interpretations. tem as are private individuals and enterpris- Openness should be a rule to secure public es. Respect for human rights (freedom of accountability (Du Toit et al 1998:155). movement, political participation, worker’s 4.4 Responsiveness rights, freedom of speech, and freedom of religion) is a further criteria for good gover- Responsiveness is based on the belief that nance. These human rights are promoted government must answer to the will of the by the Constitution of South Africa and the people. It expects that public institutions, International Law ( Beukes 2008: 11). officials and political leaders should be sensitive to the needs of the people (Du Toit et al 1998; 113). There are the constitutional stipulations for good governance in sec-

564 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 tion 195 of the Constitution. It states that “… of political freedom, many other political people’s needs must be responded to, and goods that collectively compose good the public must be encouraged to partici- governance are difficult to exercise. No dis- pate in policy-making.” This means that our crimination against people is accepted in Government must ensure that public institu- good governance and democracy (Du Toit tions serve everybody within a reasonable and Van der Waldt 1997:101-102). timeframe. 4.7 Effectiveness and efficiency 4.5 Consensus-oriented According to Cloete (1994) effectiveness, According to Hornby (2005:309) consensus efficiency and economy are regarded as is an opinion that all members of a group the ‘three good Es’ in public governance. agree with. In a heterogeneous society Good governance means that processes like South Africa, there are different groups and institutions produce results that meet – each with their own views, aspirations, the needs of society while making the best needs, and perceptions. Good gover- use of resources at their disposal. A govern- nance requires that the Government should ment should thus utilise scare resources op- try to reach a broad consensus in society timally to the benefit of everybody. Every- on what is in the best interest of the whole thing and everybody involved in translating community and how this can be achieved. resources into service delivery must perform A democracy thus does not simply mean effectively and efficiently. Concepts of effi- ‘majority rule’, because the Government ciency and effectiveness in the context of must act in the best interest of everybody. good governance also cover the sustain- This can only result from an understanding able use of natural resources and the proof the historical, cultural and social contexts tection of the environment. of a given society or community. 4.8 Accountability 4.6 Equity and inclusiveness Buekes et al (2008:170) indicate that ac- According to Riker and Brisbane (1997) is a countability is a principle of controlling the situation where there is no unfair treatment arbitrary (without good reason) exercise of of certain people based on various factors administrative discretion of persons exercis- such as race, religion, tribe, point of view ing authoritative authority. Accountability is and others. A society’s well-being depends imperative to make public officials answer- on ensuring that all its members feel that able for government behaviour and respon- they have a stake in it and do not feel ex- sive to the entity from which they derive cluded from the mainstream of society. This their authority. Not only governmental insti- requires all groups, but particularly the most tutions but also the private sector and civil vulnerable, have opportunities to improve society organisations must be accountable or maintain their well-being. This implies to the public and to their institutional stake- that people must have the opportunity to holders. Who is accountable to who varies contest elections freely, respect for basic depending on whether decisions or actions human rights, and the absence of gender taken are internal or external to an organi- discrimination. Without these components sation or institution. In general an organisa-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 565 tion or an institution is accountable to those portant in determining human behaviour. who will be affected by its decisions or ac- In general racism has shown a capacity to tions. Accountability cannot be enforced survive long after the demise of racialism as without transparency and the rule of law. a serious intellectual belief. The politics of Accountability also means establishing cri- race since 1945 can be described as the teria to measure the performance of public politics of post-racialist institutions. In its most officials, as well as oversight mechanisms important forms it has consisted of powerful to ensure that the standards are met. The interest groups maintaining the structures accountability of public sector institutions is of power which existed when racialism facilitated by evaluation of their econom- was predominant (McLean and McMillan ic and financial performance. Economic 2009:448-450). accountability relates to the effectiveness Globally, the most notable example of this of policy formulation and implementation, was in South Africa where the victory of and efficiency in resource use. Financial the (Boer) Nationalist Party led by Dr Hen- accountability covers accounting systems drik Verwoerd in 1948 led to the institution for expenditure control, and internal and of apartheid, a policy of separate develop- external audits (Geldenhuys 1997). ment for black, white, Asian, and coloured(- 5. CAUSES OF CONFLICT IN AFRICA mixed race) peoples. Apartheid was often justified in purely cultural terms, but it oper- 5.1 Ethnicity/tribalism ated on racial criteria and prohibited inter- According to Fairchild (1984:256) a tribe racial communities (McLean and McMillan is defined as a social group, usually- com 2009:450). prising of sibs, bands, villages, or other sub- 5.3 Religion groups. It is normally characterised by the possession of a definite territory, a distinct According to Kleyn & Viljoen (1998) religion dialect, a homogeneous and distinctive determines the relationship between an culture, and either a unified political organ- individual and a Supreme Being. Fairchild isation, or at least some sense of common (1984) says that religion is the social insti- solidarity as against outsiders. tution built up around the idea of a super- natural being or beings, and the relation 5.2 Racism of human beings to them. In any particular Racism is the tendency to identify one- culture this idea becomes formalised into self racially and to show hostility or lack of a social pattern, or patterns. Such a pat- moral respect for members of other races. tern comes to be known as “the religion” The word race is present in all languages of a particular group. Every religion firstly in- of Latin origin, and it is identical in English volves the nature and character of divinity, and French. Race is generally and merely secondly a set of doctrines concerning the refers to a group of common origin and is reciprocal duties and obligations between thus no clearly distinguishable from ethnic- divinity and humanity, and thirdly a set of ity or nationality. Racialism is the doctrine behaviour patterns designed to conform that indicates that racial categories are im- to the will of God and to assure to the individual behaviour the approval of his con-

566 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 science and whatever rewards or freedom electoral means. from penalties in this world or the next are 5.5 Wealth (resources) included in the doctrines of particular faith (Fairchild 1984:256). Greed causes the politicians, officials Some religious people do not tolerate peo- and the capitalists not to be satisfied with ple who do not belong to their religions. the wealth or resources they have (Bauer They regard them as enemies as long as 2003:22). Wealth can be regarded as mate- they do not belong to their religious organ- rial objects owned by human beings or the isation. There is a need of change of atti- bodies of owners. The source of all wealth tude so that people can live together as is the land, and the processes of creating brothers and sisters in the world. wealth are comprehended in the general 5.4 Political affiliations term production. The phenomena arising in connection with making and distribution of Political parties may be defined by their common wealth form the subject matter of the spe- aim (Ball, 1993:79). They seek political power either cial social science of economists. Wealth is singly or in co-operation with other political parties. of two main types, production goods and In other words, the first and foremost aim of each consumption goods and material posses- political party is to prevail over the others in order to sions of considerable amount (Fairchild get into power or to stay in it. 1984:337).

Service delivery

The main aim of the political party is to cap- The government is a body with supreme ture the state political power (Heywood authority over the area of jurisdiction. A 2007). The capture of political power, or in- government is also regarded as a body of deed its retention, can be achieved with- persons and institutions that make and ap- in existing political structures or by over- ply all enforceable decisions for a society throwing them. Working within the political (Thornhill et al 2014:414). It is a mechanism system, parties can present candidates through which the state operates. The gov- and leaders to the electorate and seek to ernment is responsible to render services mobilise the support of the electorate by for the promotion and improvement of the propaganda, organised activities and by general welfare of the society. It is also con- emphasising ideological differences with cerned with stimulating development and other parties in competitive party systems. eradicating development problems such The overthrow of the existing system can be as poverty, inflation, corruption. Govern- achieved by a coup d’état, civil war, guer- ment should be responsive to public opin- rilla activities against the existing govern- ion, and should pursue policies that are ment, or by capturing power by legitimate prudent, rational and mutually consistent. Policies should manifest themselves as services to the people. There are many strikes which are caused by lack of service delivery and other factors, and are occurring all

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 567 over South Africa ( City Press, 26 June,2016). Modes of conflict resolution are as follows:

7.1 Confronting (or Collaborating)

6. INSTITUTIONS FOR PROMOTING GOOD GOVERNANCE AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION This is a problem-solving approach where- IN AFRICA by the conflicting parties meet face-to- face and try to work through their disagree- There are various institutions which are re- ments. This approach should focus more on sponsible for conflict resolution in Africa. solving the problem and less on being com- Their effectiveness and efficiency will - de bative. This approach is collaboration and pend upon the environment and methods integration where both parties need to win of conflict resolution. In this paper only two ( Meiring 2003:183). major institutions were mentioned. They are: 7.2 Compromising 6.1 UNITED NATIONS (UN) To compromise is to bargain or to search for The United Nations is an international or- solutions such that both parties leave with ganisation which is established to promote some degree of satisfaction. Compromis- co-operation amongst the states of the ing is often the end result of confrontation. world. It was established on 24 October Some people argue that compromise is a 1945. The organisation has purposes such “give and take” approach, which leads as; to promote and facilitate cooperation to a “win-win” position. Others argue that in International Law; to promote interna- compromise is a lose-lose position, since tional security; economic development; so- neither party gets everything he/she wants cial progress ;human rights, civil rights, civil or needs (Kerzner 2001:407). According to liberties and political freedoms; democra- Riker and Brisbane (1997:119) a compro- cy, good governance; and to achieve last- mise is a solution that requires both parties ing world peace (Joyner 1997). to give in on certain points and allows them to have their way on other points. Through 6.2 AFRICAN UNION (AU) reaching a compromise, each party leaves African Union is an international organisa- feeling that the solution to the conflict is action which is established to promote coop- ceptable. Every party wins in this mode. eration among the independent states of 7.3 Smoothing (or Accommodating) Africa. It was founded on 26 May 2001(AU Handbook 2016). According to Pruitt & Rubin (1986:2-4) accommodating is one of the modes of conflict resolution. This approach is an attempt 7. MODES OF CONLICT RESOLUTION to reduce the emotions that exist in a conflict. This is accomplished by emphasizing The management of conflicts places lead- areas of agreement and de-emphasizing ers in the difficult situation of having to se- areas of disagreement. An example of lect a conflict resolution mode. Modes of smoothing would be to tell someone, “We conflict should be used based on the type have agreed on three of the five points and of conflict, and whom the conflict is with.

568 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 there is no reason why we cannot agree be made, but should be conformed to and on the last two points”. Smoothing does be implemented adequately. Principles of not necessarily resolve a conflict, but tries good governance should be followed with- to convince both parties to remain at the out an excuse by the leaders, public offi- bargaining table because a solution is pos- cials and the community at large. sible. In smoothing, one may sacrifice one’s Educational programmes are significant own goals in order to satisfy the needs of for modern communities. They need to be the other party. introduced, in which the political leaders, 7.4 Forcing (or Competing, being uncoop- public officials, and the community are erative, being assertive) trained on good governance. All levels of government should be involved in the edu- According to Kerzner (2001:408) forcing is cational process, in order to promote vivid what happens when one party tries to im- understanding amongst the stakeholders pose the solution on the other party. Con- in good governance. The society, political flict resolution works best when resolution is leaders and public officials should active- achieved at the lowest possible levels. The ly participate in governance, and this will higher up the conflict goes, the greater help in legitimising their government. They the tendency for the conflict to be forced, must all take an active part in policy mak- with the result being a “win-lose” situation ing and implementation, and all aspects of in which one party wins at the expense of service delivery. the other. 8.2 Conflict resolution 7.5 Avoiding (or Withdrawing) The political leaders, public officials and Pruitt and Rubin (1986:2-4) says that avoid- community must be ready to agree on is- ance is often regarded as a temporary sues on issues which are causing conflict in solution to a problem. The problem and the their states. Conflicts need to be resolved resulting conflict can come up again and in a rational way, and decisions should be again. Some people view avoiding as cow- made in order to take actions which are ardice and an unwillingness to be respon- just, sound, fair and reasonable to all the af- sive to a situation. fected parties in a conflict. A suitable mode or modes of conflict resolution should be selected in order to promote a manner of re- 8. RECOMMENDATIONS solving conflicts effectively and efficiently. These paper present recommendations on This choice will depend upon the environ- both good governance and conflict reso- ment, and the type of a conflict. lution. 9. CONCLUSION

8.1 Good governance The research was conducted at a time There is a need of coming up with laws which when there is no peace in the continent of will be able to promote good governance. Africa, as some of its countries are facing These laws and regulations should not only various types of conflict. South Africa in par-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 569 ticular, is currently encountering conflicts Fox, W. and Meyer, I. H. 1995. Public admin- such as service delivery strikes in most of istration dictionary. Cape Town: Juta. its parts, and some political unrest in other Gildenhuys, J. S. H. and Knipe, A. 2000. The parts of the country. Some African coun- organisation of government: An intro- tries are facing violence caused by oppos- duction. Pretoria: Van Schaik. ing groups, which are aimed at destabilis- ing and toppling the governments. Haffajee, F. 2016. Plotting the causes of fiery protests: In the City Press, 26 June,2016.

Heywood, A. 2007. Politics. London: Mac- LIST OF REFERENCES millan. AU. 2016. The African Union Handbook Joyner, CC. 1997.The United Nations and 2016. Addis-Ababa: The African Union International Law. Washington DC: G o - Commission and New Zealand Ministry of ergetown University Foreign Affairs and Trade Kleyn, D and Viljoen, F. 1998. Beginner’ Bauer, C. 2003. International Politics: In Guide for law students.Kenwyn: Juta. PLS5003 Study Guide. Pretoria: Vista U n i - versity. Kennedy, G, Benson, J and Mcmillan, J.1987. Managing Negotiations-How to get Beukes, M. 2008. Administrative Law: In a better deal. 3rd ed. London: Hutchin- ADL101-J Study Guide. Pretoria: University son. of South Africa. Kerzner, H.2001. Project Management: A CEPTSAL. 2004. Modern Political Dictionary. systems approach to planning, scheduling, Johannesburg: Centre for Political and and controlling.. New York: John Wiley & related Terminology in Southern African Sons, INC. Languages, Rand Afrikaans University. Matomela, B. 2004. Building effective part- Du Toit, DFP .1998. Public Administration nerships in pursuit of accelerated social and Management for effective g o v - and economic development. Service De- ernance. Kenwyn: Juta. livery Review. 3(1): 80-84 Du Toit, D and Van der Waldt, G.1999. Pub- Meiring, MH. 2004. Provision and Utilising of lic Administration and Management: Personnel: In PBA5504 Study Guide. Preto- The Grassroots. Kenwyn:Juta. ria: Vista University. Du Toit, D et al. 2001. Service excellence in Pollitt, C. 2004. The essential public manag- governance. Sandown: Heinemann. er. Berkshire, UK: Open University Press.

Pruitt, DG and Rubin ,JZ. 1986. Social Con-

570 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 flict: Escalation, Stalemate, and Settlement. New York: Random House.

Reddy, P. S., Sing, D. and Moodley, S. 2003. Local government financing and development in Southern Africa. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa.

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Van der Waldt, G. 2004. Managing performance in the public sector: Concepts, considerations and challenges. Lansdowne: Juta.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 571 THE CONTRIBUTION OF RECORDS MANAGEMENT TO GOOD GOVERNANCE AND ACCOUNTABILITY IN THE TRADITIONAL COUNCIL OFFICES

CPM Ngoasheng, MA Dikotla and LA Makgahlela

University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

Government departments are required to manage their records systematically and to adhere to policies and procedures from the National Archivist to ensure compliance with the Act. Records are keys to the effective running of any organisation or government department as they serve as memory and are used as evidence for the transacted tasks to ensure good governance and accountability. Therefore good governance requires best practices in records management that are applied to accountability. Traditional councils plays an active and important role in local government programmes and service delivery, particularly in rural areas. The Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act (No 41 of 2003), recognises tribal authorities as traditional councils with important functions linked to local government. However, majority of Traditional Council Offices do not comply with the South African National Archives Act.

This paper adopted desk top study to investigate the role of records management to good governance and accountability in the Traditional Council Offices. The paper revealed that effective records management is an important tool for good governance and accountability. The paper also revealed that one of the critical pillars of good governance is transparency and accountability. Some recommendations were provided for improvement of records management to ensure good governance and accountability. It is also crucial that the records in Traditional Council Offices be managed by qualified records officers who understand the archival and record policies of the National Archives Act.

Key words: Chieftainship, Records Management, Tribal and Royal Councils and Good Gov- ernance.

572 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ral communities. According to Bizana-Tutu (2008:13) the services by Traditional Council 1. INTRODUCTION Offices include the issuing of socials grants, allocation of sites to the subjects, taking minutes from the meetings, resolving dis- According to Record Management Poli- putes and promoting culture of the tribe. cy Manual (2007), records refer to all infor- Therefore it is important to keep records for mation irrespective of format or media on services rendered. which it is held; that is created, received, maintained and preserved as evidence Okello-Obura (2011) posits that records of the activities of an organisation. Okel- serve as memory of the organisation and lo-Obura (2011) and Kalusopa and Ngulube are regarded as valuable assets because (2012), state that records are documents they assist to provide evidence of the ac- of the activities of the organisationsthat tions that took place to ensure good gov- should be authentic, reliable and usablein ernance and accountability .The study by order to ensure good governance and ac- Kalusopa and Ngulube (2012) revealed countability. According to Makhura & Du that organisations rely on records to per- Toit (2005) organisations use records to plan form their functions and to assess the per- their future activities and as such records formance of the employees. Whereas ac- are helpful in decision making. Furthermore cording to Gunngsdottir (2012) and Joseph, Shepherd and Yeo (2003) assert that re- Debowski and Goldschmidt (2012) records cords assist organisations to perform their are valuable and are mostly needed by tasks including the protection of the rights people to satisfy their needs of acquiring of the staff and assets of the organization, land, getting passports and protecting their ensure good governance and promote ac- rights. Additionally properly managed re- countability through legal, regulatory and cords assist the state to provide authentic fiscal requirements. Thus properly managed statistics of the nation which enable gov- records are essential tools for good gover- ernment to provide social services to the nance and accountability. public (Kargbo 2009). According to Okel- lo-Obura (2011) authentic records should Traditional Council Offices are part of the prove what they purport to be; and reliable governmental bodies they fall under the records should be accurate and trusted. Department of Cooperate Governance, Records function as evidence of the activi- Human Settlement and Traditional Affairs. ties that took place within and organisation. The records management policy manual According to Motsaathebe and Mnjama (2007), section 13 of the National Archives (2009:133) organisations that have proper Act, (Act No. 43 of 1996), requires govern- records management, are accountable ment departments to manage their records and produce better results. systematically and to adhere to policies and procedures from the National Archivist Bizana-Tutu (2008:9) states that Traditional to ensure compliance with the Act. Tradi- Council Offices are required to adjudicate tional Council Offices are instituted with the over customary matters. Government de- responsibility of providing service to the ru- partments should provide the public with

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 573 easy access to records (Kamatula 2009). entities manage their resources effectively, Section 13 (1) of the National Archives ethically and efficiently. Traditional councils and Records Service of South Africa Act, as part of the public entities are also obliged (Act No 43 of 1996) states that the Nation- to manage their records in accordance al Archivist is responsible for all records that with legislation to ensure accountability are under custody of governmental bod- and good governance requirements. The ies (Records Management Policy Manual legislation include the following: 2007:7). Traditional Council Offices fall - un der the provincial Department of Cooper- ative Governance, Human Settlement and 2.1 South African National Archives Act 43 Traditional Affairs in Limpopo and therefore of 1996 Traditional Council Offices form part of the governmental bodies that needs proper re- According to Records Management Policy cords management practices. Furthermore Manual (2007) all government departments Traditional Council Offices are expected and public entities should comply with sec- to provide functions such as allocation of tion 13 (2) (b) (i) of the National Archives sites, provision of social grants, adjudicated and Records Service of South Africa Act, over cases and preside over meetings for (Act No 43 of 1996) which stipulates that the rural communities. This study therefore governmental bodies are to classify records focuses its attention on the state of record in accordance with the systems deter- management systems in Limpopo province, mined by the National Archivist. Accord- with specific reference to the traditional ing to Records Management Policy Manual councils of Polokwane Municipality. (2007 the National Archivist puts the following conditions for all records managers in 2. LEGISLATION FRAMEWORK governmental bodies:

All government offices in South Africa must  A file plan which contains the comply with the stipulations of the National classification system which facilitates Archivist with regard to records manage- the best retrieval of records ment (Records Management Policy Manu-  al 2007). It is therefore important for records The retention and disposal pol- managers in Traditional Council Offices icies that clarifies the records that are to manage records according to records to be destroyed and the records that management practices and to comply are to be transferred to the archives. with the stipulations by the South African  To ensure that records are National Archivist. Therefore, records man- stored in effective storage which agers in Traditional Council Offices should covers all types of mediums;and understand the regulatory environment that affects their functions in order to en-  To ensure that sufficient -at sure accountability and good governance. tention is given to paper-based and Underpinning the framework are the legal electronic records requirements set by South African govern- Traditional Council Offices would be serving ment to ensure that government and public their people better if records are managed

574 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 by qualified records managers who- com the performance of their functions. Tribal ply with the stipulations from the National council offices are repository of all records Archivists. It would therefore be proper for of functions performed by the traditional Traditional Council Offices to keep there leader and the traditional council. Tribal cords of community projects, service deliv- council offices in the province fall under the ery and social development because the Department of Cooperative Governance, social and economic development of a Human Settlement and Traditional Affairs country relies of the effective management and are therefore part of the governmen- of records throughout their entire life cycle tal bodies. to ensure accountability and good gover- 2.3 The Public Finance Management Act nance. (Act No. 1 of 1999) 2.2 Traditional Leadership and Governance The purpose of this Act is to regulate Framework Act 41 of 2003 financial management. This can be possible According to Traditional Leadership and if Traditional Council Offices keep records Governance Framework Act (Act No. 41 of of all the transaction in accordance 2003) the traditional leader and the tradi- with record keeping practices. The tional council have a major role to play in managers in charge of the records must leading the tribal community. According to comply with the retention and disposal section 19 the traditional leader is expect- requirements. The Traditional Council can ed to perform the functions provided for in only be accountable and transparent if it terms of the customary law and customs of makes all the records available for audit the traditional community concerned and purposes. Furthermore such actions by in applicable legislation. Section 4(2) of the the government will discourage people to Traditional Leadership and Governance commit fraud. Framework Act (Act No. 41 of 2003) stipulate that applicable provincial legislation must regulate the performance of functions 2.4 Traditional Courts Bill by a traditional council by at least requiring traditional council to do the following: The Traditional Courts Bill was developed to replace Sections 12 and 20 of the Black  Keep proper records Administration Act of 1927, colonial-era provisions that still empower chiefs and  Have its financial statement headmen to determine civil disputes and audited try certain offences in traditional courts.  Disclose the receipts of gifts The aim of the bill was to advance South Africans’ access to justice by recognising  Adhere to the code of con- the traditional justice system in a way that duct upholds the values in customary law and Furthermore, section 4 (1) of the Act stipu- the Constitution. The purpose of the Bill lates that the traditional council must assist, was to ensure that justice is done and that support and guide the traditional leader in the public’s rights are protected. It was

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 575 important to record daily proceedings in are essential tools for good governance court because such records are holding and accountability. important decisions by the traditional 3.1 Records management in traditional courts that have to be respected. Records council offices from the traditional courts will also help individuals who would like to review or The situation in Traditional Council Offices appeal against the outcome of the cases. is similar to that of any organisations or It is therefore important that such records government departments with regard are properly managed to ensure that they to records creation and record receipts. are made available to the public. It is therefore important to establish the activities of the traditional council services

first which will be followed by the records 2.5 The Promotion of Access to Information accruing from such activities. The activities Act (Act No. 2 of 2000) of the chiefs and their responsibilities give rise to the creation of records in traditional The purpose of the Act is ensuring that council offices. Accordingly the Traditional records held by government bodies or Council Offices should preserve records of individual are accessible to promote good value that would later be used by posterity governance and to enlighten the public as evidence to have an understanding of about their rights. Therefore Traditional the genealogy of the chiefs. Council Offices need to provide the public with clear guidelines and procedures According to Classens (2014) since the on how to access records held by these year 2003 traditional leaders in South Africa traditional council offices. were empowered by the constitution to take charge of the title of the land and to 3. LITERATURE REVIEW present rural communities as ‘owners of the This paper adopted literature review to land’. Traditional leaders have powers to investigate the contribution of records rule over the allocation of land within their management to good governance and jurisdiction. They are also accountable to accountability in the Traditional Council the public they serve (Meer & Campbell, Offices. The sources consulted include 2007:5-6). Former President Thabo Mbeki of books, journals, newspapers, magazines, South Africa cited in Meer and Campbell databases, government publications. The (2007:9) noted that the traditional leaders results of the study revealed that effective have a critical role to play in the organisation records management is an important tool of the society. It is through proper records for good governance and accountability. management that traditional leaders can According to Bless, Higson-Smith and be able to be held accountable and Sithole (2013:49) literature review enable promote good governance. the researcher to search the current Records management is one of the pillars writings that are relevant to the topic. It is of good governance because activities very clear from the literature that there is a of the government are based on easy consensus that properly managed records retrieval and free access of information that

576 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 is contained in records (Ngoepe & Van Der 3.2 Benefits of proper records management Walt 2009). Therefore Traditional Council 3.2.1 Promotion of good governance, trans- Offices are expected to comply with the parency and accountability best record keeping principles to ensure good governance and accountability. Archives have the power over the Furthermore, Meer and Campbell (2007) administrative, legal and accountability and Classens (2014) assert that the chiefs of government, and therefore the public are given the powers to adjudicate over should take park on matters regarding cases within their jurisdiction and they are protection of privacy, intellectual property also expected to oversee the provision and freedom of information (Schwartz & of service delivery to the community. The Cook 2002). The value of archives depends activities result with the records of case on proper recordkeeping systems and proceedings, the outcome of the cases, therefore properly managed record review of the cases, letters to the aggrieved enable the public to engage in public and to the defendants. All these activities debates which ensures good governance, form powerful records of the Traditional transparency and accountability. Council Offices which should be well According to Buenrostro (2010) records are managed and preserved. Traditional used by scholars to investigate how the Council Offices are also the custodians of organisations were managed citing maps, the culture of the history of the community. photographs and pictures as memories It is therefore important to keep records of the organisations. Buenrostro (2010:61) of the chieftaincy, regiments, genealogy, posits that court records, financial records poems and songs that are associated with and license records are examples of the the community. memory of government departments. Records must be authentic in order for Based on the importance of records that them to be regarded as proof of the true are kept at Traditional Council Offices it is activities of the organisation. By authentic it therefore important for the offices to have means the records must be unaltered and a file plan that will guide them on the best actually not being tempered with by any classification system.In their study of records person. The principle of Respect des fonds management in organisations, Shepherd is concerned with the original order in the and Yeo (2003) note that organisations creation of records. Millar (2010:101) argues are facing huge inflow of records. Though that the original order in the creation of most of the records are still in paper format the records is the one that can be used for the writers revealed that organisations evidential purposes, because it is authentic were receiving and creating records in and reliable. various formats like images, sound, moving images, photos and electronic. According Records are used by organisations and to Shepherd and Yeo (2013) organisations government including traditional leaders to such as government should be ready for monitor if the transactions that took place the hybrid system, because digital records are in line with the plan, and records also are at risk of unlawful destruction. guide organisations to check deviation from the plans. According to Woods

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 577 (2000:824) the International Monitory Fund people. The public will have confidence and the World Bank use good governance that the government is not hiding anything as a yard stick to issue loans to countries from them. of the world and they use records to Mukwevho and Jacobs (2012:34) point out monitor conditions with compliance by that record should be managed properly the countries. Otu, Bempah and Ohene so that they reflect the true transactions (2014:69) state that records are needed for that took place. Such records create a trust all aspects of the function of government between government and the public and which includes access to information. shows that government is accountable to The public has to access information its citizens. Mubangizi (2007:80) states that that is in records to protect their rights. governments are given the responsibilities Otu, Bempah and Ohene (2014:69) posit of delivering services to the people through that records promote good governance the building of roads, schools, clinics and through economic development, however water facilities. Records are key to manage poor records management affect public the process of monitoring such services. It is reforms by government which results the prerogative of government to provide in fraud and corruption. According to information to the community regarding Norwan, Mohamed and Chek (2011:207) procurements procedures though open records that are used correctly in financial public meetings and such information is reporting improves the relationship contained in records. between shareholders and management of companies. However, Ngoepe and According to Tukamuhabwa (2008:34) Ngulube (2014) revealed in their studies of public procurements attracts more attention governance in South African government from the public. Records managers should departments that records were not used by be robust in their monitoring compliance the departments to support auditing which of records management with government are the recipe for corruption. policies through the creations and management of records that are reliable Records of government assets should be and authentic. Government should also kept, maintained and managed properly; use records to account and report to the and the public should be aware of the public on the functions that they performed. existence of such records. Meijer (2001:260), However, Lekaba (2014:34) in the studies McLeods and Child (2007:216) opines that of service delivery protest in South Africa government will win trust and confidence of revealed that service delivery protests in the public through transparency. According South Africa rose from 10 in 2004 to 173 in to Kamatula (2010:157) a transparent 2012 with the government failing to provide government is the one that is able to auditors with proper financial records. provide reliable and authentic records to Furthermore, Tukamuhwaba (2008:37) the public. The records will assist the public states that Uganda failed to provide to understand what the government is statistics for audit due to the poor records doing. If government departments are able management. to provide sound records management principles then they will win the trust of the

578 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 3.2.2 Quick retrieval of records organisations fail to perform their functions due to poor records management. In The benefit of properly arranged records Uganda the government failed to account is quick retrieval. Makhura and Du Toit for millions of shillings because of the (2005:12) point out that properly arranged insufficient financial records that were records enable the organisation to have a presented to the financial auditors (Okello- free flow of information that is usable. The Obura, 2012:204). Fraud happens when subject-based and the function-based the officials fail to provide the required are the most commonly used system for records especially financial records that are records arrangement. According to Yusof needed by the financial auditors. Asogwa and Mokhtar (2015) the subject-based (2012:208) and Joseph, Debowski and has been used by the librarian for a long Goldschmidt (2012:63) point out that a lot of time and it is still in use. The subjects are money is paid by government on litigations then arranged alphabetically and the due to poor records management. The alphabetical arrangement relies more on Auditor General of South Africa revealed the names for filing. Franks and Kunde that poor records management resulted (2006:56) posit that metadata elements are with a number of unauthorised, wasteful structured in a manner that they describe, and irregular expenditure from a number explain and locate were the records are to of supply chains (Auditor General of South be found. According to Shepherd and Yeo Africa 2014). The reason is that records of (2003:89) and Kally, Schoeman and Burger the activities are not brought to the auditors (2005:129) metadata refers to the provision when the financial books are audited. of the whereabouts of the information sources. According to Shepherd and Yeo 4. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK (2003:90) metadata is used in the location of It is important to underpin this paper on both paper and electronic records. Cards a theoretical framework. According to are used for the creation of metadata of Kalusopa (2011:48) theoretical framework is paper records. Joseph, Debowiski and a set of interrelated concepts that structure Goldschmidt (2012:65) assert that metadata a systematic view of the phenomenon. is applied more easily in the electronic Furthermore, it is stated that the theoretical records. framework guides the researcher to provide 3.3 The impact of poor records management effective explanation from the findings of the research. In this study the researcher Poor records management in organisation will discuss three (3) theoretical frameworks, have far reaching implications. Below the technical framework, the life cycle are some of the consequences that framework and the record continuum organisations may face as a result of poor framework, and choose the best that is records management. suitable for records management practices 3.3.1 Poor records management, fraud and in traditional council office. corruption

According to Lungia’ho and Rotich (2014)

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 579 4.1 The technological framework for records the records management programme and forms part of the systems and procedures of Nengomasha (2009) in the study of records managing each phase of the life cycle of in Namibia posits that there has to be records. Furthermore Higgins (2008) states cooperation between records managers that the life cycle model requires that the and IT staff in order for the technological life stages of the record are identified and framework to succeed. Nengomasha planned. This should be done with the aim (2009) further states that training in the of implementing the necessary action, operation of electronic equipment to ensure maintenance of authenticity, is important for the success of the reliability and usability of the records. technological theory. Kalusopa (2011) posit that the migration to electronic records has 4.3 Records Continuum Theory resulted in hypermedia documents and The continuum view emerged from the these volumes of electronic records poses 1950’s. According to An (2003:1) came a huge challenge to the practice and with the idea that records managers were management of records. Kalusopa (2011) true archivists and that the record keeping further states that people react differently systems should embrace the archive work. to technology and therefore people An (2003:1) states that records continuum have to be psychologically ready for the aims for the development of record keeping adoption of e-records. According to the systems that are involved with capturing, Kalusopa (2011) technological framework management and maintenance of records. for records management requires training McKemmish (2015:2) and Yusof (2011) posit in the handling of ICT, and budget to afford that the record continuum theory is used the required facilities. Based on the study of by most scholars because it combines the Nengomasha (2009) and Kalusopa (2011) functions of the records managers and planning is important before a move is those of the archivist. Matangira, Katjieveri- made to the electronic records. Tjiuoro and Lukileni (2013) and Yusof (2011) 4.2 The life cycle of records state that the record continuum model is suited for the preservation of electronic According to McKemmish (2015:4) the records. life cycle process is similar to biological organism. With human life a child is born and 4.4 Choice of a theoretical framework for as a toddler the child depends on others the study for everything. Then the child develops Both the technological framework for into a teenager where life is personally electronic records and the record continuum experienced. The last period is for that child theory are based on electronic records. The to have a family and after a period there life cycle theory covers both the paper and comes a time for death. The same happens electronic records. It is for this reason that with the records. Records are created, the study to investigate the role of records maintained, used and then disappear. The management in promoting accountability disappearance of the records happen when and good governance adopted the life they are destroyed. According to Higgins cycle theory as the relevant model. This the life cycle process is the beginning of

580 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 model was found to be relevant and suitable transparent in the provision of services to for the study of the importance of records the public. A trusted tribal council office management in ensuring accountability is one that can demonstrate its account- and good governance. Ndemanyisho ability and transparency and is continu- (2014:491-494) posits that the life cycle ally striving to improve value delivery and theory has records creation, records increase cost-effectiveness. According organisation, records maintenance and to Records Management Policy Manual use, file tracking and storage, preservation (2007), the National Archivist of South Afri- and disposal. Matangira, Katjieveri-Tjiuoro ca is in charge of all records management and Lukileni (2013) note that the life cycle that are under governmental bodies. The model involves the records from its creation study reveals that Traditional Council Offic- and receipt, to the classification of such es are not complying with the policies from records, its maintenance and ultimately the National Archives Act and as such are its use. According to McKemmish (2015:4) cannot be accountable and lack good the life cycle concept describes records governance. in specified stages which are observable for a long period of time and the author further identifies stages in the life cycle 6. LIST OF REFERENCES concept as creation, maintenance, use, disposal, acquisition, description, and An, X. 2003. An Integrated Approach access. Furthermore McKemmish (2015:5) to Records Management. Information states that in the life cycle concept there is Management Journal. 5(3):24-30. a distinct difference between the functions Asogwa, BE. 2012. The challenge of the records managers and those of the of managing electronic records in archivists. Ngoepe (2008) argues that the developing countries. Implications for life cycle theory has been used mostly for records managers in sub Saharan Africa. paper records and that paper records Records Management Journal. 22(3):198- practices are still used by government 211. department and that volumes of paper records are still being created. Babie, E. 2010. The purpose of social research. Belmont: Cengage Learning. 5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Bailey, KD. 1978. Methods of social Traditional Council Offices operate just like research. New York: The free Press. the governments and are directly answerable to the public. Therefore, it is essential Bizana-Tutu, D. 2008. Traditional leadership for Traditional Council Offices to be trans- in South Africa; Yesterday, Today and parent and accountable to promote good tomorrow. Masters Dissertation. University governance. The results of the study re- of Western Cape. Cape Town. vealed that it is only though proper main- Bless, C. Higson-Smith, C. & Sithole, S L. tenance, creation, capture, distribution 2013. Fundamentals of social research and preservation of records that Traditional methods. An African Perspective. Council Offices can be accountable and Claremont: Juta & Company Ltd.

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584 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Notes and Assessment Tasks 2010. Pretoria. Records Management Journal. 15(2):98- Government Printer. 103.

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Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 585 ASSESSMENT OF PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM IN THE DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND CULTURE

NI Makamu and DM Mello

North-West University

ABSTRACT

Effective performance management system in the public sector is essential for the overall performance of public institutions. Organisations around the world use some kind of performance management system to manage their employees’ performance. The South Africa public service uses the performance management and development system to manage employees’ performance. As a result of the rapidly growing demands for services by the public, government employees in all departments are expected to perform at an optimal level in order to meet the growing public needs. The Public Service Commission (PSC) has since 2004 been monitoring and evaluating the performance management practices in the public service. While this study focused mainly on the operational employees of one Department, it is important to note that in most of the PSC reports, it was found that the overall implementation of the performance management and development system (PMDS) of senior management services (SMS) employees was unsatisfactory. This paper focuses on the National Department of Arts and Culture.

1. INTRODUCTION

South African government is the largest employer and the main provider of the public goods and services. A high standard of performance is expected from public servants by members of the public who rely solely on public goods and services. In the country review report of South Africa’s performance since 1994, the African peer review mechanism panel argues that South Africa suffers from a severe skills shortage. The ten-year review comes to one key conclusion about the performance of the democratic state and the Public Service: The architecture of the new democratic state is in place, yet many areas of service delivery require much improvement (Matshiqi 2007: 13). Grobler, Warnich, Carrell, Elbert & Hatfield (2011:293), define performance management as a process of evaluating how well employees perform their jobs when compared to a set of standards and then communicating that information to employees. With the introduction of the National Development Plan (NDP) 2030; the Department of Public Service and Administration is required to implement and

586 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 coordinate interventions aimed at achiev- within given community, groups or organi- ing an efficient, effective and development sations. During the time of the study (2015), oriented public service which is an essential the national Department of Arts and Cul- element of a capable and developmental ture had 521 staff members. A sample of state. As described in the NDP, there con- 15% (79) of operational staff members from tinues to be unevenness in capacity that salary level 3- 12 from the total population leads to uneven performance in the public were asked to fill in questionnaires. Vander- service DPSA‐2014/15 Annual Performance stoep & Johnston (2009:26) describe pop- Plan (APP). This paper presents a brief back- ulation as the universe of people to which ground, research method and design fol- the study could be generalised, and a sam- lowed to collect data. The paper further ple refers to the subset of people from the present and discusses the data collected population who will participate in the cur- from the national Department of Arts and rent study. The primary data was collect- Culture in 2015. This paper will focus on the ed by means of questionnaire. The type of assessment of the implementation of per- questionnaire adopted for data collection formance management and development was closed ended questionnaire. system in the National Department of Arts and Culture. The performance of employees in the public service can effectively be 3. PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF managed only if there are performance RESULTS standards in place directly linked to the system. The current performance manage- This section of the article presents the results ment and development system (PMDS) of the study. The following charts present was developed by DPSA with the purpose the collected and analysed data of the of ensuring that departments can have study. proper guidelines on how to manage the performance of individual employees and the organisation as a whole. There are 47 national government departments in South Africa. The analysis in this article focuses on the implementation of the performance management and development system in the National Department of Arts and Cul- ture.

2. THE RESEARCH METHOD AND DESIGN

Quantitative research approach was adopted in this study. Quantitative research is, according to Welman, et al., (2005:188) an essential description design which is used in investigations among individuals or groups

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 587 Figure 1: Gender

Figure 1 Reflects gender differences and results show that male (50.9%) dominates female (49.1%).

Figure 2: Contract type

Figure 2 reflects contract type differences. The majority of respondents were working on permanent basis with 92.5%, followed by workers who are interns (3.8%) and the fixed contract with 3.8% respectively. The chart reveals that the department is dominated by employees on permanent contract rather than fixed term contracts.

588 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Figure 3: Race

Figure 3 Reflects that 92.3% of respondents were black, followed by 3.8% of coloured and minority were white and Indian with 1.9%. South Africa as a country is dominated by black people, therefore the above chart reflects the demographic profile of South Africa.

Figure 4: Salary level

Figure 4 Reflects that majority(35.8%) of the employees are earning between 7 and 8 as well as 9 to 10 (35.8%) salary levels, followed by employees who are earning between 5 and 6 salary level with 20.8%, and minority earn between 3 and 4 salary levels with 3.8%.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 589 Figure 5. PMS as effective

The chart shows that 62.7% (6.8% & 55.9%) of the respondents agreed that the performance management and development system is effective in this department and it is yielding its desired results, while 32.2% (25.4% & 6.8%) disagreed with the statement, followed by those who indicated that they do not know constituted 5.1%. The chart reveals that the system in this department is working and majority of staff believes that it is yielding its desired results.

Figure 6: Challenges of PMS

The chart shows that 63.8% (24.1% & 39.7%) of the respondents agreed that there are many challenges associated with the management and implementation of the performance management and development system, while those who disagreed constituted 29.3% (27.6% & 1.7%), followed by those who do not know who constituted 6.9%. The chart reveals that most employees experience challenges regarding the management and implementation of the system.

590 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Figure 7:Support of PMS

The chart shows that 69.5% (13.6% & 55.9%) of the respondents agreed that managers and supervisors fully support the implementation of the performance management and development system in this department, while those who disagree constitute 25.4% (22% & 3.4%), followed by those who indicated that they do not know with 5.1%. The chart reveals that most managers and supervisors are doing their best to ensure that the system achieves its objectives in this department by providing full support on the implementation of the system.

Figure 8: Training of PMS on new and old staff

The chart shows that 71.2% (27.1% & 44.1%) of the respondents strongly agreed that training and orientation on performance management and development system is always provided to newly appointed and old staff members in order to improve their performance, while 20.4% (13.6% & 6.8%) of respondents disagree with the statement, followed by those who indicated that they do not know who constituted 8.5%.

Figure 9: Middle and Senior management and PMS

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 591 The study shows that at least 44.6% (10.7% & 33.9%) of the respondents agreed that middle management services and senior management services do their performance management contracting on time each financial year, while 33.9% of respondents indicated that they do not know, followed by the minority of 21.5% (16.1% & 5.4%) who disagreed with the statement.

Figure 10: Cases of grievances

The chart shows that 50.9% (11.9% & 39%) of the respondents agreed that there are many grievance cases which employees lodge due to the management and the implementation of the system in this department; some include reviewing challenges, and training and development, while on the other 20.1% (16.9% & 3.4%) of respondents disagree with the provided statement, followed by the last group with 28.8% of those who indicated that they do not know. The chart clear reveals that the department still need to perfect the way in which the system is being managed and implemented in order to ensure that the grievances which are lodged due to unsatisfactory by employees are minimised Figure 11: Units that supports PMS

592 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 The chart shows that 72.8% (20.3% & 52.5%) of the respondents strongly agreed that responsible units such as, Human Resource Development, Labour Relations, Human Resource Management provides full support during the implementation of the performance management and development system, while 17% (11.9% & 5.1%) of respondents disagree with the statement, followed by those who indicated that they do not know with small percentage of 10.2%. The chart reveals that the responsible units are doing their best by providing full support during the implementation of the system to ensure that employees are happy with all processes and also to ensure that the system’s objectives are met.

Figure 12: Capacity of supervisors to implement PMS

The above chart shows that 44.9% (5.2% & 39.7%) of the respondents agreed that the department has supervisors who are experts in the management and implementation of the performance management and development system, while those who disagree constituted 41.3% (29.3% & 12.%), followed by those who indicated that they do not know who constituted 13.8%. The chart reveals that lack of experts in this department might be another cause of challenges which employees experience and grievance which employees lodge due to poor management and implementation of the system.

Figure 13: PMS as time consuming

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 593 The above chart shows that 67.8% (18.6% & 49.2%) of the respondents disagreed that performance management and development system is time consuming and hinders the productivity of supervisors to perform other functions which contribute to service delivery, while 28.8% (16.9% & 11.9%) agreed that management and implementation of the system is truly time consuming and hampers the productivity of the supervisors, followed by those who indicated that they do not know whether it is time consuming or not who constituted 3.4%. The chart reveals that most employees understand the need for performance management and development system in their department and also its contribution towards effective service delivery.

Figure 14: Employees satisfaction with PMS

The chart shows that 57.6% (33.9% & 23.7%) of the respondents disagreed that employees are happy with the management and implementation of the performance management and development system in this department, while on the other hand 27.% (22% & 5.1%) respondents agreed, followed by those who indicated that they do not know with 15.3%..

Figure 15: Managers biasness in reviewing PMS

594 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 The chart shows that 48.3% (13.8% & 34.5%) of the respondents agreed that managers and supervisors are biased when reviewing/assessing employee’s performance, while those who disagree constituted 29.3% (20.7% & 8.6%), followed by those who indicated that they do not know with 22.4%. The chart reveals that training is still required for most of supervisor and managers to ensure that they fully understand the negative impact they cause on employees personal life when they are bias when evaluating their performance.

Figure 16: Immediate Reviews and Moderating Committees

The chart shows that 75.4% (17.5% & 57.9%) of the respondents strongly agreed that the department has the intermediate review and departmental moderating committee which is responsible for reviewing the employees’ performance against the department’s performance at the end of each financial year, while on the other hand 19.3% of respondents indicated that they do not know, followed by 5.3% (3.5% & 1.8%) who disagreed with the provided statement. The chart reveals that this department has the performance intermediate committee and departmental moderating committee but not all employees in the department are aware of the existence of these committees.

Figure 17: Appraising of employees as a challenge

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 595 The chart shows that at least 40% (35.1% & 4.9%) of the respondents disagreed that appraising of employees using the current performance management and development system is a challenge due to lack of training and support from the responsible units, while on the other hand 38.9% (31.6% & 7.3%) agree that surely performing this task is a challenge due to lack of training, followed by those who indicated that they do not know who constituted 21.1%. The chart reveals that not all employees are trained adequately to understand the performance appraisal process by the responsible units. More training is required to ensure that supervisor have adequate skills when assessing employees performance as this could reduce grievances lodged by employees due to poor implementation of the system and biasness by supervisor and managers due to lack of knowledge and skills

Figure 18: Linking employee performance with organisational performance

The chart shows that 71.2% (13.6% & 57.6%) of the respondents strongly agreed that employee’s performance is linked with the organizational performance, while on the other hand 23.7% (18.6% & 5.1%) disagreed with statement, followed by 5.1% of those who indicated that they do not know. The chart reveals that the system working in this department, however, it has not achieved its full potential. Figure 19: PMS improving employee performance

596 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 The chart reveals that 60.4% (13.8% & 46.5%) of the respondents agreed that the current performance management and development system helps employees improve their performance, while 32.8% (19% & 13.8%) disagreed with statement, followed by the last group who indicated that they do not know with 6.9%.

Figure 20: Managers and subordinates supports

The chart shows that 53.4% (10.3% & 43.1%) of the respondents agreed that managers and supervisors are very supportive to their subordinate with regards to their personal developmental plans (PDP’s), while on the other hand 41.4% of respondents disagreed with the provided statement, followed by those who indicated that they do not know who constituted 5.2%. The chart reveals that although there are managers and supervisors who are supportive to employee’s personal developmental plans, but there are some employees who are not receiving the same treatment from their supervisors which might be the cause of some of the challenges which employees encounter when implementing this system.

Figure 21: Goals and outcomes

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 597 According to the above chart the study reveals that 71.2% (28.8% & 42.4%) of the respondents strongly agreed that their job description provides clear goals and outcomes expected from me by my supervisor regarding performance, which is a good thing, while on the other hand 28.8% (20.3% & 8.5%) disagree with the statement. The chart reveals that managers and supervisors are playing their role by providing clear goals and outcomes for their employees which helps employees understand and know exactly what they are expected to do in order for the organisation to achieve its intended results. Figure 23: Training and refresher courses

The chart shows that 59% (16.1% & 42.9%) of the respondents agreed that training and refresher courses on the procedure and processes to be followed during the implementation of this system are conducted every year, while 21.4% (19.6% &1.8%) disagree with the statement, followed by 19.6% respondents who indicated that they do not know. The chart reveals that not all employees benefit the same from the training and refresher courses which are made available for employees on the procedures and processes to be followed during the implementation phase. Figure 24: Managers and supervisor supports

598 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 The chart shows that 84.2% (29.8% & 54.3%) of the respondents strongly agreed that managers and supervisors also need full support from their subordinate when managing and implementing the system in order to get better results for both individual employees and the organization as a whole, while on the other hand 10.6% (8.8% & 1.8%) of respondents disagreed with the provided statement, followed by the last group who indicated that they do not know who constituted 5.3%. The chart reveals that employees understand that their managers and supervisors need their support in order to ensure that they achieve the objective of the system and get better results for themselves and the organisation as a whole. Figure 25: PMS for developmental purpose

The above chart shows that 77.1% (12.3% & 64.8%) of the respondents strongly agreed that the main purpose of the performance management and development system adopted by this department is for both decision making purposes and developmental purpose, while those who disagree constituted 17.6% (8,8% & 8,8%), followed by those who indicated that they do not know who constituted 5.3%. The chart reveals that performance management and development system in this department was primarily adopted for the purpose of decision making and employee development.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 599 Figure 26: PMS to be amended

The study shows that 77.6% (27.6% & 50%) of the respondents strongly agreed that the current performance management and development system need to be amended or re-designed in order to meet the organization’s goals in today’s rapidly changing environment, while on the other hand 13.8% disagree with the statement, followed by those who indicated that they do not know who constituted 8.6%. The chart reveals that employees believe that if the current system can be redesigned better results could be achieved.

4. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

The demographic analysis of the participants in the study reveals that 92.3% of respondents’ were black, followed by 3.8% of coloured and minority were white and Indian with the same percentage of 1.9%. The majority (35.8%) of the employees were between 7 and 8 and 9 and 10 (35.8%) salary levels, followed by employees who were on salary levels 5 to 6 with 20.8%, and minority were between salary levels 3 and 4 with 3.8%. Lastly those working on permanent basis constituted 92.5%, followed by those on internship (3.8%) and the fixed contract with 3.8%.

The second section of analysis focused on the general questions of the implementation of the performance management and development system (PMDS). The study reveals that 62.7% (6.8% & 55.9%) of the respondents believe that the PMDS is effective, 32.2% (25.4% & 6.8%) disagree with the statement, 5.1% stated that they do not know. 63.8% (24.1% & 39.7%) of the employees indicated that there are many challenges associated with the management and implementation of the PMDS, 29.3% (27.6% & 1.7%) disagreed followed by those who do not know who constituted 6.9%. The analysis reveals that even though the system is working, there are still many challenges associated with the way in which supervisors and managers implement the system in this department.

The study further shows that 69.5% (13.6% & 55.9%) argues that managers and supervisors fully support the implementation of the PMDS, while 25.4% (22% & 3.4%) disagree, and those who do not know with 5.1%. Majority 72.8% (20.3% & 52.5%) of employees believes that responsible units such as, Human Resource Development, Labour Relations, Human Resource Man-

600 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 agement provides full support during the (16.9% & 11.9%) employees believe that the implementation of the performance man- management and implementation of the agement and development system, while system is truly time consuming. 17% (11.9% & 5.1%) disagree and those who do not know with little percentage of 10.2%. 71.2% (27.1% & 44.1%) believe that training Majority 57.6% (33.9% & 23.7%) of employ- and orientation on PMDS is always provid- ees are not happy with the management ed to newly appointed and old staff mem- and implementation of the PMDS, 27% (22% bers in order to improve their performance, & 5.1%) are happy and 15.3% which (some 20.4% (13.6% & 6.8%) disagree and 8.5% do of whom are interns) indicated that they not have a clue if that is happening. do not know. The other factor which is the cause of employee dissatisfaction is that 48.3% (13.8% & 34.5%) of employees believe Based on these analyses it is evident that that managers and supervisors are biased managers and supervisor are doing their when assessing employee’s performance, best to ensure that the system achieves its 29.3% (20.7% & 8.6%) disagree and 22.4% objectives. At least 44.6% (10.7% & 33.9%) state that they do not know. argues that middle management services and senior management services do their performance management contracting on The study further shows that 75.4% (17.5% & time each financial year, while 33.9% state 57.9%) employees agreed that the depart- that they do not know, and 21.5% (16.1% ment has the intermediate review and de- & 5.4%) disagreed with the statement. Re- partmental moderating committees, while spondents still argues that there are many 19.3% indicated that they do not know, and grievances cases lodged due to the poor 5.3% (3.5% & 1.8%) disagreed. At least 40% management and the implementation of (35.1% & 4.9%) of employee disagree that the system, 20.1% (16.9% & 3.4%) disagree appraising of employees using the current and 28.8% indicated that they do not know. PMDS is a challenge due to lack of train- The other contributing factor to poor man- ing and support from the responsible units, agement and implementation results from 38.9% (31.6% & 7.3%) agree that appraising lack of experts to manage the system with is a challenge due to lack of training, and 44.9% (5.2% & 39.7%) of employees who those who said they do not know constitut- provides that lack of experts contribute to ed 21.1%. Linking employees’ performance most of the challenges which they face in with the departmental performance is an- the department, 41.3% (29.3% & 12.%) dis- other key factor to success while using the agree, and those who do not know con- PMDS to assess their performance and stitute 13.8%. Employees understand the 71.2% (13.6% & 57.6%) of employees claim need of the PMDS as 67.8% (18.6% & 49.2%) that they are doing it while the other em- disagreed that PMDS is time consuming ployees disagree and those who do not and hinders the productivity of supervisors know constitute 5.1%. to perform other functions which contribute to service delivery. However some 28.8%

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 601 Majority 60.4% (13.8% & 46.5%) of employ- 10.6% (8.8% & 1.8%) do not support that ees believe that the current PMDS helps and those who do not know constituted employees improve their performance, 5.3%. The study reveals that 77.1% (12.3% while 32.8% (19% & 13.8%) disagree and & 64.8%) agreed that the main purpose of those who claim they do not know consti- the PMDS adopted by the department is tuted 6.9%. It further reveals that majority for both decision making purposes and de- 53.4% (10.3% & 43.1%) of employees stat- velopmental purpose, 17.6% (8,8% & 8,8%) ed that managers and supervisors are very disagree and those who do not know con- supportive to their subordinate with regards stituted 5.3%. Lastly, majority 77.6% (27.6% to their personal developmental plans & 50%) of participants agreed that the cur- (PDP’s), while 41.4% disagree and those rent PMDS need to be re-designed in order who indicated that they do not know con- to meet the organization’s goals in today’s stituted 5.2%. 71.2% (28.8% & 42.4%) agreed rapidly changing environment, 13.8% dis- that their job description provides clear agreed those do not know constituted goals and outcomes expected from them 8.6%. It is evident that majority of employ- by their supervisors regarding performance; ees believe that the current system cannot however 28.8% (20.3% & 8.5%) disagree. It is achieve its goals unless it is redesigned to evident that managers and supervisors are meet the needs of the employees who are playing their role by providing clear goals managed by the same system. and outcomes for their employees which helps employees understand and know exactly what they are expected to do in or- 5. CONCLUSION der for the organisation to achieve its goals. This article analysed the current state of the implementation and management of the performance management and develop- Training and refresher courses on the implement system in the Department of Arts and mentation and procedures of PMDS is one Culture. Based on the analysed results, it is of the most fundamental elements in order clear that majority of employees are not to ensure that the employees understand happy with the management and imple- the process to follow when adhering to the mentation of the system. Issues such as lack system policy. 59% (16.1% & 42.9%) of em- of experts, biasness and poor support from ployees argue that training and refresher managers with regards to addressing their courses do take place during the course of personal developmental plan contribute the year, while some 21.4% (19.6% &1.8%) a lot towards their unhappiness. Employ- disagree followed by 19.6% of those who ees believes that in order for the system to said they do not know. Majority of employ- achieve its goals it needs to be redesigned ees 84.2% (29.8% & 54.3%) understand that to meet the needs not just only to focus on managers and supervisors also need full meeting the organisational goals by using support from them when managing and the very same employees who are not hap- implementing the system in order to get py with how the system is being managed. better results for both individual employees and the organization as a whole, while

602 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 LIST OF REFERENCES

Grobler, P, Warnich, S, Carrell R.M, Elbert F.N & H. D Robert. 2011. Human Resource Man- agement in South Africa. Cengage Learning. USA

Matshiqi, A.2007. Public service performance. Towards a better life for all: Vol 20 No 5. South Africa. JHB

Public Service Commission, 2014. Report on the roundtable discussion on the improper management of the performance management and development system (PMDS) which leads to grievances in the public service. Available at: https//www.psc.gov.za/documents/reports/2015/PMDSRound- tableReport3feb15Final.pdf

Vanderstope, W. S and J D Deirdre (2009) Research Methods for everyday life. Bleding qualitative and quantitative approaches. Jossey-Bass: San Francisco

Welman C, Kruger F & Mitchell B .2005. Research methodology. Oxford: Cape Town

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 603 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN PURSUING GENDER PARITY IN THE DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT, LIMPOPO PROVINCE M Mokomane,

Sekoko Coal Mine

M Rachidi

University of Limpopo

ABSTRACT

This paper investigated how transformational leadership can be used to pursue gender parity in the Department of Social Development, Sekhukhune District. A large volume of literature reveals that transformational leadership motivates and develops both the leader and the follower. This paper argues that senior management levels are still mostly held by men who cannot adopt transformational leadership to pursue gender parity within organisations. Since there are fewer women in senior managerial positions, most women tend not to apply for senior posts as they do not have role models, coaches, supporters or mentors. Hence, women are based in lower administrative and human resources positions. The study is qualitative in approach and uses literature to argue that transformation in the Depart- ment of Social Development is taking place at a snail’s pace. Furthermore, it expresses that leadership plays an important role in setting the direction and tone for women empowerment in the Department of Social Development. Literature has shown that women are faced with multiple challenges that hold them back, compared to their male counterparts who have a lot of growth opportunities.

Keywords: Gender parity, Equity, Transformation, Leadership.

1. INTRODUCTION

Transformational leaders bring out the best in every follower which ultimately make the followers to become more committed and satisfied (Hickman, 2010: 77). These followers are essence of the organization and their full involvement enables their abilities to be used for the organization’s benefit. Furthermore, the followers’ individual needs and personal developments are encouraged. According to Hickman (2010), transformational leadership involves inspiring followers to cherish and share their potential aligning it to vision and goals of the organization. Moreover, transformation leaders stimulate followers intellectually; lift their moral and developing innovative problem solvers through coaching, monitoring and sup-

604 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 port. An individualized consideration com- difficult for women to imagine themselves ponent as outlined by also Hickman (2010: in higher positions. 78), stresses that colleagues and followers Coffman, Gadiesh and Miller (2010) ob- develop their potential successfully through served that women enter the workforce in individual coaching and monitoring. Like- large numbers, but over time steadily disap- wise, Jacobsen (2011) maintains that gen- pear from the higher echelons of the organ- der inequality pervades the world and that isations’ hierarchical structures because a lot still has to be done to rectify this anom- organisations are still not convinced of the aly. Nevertheless, governments have come business case for gender parity. Hence with a number of interventions and policies men still occupy most senior positions in or- to address gender inequality and to bring ganisations. There is limited information on about transformation in organisations. How- why women are not being given equal op- ever, change has taken place at a snail’s portunities as their male counterparts in or- pace. For this reason, the study proposes ganisations and if organisations are resisting transformational leadership as one of the change or not. Organisations deprive the interventions to be considered in address- country of leadership expertise that could ing gender parity in the Department of So- have been tapped from female leaders. cial Development in Sekhukhune District. Furthermore, girls that are still growing will South African organisations have to trans- not have enough mentors or role models to form so that they can benefit from the ex- emulate and the vicious cycle will continue. pertise that is brought about by diverse workforce, especially women. Blackburn & Jarman (2005) notes that gender ste- 2. OVERVIEW OF GENDER AND TRADITIONS reotypes result into gender segmentation within the organization. Smaller percent- Socialisation encourages men and women age of women within the organization has to adopt gender roles and hold them as lower chances of reaching the top. Despite personal ideas for themselves or see them the rising number of women within the la- as a way of living, enhancing and support bour market, women still face difficulties in patriarchy and its structures and thus sanc- reaching the top, particularly in male-dom- tion women’s oppression, Valerio (2009). inated organizations. Unfortunately, in fe- According to Patel (2010), gender roles male-dominated organizations, men still are upheld whereby men are viewed to hold top positions. Altman et al. (2005) ex- be heads of the household and breadwin- plains that with the current changing world, ners while women do all domestic work and legislature assist women to penetrate into childcare. Gender continues to be social- the managerial position. Women are slowly ly constructed, whereby different gender moving from lower and middle manage- roles expectations and responsibilities are ment level positions to senior positions. Thus attached to women and men. Further- far, women are underrepresented in senior more, gender roles led to how jobs were management level (Nielsen & Huse (2010). distributed across the world, Chin and Trim- Valerio (2009), emphasises that the scarcity ple (2015; 199). Society judges men through of women in senior positions makes it more

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 605 their career advancement. When men are the loss and profit of the organisation. secondary careerists they are deemed to During mid-1960 women grew into the have taken a negative move (Hutching & knowledge-based and service economy Michailova, 2014). reaching 40% workforce, at the time So- Women suffer from prejudice, a wide dis- cial Work, Teaching and Nursing where the parity exist between men and women only professions emphasized, Patel (2016). with men frequently enrolled with careers From 2008, there were more women than that are heavy duty such as engineering ever before in the workplace (Valerio 2009: while women are enrolled in careers which 14). Hills (2015) cited Robinson (2014) stat- are caring in nature, such as Social Work, ing that women in South Africa’s Parliament Teaching and Nursing, (Hills :2015). Accord- increased from 2.7 per cent to 27 per cent ing to Hickman (2010), women are culturally immediately after 1994 elections. In 1999, associated with communal qualities, which it increased to 30 per cent, 33 per cent in express caring, helpfulness, friendly, sym- 2004 and 44 per cent after 2009 elections. pathetic and kind, just to mention a few. For this reason, South Africa’s legislature Furthermore, women are occupationally had become among the top ten most re- discriminated against, as they are predomi- productive in the world. The Women Em- nant in jobs of inferior status, and with fewer powerment and Gender Equality (WEGE) women present in the managerial positions. Bill has been seen as a prospective law in Hoobler, Lemmon and Wayne (2011: 152), South Africa which aims at forcing all or- explains that men and women are differ- ganisations, corporations and government ent: men prefer high stakes environment of departments to have 50 per cent women senior management, while women choose on their decision-making bodies. The Con- environment with lesser challenges. These stitution of South Africa, Act No 108 of 1996, explanations are stated to the role testos- acknowledges equality between men and terone plays in male risk-taking and the women.in addition, the Employment Equity role oxytocin and empathy play in wom- Act No 55 of 1998 introduces affirmative ac- en choice of career choice. Women tried tion for designated groups. The law made to reach gender parity, sadly their genetic it clear that discrimination in employment makeup won out in the end. The differenc- on the basis of sex, race, colour, religion es in career achievement are motivated and national origin is unlawful. While much by natural differences between men and progress has been made in overcoming women. Hoobler, Lemmon and Wayne apartheid policies and in adopting new (2011), outlines that individuals tend to as- macro social policies with high impacts, sociate male characteristics with leader- shortfalls exist in implementing the policies, ship positions. Unfortunately, women are Patel (2015). not considered to have good leadership Although there is legislation accessible for skills and do not suit senior management all organisations, most organisations are ig- positions. Therefore women are marginal- norant of it. In some organisations, there are ised into functions such as administrative developments of employment equity plans services and human resource not on posi- which are yet not implemented. Generally, tions where they can take responsibilities for

606 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 some organisations do not put much effort agentic, they are criticized for lack of com- into implementing available legislation and munion. Either way, they still do not portray policies in place(Hills, 2015). According to qualities for a managerial position. When a Hoobler, Lemmon and Wayne (2011: 152) woman is assertive, subordinates take it as family-work conflict bias refers to “just be- being cheeky yet would receive it better if ing a women signals to a manager that her it came from a male manager, Patel (2016). family will interfere with her work, irrespec- When women leaders are firm it is taken as tive of whether or not that woman actually a correct way for a leader to speak but in- has children of a certain age”. Nowadays correct for a woman to speak. Women are the family-work conflict is obvious. -More labelled “control freaks” when speaking over, women head the majority of single up, yet men are labelled as “passionate” parent households, and remain responsible for the same reason. Disturbingly, women’s for greater parenting duties in most two-par- assertive behaviour appears to lessen their ent households, therefore not forming part chances of getting a job or escalating in of the ideal manager who is available to their career, (Hickman: 2010). stay late, come in early and sacrifice for the According to Chin and Trimple (2015), wom- company. en managers are often expected to take Women who bring their children to near charge and lead like their male colleagues site childcare facilities may make their roles yet at the same time expect them to be as mothers more noticeable to their supe- caring and nurturing as culturally expected. riors, which may require the women work Furthermore, they are expected to impress schedule flexibility to accommodate - fam others as good leaders and as good wom- ily responsibilities which conflicts with the en. The challenges of having to overcome ideal manager’s expectations, Hoobler, the biasness of being labelled as “too mas- Lemmon and Wayne (2011: 154). When culine” or “too famine” lead women man- women have the responsibility to balance agers to a relatively androgynous style that dual roles, one role tends to be prioritized, incorporates both masculinity-feminine ap- (Hutchings and Michailova : 2014). Gender proaches. Women managers experience boundaries among other challenges faced pressure of meeting expectation of being by women result in tension between family caring in and out of their homes. While and marital status which leads to women on the other hand, men managers focus holding their career to prioritize their mar- on themselves and regard other things as riage. Women begin to be doubted once beyond their control, therefore this leaves they become mothers as they sacrifice for them with no pressure experienced. their marriage more than men do, according to Hutchings and Michailova (2014: 24). Hickman (2010: 442) stated that women According to Mor Barak (2011), women are leaders find it difficult to be accepted in preferred to solve work-related conflicts by leadership positions as they find themselves compromising and negotiating with others, in a double blind. When highly communal yet men are preferred to be assertive, am- they are criticized for not being agentic bitious and competitive, mostly confron- enough. On the other hand, when highly tation is common in resolving conflicts. For

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 607 this reason, masculine-femininity studies led and such implies that there are few experi- a goal to achieve equality between men enced women mentors to females in lower and women. Chin and Trimple (2015) cited organizational hierarchy. Ghei and Nebel (1994) enlightened that ef- According to Hickman (2010), due to their fective managers use both masculine and role in the non-work domain women tend feminine approach to resolve conflict, de- to have less time to socialize with col- pending on the circumstances. Hoobler, leagues and building professional networks. Lemmon and Wayne (2011: 151) showed Fast-tracking managers spend more time that women at lower and middle man- and efforts into socializing and networking agement positions have improved; howev- with outsiders than did their less success- er, the same cannot be said about senior ful counterparts. Additionally, networking management positions. Underrepresenta- is more necessary to management career tion of women in senior leadership is prob- advancement. Even when given enough lematic for several reasons. Lack of women time, women find it difficult to network if on senior management indicates to wom- they are in minority. Breaking into hard en at lower management that aspiring to masculine networks makes it harder. Fami- a senior management is untenable. Since ly-work conflict bias has been found to be men are at senior positions responsible for a reason for women’s underrepresentation recruitment, attainment and development, in senior management, Hoobler, Lemmon it will take long to have women in senior po- and Wayne (2011). Likewise, Valerio (2009: sitions. 89) explains that women candidates often According to Hills (2015: 165) there is also find themselves on the glass cliff, appointed a challenge of women at the top not sup- to senior management positions when the porting others. At times, men tend to as- organisation is experiencing greater risk. sist women to the top yet women kick the When the risk occurs, they must face the ladder down for other women preventing consequences, blame and criticism. them from using the same ladder to get to According to Hoobler, Lemmon and Wayne the top position. Hills (2015: 165) also men- (2011) when enough women are in the pipe- tioned the issue of women being jealous line, they will eventually hold senior man- of one another stating that “Anyone who agement positions which may be equal to has not experienced jealousy at the office men. According to the National Center for is either lying or in deep denial”, cultural Education Statistics, there were many wom- jealousy is highly common among women en who graduated with higher degrees yet in the organizations. Moreover, highly qual- only a few women hold senior manage- ified and experienced women may not ment positions. Women have gained the apply for senior positions, Hickman (2010). requisite experience and education, yet not Furthermore, it is stated that women take on senior positions. Nevertheless, Hickman a slow pace in breaking through the glass (2010: 441), states that even in occupations ceiling when it comes to senior manage- such as Librarianship, Social Work, Teaching ment positions; this is due to concrete wall and Nursing dominated by women, men barrier (Valerio, 2009). Unfortunately wom- ascent to higher position more quickly than en are underrepresented in senior positions

608 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 women. Organisational policies enables not realise that childcare care provided by women to have more family responsibility mothers has increased compared to previ- leaves such as paid maternity leave which ous generations and despite the fact that lead to women working less hours that the fathers had also increased time in child men counterpart. Indirectly, organization caring. Even though fathers are involved policies benefiting women have unintend- in domestic work, family-work conflict has ed consequences of stigmatizing women’s not yet eased for women. Moreover, much career path, Hoobler, Lemmon and Wayne pressure has been offset for intensive par- (2011). According to Valerio (2009), even enting and increasing time for career posi- into the 1960s, it was acceptable for wom- tion or escalation. Budlender (2008) stressed en to work yet stop working during preg- that women spent more time on care work nancy and stay at home to raise children. than men in South Africa which is not un- Moreover, unlike before, families consist- usual internationally. Governments all over ed of five or more children. From the 1960s the world have been continuously engag- contraceptives were introduced and chil- ing in discussions on the best approach to dren were planned and reduced, which be used to increasing women’s represen- brought more women into the workforce. tation in leadership positions (Hills, 2015). Women multiple roles reduce experience Furthermore, efforts have been imposed and development leading to reducing by legislation on gender quotas. Organiza- their chances of managerial advancement tions are encouraged to include women in compared to men (Tharenou, 2005). their decision making team and non-complying organizations in their annual report Valerio (2009) argues that the challenge of must provide reason why they had fallen maintaining dual roles does not only affect short and explain what they plan to do. women. She explains that most recently, Hills (2015:154) argued that since 2013 there younger generation of fathers are now inhave been developments in Germany, volved in domestic responsibilities and the leading to legislation being adopted equal upbringing of their children. Most men strug- participation on both men and women in gle as well to integrate a leadership position managerial positions in private and pub- and being a father. Furthermore, child-car- lic services. Moreover, it is explained that ing is no longer a women’s work, men are Australia, Britain and Sweden governments also involved. The focus on the restructuring have to impose quotas if organizations do of domestic work and childcare is a positive not appoint more women managers vol- developmental movement encouraged by untarily. South Africa has performed well in organizations such as Sonke Gender Justice the global movement towards closing the Network that promotes gender equality. gender gap. However, such organizations do not take single parents into account, which has become a reality in South African families. Not 3. CULTURE only children are cared for, relatives, the sick and older persons are included. Jyrkinen (2014: 176) states that “senior managerial positions are traditionally held by Hickman (2010: 444), states that people do older men, and many women’s careers

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 609 stagnated in middle management already county’s constitution. The government and at an early stage”. It becomes clear that judicial system have endlessly upheld the culture builds a leadership character in rights to women against oppressive cultural men from an earlier stage. Furthermore, practices. Despite of the efforts placed by Chin and Trimple (2015), mention that cul- the government, women still continue to be tural factors influence individual percep- oppressed by a number of cultural norms tions and organizational culture. Moreover, and believe practiced and to some extent it has been outlined that men are more religious practices as well. South Africa has likely to demonstrate laissez-faire leaders, a rich heritage which is unique among oth- often absent and uninvolved until prob- er countries, giving good identity and tra- lems become severe before intervening. In ditional recognition. Society judges men contrast, women are involved, encourag- through their career advancement. When ing and rewarding appropriate behaviours. men are secondary careerists they are For today’s changing global organizations, deemed to have taken a negative move, a transformational style is suitable as coun- (Hutching and Michailova :2014). Prov- tries put equity in their governance. De- erbs such as ‘’Ya etwa keya tshadi pele, spite the fact that world-wide countries put ya wela ka leopeng’’ (those who are led equity as one of their governance women by a female leader fall into dongas). This are still held back by the following multifac- proverb does not promote women lead- eted challenges: ership. It reflects how women leadership is not supported nor given recognition. Ac- 3.1 Domestic and cultural practices cording to Valerio (2009: 80), when women “Whether you are a man or woman, you show behaviours that are outside prescrip- are affected everyday by decisions made tive gender norms, they are turned to be by leaders in organization”, Valerio (2009: disliked. For this reason, women encounter 11). Historically and culturally, most of these resistance in leadership by others. When it decisions have been made by male lead- comes to leadership behaviours, people ers. Egan and Bendrick (1994) explain that are more exceptive to men behavioural men are at a decision making position that latitude than those portrayed by women. are affecting women’s career. Managers (decision makers) depend on the interview, whether they like the applicant and their 3.2 Limited pool of women who possess gut reaction. For this reason, it is argued that the required skills men give recommendations that favour According to Hills (2015), there are limited them. “Decision makers often assume that women who possess leadership require- mothers have domestic responsibilities that ment skills and talents to operate in the make it inappropriate to promote them to corporate environment effectively. Most demanding positions”, Hickman (2010: 444). women in the organization do not qualify Valerio (2009)noted that although the Con- to be appointed into management lev- stitution of South Africa, 1996 guarantees el as they have not yet acquired skills that the right to equality, established cultural can make them probable to be managers. norms and beliefs are often at odds with the Moreover, Hutchings and Michailova (2014:

610 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 28) cited Miller et al., 2004 explaining that than equally qualified men when applying Human Capital theory states that “people for jobs that are stereotypically believed to are awarded for their previous investment belong to male, such as leadership roles. in education and training”. The theory sug- Moreover it has been discovered that at gests that women have less human capital times leadership hiring criteria are adjusted to contribute in the labour market. In con- to advantage men. Hmurovic furthermore trast, women who have invested in their ed- reveals that there is biasness in hiring wom- ucation, spending years building their ca- en for leadership positions. Valerio (2009), reers and therefore fit in the management states that the notion that it was too risky to profiles have a desire to follow or have employ women as they will leave their job to followed an entrepreneurship path and raise their children contributed to the gen- had created their own companies. Valerio der biasness in hiring. Furthermore, “gender (2009:15), these talented women start their stereotypes are commonly described along own businesses, “where their entrepreneur- lines of agency and commonality” Acar ship allows them flexibility and freedom.” (2015: 225). Agency involves traits such as aggressive, dominant, self-confident and likely to act as a leader. Women face gen- 3.3 Women not taking ownership der bias through stereotypes resulting to unequal treatment. Acker (2010) outlines that Women are supported by the legislature stereotyping and prejudicing women result and the government has a number of pro- in unequal treatment. Furthermore, women grammes aimed at developing women and experience problems establishing rapport achieving gender parity. However, women and lack of support as managers. Accord- are not doing enough to succeed to climb ing to Hickman (2010: 441), men still have the leadership ladder and command re- benefits of faster promotions and higher spect in the boardroom, Hills (2015: 164). wages. Furthermore, it is noted that promo- Moreover, women not like men, argue less tion comes slowly for women compared for higher salaries or performance reviews to their male counterpart with equivalent and argue for promotions. Most women are qualification. fearful of removing obstacles and not confident enough to break barriers. Ultimately, Rein (2009) disputed that women often women hold themselves back in their ca- complain about the glass ceiling but more reers. Hutchings and Michailova (2014: 22), often it is their fault when they do not get cited fischlmayr (2002), report that women promoted, they simply do not ask for a pro- knowingly behave in accordance to ste- motion or a raise in a salary as often as men reotypical expectations and therefore por- do. They believe that if they continue to put tray low self-esteem. more effort into their work and be loyal to the organisations, they will be recognised and get promoted; unfortunately that strat- 3.4 Gender Bias in hiring egy does not always work. Women should learn to be vocal about their achieve- Hills (2015) cited Hmurovic 2012, explaining ments, be visible and be as demanding as that women are evaluated less positively their male counterparts.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 611 3.5 Pay parity: the remuneration inequal- thought and experience which becomes ity a good reputation of the organization. Therefore, appointing women in leadership Hickman (2010) expresses that women still position is a good and smart business and earn lower than men. According to the a proactive image for the organization. World Economic Forum (2013), South Af- Women face many challenges attaining rica still has the element of sexist leading leadership position and even after attain- to a patriarchal society. It is revealed that ing the positions, Acar (2015). Recently, women still earn less than their male coun- most women have been working towards terparts on average. The 2013 statistics re- breaking through the glass ceiling to attain vealed that South African women earn at leadership positions. Unfortunately they still least 33 per cent less than their male coun- face challenges after breaking through the terparts for the same work. Valenrio (2009) glass ceiling. Acar (2015: 224) cited Haslam aligns with what had been stated by the & Ryan, 2008 and Bruckmuller, Ryna, Rink & Word Economic Forum (2013) mentioning Haslam, 2014 arguing that challenges such that it is reality that payments among men as the absence of mentoring and coach- and women are still unequal. Budlender ing, work-family challenges, glass cliff pre- and Francis (2014) confirm that women vent women from rising in the corporation earn less than men counterparts although based on their gender. at the same educational level. Transformational leadership is supported by “No country in the world has yet achieved a large volume of literature which reveals equality between men and women” Hills, that most women more successful than (2015: 173). According to the World Eco- men in transformational leadership. Policies nomic Forum’s Global Gender Gap report had been placed, therefore is becomes es- (2013), majority of the countries made slow sential for organizations to implement legis- progress on closing the gender inequality lature to help equalize the leadership field gap. It has been placed on record that and balance the gender inequality in the Scandinavian countries make the most workplace. A woman manager could be progress followed by Finland and Norway, delegated the role to lead a transforma- being the top three. Nevertheless, South Af- tion leadership approach that would in- rica is one of the top twenty countries. The volve mentoring, coaching and support as year 2009, South Africa was ranked 06th and well as conveying the massage to the staff dropped to 12th in 2010. However, South Af- that has a transformational focus. Transfor- rica is ranked higher than developed coun- mational leadership is a skill that can be tries such as United States, United Kingdom developed and fostered in followers. It can and Germany. therefore serve a role of a touch-barer to help equalize the transformational leadership gender imbalance which is currently 4. CONCLUSION impeding gender parity progress in the cur- According to literature, organisations with rent global economy. women in leadership value diversity of

612 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 LIST OF REFERENCES tional business careers in the United States: salaries, advancement and male-female Acar, F.P. 2015. Gender differences in pro- differences. The international journal of Hu- motion to top level management position: man Resource Management, 5 (1), 33-50. an examination of glass cliff in the IT section. Turkey: Elsevier Hickman, G.R. 2010. Leading organizations: perspectives for a new era. Thousand Oaks: Acker, S. 2010. Gender games in academic Sage leadership, international studies in the sociology of education. 20 (2): 129-52 Hills, J. 2015. Addressing gender quotas in South Africa: Women empowerment and Altman, Y., Simpson, R., Baruch, Y., Burke, gender equality legislation. Volume 20. 155- R.J.2005. Reframing the “glass ceiling” de- 184. bate’. Supporting Women’s career Ad- vancement: Challenges and Opportunities, Hutchings, K and Michailova, S.2014. Re- Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA, US: searching handbook on women in interna- Edward Elgar. tional management. USA: Edward Elgar

Blackburn, R.M. and Jarman, J .2005. Seg- McMillan, J. H. & Schumacher, S. 1993. Re- mentation and Inequality, GeNet 2005-3, search in education: A conceptual under- Economic and social research council gen- standing. New York: Harper Collins. der equality network. www.genet.ac.uk/ Mor Barak, M.E. 2011. Managing diversity: workpaper/index.html. Accessed 06 May Towards a globally inclusive workplace. 2016. Thousand Oaks: Sage Budlender, D. 2008. The Statistical Evidence Nielsen, S and Huse, M.2010. The contribu- on Care and Non-Care Work across Six tion of women on boards of directors: go- Countries. Gender and Development Pro- ing beyond the surface. Corporate Gov- gramme Paper No4, UNRISD, Geneva. ernance: An International Review, 18 (2): Budlender, D. and Francis, F (2014). Budget- 136-148. ing for social welfare in South Africa’s nine- Patel, L. 2010. The gendered character of provinces,2010/11-2016/17. http://www. social care in the non-profit sector in South ci.org.za/depts/ci/pubs/pdf/researchre- Africa. Johannesburg: Centre for Social De- ports/2014/WelfareSpending2014v4.pdf velopment in Africa. University of Johannes- Chin, J.L and Trimble, J.E. 2015. Diversity and burg: Johannesburg leadership. Thousand Oaks: Sage Patel, L. 2015. Social welfare and Social de- Department of Welfare and Population De- velopment in South Africa. Cape Town: Ox- velopment.1997. White Paper for Social ford University Press. Welfare (Government Gazette Notice 1108 Patel, L. 2016. South African Research Chair of 1997). Pretoria, South Africa: Ministry for in Welfare and Social Development. Johan- welfare and population development. nesburg: Centre for Social Development in Egan,M.L and Bendrick, M.1994. Interna- Africa. University of Johannesburg: Johan-

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614 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 KEEPING COMMUNAL PROPERTY ASSOCIATION’S NOSE ABOVE WATER: ISSUES, TRENDS AND CHALLENGES OF MORE- TELE CPA AT VAALBOSCHHOUT FARM. R Moloele

Tshwane University of Technology

ABSTRACT

It is a common cause that people that file claims for land restitution purposes file same with good intentions and as such they deserve to be given a hearing and be given those pieces of land that rightfully belong to them. What remains a big question is whether these claimants put the land they have claimed into good use or not. Often and at times, this is not the case. The paper tries to find the reasons why the acquired land is not utilised to profit the heirs. Also, land reform has not reached all its intentions. The paper will furthermore outline the intentions the intentions of government by introducing and implementing this land restitution programme. Whilst the government has registered a remarkable in getting the programme up and running, it has become very apparent that the programme is dwarfed by challenges that CPA’s encounter on daily basis. The communities in the CPA’s are involved in conflicts over the resources.

Keywords: land restitution, land redistribution, government, Communal Property Associa- tion (CPA)

1. INTRODUCTION

The political inequality gave rise to land being taken by the minority white people. Black Africans have experienced a long period of land dispossession and alienation (Gordon, 1988, Mbongwa,et.al 1996, The World Bank, 1994 and Ngqangweni, 1996. The first democratic elections in South Africa changed the political landscape of the country. The results of the elections were that all people should be treated equally and that issues of land should be addressed in a way that the previously disadvantaged people are assisted to acquire land. Hendricks (186) purports that the democratic government has inherited a problem of monumental proportions. Few people are still suffused with the euphoria of democracy that they are not sanguine about the enormity of the task at hand. Many people were forcefully removed from their forefathers ‘land and crumply dumped in arid, infertile pieces of land. The land thieves settled themselves in good places where they could derive lot of benefits. Blacks according to Hendricks (2015, 1990) could not own land in the reserve areas either since communal system administered by chiefs and herdmen, in consultation with local magistrates, allowed usufruct rights and access but there was to be no land mar-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 615 ket. The aim of the White Paper on South more than 200 households. The main over- Africa Land policy (1997:7) was to address riding objective of this study to assess the the apartheid legacy to contribute to eco- production level of the farm and determine nomic development by giving households whether these people, from different back- an opportunity to engage in productive grounds now can come together, work har- land use and by increasing employment moniously and move on to greater heights opportunities through encouraging greater with their communal association. The paper investments. The usherance of the new de- is intended to investigate reasons why land mocracy elevated the integrity of the black is lying fallow and not used as intended. The people by giving them back their land. It government has played a big role in provid- is not surprising that the Constitution even ing people with land but it still appears that stresses that: in other areas land never gets to be put into good use. The study will try and find the rea- A person or community disposed of prop- sons for this inadequacy. To a little extent erty after 19 June 1913 as the results of the the study will determine the role played by past racially discriminatory laws or practises government to support these people to a are entitled to the extent provided by an sustainable farming business. Act of Parliament, either to restitution of that property or to equitable redress. (RSA 2. PAST POLITICAL LANDSCAPE Constitution, 1996:12). It is against this back- The political inequality gave rise to land ground that people were given back their being forcefully taken from blacks by the land. Furthermore, the White Paper, ac- white minority that settled in the Cape. cording to Hendricks, (192) on Land policy People lived on barren land that was not stipulated the following: Redressing the in- good for any commercial activity. People justices of the past, Fostering national rec- that wise fully stole land from these blacks onciliation and stability, Underpinning eco- chose the pieces of fertile land where they nomic growth and improving household could benefit. The first democratic elections welfare by alleviating poverty. The policy of in South Africa brought about the change in land redistribution aims to broaden access the political landscape of this country. Peo- to land for the dispossessed by purchasing ple were involved in elections so that they white-owned land and transfer public land could be free and access the land their to targeted individuals and communities forefathers inadvertently gave to the white (Hendricks 192-3). colonists. The main intention of the dem- Moretele Communal Property Association ocratic dispensation was to bring about has been formed by communities from dif- equality so that South Africans should enjoy ferent places such as Dihibidung, Mosetlha, wide range of civil liberties such as equali- Marapyane, Pankop, Mmametlhake and ty before the law. Unfortunately, there are Lebotlwane who were forcefully removed still serious disparities in wealth and pover- from Vaalboschhoutfarm by the apartheid ty. On average, people that are rich are regime. The new dispensation saw the need whites and the majority of blacks are living to take these people back to their land. under poverty line. During the first five years The farm is so big and has to house back of South Africa democracy, redistribution

616 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 was effected mainly through the once off was a legal entity capable of entering a payment of a settlement/ land acquisition deed sale with a willing seller and having Grant (SLAG) of R16 000.00 which benefi- the land registered. This was how the CPA’s ciaries could use to acquire and develop were formed. Strictly speaking the CPS’s land on the open market (Hendricks, 193). were developed to assist the previously dis- The R16 000.00 was to be used in the buying advantaged people who were, because of of the land but because it was so little, the all these poor. The table below represents households pulled the money/grant to form the hectares occupied by whites over the a trust or a communal property association. years before redistribution came into play The Communal Property Association (CPA) that were approved by government as a form of redress. Year Approved Hectares 1995 11,171 1996 68,887 1997 140,527 1998 273,416 1999 174,286 Total 667,285

Source: http//www.nlc.co.za/mdredis.htm in Hendricks p.193

By 1999, the government approved half a the past by giving back the land that was million hectares for transforming to the pre- previously grabbed from the black peo- viously disenfranchised majority as shown ple by the whites. This is a good move of on the table above. The above figure al- ensuring that land is distributed fairly and ready redistributed has been taken from al- that it is also used profitably. After people most 83million hectares used by farmers in get back their land, they fold arms and the country. still look up to the government to continue funding them. In other quarters, they set- 3. THE SMALLER PICTURE tle in the farms and do absolutely nothing. There is deterioration in the farm as com- There are many communal farms where pared to the period when it was still in the there is nothing being produced from the hands of the white person. The fence is al- farms that were so profitable when were still most bad and needs to be revamped. The managed by whites. Often times as soon as demarcations that were previously there people get to the farms the first thing they are no longer there and animals are run- would do is to check what can be looted ning loose and not channelled to graze in and be taken home. They ‘steal’ basically a particular portion for a particular period everything, starting from small things to very of time. The farm house is not taken care big farm equipment, not even having it at of. It is dilapidated and needs renovation. the back of their minds that the very ma- No one seems responsible for these inad- chinery and equipment would assist them equacies. The government started an ini- with the running of the farms. Committees tiative of addressing the imbalances of installed by the communities also have their hands in the till and swivel money that can-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 617 not be accounted for. More often than not past, the government came up with vari- the community itself bring all the animals ous strategies aimed at addressing prob- to that farm without checking the carrying lems that precipitated from apartheid. The capacity. The farms end up being badly issue of land remained an eyesore. South overgrazed. All these problems compound Africa however is praised for having a good and gravitate into serious problems that constitution in the whole world. Enshrined in consequently and subsequently end up in the constitution is RDP (Reconstruction and conflicts, cliques and unnecessary tensions. Development Program) which purports the The other problem starring in the faces of following pronouncements: the black farmers is that they are not entre- The state must take reasonable and preneurial. Most of them farm with animals other measures within its available re- only whilst those doing crops are also so sources to foster conditions which en- few. These farmers greatly rely on rainfall for able citizens to gain access to land the sustenance of their farming. They can- on an equitable basis. not grow grass, cut it for future use or even engage in crop farming and so that they A person or community whose tenure can after harvesting, make fodder for their of land is legally insecure as the results animals. “ The racism of apartheid is clear- of past racially discriminatory laws or ly manifest in the manner in which white practices is entitled to the extent pro- rural dwellers were encouraged to mod- mulgated by an Act of parliament, ernise their agriculture through subsidies, either to tenure which is secure or to grants, transport concessions, favourable comparable redress. credit facilities, tax relief, marketing board and the ready availability of cheap labour A person or community disposed of while blacks are denied the wherewithal to property after 19 June 1913 as the undertake proper farming (Hendricks,190). results of past racially discriminato- This has and will continue to widen the gap ry laws or practices is entitled to the between rich and poor. The paper intends extent provided by an Act of parlia- to find answers to the following questions. ment either to restitution of that property or to equitable redress (RSA con- • Why do people in CPA’s having stitution, 1996:12). never ending conflicts? The constitution is a reflection of conflict • How profitable are the CPS’s? in South Africa between the full citizenship of blacks and the preserved privileges of • What is the distribution of mem- whites, and the political equality of citizen- bership in terms of gender and ship and the economic inequality of class. • What and how is the support from This constitution empowers government to government to the CPA’s? institute land reform measures. The White Paper emphasized that current land own- 5. LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK AND POLICY ership and land development patterns IMPERATIVES strongly reflect political and economic con- In trying to redress the imbalances of the ditions of the apartheid era, and that ra-

618 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 cially-based land policies were a cause of intervention in a sector of the economy. insecurity, landlessness and poverty among 6. LAND REFORMS LESSONS IN TWO COUN- black people (White Paper on South Af- TRIES. rican land policing (1997: V). South Africa boasts with three land reform programmes Land reform is generally accepted to mean viz land restitution, land redistribution and restitution, redistribution and/or confirma- land tenure reform. Land restitution restores tion of rights in land to the benefit of the land and provides other restitutionary reme- poor or dispossessed (De Villiers, 2003:2). dies to people disposed by racially discrim- Land can be accessed through market and inatory legislation (White paper on South non-market reforms. Market reform can be African land policy (1997) 52-60. Land redis- evinced when land is acquired through will- tribution component provides the landless ing seller – willing buyer basis and non - mar- poor, labour tenants, farm workers, women ket comes into picture when government and emergent farmers with access to land opts for a policy of expropriation where for residential and productive use in a bid land is expropriated (taken with or without to improve their income and quality of life. adequate compensation) for redistribution Lastly, the land tenure component seeks to purposes. A successful land reform model bring all people occupying land in South requires a combination of both market and Africa under a unitary, legally validated sys- non-market reform (De Villiers, 4). This will as- tem of land holding (White Paper on South sist the State to move with speed and bring African land policy (1997) 60-75). As already back the dispossessed land to their rightful stated, the main purpose of land reform is to owners. However, land reform needs prop- improve the lives of people. If land reform is er planning and on-going monitoring to not done, people will continue to be poor. evaluate and determine the successes and According to Chauke (2013:2) poverty, failures of the programme. Land reform is mostly in South Africa‘s rural areas is wide- not a one man show. People should be in- spread and this has been precipitated by volved as this whole exercise is about them. the removal of the majority of the country’s Mamphodo (2006) stresses this when assert- inhabitants – blacks – from productive land ing that in order for land reform and other use. These people were put in communally aspects to be implemented, there must be occupied reserves (former homelands) that involvement with the government depart- were grossly inadequate to accommodate, ments, local government, parastatals and let alone provide food for the many inhabi- non-governmental organizations. Literature tants of this country. So, it goes without any has been reviewed from two countries in a saying that land reform has achieved some bid to extract lessons and best practises, if strides. “The Public discourse in South Afri- any, acquired by these countries on how ca’s agricultural sector has been dominat- they are implementing their land reform ed for a long time by a perennial concern programmes. about access to land, including access to its ownership, for the entire population (Wa- 6.1 ZIMBABWE ters, 2013). Land reform in South Africa has Zimbabwe has made remarkable strides in been far more than a typical government dealing with land reform. When Zimbabwe

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 619 became independent on 18 April 1980, the lives of many inhabitants. land question was therefore already at the • Land that remains unused as the forefront of the issues that the young nation present occupants do not have had to address. It was predicted at the time requisite land tilling skills. that: • Endemic corruption and policy “The most acute and difficult ques- contradictions where more land tion confronting the first … govern- remains the commodity for cer- ment … of … (Palmer in De Villiers).” tain people that wield political Whether the land reform in this country was power and authority. successful is another story. Land reform, (De However, the main objectives of Land Re- Villiers, 2003) is probably one of the most dif- form in Zimbabwe were to: ficult domestic policy issues to be dealt with by Zimbabwe, Namibia, South Africa as well • Reduce civil conflict by transfer- as Australia. De Villiers (P.2) further asserts ring white held land to black peo- that in each of these countries, the process ple. of land reform in incomplete. In Zimbabwe, land reform was the programme aimed • Provide opportunity for war veter- at ensuring that the acquired land was ans and landless people. owned by the state and not by the farmers • Expand production and raise wel- themselves or their workers. It was not easy fare and to kick-start land reforms. As De Villiers (23) puts it, the kick-off for land reform in Zimba- • Maintain levels of agricultural pro- bwe began on a sour note. Land reform in duction (Bratton in De Villiers, 10). Zimbabwe started in 1980 with the signing Unfortunately, not every objective was re- of the Lancaster House Agreement, so that alised and this created a lot of problems for land could be equitable distributed be- the country. tween black subsistence farmers and white Zimbabweans who in the past enjoyed su- The policy clearly stipulates that no one perior political and economic status. The below 21 years can own land but Lands aim was to deal with past imbalances and and Rural Resettlement Minister Douglas to alter ethnic balance of land owner- Mombeshora said (in one of his Ministerial ship. These efforts by the Lancaster House speeches) that there are people between however, were not in any way, intended 10 and 12 years owning plots (News, Poli- to damage the important and invaluable tics: 25 June 2016). farmers’ contribution to the Zimbabwean 6.2 SOUTH AFRICA economy. Land reform in South Africa had a purpose The land reform in Zimbabwe brought about to initiate sustainable land reform pro- the following repercussions. gramme. Following South Africa’s transition • Poor economic conditions for the to a constitutional democracy, the govern- whole country that affected the ment recognised that a key mechanism for

620 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 facilitating both political and social-eco- duct similar business activities to their urban nomic transformation was land reform (Mo- counterparts. Farmers are recognised as stert, 2000:163) this was done to reverse the heterogeneous group comprising different historic disenfranchisement. capabilities, enterprise skills and diverse social backgrounds and economic cir- 7. CONCEPTUALISING THE FARMER AS AN cumstances (McElwee & Annibal, 475-6). ENTERPRENEUR McElwee & Annibal (478) go further to in- A farmer is someone who keeps the animals timate that the problem of definition is not and grows the crops for commercial gain. confined to entrepreneurship for there are It is safe to refer to the farmer as an entre- also issues of conceptualisation when terms preneur. “The early definitions of “farmer” such as “farm” or “the farm” are used. Katz and “entrepreneur” are perhaps not so far (1999) in Pyysiainen, et, al proposes that apart as they have since become” McEl- there are some skills which can be taught wee & Annibal (2010: 477). They, McElwee and some cannot. These authors believe & Annibal (2010) have it that research into that entrepreneurship can be taught. Their “farmers as entrepreneurs” has not pro- emphasis is on providing farmers with skills voked extensive investigation and there to make them entrepreneurial. Pyysiainen are difficulties associated with defining the et.al (24) believes that entrepreneurial skills entrepreneur, as noted by Palich & Bagby for small business offer the following list of (1995: 426). Defining farmer entrepreneur- entrepreneurial skills. ial activity is complex as they do not con- Personal Skills Interpersonal Process skills • Innovation • Interacting with others • Ability to plan and orga- effectively. nise • Initiative risk • Negotiating • Ability to analyse, synthe- • Taking ability • Influencing sise , and evaluate to deal • Demonstrating leader- • Ability to execute a plan. ship

8. METHODOLOGY

The respondents were kept informed about their rights to be involved in the study. No one was coerced to partake in the research and that the anonymity and confidentiality factors would be upheld. Furthermore, the permission was sought from the necessary authorities to conduct this study.

9. PROCEDURE

The respondents that were targeted for the research were n= 40. Convenient sampling was done as anyone within reach was asked to fill the tool. Questionnaires were distributed to all the present people on the farm. A questionnaire had a 5 point Likert scale to gauge the perception of farmers on how their CPA is run. Furthermore, an interview was also held

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 621 where participants were asked similar ques- years. The table depicts that middle-aged tions and responses were jotted down and people have an interest in farming than the later analysed. The aim of using the trian- old and the young ones. The reason be- gulation was to get the data from different hind this picture is that old people may lack sources, by so doing, strengthening the re- some energy and passion to run the farm- search and to check the validity of the re- ing activities whilst the young ones are still sponses. busy with schooling and do not engage in farming as they are still depended on their 10. ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS parents. Over and above this, whilst young Table 1: gender people may be part of the farm, Detre (et. al.) posit that they may also seek additional Gender Frequency Percentage income from off farm activities. Females 17 42.50 Males 23 57.50 The results have shown that the level of liter- Total 40 100.00 acy of the people in the CPA is very low. This illiteracy level will affect their performance and general farm management. The above table shows that n=17 (42.5%) comprises of females whilst 23 (57.5%) comprises of males. The number of the males is more than that of the females. This may be because farming is largely perceived as a thing for the males, but this however does not hold water as there are many women who are fully involved in farming and are prosperous.

Table 2: age

Age Group Frequency Percentage Less than 2 5.00 25years 26-35 years 06 15.00 36-45years 11 27.50 46-55years 19 47.50 Over 56 2 5.00 years Total 40 100.00

The CPA, as shown in the above table has only 2 people who are less than 25 years and 6 people are between 26 and 35 years. The majority of the people are concentrated between 36 and 55years: with 11 between 36 and 45 years and 19 between 46 and 55

622 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Table 3: The farm is not well managed.

5 point Likert scale Frequency Percentage Agree 25 62.5 Disagree 4 10.00 Not sure 8 20.00 Strongly agree 0 0 Strongly disagree 3 7.5 Total 40 100.00

The above table shows that 62.5% of the respondents are of a mind that their farm is not managed well. Those disagreeing and strongly disagreeing with assertion and believing that the farm is well managed have shown 10% and 7.5% figures respectively. It means that the high number of farm dwellers is not contending with the type of management their elected executive is displaying.

Table 4: There are serious conflicts amongst farmers at our farm

5 Point Likert scale Frequency Percentage Agree 20 50.00 Disagree 2 5.00 Not sure 5 12.5 Strongly Agree 10 25.00 Strongly Disagree 3 7.5 Total 40 100.00

The findings in the above are that more than half, 50% and 25% of the respondents do hold the belief that there are conflicts among the community members in the farm. The findings of the interviews also have shown that many people see conflict as the order of the day. People have a lot of things they are not agreeing about. 12.5% respondents are not sure whether there are conflicts or not whilst 5% and 7.5% are adamant that conflicts are not eminent in their farm. This is so small a figure that to be accepted as representing many farm dwellers.

Table 5: Membership in the committee is equal across the gender line.

5 Point Likert scale Frequency Percentage Agree 3 7.5 Disagree 7 17.5 Not sure - - Strongly agree 2 5.00 Strongly disagree 28 70.00 Total 40 100.00

The above table symbolises that the issue of gender representation is still a big issue. Fe-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 623 males are not given chance to participate in the farm activities. The finding corresponds with the responses on the biographical pictures obtained from the questionnaires where there were about for the 42.5% females and 57.5% for the males that took part in the study. The implication is that there are more males than females in the farm. The responses as shown on the table above signifies that 7.5% and 5% of the participants agree and strongly agree with the assertion that membership in the executive committee is equal across the gender line. The other picture painted from the table above is that 70% and 7.5% of the respondents strongly disagree and disagree with the assertion. The implication is that many people are not happy with the manner in which females are treated when it comes to the positions in the committees. The interview also revealed that man wants to be above the women at all the times. It was further picked up that when a female is recruited in the committee; she is given a very low position, like that of the secretary. They are not considered for strategic and managerial positions.

Table 6: The Government continues to support our newly formed Communal Property Asso- ciations.

5 Point Likert scale Frequency Percentage Agree 2 5.00 Disagree 10 25.00 Not sure - - Strongly agree 4 10.00 Strongly disagree 24 60.00 Total 40 100.00

What the above table is showing is that government is not fully assistive to the farmers. About 25% of the respondents disagree that government plays an indispensable role in providing support whilst 60% strongly disagree that they are getting an adequate support from the government. The biggest support that these people are forgetting is the one of acquisition of land. Government used lot of money to bring land back to these farmers. Over and above this government also provides the farmers with some money to enable them to run the farms. Whether this money is used well is an important question to be looked at. A small fraction, 5% and 10% of the respondents have shown that they agree and strongly agree respectively with the assertion that Government is playing a supportive role.

11. VARIABLES RELATED TO PROFITABILITY

Profitability is yielded when there is a financial gain in a business. It is expected that every business‘s sustainability should be related depended on its profit gains. With regard to factors affecting financial performance in general, Fox (et. al., 1993) and Rougoor (et.al. 1998) provide reviews of large number of studies in the area of financial performance in farm management (Detre et.al, 49). Their views concluded that personal attributes/characteristics, demographics and goals were important in explaining profitability differences across farms. Age has a bearing on profitability and it influences financial performance negatively. Tarner and Mishra in Detre (et.al. 50) found age to influence financial perfor-

624 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 mance negatively whilst Davis (et. al., 2009) dairying would pay good dividends. and Hyde (et.al. 2008) found age to influ- 12. INTERVIEW RESULTS ence financial performance negatively. The level of education and age are so con- 12.1 How is the relationship between mem- nected. Both have a bearing on financial bers of the CPA? performance. Young people are energet- ic although same is channelled elsewhere. One respondent indicated that the relation- Many young people are educated and ship is not good. There are lot of fights over prefer to work in towns than in farms. The grazing, number of cattle to keep, who is to older ones will stick to the work in the farms. manage. Others echoed same sentiments According to Darr & Chern (2000) in Detre, on the issue of conflicts. These conflicts even et.al. (49), if the farm operator had at least led to other people disengaging from the some college education, he was more like- CPA and cancelling their membership from ly to make it in farming. This symbolises that the interactions it became evident that the education also plays such a pivotal role in relationship between members of the CPA the world of farming. Also, as Detre, et.al. is not cordial at all. Put it, the education level force farmers to 12.2 What are the causes of the conflicts? stick to the farms as there are no employment opportunities for them outside the Some respondents felt that women are op- farms. Therefore, many are not in the farms pressed and are not given a fair hearing because they want to be there, it is the in meetings. This causes tension over gen- circumstances that pushed them towards der. One respondent was quick to mention that direction. The size of the farm does that there is gross misappropriation of funds not guarantee profitability. There would by the executive committee. The financial be a lot of profit if there was dairying as statements are given at the end of each Kauffman and Tauer’s findings indicated year but that is normally has some flaws as no strong relationship between number of calculations are falsified and that support- cows and the probability of higher returns ing documents are not provided. They pro- (Detre, et.al. 50). Hoffman (1996) in Detre: vide lot of stuff without any mandate and p.50 indicated that well managed farms, fail to consult with the entire communities based on farm records are better able to before they appropriate monies. This to him compete on per-unit profitability basis with is the main cause of conflict. farms many times larger. What matters most 13. RECOMMENDATIONS is how the farm is utilised to enhance profitability. Vaalboschhout farm is fairly big but This paper recommends the following: it is not profitable to the whole communi- • The Government should intensify the ty. The main activity there is the keeping of support they provide to the CPA’s so animals that are not even well taken care that they can be sustainable. of. There are a lot of cattle that the farmers there are keeping but they only bene- • Female should be given a chance to fit when they take one cow to the auction participate fully in issues of farming. once in a blue moon. Having to resort to • Among other forms of assistance that

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 625 the Government should provide, is work- Detre, J. D., Uematsu, H., Mishra, A.K. 2011. shop of the committees that run the “The influence of GM crop adoption on the farms. They are handling lots and lots of profitability of farms operated by young money. It becomes very essential that and beginning farmers” . Agricultural Fi- they are taken through the programmes nance Review. 71(1): 41- 61. intended to hone their financial man- De Villiers, B. 2003. Land Reform: Issues and agement skills and general manage- Challenges. Comparative overview in Zim- ment. These workshops would ready the babwe, Namibia, South Africa and Austra- new farmers to take up new responsibil- lia. Johannesburg: Konrad Adenauer Foun- ities. dation. • Young people have to be lured in tak- Mombeshora, D. 2016. Government Land ing farming as something important that Commission just under goose chase, News. can even move people from poverty Politics. strickenness to leading a wealthy life. Hendricks, F.T. 2015. Land inequality in Dem- 14. CONCLUSION ocratic South Africa. In Walking Towards The issue about land reform still needs more Justice: Democratisation in Rural Life. Pub- time to be brought to a close. However, lished online. 9 March 2015. some progress has been registered in pro- Mamphodo, A.D 2006. Baseline study of the viding people with land although some quality of life of land reform beneficiaries in pieces of land stand fallow for years. It has Limpopo Province. A case of Gertrudsburg. been found in the study that people have Pretoria: University of Pretoria. a tendency of fighting over a lot of things when they are occupying a farm. Instead Pyysiainen, J., Anderson, A., McElwee, G. of them making profit on the farm they de- & Vesala, K. 2006. “Developing the Entre- teriorate, loot the equipment and sell others preneurial Skills of farmers: Some myths ex- for their personal gains. This tendency draws plored”. International Journal of Entrepre- the community and the state backwards neurial Behaviour and Research. 12 ( 1): rather than forward. Furthermore, when 21-39. land reform is done, that should come as a package i.e. before they occupy the land, Waters, T.C.R. 2013. Understanding the cri- they should be taken through workshops teria for successful community based coop- that should prepare them well in advance. erative. The case for cooperative schemes as a vehicle for successful land reform in LIST OF REFERENCES agriculture.. Pretoria: GIBS

Buthelezi, N.B.C. 2007. Impact of the land White Paper on South African Land Policy restitution Programme on poverty. Pretoria: (1997). Pretoria: Government Printer University of Pretoria. World Bank. 1994. South African Agriculture: Chauke, P.K. 2013. An assessment of land structure Performance & options for the fu- Reform Programme in Northern Province of ture. World Bank: Washington. South Africa. Pretoria: University of Pretoria.

626 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 DERIVING A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR A FORMATIVE EVALUATION OF THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG ‘SEPARATION OF POWERS’ PILOT PROJECT

S Chikwema and K Wotela University of the Witwatersrand

ABSTRACT

Oversight and accountability of the executive to the legislature are cardinal to good governance and ultimately democracy and political development. Conflating legislative and executive functions limits oversight, effectiveness of governance arrangements, accountability, and public participation. The Department of Cooperative Governance and Tradi- tional Affairs (COGTA) has stressed that governance and democracy at local level is ‘in distress’ because of inadequate accountability measures and a lack of a clear separation between the legislature and the executive. To counter the latter and improve governance, the City of Johannesburg provided for institutional arrangements that separate executive and legislative functions of Council in 2006. However, after implementing this governance model, we are not certain if separating legislative and executive functions of a municipal council improves governance at municipality level. This research intends to assess if this initiative can improve local level governance. Therefore, the focus of this paper is developing a conceptual framework for such a formative assessment. The paper applies these frameworks to collect, process, and analyse data as well as interpret the empirical results.

Keywords: Conceptual framework, Theoretical framework, Governance, Participatory

1. INTRODUCTION

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 627 years later. This assessment identifies two institutional arrangements and mecha- root causes of distress—(i.) non-separation nisms for fostering public accountability at of legislative and executive functions lead- local government level. These include sep- ing to (ii.) inadequate oversight, and hence aration of powers principle and, therefore, accountability, measures (Department of oversight as well as scrutiny. It is these that Cooperative Governance and Tradition- form the basis of our proposed conceptual al Affairs 2009). Similarly, Christmas (2009) framework and local governance arrange- points to an obscure division between ex- ments. We argue that, depending on the ecutive and legislative roles in municipali- context, the ‘separation of powers’ princi- ties as the key cause of distress in municipal ple and, therefore, oversight and scrutiny governance. Despite supposedly effective can provide a framework for assessing lo- legislative provisions and implementing sev- cal municipal governance. In doing so, we eral interventions, McLennan (2009) thinks are contributing to the debate on efficacy that governance arrangements in several of local governance arrangements as well South African municipalities is ineffective as sub-national initiatives. and remains a critical challenge. Gover- nance challenges including a lack of accountability and responsiveness at munic- 2. THE APPROACH ipality level may imply a flawed design of local government in South Africa (Fessha Badenhorst (2007) has pointed out that we 2008). To improve governance, the City of review literature to (i.) understand the con- Johannesburg provided for a clear separa- text or setting and, thereafter, to appreci- tion of executive and legislative functions ate the research problem, opportunity, or in 2006. However, after implementing this question, (ii.) justify the research, (iii.) identify governance model, we need to ascertain the research and knowledge gap through that separating legislative and executive reviewing past and current research stud- functions does improve governance at ies on the subject of interest, (iv.) identify, municipality level. understand, and develop frameworks, theories, models, and perspectives that we This ‘theoretical’ article proposes a con- can use to interpret our research findings, ceptual framework for undertaking a for- and (v.) develop conceptual frameworks. mative evaluation the city of Johannesburg Technically, the main outcome a literature ‘separation of powers’ pilot project. After review is a conceptual framework—de- broadly interrogating governance, we fined implicitly by Kumar (2014) as an ad- propose democratic governance as the vanced outline of how a research should most relevant option for local government. proceed after we have interrogated key Thereafter, we identify public accountabil- literature on the research of interest. This ity as a key ingredient of democratic gov- implies that this outline or outcome results ernance. Further, we point out oversight, from a detailed understanding of (and jus- scrutiny, and public participation as key tifying) the research problem, identifying elements to attaining public accountabil- the knowledge gap, and then developing ity and, subsequently, democratic gover- an explanatory or theoretical framework nance. We have also proposed preferred for interpreting the research findings. Infer-

628 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ring from this, Wotela (2016) has proposed up. The approach is thematic because we that including the main outcome—which have devised key questions against which is the conceptual framework—a literature we interrogate and synthesise literature review should have the following seven key theme by theme. It is summative because sub-components or areas of focus: we have derived these themes before literature review but we allow and include those that arise during literature review. 1. Evaluation setting or context analysis Lastly, it is ‘content’ because when review- … to understand the evaluation setting or ing literature we focus on explicit and im- context. plied subjective interpretation of the discussions. Hsieh and Shannan (2006) have 2. Evaluation intervention analysis … to provided a detailed description of summa- understand and justify the need to evalu- tive content analysis amongst other types ate an intervention. of qualitative content analysis.

3. Review of similar past and current We, therefore, apply this proposed out- empirical research studies and evaluations comes-based literature review to develop … to establish the knowledge gap. an explanatory framework and more im- 4. Establish and discussing the academ- portantly a conceptual framework to pre- ic field of study (and its important compo- pare for a formative evaluation of the City nents) encompassing the research or eval- of Johannesburg ‘separation of powers’ uation ... to give the research or evaluation pilot project in the next sections. First, we an academic home. begin with an understanding of the context (the City of Johannesburg metropoli- 5. Identifying and discussing the key tan) and then the intervention (the City of evaluation attributes or variables … to Johannesburg metropolitan ‘separation of understand what information or data we powers’ pilot project). Second, to estab- should be pursuing for our research or eval- lish the knowledge gap, we interrogate re- uation. search approaches, designs, procedures 6. Develop an explanatory framework and methods applied as well as findings … to apply when interpreting our empirical and conclusions realised by past and cur- findings. rent studies on and evaluation of governance arrangements in general and spe- 7. Summarise Steps 1 to 6 into a con- cifically separation of powers. Other than ceptual framework … to outline how our establishing the knowledge gap we also research or evaluation will proceed based use this interrogation to consider method- on discussions and decisions emanating ological options that we can employ for our from interrogating the literature. assessment. Third, we propose and detail a theoretical or rather an explanatory framework that will facilitate interpretation of em- In each area of the seven areas of focus, we pirical research findings on the workability apply a thematic summative content anal- of the City of Johannesburg ‘separation ysis when synthesising literatures and writing of powers’ pilot project. Worth mentioning

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 629 is the linkage between these explanatory frameworks and our attributes of interest 4. GOVERNANCE ARRANGEMENTS AT LO- that we will collect research information CAL GOVERNMENT LEVEL IN SOUTH AFRI- on. Lastly, for now, we derive a conceptual CA—THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND PURPOSE framework that will guide the proceeding paper(s) when collecting, processing, and Other than the judiciary, the South African analysing data and information to assess legislative framework provides for the legis- this intervention with a view to recommend lature, the executive, and the government governance arrangements that can foster departments in all three spheres of govern- accountability and oversight at local gov- ment. The legislature (elected members) ernment level. represents the public and their mandate includes approving policies and laws as well as monitoring the executive and the gov- 3. THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG METROPOLI- ernment departments. At national sphere, TAN MUNICIPALITY: THE RESEARCH CONTEXT the legislature is represented by the national parliament and the National Council of With about 4.7 million inhabitants, the City Provinces (NCOP). At provincial sphere, of Johannesburg is classified as a ‘Cate- the legislature is represented by the provin- gory A’ metropolitan municipality (Depart- cial parliament and at local sphere by the ment of Cooperative Governance and council of elected and seconded council- Traditional Affairs 2009). It delivers its public lors. The executive (cabinet or executive services—ranging from water, waste man- committee) co-ordinates the formulation agement, power supply, and public trans- of policies and laws, oversees implemen- portation—through twelve Municipal Enti- tation of policies and laws as well as gov- ties (MEs) that are in turn managed through ernment departments. Similarly, at national boards accountable to the City Council. sphere, the president and cabinet make- The City Council has 260 councillors. Of up the executive while at provincial sphere these 130 are elected Ward Councillors it is made up of the premier and executive and the other 130 are appointed by the council. At local government, it comprises political parties proportional to the elected the mayor and mayoral committee. The councillors. Thereafter, ten are appointed mandate of the government departments to constitute a ten-member Mayoral Com- (public servants) is implementing govern- mittee. The elected Executive Mayor chairs ment interventions (policies and laws) as the eleven-member Mayoral Committee— directed by the executive. The national which constitutes the political executive administrative functions are executed by wing of the City. On the other hand, the respective director generals and the spe- Speaker of Council is the legislative head cialised departments within national gov- and chairperson of Council. The Speaker ernment. At provincial sphere, it is heads presides over Council meetings in accor- of departments and specialised staff while dance with Council’s Standing Rules. The at local sphere it is the municipal manag- Speaker is also responsible for Section 79 er, heads of departments, and specialised oversight committees that assist Council in staff. Section 133(2) of the Constitution of the executing its oversight duties.

630 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 South Africa (1996) provides for national nesburg reviewed its governance arrange- and provincial governments to separate ments. This was with a view to improve on the legislative and executive functions with internal processes, oversight, accountabili- the latter accountable to the former. There- ty, transparency, and public participation fore, the legislature oversees the executive. as well as promoting democratic practices Further, the constitution provides for the within the municipality (City of Johannes- national government to establish nation- burg 2005). The Gauteng Provincial De- al parliament and the National Council of partment of Local Government mandat- Provinces (NCOP) to perform the legisla- ed the City of Johannesburg Metropolitan tive functions which include law-making, Municipality to pilot the separation of ex- overseeing and scrutinising the work of the ecutive roles from legislative roles of coun- executive. At provincial government level, cillors in the municipality. The project, also Section 114(2) of the constitution provides referred to as the ‘Separation of Powers’ for the provincial legislature that oversees governance model was piloted during the and scrutinises the provincial executive au- 2006 to 2011 political term and, thereafter, thority (Constitution of South Africa, 1996). implemented in the 2011 to 2016 political term. Obviously, over the years the City of While the legislative arrangements for a Johannesburg has refined this model which democratic, responsive, and accountable is similar to the national and provincial par- government are certain and well defined liament. It emphasises separating legisla- at national and provincial government, tive and executive functions to promote they are not so at local spheres. For exam- oversight, accountability, and public par- ple, the Constitution of South Africa (1996) ticipation through delegating legislative has placed executive and legislative roles and executive functions of Council to the in a single body of council at local gov- legislative and executive arms, respective- ernment sphere. Therefore, in a municipal ly. The model also accentuates the role of council plenary sitting conflates both leg- non-executive councillors. However, de- islative and executive powers. We argue spite implementing this governance model, here that conflating legislative and -exec we are not yet certain whether separating utive functions underlies the oversight and the legislative and executive functions of accountability problems that South African a municipal Council improves municipality local governments are facing. This sphere governance. Therefore, we wish to assess if of government cannot provide effective, this initiative can improve local level gover- transparent, and accountable local gov- nance. This paper focuses on developing a ernments (Constitution of South Africa, theoretical and conceptual framework for 1996). This results in ineffective democratic, such an assessment largely because South responsive, and unaccountable local gov- Africa, the challenge of local governments ernments. is not the absence of reforms but rather In response to unclear separation of roles evaluating the instituted reforms. between the legislature and the executive leading to inadequate oversight and accountability measures, the City of Johan-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 631 5. METHODS, DATA, FINDINGS, AND CON- scrutiny is a problematic function for local CLUSIONS OF STUDIES ON AND EVALUA- government councillors because they feel TIONS OF GOVERNANCE ARRANGEMENTS it unsettles internal political dynamics. An open and accountable legislative process There are a number of studies on and eval- tests the rights of elected members to take uations of governance, oversight, and an independent stand on matters of over- public accountability arrangements in dif- sight and scrutiny. However, as a matter ferent contexts. For example, Leach and of convenience, democratic communities Wingfield (1999) as well as Snape (2000) structure their political activities around or- point out that scrutiny is a problematic ganised political parties (Uhr, 2001). Similar- function for local government. The former ly, Snape and others (2002:42) argue that argue that it is important that political par- holding the executive to account is ex- ties are protected from undue government tremely difficult because it: restrictions but it is equally important that elected representatives enjoy the right to participate freely and independently in the “… directly challenges the power, influ- business of their political assembly. Legisla- ence, and culture of the party group sys- tive scrutiny and oversight is often best per- tem. It also directly challenges often, the formed by elected members who bring in most powerful elements within the de- a degree of independence whilst balanc- cision-making system. Although leaders, ing party sentiments and community pref- cabinet members, and senior officers -de erence. This independence and structuring clare their support for robust scrutiny, in re- of political activities around political par- ality some will not complain if the role em- ties makes oversight, scrutiny, and public phasis lies with policy development and accountability problematic for local coun- review rather than holding the executive cils. Therefore, internal political dynamics in to account”. councils determines the success of scrutiny. As a result, as Leach and Wingfield (1999: 87) point out “scrutiny … [can] only work effectively in a cabinet/assembly system Leach and colleagues (2003) as well as Ash- dominated by one party if its members are worth and Snape (2004) have discussed lo- prepared to criticise their colleagues or the cal municipal council scrutiny committees executive openly—something which is ex- established in 2000 to improve the effec- tremely difficult under present party disci- tiveness of local governance in the United pline in the current system”. They also raise Kingdom. They were meant to provide a a red flag that such an arrangement may clear cut delegation of executive and scru- not always succeed. The chairing of scruti- tiny functions between the executive and ny committees by the majority party makes the non-executive councillors, respective- councillors reluctant to challenge their col- ly. The task of the former was making and leagues making oversight and scrutiny inef- implementing key decisions while the latter fective. hold the executive to account. Obviously, the aim of these reforms was to make the Similarly, Snape (2000) has concluded that executive accountable through scrutinis-

632 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ing executive decisions and actions before of municipality governance structures and they were made, before they were imple- the authority devolved to its internal organs mented, and after they were implemented. critical to the success of any governance Leach and colleagues (2003) have noted initiative. Uhr (2001) has described Chapter a general reluctance to apply approved 9 Institutions in South Africa which enforce oversight mechanisms, such as the call- oversight and accountability in all the in mechanism, to improve accountability. three spheres of government. These institu- They argue that scrutiny is problematic for tions provide specialised government ac- councils based on evidence generated countability in addition to that performed in during the early stages of these scrutiny by elected members or dedicated public committees. In the early stages, scrutiny agency established by the assembly to act committees gave low priority to scrutinising as an independent entity. Chapter 9 insti- executive decisions and actions of coun- tutions institute oversight by reviewing per- cil employees (Cole 2001; Ashworth 2003). formance against prescribed standards. Instead the executive exerted more influ- Effectiveness of their oversight and scruti- ence on scrutiny than the scrutiny com- ny depends on the government institutions mittee. Ashworth and Snape (2004) also abiding to the established standards and audited these scrutiny committees from should be acknowledged by those being 2000 (when the reforms were introduced) reviewed. There are various options for to 2005. Their audit shows that oversight structuring local municipal institutions and and scrutiny contributed positively to poli- devolving authority. One option is councils cy review but failed to hold the executive establishing strong executives (Blair, 1991). to account effectively. They conclude that According to Hankla and Downs (2010), oversight and scrutiny failed to become local executive dominance may lead to a an effective part of local governance and successful oversight and other governance was not yet an effective arrangement to arrangements because it provides for suffi- ‘check and balance’ the executive. cient financial resources as well as access to information and expertise to oversee the executive. The downside is that it weakens The findings by Snape (2000) as well as local democracy and eliminates respon- Leach and colleagues (2003) emphasise sive local government. It is unlikely that lo- how the majority party views scrutiny and cal citizens would prefer a strong executive how this perception determines the suc- compared with a council driven system. cess or failure of local government oversight and scrutiny arrangements. For this reason, Snape (2000) has emphasised that The other option, as Hankla and Downs before legislating local municipality scrutiny (2010) have argued, is influential legisla- practices, this challenge should be consid- tures that are critical for good governance ered. Therefore, local political and organ- and democratic oversight. Their role is veri- isational factors are important ingredients fying whether executives carry out their re- of effective oversight and scrutiny (Hankla sponsibilities honestly and effectively and and Downs 2010). This makes the choice ensuring citizen participation. To provide

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 633 for local municipal authority and enhance public accountability. Sometimes coun- public accountability requires a parliamen- cils’ perception of public participation as tary form of institution where the elected a survival strategy, and not as a genuine council makes up the legislature with pow- consultation tool, disempowers public par- ers to appoint and dis-appoint the local ticipation. With this perception, councils executive. Such an arrangement will allow configure public participation to resemble the local council to hold the local exec- legitimate consultation when it is meaning- utive to account. One weakness with this less. The International Association of Public arrangement is that local authorities would Participation (2004) state that meaningful not remove executives without provincial public participation involves a process that consent (Hankla and Downs, 2010). Anoth- informs, consults, involves, collaborates, er function of legislatures is promoting pub- and empowers local communities. When lic participation in government processes public participation is this effective the im- with a view to improve oversight, scrutiny, pact of the public on governance process- and public accountability. As Geurtz and es is certain. Wijdeven (2010) has argued public partic- Piper and Deacon’s (2009) study has es- ipation in local government emerged to tablished the functionality of local govern- discourage one-sided decisions. They en- ment public participation in South Africa courage shared power and decision-mak- based on performance of ward commit- ing. There is also a view public participa- tees in Msunduzi municipality. The South Af- tion in local government contributes to rican governance system has provides for authoritative resource allocation (Heller, ward committees to facilitate deliberative 2001). Further, Orr and McAteer (2004) democratic decision making. Therefore, have identified three generic benefits of ward committees should foster public rep- public participation. First, increasing public resentation, consultation, and recommen- participation in decision making improves dations on matters affecting communities the quality of services delivered to commu- to or through the ward councillor to the lo- nities because the local government can cal or metropolitan council, the executive proactively consult with local communities. committee, and consequently to the exec- Second, other than service delivery, local utive mayor. In accordance with Section government provides a platform for polit- 72 of the Municipal Structures Act, the local ical activity—that is, engaging the public or metropolitan council may also delegate better to capture the poorly organised, the duties and powers to a ward committee. poorly resourced, and the dissents. Third, Piper and Deacon (2009) conclude that greater levels of participation ensure the despite ward committees operating for future of local government because if they seven years, they were not fully functional do not consult they risk becoming irrele- because committee members depend on vant. ward councillors, political parties, and the Orr and McAteer (2004) have also argued municipality. This dependence syndrome that absent or ineffective and disempower- undermines democratic benefits, therefore, ing public participation strategies weaken compromising effectiveness of ward com- local government’s oversight, scrutiny, and mittees. Further, Smith (2006) and Christmas

634 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 (2009) argue that structures (ward coun- sides, public participation tests a system’s cillors and ward committees) provided for ability to accommodate scrutiny. Legisla- by the Municipal Structures Act of 1998 to tive scrutiny is enhanced if, and only if, it facilitate public participation in municipal- can disallow or veto executive regulations ities are ineffective. This contributes to the if they do not conform to specific standards perception that municipalities are not re- or legal form. In relation to bills and regu- sponsive to the needs of communities. lations, political assemblies are tested for their willingness to promote greater public Michels and De Graaf (2010) have also as- participation in scrutinising the core activi- sessed the relationship between citizens ties of government. and government in two Netherlands municipalities to ascertain if public or citizen Compliance driven public consultation participation can improve the quality of processes which are usually void of mean- democracy. The aim of this study was to ingful public participation, oversight, and establish the role of the public vis-à-vis gov- accountability in municipalities is another ernment in local participatory democracy challenge inhibiting effective public par- and account for the true contribution of ticipation. In South Africa, Mogale (2003) citizens involved in policymaking. They fo- has suggested that meaningful public par- cus on the relations between citizens and ticipation is not always attained because government from a citizens’ perspective. its conceptualisation at local government Their findings show that the role of citizens level is fuzzy and ideological. This leads to is limited primarily to providing information a mismatch between public participation which government uses to make decisions. conceptualisation and operationalisation. They conclude that for a local level healthy This disconnection between theory and democracy to emerge, there is a need for practice, degenerates public participation democratic citizenship—that is, collective into just a strategy that convinces local au- responsibility in public matters, increased diences that local government recognises public engagement, and improved legit- their development needs. As a result, pos- imacy of decisions are more importantly itive effects of participation are minimal than having a voice in decision-making. and municipalities are seen as unrespon- Further, Geurtz and van de Wijdeven’s sive and not accountable to the public. (2010) study has described direct partic- Only a more collegial approach increases ipatory democracy experiences of a me- policy legitimacy especially if the initiative dium sized municipality in the Netherland. is supported by a representative structure. In doing so, they have identified two main The foregoing review shows that oversight, reasons a government involves the public scrutiny, and public participation are key in its programmes. First, citizen participation aspects to public accountability as well as leads to people-informed outputs. Second, advancing democratic governance. The citizen participation makes decision-mak- United Kingdom experience shows that ing process democratic. Geurtz and van oversight, scrutiny, and public participa- de Wijdeven (2010) conclude that strong tion need overhauling to improve public citizen participation at local government accountability. However, evidence shows connects the citizens to its government. Be-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 635 that local governance reforms have experi- and prevent abuse of power, arbitrary be- enced challenges emanating from internal haviour, and unconstitutional conduct by political dynamics that limit oversight, scru- government and its agencies (Snape and tiny, public consultation, and consequent- Ashworth, 2004). At the core, oversight pro- ly public accountability. Accountability tects rights and liberties of citizens (Parlia- agencies and legislatures have a tenden- ment of South Africa, 2008) by holding the cy to conserve their style of operations to executive to account for their dealings so ‘play it by the book’ (Uhr 2001). that they improve government effectiveness, relevance, and efficiency. This makes oversight useful in the implementation of 6. SITUATING THE ‘SEPARATION OF POWERS’ government interventions and allows for ARRANGEMENT WITHIN THE DEMOCRATIC transparency of and public trust in govern- ACCOUNTABILITY AND ITS CRITICAL COM- ment operations. PONENTS Leach (2003) has argued that all forms of Democratic accountability and its critical oversight measure performance against components of oversight and scrutiny as certain standards to test for compliance. well as public participation are normally ex- Many oversight activities investigate enti- ercised within the broad framework of ‘sep- ties where appropriate legal authority has aration of powers’. Therefore, if we have to been stretched or bypassed particularly derive a theoretical framework and later in relation to defence and security oper- on a conceptual framework, we need to ations. In such cases, oversight is unusual- discuss the over-arching framework that ly confidential or in-camera hearings held nests ‘separation of powers’ within which between the overseer—such as the parlia- we interrogate the concepts of oversight, mentary committee established to moni- scrutiny, and public accountability, in con- tor the performance—and the supervised. text. Ashworth and Snape (2004) describe Oversight can include oversight visits by a oversight as the process of investigating legislated committee to conduct physical the ‘hows’ of organisational conduct, par- verification of performance against a stan- ticularly where there is a greater expecta- dard. tion of official compliance with authorised policy. Oversight is a critical governance arrangement in legislative environments. Further, Ashworth and Snape (2004) de- The Parliament of South Africa (2008) states scribe scrutiny as a general investigation that its oversight role adheres to the Com- of the ‘whys’ in the political and admin- monwealth description based on the con- istrative conduct where there is notable ventional Westminster perspective whose discretion by government officials. Scru- emphasis is on the role of legislatures in en- tiny allows for reviewing government per- suring that government performs and com- formance by political assemblies (legisla- plies with statutory procedures and rules. tures), by public agencies established by Obviously, oversight objectives are linked the political assembly or government, and to the broad objectives of democracy and by non-governmental bodies including the accountability. They are meant to detect media. Leach (2003) has discussed scruti-

636 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 ny processes especially those undertaken they vary across policy areas. One com- by legislative assemblies such as question mon form involves a designated oversight sessions and parliamentary debates be- agency responsible for ‘whole of govern- tween government and non-government ment’ compliance with particular policies. officials commonly called ‘the backbench’ This could be a commissioner empowered as well as those initiated by opposition par- to act on citizens’ complaints, oversight ac- ties. Legislative or parliamentary scrutiny tivities confined to one government agen- refers to accountability tasks undertaken cy, or even span across a limited range of by members of the legislature when scru- government operations. In practice, over- tinising the government. Examples include sight and scrutiny functions tend to merge a parliamentary committee investigating and the terms are frequently interchanged government operations or when a parlia- because most public accountability ar- mentary chamber reviews a government rangements reflect aspects of both. As a bill, or when a parliamentary delegation result, in the absence of oversight, scru- to another country to examine the impact tiny processes are applied to provide for of an intervention or its contribution to an accountability. However, accountability international programme. March and Ol- can be ineffective when oversight mech- sen (1995) as well as Ashworth and Snape anisms are employed in place of scrutiny. (2004) have identified two avenues for ef- Therefore, one should distinguish the com- fecting public scrutiny of local government ponents of accountability. Further, as Uhr decision-making and accountability, that (2001) has argued, oversight and scrutiny is, (i.) political and community bodies and are not reserved for legislative assemblies (ii.) specialist oversight using competent only. Agencies such as the Auditor-General public authorities. and internal auditors do undertake public scrutiny activities. Ashworth and Snape (2003) point out, comparatively, oversight seeks justifica- The Parliament of South Africa (2008) points tions on the ‘how questions’ from admin- out that in South Africa scrutinising (formal istrative officials implementing approved and informal) as well as overseeing the interventions while scrutiny seeks explana- executive are constitutionally mandated tions from policy makers to the ‘why ques- functions of the legislative organs of state. tions’. Scrutiny points to public and political The latter entails overseeing the manage- review of government operations while ment of government departments by the oversight is less public orientated and fo- executive in pursuit of effective service cuses on technical reviews of government. delivery. Uhr (2001) points out that legis- Public authorities established to ensure latures or parliaments are key public ac- that government operations conform to countability institutions in parliamentary approved standards undertake most scru- democracies. Their systems differ in how tiny responsibilities. However, compared they structure the freedom of the legisla- with scrutiny, oversight is a more special- ture to manage accountability. The most ised form of enhancing accountability. Fur- influential models of accountability among ther, government oversight activities focus Commonwealth countries are based on on a narrower range of operations though the ‘Westminster system’ of responsible

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 637 parliamentary government. One highlighted feature of this model is the evolution of According to Schedler, Diamond, and Plat- accountability arrangements in parliamen- tner (1998), ‘responsibility’ in classic models tary regimes. Snape and Taylor (2004) sug- of parliamentary government was con- gest that ‘Westminster system’ has evolved ferred on elected members capable of through three broad phases—that is, (i.) commanding a stable parliamentary ma- initially promoting the need for govern- jority. The responsible government model ment accountability to parliament and the rests on the norms of accountability that courts; (ii.) followed by extending it to pub- elevate the rights of those commanding lic scrutiny; and (iii.) finally extending the the largest parliamentary parties. Accept- range of oversight mechanisms designed ing the responsibilities of executive office, to supplement parliamentary scrutiny. leaders of the majority parties were inclined As argued by Pillora and Mckinlay (2011), to emphasise the responsibility side of gov- the basic norms of a responsible parlia- ernance and downplay the accountability mentary government should reinforce the side. Legislative support staff, referred to as principles of representative government. scrutiny officers by Snape and Taylor (2001), Therefore, legislatures should link the peo- promote public accountability in responsi- ple and their government to reinforce the ble parliamentary government. They pro- principles of democracy. Uhr (1998) points vide for oversight, scrutiny, and therefore out that while awaiting universal suffrage, accountability processes by facilitating, responsible government systems invested publishing, and communicating findings of heavily in parliament to foster public ac- public hearings and investigations. There- countability. One important mechanism fore, such staff should produce accurate to achieve this is providing parliament the and timely public record of legislative de- sole responsibility of approving government bates and committee engagements. The budgets, that is, accountability through fi- work (reports and transcripts) that scrutiny nancial control. Further, Uhr (1998) argues officers produce should be democratic that excluding legal accountability (the ju- worth, useful as official transcripts, and pro- diciary and the courts); earlier components vide evidence of competence of govern- of parliamentary accountability focused ment in managing public affairs. This pro- on financial control, that is, government vides the public and their representatives taxation and expenditure. Establishment as well as the media an opportunity to view of an independent state auditor attached accountability records as significant illustra- to parliamentary public accounts commit- tions of how government business is being tee meant to foster financial accountabili- conducted. However, as Snape and Taylor ty is an important parliamentary instrument (2001) point out, research shows it is easier for financial control. These arrangements to secure public accountability in political placed parliament at the centre of na- theory than in concrete practice because tional governance making it the institution the process involves extending parliamen- responsible for determining who holds ex- tary controls over the spheres of responsi- ecutive power and under what terms and bility exercised by the political executive. conditions. This has potential to go against executive

638 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 convenience. This is why public account- The principle of separation of powers is an ability is consistently reformulated by refine- important structural element to achieve ac- ments in scrutiny and oversight. Uhr (1999) countability oversight and scrutiny in demo- has suggested that “…left to itself, the at- cratic governments through the separation tractive banner of ‘parliamentary govern- of legislative, executive and judicial pow- ment’ could be raised just as easily by un- ers into different branches of government. accountable parliamentary oligarchs … as A basic separation protects the indepen- by friends of parliamentary democracy”. dence of the judiciary from the political executive holding office as the government 7. A FORMATIVE EVALUATION OF THE CITY of the day. It also protects the freedom of OF JOHANNESBURG ‘SEPARATION OF POW- the legislature or parliament from domina- ERS’ PILOT PROJECT, A CONCEPTUAL FRAME- tion by the serving executive government. WORK Historically, modern constitutional govern- The governance arrangements in munici- ment first separated out the judicial power palities conceptual framework is based on from the combined weight of the other two the ‘separation of powers’ principle com- powers: the accountability of government bined with oversight and scrutiny mecha- was strengthened by protecting judicial of- nisms. Specifically, it emphasises that the fice-holders from interference from the two context within which a particular model is political branches. Thus a basic element of implemented is important as it can influ- accountability is the protections enjoyed ence the effectiveness of any governance by the judiciary through such institutional arrangement. Therefore, we do not rec- features as security of tenure, freedom of ommend a completely new conceptual decision-making and the rights of citizens framework but rather how such existing to approach the courts to seek review of concepts can be contextualised. Figure 1 government decision-making. presents a conceptual framework a formative evaluation of the city of Johannesburg ‘separation of powers’ pilot project. It arises from a reflective summary of the preceding sections in this paper; namely, a research problem analysis as well as reviewing past and current studies on and evaluation of the ‘separation of powers’ concept in the context of governance. In doing so, we point out the knowledge gap including the lack of understanding the local dynamics that influence effectiveness of governance models. On the basis, of these we have proposed a more informed approach and established an accompanying plausible theoretical framework.

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 639 Figure 1: Showing a conceptual framework for a formative evaluation of the city of Johan- nesburg ‘separation of powers’ pilot project

Does Separating executive and Legislative Functions improve governance in municipalities?

Research problem analysis Review of past and current attempts - Weak governance practices in municipalities - Recommended oversight and scrutiny models and - Lack of Accountability and Oversight their critique - Weak public participation processes - Oversight a problem function of local government - Conflation of executive and legislative functions in - Establishment of effective committee systems Council - Political influence in the practice of oversight and - Many legislative local government interventions scrutiny - Inadequate powers for oversight bodies

Characteristics of oversight and scrutiny system - Committees Knowledge gap established - Scrutiny officers - No lack of reforms but lack of evaluation - Structures, processes, and systems. - Case study approach supports the implementation of - Resolution tracking; question time a pilot project - Oversight and scrutiny had contributed positively to policy review Proposed evaluation approach - Public declarations of support for robust scrutiny, not - To consider programme theory with the main backed by actual practice components of programme activities or outputs, - Local dynamics influence configuration intended outcomes or inputs and mechanism to implementation and success of governance models achieve intended outcomes.

Explanatory framework - Practice of separation of powers principle - Public scrutiny of government decision-making by political and community bodies and - (ii) More specialist oversight of government by competent public authorities (Ashworth and Snape, 2004; March and Olsen, 1995). - Meaningful public participation processes

Accountability is further enhanced through a separation of legislative from executive power, either by forming two distinct branches of government as in the case of presidential systems, or by devising institutional checks and balances to highlight the distinctive responsibilities of the political executive and the legislature. Most parliamentary governance systems have the political executive drawn from the party or parties commanding a majority of members of Parliament. Without special effort to protect the independence of the law-making function, parliamentary systems can degenerate into the subservience of

640 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 the legislature to a dominant political ex- branch is mandated with making laws, the ecutive which expects little more of the po- executive branch with administering the litical assembly than that it ‘rubber stamp’ law and the judicial branch has a man- government initiatives. Democracy should date to try cases brought to court and to protect the independent value of repre- interpret the law. The separation intends sentative assemblies; making democracy to achieve a balance and to prevent an effective means promoting the indepen- overconcentration of power in the hands dence of the legislature as the central fo- of a single person or institution (Carney, rum for community deliberation over law 1993). Each government branch is con- and policy. Accountability is best served fined to exercising its own function and not where governance systems are able to encroaches into functions of other branch- mobilise public scrutiny of the executive es. Ideally, people who make up these branch and to subject government oper- branches would be separate and distinct. ations to sustained oversight by parliamen- Development of the doctrine of separa- tary and other specialist authorities. tion of powers is attributed to ancient and The approach to accountability evident in modern writers (Alvey, 2005). The writing the separation of powers has sometimes of ancient philosophers such as Plato (427 been called ‘horizontal accountability’, – 347BC), Aristotle (384 – 322BC) and Poly- that is, accountability between equally bus (205 – 123BC) influenced modern writ- autonomous if not quite equally powerful ers (Alvey, 2005). Their writing formulated institutions. This is in contrast to most forms theories of government, political theory as of accountability which illustrate ‘vertical well as defining the key functions of- gov accountability’, that is accountability be- ernment. The ancient ‘mixed constitution’ tween unequal institutions where one is ac- designed to avoid competition between knowledged as the principal and the other factions is considered the ancient version as the subordinate agent. At times, both of separation of powers (Alvey, 2005). The forms of accountability are combined. This ‘mixed constitution’ was a mix of and bal- applies in many parliamentary systems. ance among three forms of constitution, Separation of powers is the practice of di- monarchy (rule by one), aristocracy (rule viding the powers of a government among by the few) and democracy (rule by many) different branches of government (Carney (Fitzgerald, 1980). Of the modern-day writ- 1993). At the centre of separation of powers, Carney (1993) and Alvey (2005), credit ers doctrine is a suggestion there are differ- Locke (1690), Baron de Montesquieu, the ent kinds of public roles that ought to be ‘Spirit of Laws’ (1748) and Madison (1788) separated from one another and ought to with the modern idea of separation of be exercised by different institutions or per- powers. Locke (1960) was critical of abso- sonnel. According to Vile (1967) and Car- lute monarchy and advocated constitu- ney (1993), in a pure form of separation of tional monarchy and limited government. powers, each of these branches would be Montesquieu (1748) improved the ideas of allocated a matching identifiable role that Locke and is credited with elaborating the is Executive, Legislative and the Judiciary modern conceptualisation of separation (Vile, 1967; Carney, 1993). The legislative of powers doctrine. Collectively, they ad-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 641 vocated perceiving separation of powers later application the idea stresses the role doctrine as purely a system of checks and of citizenry and gives citizens the rights to balances (Alvey, 2005). criticize state action.

Persson and others, (1997) describe separation of powers as a basic constitutional There are three key reasons for separating principle of liberal democracy that pro- powers. First, drawn from historical times, motes accountability. They argue that separation of powers seeks to protect liber- separation of powers improves account- ty and promote good government through ability of elected officials and effective- dividing different powers of government ness of voters. However they caution that among three branches of government. this can only happen under proper checks According to Carney (1993), Montesquieu and balances. They noted that separation suggested that, to avoid arbitrariness, and of powers allows for the design of a system promote liberty, power of governance that allows for conflict of interest between should be divided between three organs of executive and legislature and needs for the state. In promoting good governance executive and legislature to agree in leg- and protecting liberty, the doctrine aims to islative decision making (Persson and oth- use checks and balances to reduce abuse ers 1997). Scholars identified three general of power (Persson et, al.1997). The theory ways in which a legislature may control the works by creating subtle conflict of inter- executive in a separation of powers system; est between the three branches of gov- oversight, legislation and budget making. ernment. It is assumed that this allows the bodies to discipline one another to the vot- They suggest for separation of powers beers’ advantage (Persson, et, all. 1997). By tween the legislature and the executive applying a strict separation of powers, it is tools to work, there must cooperation be- assumed, ‘each branch will be a check to tween the two branches in policymaking. others and that no single group of people The legislature should have ability to over- will be able to have total control of ma- see the executive and executive must be chinery of the state’ (Carney, 1993:2). willing to comply with legislative laws. They give budget formulation as an example The spirit of the doctrine is that if a single of how separating powers can work and person or body held all three functions or produce accountability by splitting the powers, it would result in dictatorship and decision over budget formulation into two arbitrary rule. The doctrine suggests that stages while requiring both policymaking political stability and freedom would be bodies to agree at each stage. Closely secured if the three arms of government analysed, one body (executive) has full remained separate. According to Carney control over the size of the budget, while (1993), Montesquieu argued that if power the other body (legislature) has complete is concentrated in a single person’s hand agenda setting over composition of the or a group of people then it results in a budget. They caution, however, the mere tyrannical form of government. They saw existence of conflict of interest alone is not separation of powers as a way to reduce enough to improve accountability; howev- arbitrary power of unchecked rulers. In its

642 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 er, it is important that no policy is imposed emerge, from the three-part classification unilaterally without agreement of the two of government power and functions. This bodies. classification and the nature of -govern ment functions ensure that it is not always Persson and others (1997) highlight the impossible to impose a strict doctrine of sepa- portance of agenda setting power in the ration of powers (Carney 1993). According design of separation of powers. They argue to Lumb (1983; 24) an absolute separation that important decisions must be separat- of powers would lead to anarchy. The real- ed in part and assigned to the different ities of government have resulted in sepa- bodies, that is, executive and legislature. ration of powers being applied to varying Each body will have full agenda setting degrees as governments try to uphold con- power over its part of the decision. Each trols. As a result only a partial separation of body will prevent the other from abusing its powers has been implementable, compli- power through creation of overt and co- mented by further controls. vert conflict of interest. Proper sequence of decision making can introduce controls to Another weakness of the separation of deprive the executive and the legislature powers doctrine is assuming that it is pos- of most of the rents they use to hold power. sible to define the separate functions of Second, separation of powers is a basis for government and to decide to whom their setting up a constitutional system useful for performance should be assigned (Barendt dividing legislative, executive and judicial 1995). It is not possible to clearly place gov- roles in a new or developing state (Carney ernment functions into these three branch- 1993). Montesquieu’s 1748 publication, the es of government because governments ‘Spirit of Laws’, according to Carney (1993) the world over, enjoy significant delegated influenced the constitution of the - Unit authority. Barendt (1995) argues the failure ed States of America and evolving of the to conform to a strict separation of pow- French republic. Third, according to Barber ers should not take away from the overall (2001) the purpose of the doctrine of sep- objective of separation of powers, which is aration of powers is efficient government. to promote liberty and to prevent arbitrari- He argues that separation of powers is a ness or tyranny in government which may tool to achieve a constitutional objective, arise from the concentration of power. The that is, the goal set for the state by political allocation of functions between three, four theory. If the constitutional objective of a or five branches of government is not the country is to be a democratic state, sep- most important, but that it is a process to aration of powers theory can help a state achieve that end. Precise allocation may achieve this objective. not be the most important factor; however, insensitive allocation may also produce in- A major critique of the separation of pow- competent inefficient government. He also ers doctrine is the existence of major differ- cautions that, while it is possible to define ences between its theory and its practice in general terms the legislative, executive which have resulted in a complete sepa- and judicial functions of government, what ration being possible only in theory and not is crucial is that this distribution is enforce- in practice (Alvey, 2005). These difficulties able by the courts. The absence of the en-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 643 forceable distribution presents challenges the Legislature, the Executive and the Ju- for the doctrine. diciary. However, practically this is not always possible. For example in the Westmin- Barber (2001) emphasises that, instead ster system, the personnel of the Executive of allocating functions to an arm of gov- (Ministers) must be chosen from members ernment best suited to execute them, the of the Legislative Assembly, Members of competency of institutions to carry out Parliament (MPs). This presents an overlap these functions should be more important which Carney (1993) describes as neces- considerations. These may include compo- sary as it promotes responsible government sition and skills available, the knowledge by making the cabinet responsible to the and experience of actors in the institution, Legislative Assembly. While in many cases information gathering powers of the identi- the separation between the Judiciary and fied institution, decision making processes the other two branches is clearer, the pow- in the institution, and vulnerability of the in- ers of the three branches of government stitution to outside factors, among others. overlap sometimes. Another weakness of In essence Barber (2001) presents structural the separation of powers doctrine includes concerns that should not stop the alloca- that it is not always contained in a coun- tion of functions but should be considered try’s constitution and therefore cannot be when engaging the doctrine of separation enforced by law. of powers, concerns that relate to deeper issues of legitimacy as well as the norma- The separation of powers principle is also crit- tive theories of rights and democracy. Sep- icised for being subject to external factors aration of powers, therefore, presents op- such as whether the system of government portunities for efficient exercise of power is a presidential or parliamentary democra- when various types of power are allocated cy as different constitutions can strengthen sensibly to the right kind of institution. or weaken the components sharing power. The institutional arrangements implement- Reality is that not all government functions ed in the judiciary, the legislature and the can be neatly slotted into just one of the executive also have an influence on the categories identified in the doctrine (Car- functionality of the separation of powers ney 1993). Instead there are suggestions doctrine in practice. Sometimes the form of that within a separation of powers exists a separation of powers adopted is subject to combination of both a separation and fu- political practice or legal arrangements. In sion of powers. For example, in many coun- some instances where separation of pow- tries there is common acceptance the ers is not a legal restriction, it is compliment- judiciary is sacrosanct and functions and ed with other controls such as committee responsibilities of the judiciary are distinct. systems of parliamentary review and ac- However, there are suggestions, in the tion (Carney 1993). As a result of these im- Commonwealth, of partial fusion between plementation challenges and innovations, executive—executive and the legislature a complete and strict doctrine of separa- (Assembly)—(Bagehot 1963). The doctrine tion of powers exists only as a theory. There assumes that it is possible to distinctly sep- are implementation challenges to the separate the personnel that are involved with aration of powers doctrine. While the sep-

644 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 aration of powers doctrine emphasises the interaction among the judiciary, executive LIST OF REFERENCES and legislature, this article is interested in the separation of powers and the interaction between the legislature and the executive. The conceptualisation and im- Alvey, J. 2005. The separation of powers plementation of the separation of powers in Australia: Implications for the state of has evolved over time and one example Queensland, Australian Political Stream. of this evolution is the development of leg- Paper presented to the 53rd Australasian islatures. Over the past three decades, leg- Political Studies Association Conference: islatures have enhanced their capacity to New Zealand play a more active role in the policymak- Ashworth, R., 2003. Evaluating the Effective- ing process which has been dominated by ness of Local Scrutiny Committees, ESRC the executive. Legislatures have assumed Full Research Report. Swindon: ESRC greater responsibility in formulating policy, and more actively oversee the operations Ashworth, R. and Snape, S., 2004. An over- of the executive branch oversight). This view of scrutiny: a triumph of context over oversight role has taken many forms. structure. Local Government Studies. 30(4), 538-556 One way is of legislative standing committees responsible for continuous review Badenhorst, C. 2007. Research Writing: of the work of the state agencies. Legis- Breaking the Barriers. Van Schaik Publishers: latures also create special committees Pretoria. or staff agencies designed specifically to Bagehot, W. 1963. The English Constitution. evaluate agency operation and perfor- London: Fontana/Collins mance. In addition, legislatures review (and sometimes, veto) the rules and reg- Barber, N.W. 2001. Prelude to the Separa- ulations developed by executive agen- tion of Powers. Cambridge Law Journal. 59 cies to implement law. According to Pers- 71-72 son et al, (1997) the separation of powers Barendt, E. 1995. Separation of powers and can have many rationales such as prompt Constitutional government. Public Law. 559 correction of mistakes or protection of mi- 603-604 norities; key to this is separation of powers assist a government to promote principles Blair, P. 1991 “Trends in local autonomy and of democratic governance through limited democracy: Reflections from a European government. The theory of separation of perspective”, in Bartley, R. et al (eds.) Local powers, mechanisms and tools as outlined Government in Europe. Macmillan Publish- above can be used to assess and evaluate ers the practical institutional arrangements in Carney, G. 1993. “The Separation of Pow- South African local government in general ers in the Westminster System” Queensland and as practiced in the City of Johannes- Chapter of the Australasian Study of Parlia- burg in particular. ment Group, Speech given at Parliamen-

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 645 tary Annexe, Brisbane, 13 September 1993, approaches to qualitative content anal- pp. 1-11. ysis’ Qualitative Health Research. 15( 9): 1277-1288. Christmas, A. 2009. Service delivery protests: Failure to deliver or failure to commu- Kumar, R. 2014. Research Methodology: A nicate? Local Government Bulletin, 3(1). Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners. Los An- geles: Sage. City of Johannesburg, Oversight and Scru- tiny Framework. City of Johannesburg: Jo- Leach, S. 2003, Executives and scrutiny in hannesburg local government: an evaluation of progress. Public Policy and Administration. 18(1): Cole, M. 2001. “Local government mod- 4–12. ernisation: The executive and scrutiny model”, The Political Quarterly. 72(2): 239–245. Lumb, R.D. 1983. Australian Constitutional- ism, Butterworth’s: Sydney Constitution of the Republic of South Afri- ca. 1996. Government Printer: Pretoria. March, G., and Olsen, J.P., Democratic Governance. The Free Press, 1995. Department of Provincial and Local Gov- ernment. 2007. Municipalities of the Repub- McLennan, A. 2009. The delivery paradox. lic of South Africa. Government printer: Pre- The politics of service delivery. 19-42 toria Michels and De Graaf 2010. Examining cit- Fitzgerald, R. 1980. Comparing Political izen participation: Local participatory poli- Thinkers. Sydney: Pergamon Press cy making and democracy. Local Govern- ment Studies. 36(4): 477-491 Fessha, Y. 2008. Holding the municipal executive to account. Local Government Mogale, T. 2003. Developmental local gov- Bulletin, 8-10 ernment and decentralised service delivery in the democratic South Africa. In G. Geurtz C. and Van de wijdeven T. 2010. Mhone & O. Edigheji (Eds.), Governance in Making citizen participation work: the chal- the new South Africa (pp. 215-243). Cape lenging search for new forms of local de- Town: Cape Town University Press. mocracy in the Netherlands”. Local Gov- ernment Studies. 36(4), 531-549 Orr, K., and McAteer, M., 2004. The mod- ernisation of local decision making: public Hankla, C., and Downs, W. 2010. Decentral- participation and Scottish local govern- isation, governance and the structure of lo- ment. Local Government Studies. 30(2): cal political institutions: lessons for reform? 131-155 Local Government Studies. 36 (6), 759-783 Persson T. 1997. “Separation of Powers and Heller, P. 2001. “Moving the State: The Poli- Political Accountability”. Journal of Eco- tics of Democratic Decentralization in Ker- nomics 112(4) : 1163-1202 ala, South Africa and Porto Allegre”.Politics Society. 29: 131 Pillora, S. 2011. Local government and community governance: A literature re- Hsiesh, H and S.E. Shannan. 2005. ‘Three view. Australian Centre of Excellence for

646 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Local Government Vile, M. 1998. Constitutionalism and the Separation of Powers (2nd ed.), Indianap- Piper, L., and Deacon, R. 2009. Too depen- olis; Liberty Fund. dent to participate: ward committees and local democratisation in South Africa, Lo- Visser, J.W. 2005. Developmental Local cal Government Studies, Vol 35(4), 415-433 Government: A Case Study of South Africa Antwerp: Oxford Public Participation Spectrum. 2004. Inter- national Association of Public Participation Wotela, K. 2016. Towards a systematic approach to reviewing literature for interpret- Snape, S. 2000. New forms of political man- ing business and management research agement arrangements. London, IDeA results, Paper presented at 15th European Snape, S. and Taylor, F. 2001. A hard nut to Conference on Research Methodology for crack? Making overview and scrutiny work, Business and Management Studies, 9-10 Local Government Association, London June 2016. London, United Kingdom. Ac- (United Kingdom) ademic Conferences and Publishing Inter- national Limited. Schedler, A. 1999. Conceptualising accountability. In A Schedler, L Diamond and M Plattner (Eds.) The Self-Restraining State: Power and accountability in new democracies. Boulder, Lynne Rienner, 13- 28.

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Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 647 THE EEFECTS OF POOR COMMUNICATION IN SOUTH AFRICAN LOCAL MUNICIPALITIES

SK Mokoena

University of the Free State

ABSTRACT

This paper explores the aspect of communication among appointed officials, councillors and community structures. Communication is mainly in three ways, firstly, communication between the officials and the recipients of services, secondly communication between the councillors and thirdly, their constituencies and the communication from the constituencies to the councillors and bureaucracy of local municipalities. Central to this problem is the feedback to communities on the local municipalities’ visions for development, perceived ineffective channels created by the municipalities to interface with the communities and lastly, perceived lack of interface between the elected councillors and the communities. A lack of communication from councillors, officials to the communities slows up the operations of the local municipalities and causes poor decision making on issues affecting the people. Effective communication channels between the municipalities, Ward Councillors and the communities lack power and influence in effective provision of services. This impact negatively on the public and the officials. The municipality’s communication channels include amongst others mayoral “imbizos” and ward committees’ participation within all wards of the municipalities as stipulated in their respective Integrated Development Plans (IDPs). The research design used in this paper was qualitative in nature and data was collected by means of an extensive review of government and public documents, academic books and articles. The paper concludes that an intervention is needed in order to change and enhance communication strategies in local municipalities. Keywords: Communication, Councillors, Integrated Development Plans, Ward Councillor

1. INTRODUCTION

Communication serves as a base for control and coordination in institutions. Hence it provides information essential to effective completion of the institutional mission. Effective communication is the interchange of information between two or more persons. In addition, the study of organisational communication centres on procedures of interaction means by which people obtain information, form opinions, make decisions, merge into the institution, leave the institution and create relationship and understanding with one another. Furthermore, communication is central to the success of most of all institutions, therefore when change is occurring in an institution, communication is mostly even more essential to implement that change effectively (Alyushina & Kucheruk, 2010).

648 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 Sanchez (2008) argues that communica- its communities through public hearings by tion is the exchange and flow of informa- allowing citizens to have a continuous input tion and ideas from one person to another. into local issues. In essence, there is a need It involves a sender transmitting an idea to for community involvement in the affairs a receiver. Effective communication oc- of local municipalities as well as to allow curs only if the receiver comprehends the communities to contribute to the decision exact information or idea that the sender making process of municipalities. Alyushina intended to transmit. A typical communi- and Kucheruk(2010) argue that ineffective cations model has five elements: namely; communication is capable of increasing a sender, a message, a medium, a receiv- the level of concern and fear in the public, er, and a feedback process. To this end, as well as to enhance rumours that result in this paper will inform and educate people an insufficient perception of risk. The current about the role of effective communication practice of communication in certain mu- in sustainable local development. More- nicipalities cannot satisfy all the needs of over, the significance of this paper is to en- the whole society to debate decision mak- sure that issues pertaining to service delivery ing and obtains reliable communication, are communicated and debated by the which is the foundation for obtaining mutu- communities and relevant stakeholders in al trust from the community and stakehold- municipalities. It can be argued that knowl- ers. Sensitive and productive assessments edge is power only when applied, and this of risks are achieved through effective paper will assist the Ward Councillors and communication. Ineffective communica- the society as a whole to share knowledge tion between the municipalities, public and and cascade skills in communities. The im- stakeholders influence negative impact portance of communication is to ensure in the Municipal Councils to allow citizens that services are implemented as commu- to have constant inputs into local politics. nicated. This paper begins by presenting In this connection, Magubane (2014) ob- a related literature review on the topic. It serves that protests related to proper water further provides an analysis of issues direct- supplies and housing, and municipal cor- ly affecting communication. Furthermore, ruption have hit most municipalities thor- the paper comprises of a discussion on the ough out the country due to poor/lack of findings and recommendations that munic- communication. ipalities can consider applying in their re- Byrd (2008) indicates that the Municipal spective boundaries. The paper concludes Councils often discourage the involvement by expressing the fact that effective com- of the local community and it dictates the munication is a complex process. community’s right to contribute to the deci- 2. COMMUNICATION AND MUNICIPALITIES sion making of the municipality. Communi- ty involvement results in various methods to This paper is based on legislation such as the setting up different strategies to consult the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, local communities on the municipalities’ 1996 and the Local Government Municipal draft budgets to achieve a common goal Systems Act, 2000 (32 of 2000) which com- of developmental local government. Aly- pels municipalities to consolidate views of ushina and Kucheruk, (2010) suggest that

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 649 poor of communication creates further dif- of communication channel to talk to resi- ficulties to public engagement and drops dents, officials of the local government and the confidence of the provision of public ward councillors as to electronically debate goods and services to communities. Inef- issues, which is not effective because not fective communications among members all of the residents possess email addresses. of the communities and their respective E-mail utilization exists in municipal chain of municipalities, lead to poor institutional ar- command, and the usage of e-mail in work rangements, unpleasant local relationship related matters must be communicated with the communities and the municipali- to ensure effective provision of goods and ties. Findings by Nashir-uddin (2013) on the services in the best interest of the society. challenges to enhance effective commu- The means of the methods of communica- nication suggest that they arise due to nu- tion is unable to transfer all essential local merous forms of delegation without proper knowledge from residents to local coun- direction and result in miscommunication. cillors to the municipal authorities. Heinelt The further argues that because of swift mu- (2013) identify that lack of communication nicipal development, individuals increase between the municipality and society dis- in town areas, and this increase result in a credit the understanding of democracy gap between communication, demands which is determined by the Constitution and provision of municipal facilities and of the republic. A lack of communication services. It is argued that effective com- affects councillors negatively to debate is- munication develops interest in the issues, sues that affect their role in the community challenges, and reform measures needed to perform a specific role according to their to be taken for ensuring the efficient and understanding of democracy. effective communication functions at the According to Denters and Klok (2013) the local government sphere since it lacks seri- focus is on the negative influence of inabil- ous intervention. The theoretical context of ity to communicate issues on the orienta- local government has a variety of commu- tions of local councillors concerning rep- nication constraints between ward coun- resentative roles and behaviour of ward cillors, members of a community and other councillors. The lack of effective commu- stakeholders of a municipality. nication does affects ward councillors as Furthermore Hanssen (2008: 1) found that individuals to support for participatory gov- the extent, to which local politicians utilise ernance in the municipalities. In essence, means of communication channels in their with regard to ineffective communication contact with residents and stakeholders, is in the municipalities, it influence the role linked with traditional forms of communica- of ward councillors, community and other tion such as face to face. In addition, pol- stakeholders very weak and it indirectly af- iticians make a use of telephone contact fect municipality negatively to understand which still does not cater to inform all the how councillors and community value re- people about the municipal decisions on sponsiveness. With regard to a behavioural important matters affecting the general responsiveness, municipalities do not take wellbeing of communities. Municipal coun- into account the ethical behaviour to lead cillors’ uses e-mails as an important means to effective communication. It is clear that

650 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 a gap of communication between com- know that the message was received and munities and municipalities impact nega- understood (Smoke, 2005). Koval and Thal- tively to the society’s participation inputting er (2003) argue that if one of these com- comments to the draft budget of a munic- ponents of the communication model is not ipalities. Plüss (2013) supports the view for present, then the communication process a development of a new form of political or message trying to be conveyed could routing at the local sphere of government become misunderstood, or communicated as a matter of reality since it has been es- in a manner that the sender did not intend. tablished in numerous studies that lack of Many of the breakdowns in communica- communication is a factor that influence tions throughout institutions has had one poor service delivery. However, various of these components missing that has led means of communication arrangements to the miscommunication, lack of com- such as public hearings have unequal ef- munication, or some barrier affecting the fects on the political will and often reinforce communication. In fact, as soon as email the influence of the municipal council to writers start using text phrases to describe communicate effectively issues affecting emotions that would normally be delivered the whole society. Furthermore, the inability via physical body language, the intended to frequently communicate has a negative message could be misunderstood by the impact on the importance of the council in reader due to a complete misinterpretation local politics (Plüss, 2013). of the writer’s emotional tone. Expressive and careless messages are sent before the Van Schalkwyk, (2014) is of the view that in- sender has reflected on the message being effective communication during the work- sent which could potentially lead to ill feeling hours, tends to waste time. Hence, poor ings and negative consequences. In addi- planning and communication occur more tion, an email could be sent to the wrong often in the local sphere of government. recipients creating privacy or personnel is- The gap rises inappropriately between sues (Hahn, 2007). councillors, community and appointed officials of municipalities to frequently- con Communication is an active process on all tacting each other on issues affecting the parties involved that requires the person whole general society. Moreover, ineffec- receiving the message to actually listen to tive communication amongst the municipal that which is being said. It is not enough to officials tends to have negative influence just hear the message, but to understand, into office gossip and unethical behaviour remember, and provide some sort of feed- of the staff. In this connection, the sender back to the message. Furthermore, what has information that they are wishing to de- counts is the material of the communica- liver and share through a method of com- tion and the nature of the person doing the munication. The message is the informa- communicating including his or her ability tion being communicated. In addition, the to listen as well as to talk (Bossidy & Charan, medium is the method the sender chooses 2002). The above related literature had an to transmit or share the information. The re- important impact in supporting and influ- ceiver is the recipient of the message and encing the purpose of this research. In ad- the feedback process allows the sender to dition, the literature review clearly showed

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 651 and documented the number of variables tween people of different ethnic backgrounds that could affect effective communications in communities, people of different ages and between municipal officials, Ward Council- people with different levels of industry experi- lors and community members in municipal- ence. Any language barrier is going to slow communication or create misunderstandings ities. However, achieving effective commu- that make communication ineffective within nication is not always easy, nonetheless the municipalities (Gallo, 2007). results are worth it. Adding to the above, it is significant to acquire increased effec- 3.2 Personal issues tiveness and efficiency, higher moral, an According to Robbins, (2012) effective com- honest exchange of thoughts and opinions munication in municipalities is based on pro- and a more harmonious work environment fessional correspondence designed to assist in (McWilliams, 2005). Indeed, enhanced the daily operation of municipalities as well as communications will support and assist to the continued growth of municipalities. When foster a closer employer and employee employees allow personal issues to affect the working environment and develop an at- municipal communication, a communication mosphere in the organization to encourage problem develops that could take a long time discussion and the exchange and sharing to track down and resolve. For instance, peo- of information to improve communication ple who refuse to communicate based on a personal disagreement are damaging a mu- in municipalities. Furthermore, face-to-face nicipality’s ability to deliver effective services to communication is still regarded as the best the society and these slow the growth of the way to communicate a message and get municipality at large. the full meaning and intent across to the receiver (Metcalfe, 2007). 3.3 Lack of feedback

3. ISSUES DIRECTLY AFFECTING COMMUNI- O’Dea (2008) identified that a one-way - com CATION munication can become an ineffective way to exchange information between the officials, Without efficient communication, any institution councilors and community members through- is unable to exchange information essential to out the municipal communication channels. daily operations and create a communication Furthermore, employees and managerial staff network to carry new item for consumption of should provide feedback at all times to the data. The following issues have been identified councilors as well as to the communities as to for the purpose of this paper: improve the quality of information disseminated and the manner in which the information is 3.1 Language barriers delivered. For instance, if a municipality have a tendency to send out information in a format A miscellaneous workplace such as a munici- confusing to other people in and outside the pality has interest of its community members at municipality such as stakeholders (Churches, heart, such as a variety of services provided by government departments and private busi- the municipalities amongst others include wa- nesses, etc.), then the municipality needs to be ter and sanitation, electricity and refuse remov- informed of its communication problems imme- al. But the language barrier that can sometimes diately or else the information coming from that occur in a diverse workplace, or any workplace, group will always pose a communication chal- might become a communication problem. Fur- lenge. thermore, there might be language barriers be-

652 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 3.4 New appointees 3.7 Bad work relationships

When new employees are brought into an institution, the need is to ensure that appointed em- Cornelissen, Durand, Fiss, Lammers and Vaara ployees and elected councilors as well as the (2015) agree with the literature that several public receive comprehensive introduction into common communication barriers can lead to the proper ways to communicate throughout disengaged and even conflicting relationships the municipality. In addition, institutions which among colleagues, or between community, do not include communication training in their ward councillors as well as supervisors and sub- new hire orientation programs will be forced to ordinates. Yet, a barrier commonly tied to this struggle with new appointees who are forced negative effect is emotions. However, when to learn proper communication procedures a workplace becomes overly affected by the (Palazzolo, 2008). emotional state of one, a few or several work- 3.5 Inaction ers within the organisation can significantly affect the ability of people to work together. For instance, a supervisor who routinely expresses Kwon and Onwuegbuzie, (2005) argue that one negative emotions can overwhelm workers. of the biggest effects of communication bar- Additionally, co-workers who routinely project riers in institutions such as municipalities is that emotional eruptions can create hostile working they causes employees to fail to deliver on re- relationships. quested directives. Moreover, a weak delivery of a message can cause the intended receiver to fail to act. Hence, this weakness can mean 3.8 Lack of knowledge the receiver is uncertain about the request. Of- ten, it can mean the sender has failed to present the request in a way that motivates the re- According to Sanchez (2008) inappropriately ceiver to take immediate action and perform structured organizations and communication to expectation. processes and several other common barriers can eventually contribute to an environment in which employees and the community general- 3.6 Misinterpretation ly lack knowledge about the institution, its mandate, vision and purpose. However, this can Misinterpreted messages are also an effect of contribute to poor service delivery and produc- communication barriers in municipalities. While tivity, creativity and results within the organiza- this can stem from poor communication efforts tion. Thus, it can also lead to poor communica- by the message sender, municipalities has two tion and ineffective results during interactions common barriers that can lead to misinterpre- with clients or customers of the municipality tation. However, language and communica- known as the community. Furthermore, top tion differences are common as municipalities management should take on the responsibility become more diverse. Additionally, noises and of making certain each employee has knowl- distractions in the work environment can cause edge to do his or her job. Munilla and Dosier, confusion during the reception and interpre- (1991) identified nine issues which directly af- tation of messages (Miura, Kariyasu, Yamasaki fect effective communication on day to day and Sumi, 2004). operations and are now highlighted below:

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 653 3.8.1 Not all employees are being kept informed sense of a shared direction toward which everyone is striving. This does not inspire employ- The assumption is that the usual modes of com- ees to do their best work. munication will send important information to everyone who needs to know and that ev- 3.8.7 Functional areas not collaborat- eryone will receive this information. However, ing in many institutions, the information does not reach people who are not using those meth- Departments/units do not share the information ods of communication on a regular basis (e.g., that could help all departments/units achieve email that is not read by front-line workers). common goals. They are competitive rather than collaborative. This limits the capability of 3.8.2 Employees not receiving consistent mes- the institution as a whole. sages from management 3.8.8 Employees not open with each other Different supervisors are sending different, sometimes conflicting messages about priori- Employees do not share information with each ties. This causes confusion and distrust among other. They do not trust each other. This com- employees. promises the productivity of teams, departments/units, and the organization. 3.8.3 Employees not receiving timely messages 3.8.9 Communication hampered by dis- Information is not getting to employees when tance between units and where they need it. Without vital information at the right time and in the right place, the Departments/units that are in different locations decision-making process slows and projects are do not communicate as much and as often as not completed on time or in the best way. those in close proximity. The distance makes face-to-face meetings harder to arrange and 3.8.4 The right information is not being sent to collaboration takes more time. the right people Even in this age of email, cell phones, text Critical information (e.g., market data) is not be- messaging, and Web conferencing, critical ing shared among key stakeholders. Top man- communication among leaders, between agement is not engaging employees who have management and employees, and between most of the customer contact in the important departments/units, still does not happen as decisions of the institution. Employees are not much and as often as needed. Municipalities getting important information to management. are not exempted from these.

3.8.5 Expectations are not clear 4. FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Top leaders do not discuss expectations with This paper focused on the literature and mid-level managers. Therefore, they do not observations, which allow the paper to be have the same expectations nor do they agree much essential as to enhance effective on how to reach strategic goals. Because of communication as much significant in mu- this, employees do not have clear goals and nicipalities to ensure effective and efficient benchmarks to guide their progress. provisioning of goods and services to the 3.8.6 Plan for the future is not known people. However, the current practice of communication in most municipalities can- Leaders do not discuss their vision for the future not satisfy all the needs of the communities of the institution with employees. There is no to debate decision making and obtaining

654 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 reliable communication, which is the foun- communicate effectively issues affecting dation for obtaining mutual trust from the the whole society. Van Schalkwyk (2014) community and stakeholders. Moreover, argues that ineffective communication public participation which is held by the mu- during the working hours, tends to waste nicipalities clearly give evidence that the time. Hence, poor planning and communi- Municipal Councils discourage the involve- cation occur more often in the local sphere ment of the local community and it dictates of government. The main challenge in the the community’s right to contribute to the municipalities is the implementation of new decision making of the municipalities. How- means of communication steering modes ever people fail to attend meetings due to which then generally weaken the council- lack of effective communication between lor’s position of power to be rejected. Based ward councillors, municipal officials and on the above discussion, the following rec- the communities as a whole. Ineffective ommendations may serve as guidelines to communication among members of the municipalities: communities and the municipalities, lead 4.1 Ways to enhance effective communi- to poor institutional arrangements, unpleas- cation ant local relationship with the communities and the municipalities. However, findings Obviously, there is a significant cost to the on the challenges to enhance effective poor communication that is much per- communication are due to numerous forms sistent in variety of work groups, teams, and of delegation without proper direction due government institutions. Fortunately, there to miscommunication between the com- are numerous things which one can do in munity, municipal officials and the elected order to enhance the excellence of individ- ward councillors. ual and institutional communication. Van Schalkwyk (2014) identified the following Furthermore, the means of the methods of ways to enhance effective communication communication is unable to transfer all es- within the workplace, particularly in munici- sential local knowledge from residents to palities where there is a high need to ensure local councillors to the municipal author- good governance: ities. In essence, ineffective communication within the municipalities influence the 4.2 Use multiple channels for institutional role of ward councillors, communities and communication other stakeholders in a very weak manner. However poor communication indi- One of the greatest effective ways to rectly affect municipalities negatively in a make sure that people get the message way that councillors and members of the is to send it through numerous channels of communities value responsiveness and ac- communication. In other words, more ef- countability from the appointed officials of fective channels include meetings, face to municipalities. Nevertheless, various means face talks, e-mail, faxes, telephone conver- of effective communication arrangements sations, bulletins, postings, and memos just such as public hearings have unequal ef- to mention a few. However, the key is to fects on the political will and often reinforce ensure that appointed officials and coun- the influence of the municipal council to cilors in local government always make use

Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 655 of multiple approaches to distribute a mes- one get the message across in the exact sage. In addition, the need is to never rely way it is intended. In addition, to do this, on a single channel of communication. one need to speak openly and honestly, and be as straightforward as possible (no 4.3 Make important messages repetitive beating around the bush);a person need Adding to using multiple channels, munic- to speak inclusively and use terms that will ipality can improve its communication by be understood and respected by a diverse repeating important messages from time to array of individuals as well as to check for time to public at large. understanding to make sure the message has been received accurately. 4.4 Focus on listening 4.6 Handle communication problems Focus on listening is very vital during individual (one on one) communication. However, Finally, one must become more effective the biggest reason is that most of the peo- at managing the communication problems ple are poor, people do not take the time that will certainly arise during human inter- to active listening. In other words, to focus action. However, such problems include on listening can be done by using thought- conflict, difficulty in resolving problems, ful listening skills (rephrasing what others misunderstandings, dealing with difficult speaks in order to confirm understanding), people and managing cultural differenc- using good nonverbal behaviors and body es. According to Heinelt, (2013) it is clear posture (for example, face communication that communication takes effort. Nonethe- partner with an open stance), and focusing less it is effort well spent given the benefits. on the partner by making a conscious ef- However, communication should be more fort to listen first instead, of trying to get the pleasant, more productive at work setting in message across first. However, the need is which everyone feels valued. Adding to the for one to tell herself or himself to allow oth- above, the ideas are shared openly and reers to talk and listen. lationships are characterised by trust in effective communication. This paper argues 4.5 Get the message across that poor communication by municipalities After one has done to listen and fully un- to communities does hamper progress, and derstood the communication of the oth- results in escalating service delivery protests er, therefore, the need is to ensure that as experienced in the country and is de-

656 Conference Proceedings of the International Conference on Public Administration and Development Alternatives 2016 picted on Figure 1 below:

Figure 1: Service delivery protests by year for 2004 – 2014

(Adapted from Municipal IQ Municipal Hotspots Monitor)

5. CONCLUSION

This paper depicted the fact that communication is something that people do reflexively like breathing. People talk to their spouses, kids and friends without giving much thought to how they are doing it. However, it might seem easy, but communicating effectively actually takes quite a bit of diplomacy. For instance, choosing the right words, listening with our minds instead of just our ears, and getting our message across are skills that all people need to work on. Hence, at home and in social settings, miscommunication can lead to arguments. In the workplace, the effects can be far more serious. In addition, poor productivity, unmotivated employees can result from communication failures at the office. However, to improve communication within a team and throughout an entire institution, the need is to implement a few easy but important changes to the corporate philosophy and practice. Effective communication is the lifeblood of an institution. It is the medium through which an institution’s vision and goals are interpreted and understood by both its internal and external stakeholders. Thus, it is clear that effective use of communication is often identified as a main problem between municipalities and the recipients of services. However, lack of communication from councillors, officials to the communities slow up the operations of a municipality and causes poor decision making on issues affecting the people.

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