Midea, and Tzoungiza) Used More Quantities of the Material Than Other Argive Sites

Home , Argolid Peninsula, Lerna (municipal unit), Lithic flake, Prosymna (village)

UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI

DATE: May 13, 2003

I, James Michael Lloyd Newhard , hereby submit this as part of the requirements for the degree of:

Doctorate of Philosophy (Ph.D) in Classics in: the Department of Classics of the College of Arts and Sciences It is entitled:

Aspects of Local Bronze Age Economies: Chipped Stone Acquisition and Production Strategies in the Argolid, Greece

Approved by: Gisela Walberg Jack L. Davis Thomas Algeo P. Nick Kardulias

Aspects of Local Bronze Age Economies: Chipped Stone Acquisition and Production Strategies in the Argolid, Greece

A dissertation submitted to the

Division of Research and Advanced Studies of the University of Cincinnati

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTORATE OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D.)

in the Department of Classics of the College of Arts and Sciences

2003

James M.L. Newhard

B.A., University of Missouri – Columbia, 1994 M.A., University of Cincinnati, 1996

Committee Chair: Dr. Gisela Walberg

Abstract

This study investigates the regional acquisition, production, and distribution patterns of chipped stone in the Bronze Age Argolid. Specific focus was placed on the discovery of lithic resources which would have provided usable cherts to the Argive settlements. A chert resource near the village of Ayia Eleni appears to have been used by a number of prehistoric communities. Quantities of local chert from these settlements indicate that the northeastern section of the Argolid (Mycenae, Midea, and Tzoungiza) used more quantities of the material than other Argive sites. A model of embedded procurement, encapsulated within pastoral transhumance, is suggested as the method by which the stone was transported from the primary source to the Argive settlements. This interpretation indicates that economic activities were occurring outside the control of the palatial centers, further supporting the theory that the palatial component of the Mycenaean economy was more limited in scope than is often thought.

Acknowledgements

This project would not have been completed without the assistance of individuals, institutions, and foundations. I would like to express my deepest appreciation to those who have encouraged, guided, and corrected me along the way.

I would first like to thank my parents, James A. Newhard and Amy L. Newhard, for their constant love, sacrifice, and support. Their belief in my abilities has been an inspiration to me, and I can only hope to repay them by being a similar parent to their grandchild.

To my dissertation committee – Dr. Gisela Walberg, Dr. Jack Davis, Dr. Nick

Kardulias, and Dr. Tom Algeo – I owe an immense amount of gratitude for their years of teaching and nurturing. The contributions by Drs. Walberg and Davis to my graduate studies were immeasurable, and I cannot begin to express my deep feelings of respect and esteem. I would like to thank Dr. Kardulias for his willingness to introduce me to lithic analysis, and his kind hospitality during the early years of our association. He has always been the epitome of helpfulness, patience, and encouragement. Dr. Algeo was instrumental in reviewing the geological aspects of this study, and in clarifying key points relating to that field. His patience with an interested non-specialist was greatly appreciated.

I would like to thank the faculty of the Department of Classics at the University of

Cincinnati for their help throughout my graduate studies. Dr. Jean Wellington and the staff of the Burnam Classics Library were an infinite source of aid. While the library itself is unparalleled, its staff is in a class by itself.

The research for this dissertation was financially supported by the Louis Taft Semple

Fund of the Department of Classics, University of Cincinnati; a Geoarchaeology Fellowship from the Malcolm Wiener Laboratory of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens; a Fulbright research fellowship; and a Summer Research Fellowship from the Division of

Research and Advanced Studies, University of Cincinnati. Without these sources of funding this dissertation would have not been possible, and I warmly thank these institutions and their benefactors for their support of archaeological research.

While in Athens, the members and staff of the Malcolm Wiener Laboratory at the

American School of Classical Studies in Athens provided a wealth of support and advice, as well as a wonderful base of operations from which to conduct research. Dr. Sherry Fox, Dr.

Floyd McCoy, and Eleni Stathi deserve special mention in this regard. The regular and associate members, staff, and faculty of the school are also warmly thanked for providing an intellectually stimulating and encouraging environment, and for offering me lasting friendships.

I would like to thank Brit Hartenberger, Spyros Iakovides, Anna Karabatsoli,

Dionysios Matarangas, Curtis Runnels, Eleni Spathari, Myrsini Vartis-Matarangas, Gisela

Walberg, Martha Weinke, James Wright, and the staff of the Fourth Ephoreia of Classical and Prehistoric Antiquities (Nafplio, Greece) for their permission, aid, and assistance in studying the lithic material from Lerna, Midea, Mycenae and Tzoungiza. Without their help, this project would not have been possible.

I would like to thank past and current graduate students at Cincinnati – especially

Eleni Hasaki, Rod Fitzsimons, and Julie Hruby – for their supportive collegiality. Their ideas, suggestions, and frequent discussions over coffee provided a welcoming and productive atmosphere for developing and implementing much of this project.

The final drafts of this dissertation were written while I was a staff archaeologist at

Gray & Pape, Inc. (Cincinnati, OH), a Core Faculty Instructor at Loyola College (Baltimore,

MD), and an Adjunct Instructor at the Catholic University of America (Washington, D.C.). I would like to thank them for their encouragement and support.

No words can express the love, sacrifice, and encouragement given me by my wife,

Kate. Married two months before the beginning of my graduate studies, neither one of us fully understood how the long hours, months apart, and the other strains caused by my pursuit of an advanced degree would affect us. Through her sometimes quiet, sometimes forceful influence, I have come to this point in my life more fully cognizant of my duties as a husband, teacher, scholar, and citizen than I ever would have been without her.

Finally, to my Χρηστουλακι, who came into the world near the end of this endeavor. It is his father’s hope that his curiosity about the world around him never ceases. I dedicate this dissertation to him.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents ...... i

List of Tables...... iii

List of Figures...... v

Chapter I: Introduction...... 1 Chipped Stone as an Economic Indicator ...... 3 Bronze Age Aegean Economies...... 12 Expanding the Use of Chipped Stone Data in Aegean Economic Model-Building...... 21

Chapter II: Theoretical Discussion of Prehistoric Exchange Systems...... 27 Polanyi and the Substantivist School of Economics ...... 27 The Expansion of the Institutional Model: World-Systems Theory ...... 31 Bronze Age Argive Economies...... 34

Chapter III: Definition and Origins of Chert...... 40 Definition of Chert ...... 40 The Silicates ...... 42 Formational Processes of Chert...... 43

Chapter IV: Methods of Analysis ...... 49 Descriptive Terms Used...... 49 Typological Descriptions ...... 56

Chapter V: The Geological Survey...... 62 Goals and Parameters of the Geological Survey...... 62 Previous Chert Provenance Studies in Greece ...... 63 General Description of Study Region ...... 64 Sampling Strategy ...... 66 Collection Strategy...... 69 Results ...... 70 Conclusions ...... 76

Chapter VI: Techno-Typological Analysis of Lithic Artifacts...... 77 Lerna...... 78

i Midea...... 83 Mycenae ...... 92 Tzoungiza...... 95 Regional Analysis ...... 103 Conclusions ...... 106

Chapter VII: Discussion ...... 107 Lithic Strategies of the Bronze Age Argolid...... 107 Economic Processes of Chert Acquisition ...... 117 Methods of Chert Acquisition...... 119 Ayia Eleni Chert: a World-Systems Perspective...... 122 Further Research ...... 124

Tables...... 127

Figures...... 146

References Cited...... 190

Appendix A: Gazetteer of Geological Sites...... 198

Appendix B: Macroscopic Summary of Chert Types...... 209

LIST OF TABLES

4.1. Translucency Case Study. Descriptive Statistics of All Cases, Split by Weather Condition...... 128 4.2. Translucency Case Study. Descriptive Statistics of All Cases, Split by Sample...... 128 4.3. Translucency Case Study. Kolmogorov-Smirnov One-Sample Test Results...... 128 4.4. Tool Types Found in the Argolid...... 129 6.1. Distribution of Blank Types from Lerna, Divided by Phase and Material...... 130 6.2. Sampled Distribution of Chert Blank Types from Lerna, Divided by Phase...... 130 6.3. Sampled Distribution of Chert Tool Types from Lerna, Divided by Phase and Material...... 131 6.4. Chert Type Summaries for Lerna...... 132 6.5. Distribution of Blank Types from Midea, Divided by Phase and Material...... 133 6.6. Distribution of Tool Types from Midea, Divided by Phase and Material...... 134 6.7. Comparison of Obsidian Blade Widths and Thicknesses...... 135 6.8. Chert Type Summaries for Midea...... 136 6.9. Distribution of Blank Types from Mycenae, Divided by Context...... 137 6.10. Distribution of Tool Types from Mycenae, Divided by Geographical Context...... 138 6.11. Distribution of Blank Types from Mycenae, Divided by Material...... 139 6.12. Distribution of Tool Types from Mycenae, Divided by Material...... 139 6.13. Counts and Percentages of Chert Groups at Mycenae...... 140 6.14. Distribution of Blank Types from Tzoungiza, Divided by Phase and Material...... 140 6.15. Distribution of Tool Types from Tzoungiza, Divided by Phase and Material...... 141 6.16. EH Material from Tzoungiza According to Excavation Unit...... 142 6.17. Counts and Type Characteristics for Chert Groups at Tzoungiza, Split by Period..... 142 6.18. MH Material from Tzoungiza According to Excavation Unit...... 143 6.19. LH Material from Tzoungiza According to Excavation Unit...... 143 6.20. Percentage of Chert in Published Examples...... 143 6.21. Percentage of Chert in Study Assemblages According to Period...... 143 6.22. Percentage of Ayia Eleni Chert in Study Assemblages According to Period...... 144 7.1. Distance to Ayia Eleni Outcrops from Studied Settlements...... 144 7.2. Distribution of Chert Denticulates and Sickle Elements, Split between Flake and Blade Blanks...... 144

iii 7.3. Distribution of Chert Prismatic Blades...... 144 7.4. Obsidian Curation Activities...... 144 7.5. Chert Curation Activities...... 145 7.6. Tool Type Size (in cm3)...... 145

LIST OF FIGURES

1.1. Map of the Argolid, Showing Roads, Modern Towns, and Sampled Archaeological Sites...... 147 2.1. Polanyi's Formal Models...... 148 3.1. The Relationship of Chert to Other Types of Minerals...... 149 3.2. Structural Form and Crystal Shape of Quartz (after Hurlbut 1950, fig. 370)...... 150 4.1. Form Used in Macroscopic Chert Analysis...... 150 4.2. Idealized Sketch of a Flake...... 151 4.3. Organizational Chart of Blank Typology...... 152 4.4. Organizational Chart of Tool Typology...... 153 4.5. Form Used in Describing Tool Typology and Technology...... 154 5.1. Topographic Map of Survey Area, Western Section...... 155 5.2. Topographic Map of Survey Area, Central Section...... 156 5.3. Topographic Map of Survey Area, Eastern Section...... 157 5.4. Topographic Map of Survey Area, Northern Section...... 158 5.5. Areas Surveyed by Kozlowski et al. Gray Flint Source Indicated by Arrow...... 159 5.6. Areas Surveyed in Western Argeia...... 160 5.7. Areas Surveyed in Central Argeia...... 161 5.8. Areas Surveyed Between Berbati Valley and Angelokastron...... 162 5.9. Areas Surveyed Between Tolo and Ligourio...... 163 5.10. Areas Surveyed in Epidauria. Sampled Areas Labeled...... 164 5.11. Areas Surveyed in Nemea Valley...... 165 5.12. Locations of Ayios Nikolaos Chert within Areas Surveyed...... 166 5.13. Locations of Angelokastron Chert within Areas Surveyed...... 167 5.14. Locations of Koliaki Chert within Areas Surveyed...... 168 5.15. Surveyed Areas Belonging to the Migdhalitsa Ophiolite Unit. Sampled Areas Labeled...... 169 5.16. Geological Site Form...... 170 5.17. Ayia Eleni Chert Beds...... 171 5.18. Site G10. Cobbles found on Surface...... 172 5.19. Site G10. Sampled Road Cut Area...... 172 6.1. Locations of Lerna, Midea, Mycenae, and Tzoungiza within the Argolid...... 173

v 6.2. Lerna, Plan of Trenches...... 174 6.3. Stem and Leaf Plot, EH II Chert Types...... 175 6.4. Stem and Leaf Plot, EH III Chert Types...... 175 6.5. Stem and Leaf Plot, MH Chert Types...... 176 6.6. Trends in Proportions of Ayia Eleni, Other Cherts, and Obsidian at Lerna...... 176 6.7. Trench Plan of the Site of Midea...... 177 6.8. Trenches from Midea Yielding LH IIIB Material...... 178 6.9. Trenches from Midea Yielding LH IIIC Material...... 179 6.10. Stem and Leaf Plot, LH I – II Chert Types...... 180 6.11. Stem and Leaf Plot, LH IIIB Chert Types...... 180 6.12. Stem and Leaf Plot, LH IIIC Chert Types...... 181 6.13. Trends in Proportions of Ayia Eleni, Other Cherts, and Obsidian at Midea...... 181 6.14. Excavations at the Citadel House Area of Mycenae by Taylour...... 182 6.15. Plan of Excavations at Mycenae by Onassoglou...... 183 6.16. Stem and Leaf Plots, LH Chert Types from Mycenae...... 184 6.17. Tzoungiza, Plan of Trenches...... 185 6.18. Stem and Leaf Plot, EH Chert Types...... 186 6.19. Stem and Leaf Plot, MH Chert Types...... 186 6.20. Stem and Leaf Plot, LH Chert Types...... 186 6.21. Trends in Proportions of Ayia Eleni, Other Cherts, and Obsidian at Tzoungiza...... 187 6.22. Predicted Trends in Chert Usage, According to Published Examples...... 187 6.23. Ratio of Chert to Obsidian, According to Date and Settlement...... 188 6.24. Ratios of Chert/Obsidian and Ayia Eleni/Other Chert Types...... 188 7.1. Proposed Routes to the Ayia Eleni Chert Beds...... 189

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

Archaeology can be defined as the search for patterns of past human activity. These patterns lead us to interpretations regarding how past social, economic, religious, and political institutions interacted. A key word in this definition is institution. For this study, the word institution is defined as a set of parameters that characterize a group of people in either social, economic, religious, or political terms. In other words, people function within the bounds of explicitly or implicitly socially defined structures (Halperin 1994). In this institutional model of society, the actions of people carry with them information about the society to which they belong. Viewing these actions enable the development of patterns, leading the analyst to an understanding of that society. Instead of watching a culture in action, however, archaeologists study the remnants of past activities found in the archaeological record. The patterns point to types of activities conducted within the bounds of social, political, or economic institutions.

When studying past societies within an institutional paradigm, economic activities are viewed as being embedded within other social or political transactions. Therefore, by studying facets of economic activities – the movements of raw materials or finished products, the means by which artifacts were produced, and the ways in which those artifacts were used

– the archaeologist is able to shed light on socio-economic relationships that do not normally survive.

1 My research focuses on the Argolid of Greece (fig. 1.1). During the Bronze Age

(3000 – 1000 B.C.), this relatively self-contained region experienced the development and collapse of several cultures, the last one known as the Mycenaean civilization. The geographical context, combined with its distinct cultural remains, makes this region ideal for studying the ways in which economic activities are embedded within other societal structures. Past attempts to understand this issue in the Argolid have focused on one particular social class (often the elite) and their interactions within long-distance trade patterns. Overall, these efforts have yielded results which give a narrowly defined view of

Bronze Age economy and society.

The purpose of this study is to place chipped stone tool industries of the Bronze Age

Argolid into their economic contexts by studying activities relating to raw material procurement, production, and distribution. While previous lithic studies have addressed this issue, they have largely focused upon the role of obsidian – the dominant material type used in the Argolid. This study looks not only at obsidian usage, but also at other raw material types to provide a more holistic picture of chipped stone industries in the region. By analyzing the various material types, their geological provenance, and the varying lithic strategies used for different material types, a more complete contextualization of chipped stone activities into the overall regional economic system can be proposed.

The utility of studying chipped stone data in a cultural system is not always readily apparent, however. The following section of this chapter illustrates the strengths of using chipped stone data in the analysis of ancient economies. This is followed by a brief description of economic activities occurring in the Argolid during the Bronze Age. The final section focuses on the way in which chipped stone is currently used in reconstructing the

2 economy of the Argolid during the Bronze Age, and presents the current study within that context.

CHIPPED STONE AS AN ECONOMIC INDICATOR

Chipped stone tools are ideally suited for studying ancient economic activities. The debris left behind in the tool-making process can inform us as to how the industry was organized. In many instances, the raw material used in tool making can be traced to its geological source, telling us where the material came from and indicating short and long- distance trade relationships. Chipped stone tools, therefore, give us a multitude of information about how various members of a society were obtaining and using a staple item.

By noting the similarities and differences in use between settlements or peoples of differing social status, chipped stone tools can tell us much about the makeup of a society’s political, economic, and social structure.

PROCUREMENT

Studies of the procurement of raw materials are extensive in the archaeological literature. Of specific interest to this study are works by Binford (1980), Perlès (1992a), and

Torrence (1986). In comparing the nomadic patterns of the San and Inuit, Binford outlined two differing means of provisioning – one where acquisition activities were described as

"foraging," while the other followed a strategy based upon "collection" (Binford 1980).

3 These models (further discussed below) are important for proposing models exploring the acquisition of materials. Perlès (1992a) proposes a set of criteria used by peoples in designing strategies for raw stone material acquisition, and discusses how those decisions affect and are affected by the social environment, the mechanical constraints of the material, and the overall technical needs of the system. Torrence (1986) specifically addresses the social organization behind the acquisition of Melian obsidian, and more generally discusses the overall importance of studying quarries as a means to contextualize acquisition practices of a given society. Each of these studies is discussed in greater detail below.

Perlès (1992a) outlines basic parameters of acquisition, enabling the researcher to design an investigation useful for placing provisioning activities within a socio-economic framework. Raw material for stone tool production (chert, obsidian, and certain other siliceous rocks) – while plentiful in most areas of the world – varies often in flaking quality, ease of extraction, and abundance. Therefore, there are discrete areas which are potential foci for acquisition activities. Furthermore, cultural factors such as established traditions or economic control over a particular source can contribute to determining what type of material is used. In addition, functional needs – matching the task to the material most appropriate to comple it – play an important part. For example, the need to cut wood requires the use of a material capable of holding a sharp edge despite repeated chopping motions. Such an activity precludes the use of obsidian due to its brittle qualities, although it produces an exceptionally sharp cutting surface. Therefore, potential lithic sources can be defined as those places where raw material is of consistent quality, within the soci-economic cachement of the group, abundant, able to be extracted, and satisfactorily meets functional needs.

4 Two patterns of acquisition activities were outlined by Binford (1980) – foraging and collection. Foraging, a model drawn from ethnographic data gathered by studying the desert

San people of Africa, consists of regular movements within a known environment (Binford

1980). These movements are planned to coincide with the seasonal appearance of various resources. Settlements consist of campsites, from which groups venture out and gather resources found in the vicinity. According to the availability of local resources, the size of the group and the time spent in one place may vary. The provisioning activities are such that groups return to the camp on a daily basis, gathering only enough material to satisfy daily needs. Storage of materials is kept to a minimum, as are special purpose sites established for such activities as processing game.

Collection is more complex than foraging (Binford 1980). Like foraging, groups in this strategy move through a known landscape in a seasonal manner. However, in a collection strategy, settlements are established for a longer period and small groups (task groups) disperse from this base in order to obtain specific resources (Binford 1980). These groups, consisting of individuals with specific skills for obtaining the required materials, leave for extended periods, establishing smaller camps near the desired resource. During the collection activity, materials will be gathered and processed at these camps for later use at the main settlement. In a collection mode of provisioning, therefore, storage activities are present since the smaller group is obtaining materials for the larger (Binford 1980). In addition to the main purpose of the task group, additional activities may also take place.

Thus, a task group primarily charged with obtaining fish may – owing to proximity – acquire lithic resources from a nearby outcrop. Both resources may be processed for transport back to the main camp, or stored on-site in the form of a cache.

5 The latter strategy of collection has been proposed as the means by which local chert resources were obtained by individuals in the Bronze Age Argolid (Kardulias and Runnels

1995), and by which obsidian was initially obtained by Paleolithic people of the Aegean

(Torrence 1986). In the former situation, local cherts were supposedly gathered by shepherds during their seasonal moves between pastures, while in the latter example obsidian was collected by individuals who were primarily concerned with catching tuna. Because of the technical superiority of obsidian, the collection strategy shifted to focus upon obtaining obsidian, as evidenced by the large shift between the use of local cherts and obsidian in the

Mesolithic and Neolithic phases at Franchthi Cave (Perlès 1990a, 1992a).

In her analysis of the Melian obsidian quarries, Torrence addressed the question of the extent to which raw material extraction was organized, challenging the assumption that procurement activities were highly organized and controlled (1986). By studying the location of various debitage types, the extent of standardization in debitage form, and by conducting a search for other signs of organization and control, Torrence concluded that obsidian acquisition was unregulated. Her conclusions show the usefulness of quarry analysis in understanding the larger systems of raw material acquisition and production.

PRODUCTION

Under the heading of production come a number of interrelated issues – specialization, the social organization of production, and the intensity (or scale) of production. Numerous archaeological studies have been conducted that address these subjects.

6 Costin (1991) outlines a general framework for discussing scale, specialization and the organization of production issues. According to her, two sets of criteria can be used for measuring craft specialization – one direct and the other indirect. Direct criteria include analyzing production areas and debris that can be directly associated with instances of production. Indirect criteria consist of data derived from the finished products that indicate efficiency and skill, as well as regional variations that indicate possible centers of production activities. In an ideal situation, the context of production (the relationship of the producers and their wares to their socio-political environment), concentration (the geographical organization of production areas), scale (the size of production areas), and intensity of production can be measured, giving the archaeologist a picture of the degree of specialization and its socio-economic context.

Specialization for obsidian production in southern Greece has already been proposed

(Perles 1992b; Kardulias 1992; Hartenberger and Runnels 2001). In determining levels of specialization at Lerna, Hartenberger and Runnels (2001) used the categories proposed by

Costin of "standardization," "skill," and "efficiency." Standardization was determined by noting the uniformity of prismatic blade widths and thicknesses, skill was measured by noting the number of cores spoiled by hinge fractures and the thickness of blades, and efficiency by the presence of crested blades and prismatic blades with trapezoidal cross sections. Used in concert, these factors enabled Hartenberger and Runnels to conclude that obsidian blade production at Lerna was specialized, while a lack of spatially discrete production areas and the quantity of material indicated that the production likely was performed on a part-time basis (Hartenberger and Runnels 2001).

7 While an assemblage may indicate specialization, the mere presence of specialization does not indicate the social context of production. Specialization may be caused by the need to conserve raw material, the presence of a single or dominant craftsman, the need for a specific functional tool type, or the systemization of production brought on by a central controlling authority. To determine the type of specialization, the level of production and spatial distribution of the material can be compared to several models designed to characterize the social contexts of specialization.

Independent specialization can be defined as a form of production that occurs without the presence of an overseeing socio-political authority (Earle 1987). In this model, production is performed by either one or several part-time or full-time specialists. The spatial patterns expected from such a model vary widely – from reduction debris scattered throughout a settlement or region (indicating numerous part/full-time specialists or a single itinerant knapper), to debris focused in one particular area (indicating a single stationary individual or groups of individuals). Regardless of the spatial distributions of the production debris, the one indication that will not be present will be evidence for the control of the material by a representative controlling authority.

Attached specialization is that type of production in which the acquisition, production, and distribution of the material is overseen by the political structure (Earle 1987).

Evidence for such organization would include the stockpiling of material in a central location, bureaucratic records indicating acquisitions or disbursements of either raw material or finished products, or the concentration of production activities – preferably at the primary political center. The purpose of this control is typically discussed within the context of a need by the elite to manage the production of prestige items useful for maintaining long-

8 distance economic and political ties, and to maintain regional socio-political hegemony

(Earle 1987; Galaty and Parkinson 1999).

Therefore, studying the techno-typological characterization (the shape and form of lithic artifacts) and the spatial relationships of artifact types can tell us much about socio- economic factors. Factors describing specialization include levels of standardization, skill, and efficiency (upon the artifacts themselves) and spatial patterning – either at the site or regional level. Determining the social context of production requires the observation of spatial patterning that would indicate that the industry was organized and managed, in addition to evidence for stockpiling of raw material and/or finished products and bureaucratic records indicating elite oversight.

DISTRIBUTION

Obsidian Distribution Patterns

Based upon the independent analysis of material from the Southern Argolid Survey

(AEP), the Pylos Regional Archaeological Project (PRAP), Lerna, and Ayios Stephanos, scholars have proposed a model to explain a method by which obsidian was obtained, manufactured into stone tools, and then distributed. This model, known as the "central processing theory" (Parkinson and Cherry 1997), states that obsidian was taken to one specific site where it was manufactured into prismatic blades. These blades were then distributed to neighboring settlements. This model of production and distribution would indicate a certain level of industrial organization external to major centers (for example

Pylos, Mycenae or Tiryns).

9 This model explains the pattern seen in the Southern Argolid and Messenia.

However, the settlement pattern in the Argive Plain suggests that an alternative model is possible. Newhard (1998) studied the obsidian from EH, MH, and LH Tiryns and LH Midea, and compared those assemblages to the data presented in the preliminary report of the material from Lerna (Runnels 1985). Newhard's analysis indicated that all three sites exhibited signs of production in all three periods. Since all three sites are within close proximity to each other, we must discard the idea that one central site within the Argolid was in charge of producing and distributing obsidian to the entire region. Rather, it appears that obsidian production was site-specific, with each settlement obtaining raw material and manufacturing tools based upon their specific economic constraints and/or functional needs.

Chert Distribution Patterns

Of the materials used in flaked-stone tool production, cherts and siliceous limestones were likely the local stone types most suitable. It has previously been assumed that chert (for the most part) was locally available, and therefore not distributed far from its place of acquisition. For example, in the Argolid, Runnels (1985), Newhard (1996), and Kardulias

(1999) have all described a reddish-brown homogeneous chert that makes up a large portion of chert materials seen in archeological assemblages. Because of its quantity, it has been assumed that this material was locally available. Site B102, discovered in the southern

Argolid by the AEP (Kardulias and Runnels 1995), consisted of outcroppings of a similar material, but has not been formally correlated with artifacts from the Argive Plain. Blitzer

(1992, 1998) described chert found in archeological contexts and was able to draw probable associations between that material and chert found within walking distance of Nichoria.

10 Other cherts, found in assemblages in trace amounts, are clearly the result of long- distance exchange patterns. Several points indicate this. First, these cherts normally make up a small percentage of the overall lithic assemblage. Secondly, we find only pieces which can be identified as the blanks and tools – no signs of production (cores, crested blades, debitage). In addition, these cherts are often of superior quality – usually thought to be far superior to many local sources. Examples of these exotic cherts often have exhibited extensive utilization, retouch, and resharpening, suggesting that the supply of these types was in some way constricted.

An example of an exotic chert type would be the "honey flint" found in the Argolid and elsewhere in Southern Greece. This chert type (termed honey flint due to its amber color) is often found in trace amounts in lithic assemblages dating as far back as the

Paleolithic period (Perlès 1992b). Examples of waste flakes or cores are noticeably absent, and the flaking quality of the material is excellent. In most cases, pieces of honey flint are heavily utilized, often exhibiting retouch and/or resharpening activities.

According to Kardulias (1999), the local cherts found in the Argolid (and other regions of Greece) were of such poor quality that they were not valued as an exchange item.

Cherts local to the Argolid were acquired, manufactured into stone tools and exchanged within the local region only. This is contrary to the exchange patterns observed by movements of other materials such as andesite, reported by Runnels (1981). During the

Bronze Age, this material moved far from its local source of Aegina and Methana, to places such as Tzoungiza, Tiryns, Midea, Lerna, and Mycenae (Runnels 1981). Analysis of chert sources and their correlation to archaeological examples, however, has not been intensive enough to indicate the presence or absence of exchange patterns for this material.

BRONZE AGE AEGEAN ECONOMIES

Traditionally, the socio-economic systems of the Aegean Bronze Age have been studied according to the tripartite division of the Age – Early, Middle and Late. Our knowledge of these periods is not uniform, being largely influenced by the availability of evidence and the interest of scholars. As a result, economic studies regarding the socially stratified Late and Early Bronze Ages have received the greatest attention. The Middle

Bronze Age, owing largely to the paucity of archaeological data and less complex social structure, has historically received less. Nonetheless, enough data and previous work has occurred to present a synopsis of the current theories regarding the economy of each phase.

EARLY BRONZE AGE

The literature predominately focuses upon the EH II and EH III phase when discussing the Early Bronze Age economy, owing to the paucity of information from the EH

I phase (Rutter 2001). During EH II, Bronze Age society increased in complexity, evidenced by the appearance of the large buildings known as corridor houses. These structures are known to have existed at several sites, the most well-known being the House of the Tiles at

Lerna. These large rectangular structures appear to have served as focal points for the communities, but their exact purpose is debated (Rutter 1993a). Regardless of function, the fact that not every settlement in EH II had a corridor house suggests a development of

12 settlement (and therefore social) hierarchy that likely had an economic counterpart. Studies of long-distance exchange patterns (Konsola 1986; Cosmopoulos 1991, 1995) indicate strong contacts with the Cyclades and other more distant areas such as the Near East (Cosmopoulos

1991).

While the period is generally known for an increase in social complexity and a widening of exchange networks, other evidence points specifically to the extent of specialization and production. In studying ceramic production in EH II, Rutter notes that as of 1995, no signs of discrete production, stockpiling, or quarry areas had been identified

(1995). This indicates a lack of intensive organization on the part of the ceramicists. In addition, due to the standardized, undifferentiated style of decoration and form, Rutter concluded that pottery production in this period was accomplished by non-specialized labor.

In terms of lithics, Runnels (1985) and Hartenberger and Runnels (2001) analyzed the chipped stone from Lerna. The former analysis indicated a dependence upon obsidian for the vast majority of the tools, showing that a steady supply of imported Cycladic raw material was available. The latter study (Hartenberger and Runnels 2001) focused upon the extent to which lithic production was a specialized and organized task. Their findings showed that while the technology and standardization of tool blanks indicated a high level of specialization, the quantity found was too low and spatially dispersed to justify a model including a highly organized and specialized work force. Rather, stone tool production was likely a part-time activity performed by a specialized few without much oversight.

Thus, EH II is characterized by an increase in external socio-economic contacts and increased social complexity, as evidenced by the corridor houses and increase in foreign objects. At the same time, basic economic activities (such as pottery production and

13 flintknapping) were largely at the scale of part-time or household production, although the types of materials produced required a high level of skill and specialization.

The subsequent EH III phase saw the destruction of the corridor houses, a change in architecture (from irregularly shaped and agglomerated rectangular structures to more free- standing apsidal or rectangular structures) (Caskey 1960; Konsola 1986), and the introduction of new ceramic types (Rutter 1993b). In the Argolid, the transition between the

EH II and EH III phases is often violent, as in the case of Lerna where the corridor house appears to have been burned. The distinct cultural change and violent underpinnings have suggested to scholars that new peoples came into Greece at this time, causing an upheaval of the social order (Caskey 1960). Other scholars point to the unevenness of the disturbances and evidence for violence, suggesting that the change was more subtle, variant, and chronologically dispersed (Forsén 1992). Regardless, the increased presences of bothroi at

Lerna (in addition to the factors listed above) suggest that household storage was preferred to a more communal form, implying that a decentralization of the social structure had occurred.

Pottery and lithic analysis also suggest decentralization and instability. One of the characteristics of pottery during EH III was its regional variation (Rutter 1993b). At Lerna, lithic analysis indicated a slight increase in the use of local cherts (Runnels 1985), suggesting that non-regional stone supplies were becoming less reliable.

In general, the EH III phase gives the appearance of contraction. Regional pottery styles develop, and lithic specialization decreases and becomes more dependent upon local resources. The cultural break between EH II and EH III is in some cases marked with violence, and household storage becomes more prevalent. In general, the economic picture

14 of the EH III phase is one of regional and locally-centered activities, with little or no indications of social hierarchy.

MIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Although the Middle Bronze Age on the mainland is generally seen as a period of contraction and relatively low levels of social stratification (Nordquist 1997), ceramic evidence clearly indicates that inter-regional exchange gradually increases. Indeed, the MBA can be seen as a precursor to the later, more complex Late Bronze Age.

Zerner (1993) notes an increase in regional ceramic styles; the styles from the

Peloponnese in particular are noteworthy for their similarity to Minoan types. In addition, her typological work at Lerna (using petrographic as well as more traditional stylistic methods) indicates that many of the ceramics found at the site were non-local, suggesting that an active interregional exchange system was in operation.

Analysis of the distribution patterns of two prominent ceramic types (lustrous decorated and Aeginetan) suggests not only interregional exchange, but that the scope of exchange differed by type or region. Lustrous decorated – most likely produced in the southern Peloponnese and/or Kythera (Zerner 1993) – is largely limited geographically to the southern Peloponnese and the Argolid. This limited distribution suggests to Nordquist that

Aeginetan wares, however, enjoyed a larger distribution area, indicating a more specialized production system (Zerner 1993; Nordquist 1997).

Indeed, Kolonna on the island of Aegina appears to have been a major settlement in this period. A recent study of potters' marks by Lindblom (2001) lends credence to this

15 position. His research suggests that not only did Aeginetan pottery enjoy wide distribution in the Middle Helladic period, but also that the finished products were collected by local elites prior to their distribution aborad. In addition to the wide distribution of Aeginetan ceramics, andesitic millstones were also local materials that were traded extensively (Runnels 1981).

The site of Kolonna is impressive, boasting large fortifications and ostentatious burials that have no equal in the region. The extent of Aeginetan exports and the wealth of the site itself lead to the proposition that a stratified hierarchical society had developed on Aegina

(Lindblom 2001) and that the development of the shaft grave period in the Argolid is in some fashion linked to the communications between the Argolid and Saronic Gulf (Hiller 1989;

Niemeier 1995).

Conversely, lithic evidence from MH Lerna suggests an increased reliance upon local resources. Although obsidian remains the dominant material of choice, Hartenberger and

Runnels (2001) note that the proportion of obsidian decreases (from 92% in EH III to 87% in

MH), along with assumed exotic chert types. In their place, assumed locally-available chert material increases. Implements such as sickle elements – once produced by denticulating prismatic blades of high-quality imported chert – are now made from thicker flakes of local material thought to be of poorer quality, but of greater availability. The reasons for this slight shift are cursorily treated, largely due to the paucity of other contemporaneous published assemblages from the region. Nonetheless, Hartenberger and Runnels suggest that imposition of Minoan control in the Aegean affected the real supply of obsidian and exotic blades, requiring greater dependence upon local resources.

In sum, data from the MH Argolid indicates a period of initial contraction and fragmentation, followed by increasing interregional exchange, specifically between the

16 southern Peloponnese and the Saronic Gulf. The lithic evidence is an exception to this general trend, since in some spheres the lithic economy appears more localized as time progresses. Whether the decrease in obsidian and exotic cherts is due to a decrease in contact with the Cyclades or to an increase in the use of metals cannot be definitely resolved with the current body of evidence.

LATE BRONZE AGE

Traditionally, the economy of the Late Bronze Age has been considered largely redistributional in nature following the work of Finley (1957), who compared the Mycenaean citadels with the contemporary temple economies of the Near East. The greatest aid to

Finley came in the form of the Linear B texts published by Ventris and Chadwick (1956), which presented the Mycenaean palaces as centers that amassed raw materials and then redistributed these goods for the purpose of crafting goods such as bronzes, perfumed oils, and specialized textiles. In Near Eastern economies, palaces or temples controlled the production, processing, distribution, and storage of items, as well as the international trade and the labor to accomplish the above tasks. Finley (1957) allowed for other forms of economic integration (such as "independent craftsmen" or "peddlers"), but the overall picture presented was one of intense temple or palatial control. This "Asiatic" model had its critics, most notably scholars who pointed out that the Near Eastern economic systems were not confined to the activities of the temples (Sherratt and Sherratt 1991).

In 1984, Killen offered a revision of the Mycenaean economic system (1985). In studying the Late Helladic economy, he did not vary far from the "Asiatic" model developed

17 by Finley, despite the differences in the type and quantity of evidence between Greece and the Near East. In constructing the "Asiatic" model, Finley had at his disposal a wealth of textual material kept by the central bureaucracies. These documents were permanent records, and purposefully kept as a means of accounting. To reconstruct the Late Helladic system,

Finley (and Killen) relied heavily upon the Linear B texts, which were not permanently retained records, but have survived only by the fortune of being baked by the fires that destroyed the centers. According to Killen, the texts are:

Merely temporary records…which relate only to the single, last year before

the destruction of the particular palace that contained the archive…they allow

us no insight into economic trends in the individual kingdoms…They contain

virtually no information…about the external relations of the palaces…we

know nothing for certain about the mechanisms of the external trade of the

kingdoms. Nor, again, are the documents always sufficiently specific to

enable us to answer important questions about aspects of the internal

economy…These are the records of the central bureaucracy; and it is common

for records of this type to provide us with a one-sided view of the kingdom or

state to which they relate…they will naturally concentrate on matters which

are of concern to the centre; and they may well…give an exaggerated

impression of the importance of the centre in the workings of the

economy…(Killen 1985, 243).

Yet, despite these problems, Killen reconstructed the Late Helladic economy based upon these records. In this reconstruction, Killen disregarded (or cursorily treated) other archaeological data that could have enhanced the textual data, and possibly have given

18 greater depth to his interpretation of the Late Helladic economy. Nor did Killen recognize the differences that may have existed between the Late Helladic centers because of differing cultural histories, site densities, geography, or environment. Recognition of these contextual differences is necessary when looking at economies as embedded entities within societies.

Killen’s largely textual characterization of the Mycenaean economy has been modified, most notably by Halstead (1992, 1999). In his analyses, Halstead takes care to outline the types of evidence available, which is useful for tracking economic movements to and from the palatial centers. Then, using models applied most notably to Incan archaeology

(Earle 1987), Halstead proposed a general working model of the palatial economy, which was based upon the accumulation of bulk goods (most notably grain and wool) that were distributed to attached specialists charged with producing wealth and status-related items.

These manufactured elite items were then returned to palatially controlled areas as a means to maintain power and control.

Despite the increased inclusion of non-textual evidence, Halstead committed many of the same errors as his predecessors. He likewise treats the Late Helladic economy as a monolithic entity, without investigating the true complexities potentially found within each region. Again, textual evidence from all Late Helladic palaces is used interchangeably, with the assumption that each center would be specializing in the same items, and that palatial organization was the same throughout the Late Bronze Age Aegean. Halstead does add breadth to his analysis by including more archaeological evidence, including non-palatial remains (1992), yet his conclusions are broad-based and meant to apply to the LH period in general, regardless of the possible differences in the local natural or socio-political landscape.

19 Although Halstead adds complexity to the picture created by Killen (1992), his discussions outside the topic of redistribution are generalized. He maintains that the centers were greatly involved in the "non-palatial" sector (1999), and the transferences of materials were governed by "exchange rather than redistribution" (1992). The types of activities that constituted this non-redistributional "exchange" were not discussed.

Of the models presented so far, Halstead best illustrates the complexity of the Late

Helladic economy. The "Asiatic" model promoted by Finley and Killen in many ways simplifies the relationships between the palace, skilled specialists, and the surrounding countryside. The benefit of Halstead’s approach is that he makes an attempt to mark out the exact transferences that are occurring, and to identify the controlling party of the transferences (what could be seen as tracing both the physical and institutional movements of items to gain a full understanding of the social relationships behind the transactions [Halperin

1994]). Although Halstead’s approach is very basic and fundamental, he still forms his arguments within the same paradigm as Killen, and mixes the data interchangeably from center to center. Both models are descriptions of the Late Helladic palatial economy, and do not fully consider the movements of materials that occur outside of any palatial involvement.

As such, their analyses can be used as no more than studies of one sector of the economy, and ones that generalize possible differences between the palatial centers.

Recently, archaeologists have increasingly brought local economic activities into the analysis in an effort to place each center in the context of its own environment. In this vein, the close analysis by Shelmerdine (1999) of the Linear B texts has revealed differences between centers regarding the organization of palatial administration. Galaty (1999) and

Parkinson (1999) have likewise studied production and distribution patterns of non-palatially

20 administered goods in Messenia (kylikes by Galaty, obsidian by Parkinson), indicating that alternative systems of acquisition, production, and distribution were likely occurring outside of palatial control. Kardulias (1999) adds a broader perspective by applying World-Systems theory to chipped stone usage, indicating that the processes of acquisition, production, and distribution for this material were largely peripheral to the palatial economies. In sum, the research into the Late Bronze Age Aegean economy has progressed from the generalized models offered by Finley and Killen to incorporate a fuller range of data, indicating that multiple modes of economic organization were occurring simultaneously, and that variability in this economic structure existed between regions.

EXPANDING THE USE OF CHIPPED STONE DATA IN AEGEAN ECONOMIC MODEL-BUILDING

THE PROBLEM

As has been noted in the above discussions, chipped stone data have been an effective tool in revealing aspects of economic activities not otherwise detectable. Most notable have been their role in delineating centralized production and regional distribution of obsidian blades (Parkinson 1999; Kardulias and Runnels 1995), the characterization of EH and MH lithic industries at Lerna and by inference the extent of interregional exchanges (Runnels

1985; Hartenberger and Runnels 2001), and in the placing of chipped stone tool industries within larger economic systems (Kardulias 1992, 1999).

21 Noticeably lacking in many of these analyses is a rigorous discussion of cherts and their function within the economic organization of lithic industries. This is especially lacking in the Argolid, a region which has seen intensive research over the past one hundred years.

The neglect can largely be attributed to:

1) The extremely small number of cherts found in archaeological contexts, by their

very numbers, makes them peripheral to general characterizations of the lithic

industries.

2) Their low numbers and frequent importation as pre-made blanks prevents most

discussions regarding specialization and production – one of the principal topics

of interest to Aegean lithic specialists in the Argolid during the1980s and 1990s.

Given the research questions asked and relative scarcity of chert artifacts, it has been adequate only to cursorily mention the non-obsidian material, before turning to the larger questions of chipped stone production (broadly defined) and its place within the overall socio-economic systems. However, an interest in the mechanisms behind the development of

Aegean societies requires that all aspects of its economic system(s) be explored.

Recently, attention has been given to the research potential of chert. According to

Kardulias (1999), the local cherts found in the Argolid (and other regions of Greece) were of such poor quality that they were not valued as an exchange item. In his view, cherts local to the Argolid were acquired, manufactured into stone tools and exchanged within the local system only. This is contrary to the exchange patterns observed in movements of other materials such as andesite (Runnels 1981). During the Bronze Age, this material moves far from its local source of Aegina and Methana, to places such as Tzoungiza, Tiryns, Midea,

22 Lerna, and Mycenae (Runnels 1981). Analysis of cherts, however, has not been intensive enough to indicate the presence or absence of exchange patterns for this material.

Kardulias (1999) maintains that since we do not know the exact provenance of exotic cherts found in the region, we can say very little about the role of exotic cherts in the economy. However, the presence or absence of these cherts does provide indicators of long distance exchange patterns. Comparing variation in the amounts of exotic cherts between settlements also gives us an indication as to who is participating in these exchanges, allowing us to infer the importance of particular settlements over others in terms of their ability to acquire exotic materials.

THE PROJECT

This study tests the hypothesis that chert acquisition practices were mostly a local activity. If the idea that the quality of local cherts "precluded their use in the increasingly complex exchange patterns involving obsidian and metamorphic rocks from different areas"

(Kardulias 1999, 66) is shown to be incorrect, then alternative or amended models must be constructed to account for the patterns detected. Rejection of Kardulias' model would require one of the following three statements to be true:

1) Local cherts were of a high quality.

2) A majority of the cherts found in archaeological contexts originated from

such a distance as to be considered extra-local.

23 3) Patterns were found in the archaeological record indicating that site-

specific economic or functional needs were met through the active choice

of specific raw materials.

Movements of chert types would suggest that the idea of "acquisition costs" varied from settlement to settlement. According to the model proposed by Kardulias (1999), the increasing amount of international trade in the Late Bronze Age would cause the acquisition costs of obsidian to drop. This transformed obsidian from a material which had high acquisition costs and high quality, to one which had low acquisition costs and high quality, in contrast to the local cherts that continuously had low acquisition costs and low quality. The increase in international trade would have caused obsidian to be more readily available and affordable. Intensive analysis of local chert resources is crucial to test the validity of this hypothesis. An increase in the ratio of local cherts to obsidian would bring this model into question.

Whether or not the hypothesis is proved correct, it is clear that the composition of the lithic assemblages is a function of either the settlement's access to raw material, the functional needs of the user, or both. While the acquisition and production of obsidian stone tools is important for all sites, differences in the quantities of local and exotic cherts could indicate levels of social and economic hierarchies and alternative trade patterns that are otherwise undetectable.

We must first begin by intensively studying chert acquisition and production patterns on a local and regional scale, despite the known difficulties of provenancing chert (Ives

1984; Leudtke 1992; Kardulias 1992; Church 1994; Foradas 1994; Kardulias and Runnels

1995; Kardulias 1999). Chert has been resistant to trace element analysis, due to its variable

24 chemical composition. Chert can also vary in color, translucency, and mechanical properties

- all within the same geological bed. Despite these limitations, chert provenance studies have had some success. The archaeological literature is full of source analyses, but I will mention only three here as examples of studies using various means of analysis. Trace element analysis has been used in successfully studying Alaskan chert resources (Malyk-Selivanova,

Ashley, Gal, Glascock and Neff 1998). Provenance studies using macroscopic characteristics have been organized in the American Southwest (Shelley 1993), and the Estremadura region of Portugal (Shokler 1998). While the studies do not supply us with an actual chemical

"fingerprint" for various types of cherts, they limit the potential source for artifacts, enabling the analyst to make inferences based on location, ease of extraction, and other factors.

The present study consisted of a structured approach, and incorporated as much information as possible from previous investigations. Since this project is a prolegomenon to a more extensive project, the main goal of this study (from the point of chert characterization) was to identify potential chert sources and to demonstrate (if possible) potential correlation to archaeological assemblages. Therefore, the analyses were limited to techno-typological artifactual studies and a macroscopic analysis of chert characteristics from both geological and archaeological contexts. The course of investigation followed in this study takes into account the geology of the region, allowing for stratified sampling of potential sources. The macroscopic criteria used to describe both the geological and archeological samples were identical, based upon the latest studies of how cherts can be differentiated (Leudtke 1992). Terms were defined so that future analysts may compare and incorporate their results with my own. The study was conducted in consultation with geologists knowledgeable about the local area, and using both topographic and geological

25 maps to pinpoint the location of the chert deposits sampled. Samples from the geological survey were compared to artifacts found in archaeological contexts and statistical methods were used to indicate the strength of the correlation between the two. The results of the study are therefore reproducible and expandable to include other regions or stone types.

Organization of Dissertation

The study lays the groundwork for asking questions regarding chert acquisition patterns and their significance in understanding the socio-economic conditions of a region.

In the following chapters, I will discuss in detail the methods and data used to reconstruct the lithic acquisition and production strategies of the Bronze Age Argolid. In Chapter II, the theoretical framework of the study is established, allowing the formation of hypotheses relating to the acquisition and production patterns expected of a society operating under the model proposed by Kardulias (1999). Chapter III includes an explanation of the methods of analysis and a definition of the variables used in the study. Chapter IV provides data on the geological background of chert, enabling greater comprehension in understanding the material’s great variability. Chapter V consists of a full report on the geological provenance study – including discussions relating to the geology of the region, sampling strategies used, and a quantification of the characteristics of each potential source. Chapter VI discusses the production strategies of the sites of Lerna, Midea, Tzoungiza, and Mycenae based upon a sampling of those assemblages. Chapter VII consists of an analysis of the data presented in

Chapter 6, including conclusions regarding the use of cherts as evidence for interregional or long-distance exchange and for socio-economic hierarchies.

CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL DISCUSSION OF PREHISTORIC EXCHANGE SYSTEMS

This chapter presents the means by which socio-economic institutions and their interactions can be studied. I begin by exploring several models by which these institutions can be defined. These have been developed largely by Karl Polanyi and the substantivist school of economics. The concept of world-systems theory as a means to understand cross- institutional interaction is then discussed, followed by a contextualization of chert acquisition and production strategies within a proposed regional economic framework.

POLANYI AND THE SUBSTANTIVIST SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS

POLANYI

Karl Polanyi built upon the models developed by Marx, who proposed the idea that socio-economic structures were the main cause of individual choices (Marx 1970). Whereas

Marx was primarily interested in capitalist economies, Polanyi expanded his scope to include all forms of economies. According to Polanyi, economy refers to those activities where an individual obtains materials or services in order to satisfy his needs (Polanyi 1957). These

27 activities occur with or without market-based economies, and can be distilled into two parts –

"process" and "institutedness." The latter term refers to the notion that economic activities occur within the socially or politically defined structures. The former – "process" – consists of the means by which those structures perform economic activities. It is in this area that

Polanyi attempted to provide structure, with the understanding that an awareness of process would aid in delineating the nature of the underlying institutions.

Underlying the concept of process is the notion that the movements of materials are part of some sort of social activity. These activities in turn contain "locational" and

"appropriational" aspects. Locational movements are those activities where material moves from one place to another, or changes from one form to another (for example, from clay to ceramics). Locational activities include those related to production and transportation of goods, or physical movements of productive resources. Appropriational movements refer to activities where materials "change hands" (Polanyi 1957). These movements cover those that deal with the administrative and social activities relating to the exchange of materials. Such movements indicate the means by which materials are apportioned among members of a society. Appropriational movements do not necessarily require the actual movement of the material in question. The example of land transactions given by Halperin (1994) best illustrates this point. While the object obviously cannot move, its exchange between two entities can occur. Furthermore, the exchange can take a number of different forms: a direct purchase by one individual from another, by means of inheritance, through the use of a third party (such as a bank or realtor), or by a state-centralized form of redistribution. In each of these cases, the appropriational movement – the administrative and social relationships of the involved parties – is different, while the object of the action remains stationary.

28 The combination of both locational and appropriational movements explains all the various general forms of economic integration possible (Polanyi 1957). These general forms

(reciprocity, redistribution, market exchange, and householding) were developed by Polanyi as ideal formal modes, with which one could explore actual economic organization (Polanyi

1957). These models were not intended to be used as a means to generalize an entire economic system. Rather, Polanyi believed that several types of economic integration could occur simultaneously within the same culture. Therefore, the formal models bring into an otherwise confusing array of relationships and transactions a degree of simplicity by which the complex nuances of an economic system can be explored and described.

The four models represent various combinations of locational and appropriational movements, which are determined by the various social and economic structures within which they occur. The models are best represented graphically (fig. 2.1). Reciprocity is represented as movements between participants who are in a symmetrical relationship.

Redistribution carries with it a notion of centrality, where one participant forms a node in moving goods to and from other participants. Common activities detectable in archaeological remains are evidence of storage indicating centralization, and the presence of a bureaucratic system used to administer the redistributive process. Market exchange is characterized by movements where exchange occurs between participants based upon fixed ratios of exchange. Householding – first included in Polanyi's The Great Transformation but left out in later publications (Halperin 1994) – is characterized by motions of circularity. For

Polanyi, householding is a relatively closed system, within which materials move for the purpose of meeting the needs of its members (Polanyi 1944).

29 In the Aegean, Polanyi's work has been used to some extent, although some tenets of his theory may have been overlooked. In most cases, his work has been reduced to the use of the formal models of redistribution and reciprocity. Colin Renfrew (1972) first adapted substantivist theory to the Aegean in order to help explain long-distance exchange systems.

More recently in Loomis (1998), an analysis of the classical Athenian economy concludes with a discussion of other potential types of economic organization. Loomis argues that since the Athenian economy is determined largely upon a monetarily-based market system, the use of substantivist approaches is not appropriate (Loomis 1998). In 1991, Sherratt and

Sherratt investigated the nature of Bronze Age Aegean trade. The usefulness of Polanyi's models was discussed, and it was determined that the various models were too rigid to accommodate the various potential relationships involved (Sherratt and Sherratt 1991). Both of these examples represent a superficial approach to Polanyi's work. The goal of Polanyi was to create a general model of the economy that could accommodate all types of socio- economic organization.

A study of how empirical economies are instituted should start from the way

in which the economy acquires unity and stability… This is achieved through

a combination of a very few patterns which may be called forms of

integration. Since they occur side by side on different levels and in different

sectors of the economy it may often be impossible to select one of them as

dominant so that they could be employed for a classification of empirical

economies as a whole. Yet by differentiating between sectors and levels of

the economy those forms offer a means of describing the economic process in

30 comparatively simple terms, thereby introducing a measure of order into its

endless variations. (Polanyi 1957, 250).

In emphasizing the formal models, the usefulness of the theory is denied its true function – the explanation and description of economic systems. While one of Polanyi’s intentions was to describe general economic relationships, the overall goal was to provide the means of delineating different forms of economic relationships that may be occurring simultaneously within a society. This greater goal is central to the application of Polanyi’s theories to the question at hand. As discussed in Chapter I, there is a need to understand economies as complex systems, that have multiple layers of integration and are potentially specific to each community. Therefore, there is a need to use a model robust enough to allow the comparison of these differing systems and to understand their potentially shared transactions. The use of multiple models of integration to characterize an economic system illuminates the greater complexity involved, while at the same time simplifying those relationships through the use of a unified descriptive terminology. This in turn enables comparisons between societal entities within an individual socio-economic unit (i.e, a settlement), between socio-economic units, and between geographical regions. Chipped stone data add much-needed information useful in illuminating the relationships of these multiple layers that otherwise would not be observable.

THE EXPANSION OF THE INSTITUTIONAL MODEL: WORLD- SYSTEMS THEORY

WALLERSTEIN

The concept of world-systems theory was developed by Wallerstein in an effort to explain the rise of worldwide market systems in the sixteenth century (1974). As with

31 Polanyi, Wallerstein focuses upon the development and relationships of social systems, and attempts to develop formal models describing socio-economic change (Wallerstein 1974).

Like Polanyi, his models were not meant to be used as a means for over-generalization, but rather the formal models were the means by which socio-economic organizations (systems) and their relationships to each other could be described and understood (Wallerstein 1974).

According to Wallerstein, a "world-system" is a particular network used to exchange material goods. This network often involves multiple societal organizations, but can be contained within a general model. This model consists of three parts: a core, periphery, and semi-periphery. The core is the area that consists of advanced social and political systems.

The periphery is that region where social and political systems are less complex. The semi- periphery are those regions that lie between the core and periphery that hold some characteristics of both (Wallerstein 1974). Activities in a world-economy are divided amongst these three areas. Generally speaking, those activities requiring higher degrees of specialization or production (such as industrial production) occur within core areas, while those activities focused upon staple or basic items (such as agriculture or raw-materials provisioning) occur within the periphery. Semi-peripheral areas are:

…collection points of vital skills that are politically unpopular. These middle

areas partially deflect the political pressures which groups primarily located in

peripheral areas might otherwise direct against core-states and the groups

which operate within and through their state machineries. On the other hand,

the interests primarily located in the semi-periphery are located outside the

political arena of the core-states, and find it difficult to pursue the ends in

32 political coalitions that might be open to them were they in the same political

arena. (Wallerstein 1974, 349-50).

The semi-periphery, then, acts as a zone of interaction as well as a buffer between the core and periphery. Chase-Dunn (1998) characterizes the core as featuring capital-intensive production and being politically dominant, while the periphery is described as containing labor-intensive production and being politically weak. As such, the semi-periphery mollifies the socioeconomic tensions between core and periphery. In addition, Chase-Dunn conceptualizes the semi-periphery as capable of having a balance of both core and peripheral economic and political elements, creating an environment for class conflicts and dynamic political movements (Chase-Dunn 1998).

WORLD-SYSTEMS THEORY OUTSIDE OF CAPITALIST SYSTEMS

Wallerstein developed his theory to help explain societal change, and the relationships between players in economic and political systems. His interest was chiefly the rise of the modern capitalist state systems, and it is no surprise that his models closely pattern relationships found in the modern world. His models, however, have been applied to other socio-political organizations. Chase-Dunn and Hall (1997) redefine world-systems theory for such applications. They define world-systems as:

…intersocietal networks in which the interactions (e.g., trade, warfare,

intermarriage, information) are important for the reproduction of the internal

structures of the composite units and importantly affect changes that occur in

these local structures. (Chase-Dunn and Hall 1997, 28).

33 In addition to this broad definition, they suggest that world-systems can occur without core-periphery hierarchies in which one region or group dominates the other. Rather, they view hierarchical structures as a fluid construct, where inequalities between groups may vary based upon circumstances (Chase-Dunn and Hall 1997). This deconstruction of the formal boundaries developed by Wallerstein allows us to view the core/periphery hierarchy as a continuum, rather than distinct categorical entities (Chase-Dunn 1998). Their redefinition also expands the use of this investigative tool into the analysis of all types of social, economic, and political structures. In addition, Chase-Dunn and Hall draw a distinction between two different types of core/periphery relationships. The first, termed

"core/periphery differentiation" occurs when "societies at different levels of complexity and population density are in interaction with each other" (1991). The second, "core/periphery hierarchy," is used to indicate "the existence of political, economic, or ideological domination between different societies" (1991). The former presents a relationship that is one of interaction, while the latter type of relationship contains a level of control by the core over the periphery. Therefore, world-systems theory, as re-defined by Chase-Dunn and Hall, becomes a means to describe the interactions between different societies or societal subgroups. Although the notion of inequality is still maintained, these interactions may not necessarily be indicative of exploitation or domination.

BRONZE AGE ARGIVE ECONOMIES

The works of Polanyi have been used in formulating models of Bronze Age Aegean economies for some time. Archaeological and textual evidence were used to support

34 redistributive models, where centers were interpreted as being focal points for the collection, storage, and redistribution of all goods (Finley 1957; Killen 1985). These early models have been refined by subsequent research, which has indicated that these centers specifically focused upon the production and distribution of luxury goods, used to promote elite status and control over their spheres of influence (Renfrew 1972; Earle 1985; Halstead 1988;

Sherratt and Sherratt 1991; Sjöberg 1995; Galaty and Parkinson 1996, 1999). The economy was therefore found to be neither wholly redistributive, nor wholly focused upon the palatial centers. Current research on this topic focuses upon other potential forms of economic activity peripheral to this system (redistributive or otherwise), and how these potential alternative activities interacted with the elite-controlled system (Parkinson 1999; Galaty

1999).

World-systems theory has been used on three levels: to help explain relationships between the Aegean and other cultures on an international scale (Sherratt 1993), to explain the interrelationships of regions of the Aegean world during the Middle and Late Bronze Age

(Berg 1999), and the relationship of primary centers to those regions under their influence

(Kardulias 1996, 1999). I will limit my discussion to the latter application, owing to its greater relevance to the work at hand.

Kardulias characterized the prehistoric Aegean world-system as consisting of three levels: internal, intermediate, and long distance (Kardulias 1996). Bulk goods circulated within the first two levels, while prestige items had a wider range of circulation. Since chipped stone tools are considered to be non-prestige items used for basic household and agrarian activities, they are in his view aptly suited for investigating relationships within and between the internal and intermediate levels of a system (Kardulias 1999). Kardulias focuses

35 upon obsidian production and distribution, suggesting that these were multiple economic activities within a system of redistribution traditionally assumed uniform. The circulation of this material sometimes occurred without apparent central control. In other cases obsidian production and distribution patterns gave the appearance of standardization and centrality, implying that the production of obsidian was an organized event (Kardulias 1999). The conclusions indicated that alternative systems of acquisition and production occurred – in some cases organized on a local level by local elites outside the direct control of the central sphere of influence.

CHERT IN A BRONZE AGE ECONOMIC CONTEXT

To put Greek Bronze Age chert into an economic framework, both the substantitivist models proposed by Polanyi and World-Systems theory as amended by Chase-Dunn and Hall will be used. On one level, the identification of local and non-local cherts and their distributions on a regional level will aid in understanding the locational and appropriational movements of the material. The primary focus will be to determine the structure of acquisitional activities. Once these structures have been delineated, the use of World-

Systems theory can aid in understanding the potential interregional and intraregional relationships.

Chert as a resource is fairly common. While its quality varies remarkably, workable cobbles are abundant in most areas of the world (Perlès 1992a). Therefore, its participation in long-distance exchange networks is likely to be infrequent (Kardulias 1999). In addition, we would expect local chert resources to have a rather low value because of their prevalence.

36 Generally speaking, chert is also considered to have low social and economic value within a Bronze Age Argive context (Kardulias 1999). This is because the majority of cherts found in Argive archaeological deposits are considered to be locally derived and of a general poor quality (Kardulias 1999; Kardulias and Runnels 1995; Runnels 1985; Hartenberger and

Runnels 2001). While numerous studies have suggested that some cherts were obtained through long-distance exchange, the overall picture presented is one of local procurement, and in general of a mode of acquisition peripheral to other materials (Kardulias 1999;

Kardulias and Runnels 1995).

Increasingly, it is clear that the key to understanding ancient Aegean economies and societies is the building and testing of large-scale theoretical frameworks that incorporate data from all aspects of society (Sjöberg 1995; von Reden 1995; Galaty and Parkinson 1999).

This approach includes not only data derived from primary centers and materials prized by elites, but also information gathered from peripheral settlements and common utilitarian items. It is within these models that chert can play a primary role.

In terms of world-systems theory, chert is a staple commodity, available with little effort or need for long-distance exchange. Given current assumptions about the quality and availability of chert in the region, we would expect little to no exchange of the material, and that the artifacts would not travel far from the original place of extraction. This pattern would fit with chert's role as a peripheral and minor player in the overall economy. In terms of core-periphery relations, chert would have no role in the system, because the material is ubiquitous and not important for establishing and maintaining the core-periphery relationship.

37 In terms of central redistribution networks, local chert would be interpreted as a common material and would have played no part within this system. We would therefore expect to find no evidence for stockpiling, organized production, or other manifestations associated with elite oversight or control. Indeed, chipped stone tools in general have already been characterized as outside the interest of the ruling power structure (Kardulias 1992;

Kardulias and Runnels 1995; Newhard 1996; Parkinson 1999; Kardulias 1999; Hartenberger and Runnels 2001). Because of its properties, tools made from local cherts would be used for "heavy" activities such as grain production and animal processing – activities requiring the cutting or chopping of hard or semi-hard materials. These largely agricultural activities would have occurred in most instances outside of the primary centers.

However, local cherts could have been a material distributed within systems peripheral to centrally-dominated redistributive systems. These systems would be related to activities outside the direct concern of central authorities. Such peripheral systems could be located at primary or peripheral sites, and could take any form of economic integration – redistributive, reciprocal, market, or householding.

In summary, given the premise that local cherts are 1) locally available throughout the region, and 2) used for agricultural production and other non-elite activities, the expected results of any fieldwork would yield the following patterns:

1) Sources of usable cherts are found within the local cachements of all sites.

2) No movements of cherts between the core and periphery occurred.

3) The modes of exchange (if present) were external to the primary

redistributive system.

38 In the following chapters, I test these assumptions and patterns. Deviations from the preceding scenario will indicate a need to re-evaluate the role of chert within local and regional economies, and to rethink the overall socio-economic models used for understanding

Bronze Age Aegean economic systems.

CHAPTER III: DEFINITION AND ORIGINS OF CHERT

Before further discussion, it is necessary to consider the raw material in question – chert. Depending upon the person asked, the word chert will mean different things. To geologists, chert refers to microcrystalline quartz, regardless of the specifics related to its depositional environment. To some archaeologists, the term specifically refers to a coarse- grained form of microcrystalline quartz, found in bedded deposits and in general a poor grade of siliceous material. For the purposes of this dissertation, a broad definition will be used.

In considering the formational processes of chert, we must first introduce other members of the silicates that influence chert formation. A discussion of the formational processes of chert then follows, including deposition, diagenesis, and further mechanical and geochemical modifications. These discussions will aid in understanding the material in question and the potential issues involved in its study and characterization.

DEFINITION OF CHERT

Unfortunately, a precise definition of chert agreeable to both geologists and archaeologists is lacking. For the purposes of this study, chert is defined as a rock consisting of quartz (SiO2). The quartz found within chert is microcrystalline, indicating that the crystal

40 structure is often undetectable except under the highest of magnifications. Other minerals occur in smaller amounts as impurities, depending upon the rock-forming environment.

Microcrystalline quartz is a broad category that includes rock types also known as jasper, flint, chalcedony, and agate. As defined, the term chert would also include various semi- precious gems, such as onyx and carnelian. Many of these names for microcrystalline quartz describe physical characteristics or the depositional environment of the rock in question.

Jasper, for example, is often used to describe cherts that have deep red color, usually linked to trace amounts of iron or manganese, while chalcedony exhibits microscopic fibrous crystalline structure. Some archaeologists use flint to describe microcrystalline quartz that is formed as nodules within a carbonate matrix, reserving the term chert for material found in a bedded context.

Most of the variant terms for this rock type are misleading when discussing the provenance of this raw material, since several different terms could be applied to samples coming from the same formation. Many of the terms use macroscopic characteristics to differentiate one from another. As is discussed in the next section, the depositional and formational environment of chert is highly variable, potentially yielding variations in macroscopic characteristics across any given deposit. Therefore, labeling one object as a piece of "jasper" and another as "flint" due to color may prevent the researcher from seeing that these two pieces are potentially from the same source. In addition, an artifact will leave few clues as to whether it was made from material derived from a tabular or nodular source.

Thus using terms to differentiate cherts based upon depositional environments is useless when the researcher wishes to describe the potential sources of objects derived solely from archaeological contexts.

THE SILICATES

In considering the formational processes of chert, other members of the silicates that influence chert formation are first introduced. A discussion of the formational processes then follows, including deposition, diagenesis, and further mechanical and geochemical modifications. These discussions will result in a fuller appreciation of the material in question and the potential issues involved in its study.

Fig. 3.1 indicates the relationship of chert to other minerals, specifically other members of the silica dioxide group. Within the silica dioxide group, all members have the dominant chemical composition of SiO2, the major differences being their crystalline structure. The crystalline silica dioxide minerals are distinguished by the pressure and temperature condition of their formation (Hurlbut 1959). Of the six types, α-quartz is the type stable at surface temperatures and pressure. The other types – β-quartz, tridymite, cristobalite, coesite, and stishovite – eventually transform to α-quartz under surface conditions. The ideal crystalline structure of SiO2 is a euhedral six-sided crystal belonging to the trigonal crystal class, shown in figure 3.2. If given space to grow, α-quartz takes this appearance. Forms of α-quartz whose crystalline structure can be seen by the naked eye or with the aid of standard microscopic magnification are termed macrocrystalline quartz.

Chert is composed of a form of silica dioxide whose crystalline structure cannot be seen by the naked eye or with a standard microscope. Its crystals average between 1 to 20µ in diameter (Blatt 1982). Because the silica crystals form in close proximity, their shape is

42 anhedral. A third type of α-quartz consists of fibrous crystals known as chalcedony. This crystalline structure is often discernable in thin section, where the fibers cause the sample to move in and out of extinction in an undulating or wave-like pattern in cross-polarized light

(Nesse 1991).

Closely related compositionally to the hard quartz minerals are mineraloids, which are a concern owing to their function within chert formation. This category consists of substances that have a poorly defined crystal structure and a high water content. Quartz mineraloids are also known as opals, and tend to form an important stage in the development of chert. There are three types of opal: opal-A, opal-CT, and opal-C (Jones and Segnit

1971). Opal-A produces a diffuse diffraction pattern because it is made by the random placement of silicon dioxide tetrahedrons (Calvert 1983). Opal-CT is distinguished by the presence of cristobalite and tridymite, and opal-C consists of a highly disordered array of cristobalite (Jones and Segnit 1971).

FORMATIONAL PROCESSES OF CHERT

INITIAL CRYSTALLIZATION

According to Calvert (1983), chert formation occurs in two stages. Initial concentration of silica is the result of silica-secreting organisms (radiolaria, sponges, and diatoms), that take in soluted silica from surrounding seawater for use in their skeletons.

Upon their death, the skeletons are deposited on the seafloor. If conditions allow, these

43 skeletons dissolve and crystallize into opal-CT, the rate of which depends upon temperature, time, solution composition, and host sediment mineralogy (Calvert 1983). Opal-CT then dissolves and re-precipitates with sufficient time under high pressure and temperature conditions into microcrystalline α-quartz. Laboratory experiments suggest that this transformation from opal-CT to microcrystalline quartz occurs as a solid-state transformation

(Calvert 1983). The evidence for this progression was obtained throughout the analysis of deep-sea sediments related to the Monterey Formation of California that indicated a general progression from unaltered biogenous opal (opal-A) to opal-CT and finally to chert (Calvert

1983).

Yariv and Cross (1979) suggested other sources for amorphous silica: namely, thermal waters associated with volcanic activity. Some geologists have maintained that the amount of silica present in these environments was large enough to allow precipitation, resulting in the close association of chert deposits with volcanic rocks (Calvert 1983).

However, others have noted that underwater volcanism would have provided silica-rich environments favorable for silica-secreting organisms that would have further concentrated the already-present silica (Blatt, Middleton, and Murray 1980).

Given the current amount of evidence, it appears that many cherts are formed by biogenic means, but other formational processes cannot be ruled out. For example, Peterson and von der Borch (1965, as reported in Blatt, Middleton, and Murray. 1980) report the precipitation of non-biogenous opal in certain ephemeral Australian lakes that contain drastic seasonal variations in pH values. During periods of high pH, detrital quartz and clay minerals dissolve, forming a silica-rich solution. During the dry period, the decrease in pH

44 and water volume further concentrates the solution causing the silica to precipitate into opal-

CT (Blatt, Middleton, and Murray 1980).

Several constituents within the environment have an effect upon chert formation.

While still in a gel state, silica has been shown to absorb metallic and organic compounds

(Yariv and Cross 1979). Indeed, it appears that precipitation of opal-CT is dependent upon the presence of additional elements (especially Mg, Fe, Al, and Mn) that serve as nuclei upon which opal-CT lepispheres form (Yariv and Cross 1979). Because of their association with other sediments, cherts are known to contain impurities. These impurities can take the form of patches or crystals of other minerals scattered throughout the chert, as ions trapped in water droplets located in microscopic pores or fissures, or as atoms within the quartz grains themselves, substituting for silicon (Leudtke 1992). By far, the position of most of these impurities is outside the crystal boundaries. The origin of these impurities is usually the sediments in close association with the chert during formation. In other cases, minerals precipitate from the same solution at the same time as the silica, causing them to be embedded within the chert matrix. The occurrence of these impurities is highly variable and dependent upon the specific formational contexts. In addition, diagenetic or metamorphic processes may occur, further complicating chemical and structural formations.

DIAGENETIC PROCESSES

After initial crystallization, chert may experience additional episodes of dissolution and re-precipitation. In addition, pressures resulting from deep burial or uplift may cause brecciation, which involves the breaking of cherts located within still-soft sediments,

45 followed by cementation by additional silica or carbonates (Leudtke 1992). Intense pressure and heat may also cause the welding of quartz grains, yielding coarse-grained cherts that may have a sugary or foliated appearance (Leudtke 1992). Finally, extensive metamorphism of chert yields quartzite, itself a potential lithic resource for hammerstones or chipped stone tools.

CONCLUSION

In summary, chert is a fine-grained type of quartz, formed in most cases in an aquaeous environment, as the result of multiple episodes of solution and precipitation. Its proximity to other sediments causes the introduction of various types of impurities that are specific to the particular formational environment. Following crystallization, further increases in pressure and temperature may cause variations in the crystalline structure

(through metamorphism) or in the macroscopic physical appearance (through brecciation and cementation). The various forms of local depositional environments, combined with variable local post-depositional forces, create a material which has the potential for a wide number of macroscopic, microscopic, and geochemical traits – all potentially within the same geological formation. In developing a method to determine provenance characteristics for particular sources, this fact can never be overlooked.

In trying to assign provenance to chert artifacts (contrary to obsidian studies), no one single method can be used to find a "fingerprint." All potential variables - macroscopic, petrographic, and geochemical - are often used to discriminate one geological source from another. I propose the following order of analysis:

1) Macroscopic measurements are taken from the geological source. These

measurements include color, translucency, mechanical properties, type and

density of inclusions, and frequency of fracturing (Leudtke 1992).

2) The macroscopic measurements are analyzed statistically to determine if

distinct groupings appear which correspond to geological locations. If no

distinct groupings appear, we proceed to the next step.

3) Thin sections are taken from samples belonging to the indistinct

groupings. The sections are measured for types of radiolaria present, and

for types of minerals present within the matrix, fractures, and veins.

4) The data collected from step three are subjected to statistical analysis to

determine if distinct groupings can be discriminated from each other. If

several geological locations still cannot be isolated, we then move to step

5) Samples from the indistinct groupings are taken for geochemical analysis.

Currently favored methods include XRF and ICP (Church 1994). The

results of these tests are then analyzed statistically, either by looking at

trace element differentiations (Malyk-Selivanova, Ashley, Gal, Glascock

and Neff 1998) or by looking at the normative mineral composition of the

samples (Foradas 1994). If no discrimination can occur at this point, we

then say that the geological sources are indistinct from each other.

This order of analysis follows logical steps from general to specific, from quick to time-consuming, and from cheap to expensive. At specific junctures the analysis can be terminated due to lack of time or lack of funds, while still providing the analyst with

47 information that can be used with varying degrees of specificity to include or exclude a potential source. This method focuses the study of cherts on understanding the variability of the material, while keeping in mind the often real research limitations set by outside forces such as time or money.

CHAPTER IV: METHODS OF ANALYSIS

This chapter describes the variables and methods employed to investigate the archaeological and geological assemblages. Full description of the means of the analysis and the terms used enables scholars to understand the methods for testing the arguments made in subsequent chapters, and to relate future studies to the body of work presented here.

DESCRIPTIVE TERMS USED

Since chert is a highly variable material (both intraformationally and extraformationally), it was necessary to establish a set of criteria to facilitate the discovery of any possible patterns within the data. Leudtke (1992) examined the variability of chert and suggested ways in which this variability could be described. The system developed is based largely upon her observations. As stated in Chapter III, samples were analyzed according to a hierarchy based upon time, intensity, and cost. All chert samples collected in the field or from archaeological assemblages were described macroscopically. A copy of the description form used for macroscopic analysis is reproduced in figure 4.1. An explanation of each of the variables follows:

49 Main matrix color: This variable stated the predominant color of the sample.

Color names were taken from the Munsell soil or rock color chart.

Color can vary in chert for a number of reasons: quantities of trace

elements, the amount of water present, the size of the quartz grains, or

the presence of organic matter (Leudke 1992). All of these factors can

vary within the same formation, causing different colored cherts to

appear adjacent to one another. In this study, instead of trying to

pinpoint the one dominant color ascribable to a chert type, the range of

colors found within a given area was described by giving up to two

different Munsell values.

Hue/value/chroma: These variables refer to Munsell color values. In most

cases, the Munsell soil color chart (1994 edition) was used. Upon

several occasions, it was necessary to use the GSA rock color chart

(which also uses the Munsell system), which contains additional color

chips for red, blue, and green hues. If a rock color did not exactly

match a Munsell chip, the Munsell color value was estimated as being

halfway between the two best matches. Unless otherwise noted, all

color readings were taken in shaded sunlight.

Translucency: This term refers to a method developed by Ahler (1983) to

help in the analysis of Knife River Flint. In his experiments, Ahler

held each sample in front of a 45 watt light bulb. He then measured

with a set of calipers the thickness of the piece at the point where the

50 sample became opaque. Leudtke (1992) suggests that translucency is

a variable that measures the amount of impurities found within a

sample, and the overall homogeneity of the material.

For this study, it was uncertain if I would have access to a

power supply in all of the required storerooms. I therefore amended

Ahler's technique to use natural sunlight. An experiment was

conducted in the spring of 2000 to ensure that the use of natural

sunlight would not in any way invalidate these measurements. Ten

subsamples were taken from a single piece of Ayia Eleni chert. These

subsamples were measured for translucency over a period of ten days.

During these ten days, the experiment was conducted in the morning,

at midday, and in the late afternoon. If sunlight was a poor substitute

light source, then the experiment would indicate wide variations in the

measurements. Exploratory statistics were employed to look at means

and standard deviations of the various conditions (tables 4.1 and 4.2).

A One-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnoff test (table 4.3) indicated no

statistically variant readings - either within each sample or within the

entire population (p< .002).

Grain size: A qualitative variable, grain size was used to describe the texture

of a given sample. Samples were judged to be either "fine-grained,"

"medium to fine," "medium," "medium to coarse," or "coarse-grained."

These categories were then transferred to a numerical 5 point scale, 1

representing "coarse-grained" and 5 representing "fine-grained." This

51 allowed for scoring each sample, and quantitatively comparing one

source with another. When speaking about grain size or texture, what

is being measured is not so much the size of the individual quartz

grains, but rather the texture of the sample’s surface. The relative

smoothness or roughness of the surface can be caused by the

occurrence of grains of macro-quartz or other minerals, or the porosity

of the sample.

Luster: Luster refers to the quality of light reflected by the object. Another

qualitative variable, luster was categorized as "vitreous," "vitreous to

medium," "medium," "medium to dull," or "dull." These categories

were then transferred to a 5 point scale in the same manner as "grain

size." This variable is correlated to some extent with grain size, since

those pieces that have smooth surfaces will reflect large amounts of

light.

Fractures: Many examples of cherts studied exhibited some form of fracture.

I first measured the relative density of fractures within the piece, and

then noted if there was any particular orientation or pattern to the

fractures.1 Fractures can be caused by many factors, such as

weathering or metamorphic processes. If fractures had a particular

1 Relative density is an admittedly qualitative term, although I enforced some standardization. A sample was said to have "occasional" occurrences of fractures or veins if the quantity fell below 3 per centimeter. "Several" occurrences fell between 3 and 6 per centimeter. "Numerous" fell between 6 and 10 per centimeter, while

"crowded" referred to over 10 occurrences per centimeter.

52 orientation - if they were parallel or semi-parallel - then the possibility

exists that what was observed was evidence of bedding structure or

faulting.

Veins: In many cases, minerals grow within fractures and cause veins. Veins

were described in a similar fashion to fractures - relative density and

particular orientation. In addition, veins were characterized as being

either narrow, medium, or wide.2 If a particular mineral could be

identified, such identification was made. When possible the color of

the vein was also measured using the Munsell system.

Inclusions: The relative density of the inclusions was estimated, using the

AGI data sheet 23.1-.2. Additionally, inclusion shape was categorized

as circular, anhedral, euhedral, or acicular. Size was categorized as

either being tiny, small, medium, or large.3 When an identification of

the inclusion (for example, radiolaria, macro-quartz) could occur, such

was noted under inclusion type. When possible, color measurements

were taken using the Munsell system.

Environment of readings: This field was used to indicate the environment

under which the analysis of this object took place. In most cases, the

environment was shaded sunlight. However, there were occasions

2 Narrow (<.5mm), medium (.5mm to 1mm), or wide (>1mm).

3 “Tiny”: diameter < .1mm; “small”: diameter = .1mm to .5mm; “medium”: diameter = .5mm to 1mm; “large”: diameter > 1mm.

53 when measurements did occur under less than ideal conditions. Such

conditions included overcast, rainy, and full sunlight.

While the data collected contain some qualitative variables, all effort was made to insure consistency in the recordings. This facilitated the conversion of these observations into categorical variables, which in turn were used to perform the statistical procedures described in subsequent chapters.

One set of qualitative variables that has troubled analyses of many artifact types is that of color. At the present writing, the standard for reporting color is the Munsell system.

As stated above, I have used this system, even though it provides readings of a qualitative nature dependent upon sample quality, lighting conditions, and user bias. When describing a single sample, the system can provide a relatively accurate description of color. However, when trying to describe the range of colors seen in an assemblage or in comparing one assemblage to another, the system has disadvantages owing to the nature of its notation. In an effort to describe more accurately the ranges of colors (or shades of colors) seen in an assemblage, I converted the Munsell system into the L*a*b* color system developed by the

C.I.E.4 This notation system is wholly numerical and the conceptual color space is orthogonal (as opposed to the alphanumerical and cylindrical Munsell system). Instead of describing color according to Hue, Value, and Chroma, the C.I.E.L*a*b* system provides statistical manipulation of values on a numerical XYZ axis. Manipulation of color readings via this method enables the user to generate average color values, ranges with statistical confidence levels, and to compare one assemblage with another in order to detect any color differences.

4 Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage.

54 When describing chert samples, "flaking quality" was also measured. This term refers to the ease by which chert cobbles could be flaked into chipped stone tools. Each sample was subjected to a flintknapping test, using hard hammer percussion and employing a hammerstone of local material (limestone or quartzite). Four criteria were used to judge the flaking quality of a given sample:

Flake Length: This variable refers to the length of flake produced by the

flintknapping exercise. Longer flakes indicate higher quality cherts, while

shorter flakes indicate poorer quality samples.

Cobble Dimension: All samples less than 4 centimeters in diameter were considered

automatically unusable, owing to their small size. In addition, those cobbles

which naturally broke along parallel joint planes were considered favorable,

owing to the automatic platform created.

Imperfections: Fractures, veins, and large inclusions of macroquartz or other

minerals can greatly influence flaking quality by introducing conduits by

which the force of the blow is carried. Samples containing imperfections

typically are seen as unsuitable owing to their unpredictability.

Effort Required: The ease by which flakes were produced varied, largely dependent

upon the number of imperfections within the sample and the crystalline

structure of the chert. Poorer quality samples either fractured easily but in an

erratic fashion, or with great effort owing to the large number of random veins

which served to impede the control of the flaking process.

The variables described above were used together to derive a value of "excellent," "good,"

"workable," "limited," or "unworkable" for each geological sample collected. Generally

55 speaking, "excellent" quality cherts were those samples which were of suitable size for flaking, produced flakes with good conchoidal fracture, contained few to no imperfections, and required little effort to produce flakes. "Good" quality samples likewise were of suitable size, produced flakes with good conchoidal fracture (although not as long as those of

"excellent" quality), required little effort to produce flakes, but contained some minor imperfections. "Workable" cherts were of suitable size, produced flakes (although not as long) and often appeared less lustrous, and contained a number of imperfections (although not so many that usable flakes could be produced). Cherts of "limited" quality were of suitable size, but contained a number of imperfections that either greatly impeded predictable flaking. "Unworkable" cherts were those samples that were either too small (regardless of other criteria), or shattered unpredictably owing to the number of weakened planes caused by imperfections.

TYPOLOGICAL DESCRIPTIONS

In addition to variables useful for chert characterization, obsidian and chert chipped stone artifacts were studied to place these pieces within a framework of possible production patterns. Length, width, and thickness measurements were taken, and each piece was weighed to the nearest .01g using a portable balance scale. All margins were inspected with a 20x hand lens for retouch and utilization scars. The typological system incorporated terms from other analyses in the region which focused upon understanding the reduction patterns involved in prismatic blade and flake industries. This allows the data from this study and

56 previous studies to be compared more easily. An illustration of the various parts of a flake is seen in figure 4.2. A hierarchical display of the blank typology is seen in figure 4.3, while a display of the tool typology is presented in figure 4.4. A copy of the form used to describe the techno-typological characteristics of each piece appears in figure 4.5. Below is a list of several of the terms found in Fig. 4.3, in addition to other variables measured:5

Blade: Any flake whose length is twice as much as its width.

Blank: A flake or blade that shows no sign of utilization or retouch.

Core: Any piece of raw material from which were removed flakes or blades.

Cortex: An area of the chert nodule lying between the rind and center.

Cortex refers in the strict sense to the transition layer between the chert

and the surrounding matrix.

Cortical: Anything relating to the cortex. In a typological sense, the term

refers to a piece of flaked stone that contains either cortex or a

weathering rind.

Crested Blade: A blade which exhibits a ridged arris, made by removing

flakes in an alternating pattern across the face of the core. Crested

blades are important markers in the reduction sequence since they are

5 These terms were based largely upon Leudtke (1992) and Kardulias and Runnels (1995). Other terms used in this study can be found in Debénath and Dibble (1994) and Inizan, Roche, and Tixier (1992).

57 used to create the initial ridge necessary for removing prismatic

blades, or they are formed to rejuvenate a damaged core.

Debris: This category refers to a type of material that is usually angular or

irregular in shape and does not show the marks typical of flaked stone.

Such pieces are typical by-products of any stage in the reduction

sequence. Also known as shatter.

Flake: Any piece of stone removed from a core.

Flake Core: A piece of stone from which flakes were removed. Flake cores

are often further divided according to shape (tabular, spheroidal,

ovoid) and the direction of the force used to remove the flakes

(unipolar, bipolar, random).

Force of Blow: Marks found on the ventral surface of a piece - either a

pronounced bulge (bulb of percussion) or wavelike undulations

(ripple-marks). These marks radiate from the point where initial

detachment from the core began. As such, it is an indication of intent

by the knapper to remove the piece in question from the core.

Length: Measurements for this variable were taken using the bulb of

percussion and its radiating bands as the length axis.

Platform: The point at which the flake or blade was removed from the core.

58 Primary Flake: Any flake which exhibits rind or cortex on 50% or more of

its dorsal surface.

Prismatic Blade: Any blade or blade section which exhibits parallel margins

and a prismatic cross section (usually trapezoidal or triangular).

Prismatic Core: A piece of stone from which were removed prismatic

blades. Prismatic cores are often further categorized according to

shape (conical, cylindrical, or rectangular). Characteristic of prismatic

cores are intensively prepared platforms and parallel negative scars left

from the removal of the prismatic blades.

Retouch: The act of modifying a blank with the intent of shaping or

sharpening the piece. The act of retouch causes a blank to be

considered a tool, since retouching indicates that the craftsman

selected the blank for a specific purpose. Owing to utilization and

post-depositional processes, distinguishing between retouch,

utilization, and site-formation scars is often problematic. As a rule, I

used the standard for determining retouch developed by Kardulias and

Runnels (1995) in the Argolid Exploration Project. Their definition

for retouch included any pattern consisting of three or more adjacent

scars oriented in the same general direction.

59 Rind: The weathered, unflaked surface of a piece of lithic material. This is

not to be confused with cortex, which is a specific part of a chert

nodule.

Secondary Decortication Blade: A prismatic blade which contains no more

than 50% rind or cortex on its dorsal surface.

Secondary Decortication Flake: A flake which contains no more than 50%

rind or cortex on its dorsal surface.

Secondary Flake: A flake with no rind or cortex present, measuring in length

greater than 1.75cm.

Tertiary Flake: A flake with no rind or cortex present, measuring between

0.5cm and 1.75cm.

Thickness: A measurement taken directly below the bulb of percussion. If

no bulb was present, the thickness measurement was taken at the

thickest section of the piece.

Tool: Any flake or blade that shows utilization or retouch. An organizational

chart of the tool typology is illustrated in figure 4.4, while table 4.4

displays the types of tools found in the study. The table was based

upon Kardulias and Runnels (1995, table 5.3), and was expanded as

new types appeared. The tool chart is organized from simple (non-

retouched utilized flakes) to more complex (projectile points, burins).

Trimming Flake: A flake with no cortex or rind, measuring less than 0.5cm.

Utilization: Using a piece causes scarring along the margins in contact with the

material, and/or the margin used to hold the piece. Since the scarring

indicates that the piece was actually used, blanks showing utilization scars are

considered tools. As in classifying retouch, distinguishing between retouch,

utilization, and site-formation scars is often problematic. If an artifact has

been labeled as "utilized," a regular series of minute flake scars or signs of

crushing were seen along a margin, distinguishable from the more random and

haphazard scarring and crushing resulting from a depositional environment.

Width: A measurement taken at the widest part of the piece, perpendicular to the

force of the blow.

Use of this typology aids in determining the presence or absence of stages in reduction sequences, and provides means for determining varying levels of production and specialization at specific settlements. The use of the same variables throughout the study also aids in comparing regional production practices.

CHAPTER V: THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

GOALS AND PARAMETERS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Since it is the goal of this study to gain a full picture of the acquisition and production strategies of chipped stone industries in the Argolid, it is necessary to understand the means by which people used the local environment for materials provisioning. Such information is vital if we are to comprehend the acquisition strategies employed in antiquity. The evidence required to understand these strategies goes beyond merely locating sources of raw material, and must also include data concerning flaking quality, the abundance of raw material, the functional capacity of the material compared to the needs of the inhabitants, the time and expense required to obtain the materials, and the traditions of the peoples who would be accessing these sources (Perlès 1992a). The investigation and analysis of available geological deposits enables us then to ask questions regarding the socioeconomic context of local chipped stone tool production in comparison to other lithic industries and other types of specialized production.

PREVIOUS CHERT PROVENANCE STUDIES IN GREECE

Prior to this study, the assignment of geological provenance to cherts had seldom been attempted in Greece. This is not to say that no one had ever attempted to discuss the source for cherts found in archaeological projects, but rather that those discussions were peripheral to the major points covered. For example, Blitzer (1992) examined the local area around the site of Nichoria for deposits of knappable chert. Results of her analysis indicated that there were good sources nearby, but her definitions and descriptions of the material were such that it is hard for the data to be used in other studies. In addition, the exact position of these deposits was ill defined, and there was no discussion of the geological context. Van

Horn (1973) also performed a chert survey in relationship to the Argolid Exploration Project, later supplemented by discussions by Kardulias and Runnels (1995). While Kardulias and

Runnels did well to note places where chert outcrops were located, they provided only limited discussion of the exact geological context, material characteristics, flaking ability, or color of the sources. Kozlowski, Kaczanowska, and Pawlikowski (1996) conducted a survey of natural resources within one day's walking distance of the site of Lerna in conjunction with their study of the lithic material from that site. However, their survey was not extensive, including only areas of extensive alluviation, and not considering primary geological sources. The excavation at the site of Klithi in Epiros also provided an opportunity to look at natural chert resources near an archeological site (Adam 1997). The researchers there chose again an extensive approach, limiting their analysis only to alluvial deposits.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF STUDY REGION

The area sampled in my geological survey (figs. 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, and 5.4) consisted of the Epidauria and Argeia regions of the Argolid,6 including the Nemea and Berbati valleys.

The reason for selecting these boundaries were as follows:

1) The purpose of the survey was to gain an understanding of the local chert

resources. Local was defined as any area within an estimated one day's

walk of a known Argive settlement.

2) Since the area south of Mount Adheres had been subject to survey by the

AEP, surveying the region immediately to the north provided continuity of

coverage for the entire Argolid.

3) The two valleys of Berbati and Nemea are thought to share a common

history with the Argolid (Wells 1996). Their inclusion was therefore

required in order to discuss the potential economic base of the region.

4) It has been hypothesized that chert was a locally available resource to the

site of Tzoungiza (Kardulias and Runnels 1995; Kardulias 1999).

6 The Argolid can be split into four geographical sections: the Argeia (the vast alluvial plain with the modern cities of Argos and Nafplio), the Epidauria (the area roughly bordered by Mt. Arachneo on the north, Mts.

Adheres and Megalovouni on the south, the Saronic Gulf to the East, and the alluvial plain of the Argeia to the

West), the Hermonis (the Argolid peninsula south of Mt. Adheres), and Troizenia (the alluvial plain between

64 Inclusion of this valley was therefore required to test this hypothesis and

to place regional resource acquisition patterns into their proper context.

The Argive plain (figs. 5.1, 5.6, and 5.7) is a graben system into which was deposited

Quarternary sediments (Zangger 1993). To the east and west of this plain (figs. 5.1, 5.2, 5.6,

5.7), two branches of the Central Hellenic Nappe are found (Jacobshagen 1986). To the west, the system consists of Cretaceous limestones, Jurassic cherts, and middle Triassic marls, diabases, limestones, and flysch (Zangger 1993). The eastern section south of Mount

Arachneo (figs. 5.3, 5.4, 5.9, 5.10) is a complex formation consisting of shallow water to pelagic limestones of late Triassic to early Jurassic age, combined with an overlying series – either a late Jurassic nappe of mafic volcanics and radiolarian cherts (Ophiolite Unit) or

Triassic deep water cherty limestones (Asklipion Unit) (Baumgartner 1985).

The two valleys have somewhat different lithologies. The Nemea Valley (figs. 5.4,

5.11) is dominated by Pliocene lacustrine or fluvial marls, with some occurrences of Jurassic to Cretaceous dolomitic limestones, belonging to the Tripolis zone of the central Hellenic

Nappe (IGME 1970c). The Berbati Valley (figs. 5.1, 5.2, 5.8), however, is related to the lithology of Mount Arachneo – pelagic limestones of late Triassic to early Jurassic age with some overlying chert deposits related to the Angelokastron Chert from the Epidauria described below.

Mt. Adheres and the Saronic Gulf, including the Methana peninsula and the island of Poros). This study focused on the Argeia and Epidauria, the southern section having been studied by the AEP.

65 SAMPLING STRATEGY

Much has been written regarding sampling strategies for lithic resource studies.

Church (1994) and Leudtke (1992) divided strategies based upon the goals of the project.

Materials-based studies provide information about possible sources for raw materials, while artifact-centered projects intend to determine the provenance of specific artifacts. In materials-based projects, the goal is to determine the distribution of a particular type of raw material. Artifact-centered studies focus upon assigning provenance of materials found in archaeological contexts to their geological source (Leudtke 1992). The central question in this study concerns determination of the provenance of chert implements found in prehistoric

Argive settlements – a question that falls into the artifact-centered category. Ideally, an artifact-centered approach is one that builds upon previously collected information about known sources in a region (Church 1994). Unfortunately, the amount of prior investigation in the Argolid was minimal, and it was determined that this project would require both components. I would have to describe the types of chert found in the region, and be able to provide data necessary to assign local or non-local provenance to archaeological artifacts.

As mentioned elsewhere, several such studies have already been completed in varying degrees of intensity in the Argolid. As a part of the AEP, van Horn and Jameson and

Runnels and Kardulias mapped out potential sources in the areas south of the Adheres mountain range, indicating several concentrations of cherts in river beds and several locations of tabular cherts found in primary geological contexts. A team studying the

Neolithic chipped stone from Lerna searched alluvial deposits in and around the Argive

Plain. Their research discovered a potential source for a grayish flint in alluvial deposits

66 emanating from Mount Arachneo between the modern towns of Nafplio and Ligourio (figs.

5.5).

Owing to the large size of the area to be studied, the region was stratified according to the probability of finding cherts in both primary and secondary contexts and thus was divided into four sub-regions:

1) The sub-region to the west of the Argive Plain, consisting of Cretaceous

limestones, Jurassic cherts, and middle Triassic diabases.

2) The Argive Plain, consisting of Quarternary alluvium.

3) The Nemea Valley, consisting of Pliocene marls and Jurassic to

Cretaceous limestones.

4) The sub-region to the east of the Argive plain consisting of late Triassic to

early Jurassic limestones (the basal "Pantokrator" limestone sequence)

overlain by either a series of volcanics and cherts or by Triassic deep

water cherts.

Geological maps, exploratory reconnaissance in 1998, and consultation with geologists Myrsini Vartis-Matarangas and Dionysios Matarangas of IGME helped to stratify the region in order to focus energies upon areas where chert would most likely be found. The entire Argive Plain was eliminated because extensive alluviation had likely covered over any material suitable for knapping purposes. The massive Pantokrator limestone complex of Mt.

Archanes and the region to the west of the Argive Plain were also largely excluded. The

Berbati and Nemea valleys had previously been surveyed by archaeological teams, and had turned up little in the way of viable resources (Wells, Runnels, and Zangger 1990; Wright et al. 1990). Data supplied by geological maps and local geologists had suggested that finding

67 cherts in these areas would be fortuitous at best. As a result, the strategy employed by me in these areas consisted of exploring alluvial deposits such as dry riverbeds for signs of eroded cobbles, and checking those areas where sources indicated that cherts (using the broad geological definition) could be found in primary contexts. Although cherts do occur within these formations, it seemed more prudent to check streambeds emanating from these complexes for eroded cobbles. Any findings in these secondary contexts could then be used to locate primary sources upstream. This extensive survey located no deposits of cherts of any workable quality.

The majority of my time was spent investigating areas where previous work had indicated that potential sources for raw material existed. From a geological perspective, the chert deposits of the Epidauria are well known, owing to the work of Peter Baumgartner

(1985). His work, aimed at studying the lithology of this region, is a careful analysis of the geological formations found in this area. As part of this analysis, Baumgartner made note of the various cherts found in the region, describing their geological context, probable age, and variances in color, mineralogical and radiolaria content, and other variables of interest to geologists. He did not comment, however, on the suitability of the cherts for tool manufacture.

Unlike Baumgartner's strictly geological study, the present study was also concerned with determining suitability of chert for stone tool manufacture. Therefore, my research in the Epidauria was directed towards sampling the cherts recorded by Baumgartner and any cherts not found by his study, and toward describing the material from both a geological and archaeological perspective.

COLLECTION STRATEGY7

Initially, all regions illustrated in figures 5.6 through 5.11 were inspected for occurrences of cherts. If cherts were located in bedded contexts, the deposits were first inspected for vertical and lateral variation and for samples suitable for knapping. If no knappable pieces were found, collection was kept to a minimum, and I retained only several samples for reference.

If the inspected region was alluvial, a series of 50 meter transects were laid out once cherts were located in densities greater than 1 sample per 5 meters. Dogleashes of 1 meter radius were laid out every 10 meters along the course of the riverbed until the concentration ceased. All chert samples greater than 4 centimeters in diameter were kept, regardless of flaking quality.

If the deposit yielded knappable quality material, samples were collected every 10 meters along the length of the deposit, alternating between the top, middle, and bottom of the exposure. This enabled a sampling of both horizontal and vertical variations. In the case of the Ayia Eleni beds described below, the extensive nature of these deposits made this strategy unwieldy in terms of the amount of material that would be collected. Instead, the deposit was sampled at 1 kilometer intervals, and random samples were obtained at these points.

7 All samples collected as a part of this study are currently stored at the Wiener Laboratory, American School of

Classical Studies, Athens, Greece.

RESULTS

Details for each sampled area – including lithology, location, local formational characteristics, method of collection, and identification numbers of the collected samples – can be found in Appendix A.

ARGEIA (figs. 5.1, 5.2, 5.6, and 5.7)

This facet of research was facilitated by work done by Kozlowski, Kaczanowska, and

Pawlikowski (1996), who had conducted a chert survey in connection with their study of the

Neolithic chipped stone from Lerna. Their survey consisted of studying alluvial deposits within a 20 km radius of the settlement, noting the types of cherts found and comparing their geological samples with cherts found in archaeological contexts. My research in this area consisted of re-checking the areas reported by Kozlowski et al., sampling any cherts found, and extending the surveyed areas to include those that geological maps suggested might yield cherts in a primary context.

In the Argeia (figs. 5.5, 5.6 and 5.7) sample areas G15, G16, G21,G23, G24, G25,

G26 and G27 are alluvial deposits, explored initially by Kozlowski et al. in the 1990s. My survey in the western areas confirmed their results - no cobbles of any workable quality were found. My work in areas G16, G22 and G25, representing the eastern alluvial deposits near

Drepano and Yiannouleïka, yielded results contrary to Kozlowski et al. While they reported finds of a workable gray chert, inspections in 1999/2000 of the same area yielded no such

70 samples. These deposits instead included small amounts of a fine-grained dark red vitreous chert, in some cases exhibiting large numbers of fractures and parting planes. Inclusions and veins of macroquartz and chalcedony were common.

Several factors may explain the discrepancy between my results and those of

Kozlowski et al. The area sampled by me may not have been the exact location studied by

Kozlowski et al.; the collection practices employed by Kozlowski et al. may have removed all cherts from the area; or changing ground cover may have hidden the cherts from my view.

However, none of these reasons presents a completely satisfactory explanation. Regardless of my position within the riverbed, some chert should have appeared, and even if Kozlowski et al. made a total collection of all chert samples, an area that is actively eroding should have replenished the supply. Finally, the ground visibility during my visit was around 80% – sufficient to see most surface features. At present, I have no explanation for the discrepancy.

NEMEA VALLEY (figs. 5.4, 5.11)

The area surveyed consisted of the alluvial basin which contains the sanctuary of

Zeus (fig. 5.8). This alluvium originated from the surrounding hills (Foukas, Platania, Ayia

Trias, and Panayorrachi) that consist of Pliocene conglomerates of sandstones and limestones. The source material for this formation originated from the Tripolis and Olos

Pindhos Zones to the southwest. These regions consist of dolomitic limestones (Tripolis

Zone) and calcareous shales and sandstones (Olos Pindhos Zones).

About three kilometers south of this alluvial basin, geological maps indicated Lower-

Upper Jurassic limestones that contain thin layers of cherts. This limestone formation is

71 related to the Pantokrator Limestone discussed above. The chert formation grades into a shale-chert-sandstone formation that had the potential to yield cherts of workable quality.

Inspection of this region, however, detected no cherts of workable quality.

BERBATI VALLEY (figs. 5.1, 5.2, and 5.8)

This region is defined as the valley immediately east of Mycenae, in which lie the towns of Prosymna (Berbati) and Limnes. As one progresses east, the terrain rises in elevation and narrows into a single pass that allows communication with the village of

Angelokastron (fig. 5.2). A geological survey of the Berbati Valley occurred in conjunction with the archaeological investigations conducted by the Swedish Institute at Athens (Wells,

Runnels, and Zangger 1990). According to Ebehard Zangger, the lithology of the region has three divisions (Wells, Runnels, and Zangger 1990):

1) Pantokrator Limestone: Shallow-water pelagic limestones dating to the

Lower Triassic.

2) Eohellenic Flysch: Flysch intercalated with marls, shales, clastic

limestones, conglomerates, and sandstones.

3) Pliocene Marl: A marl interlain with conglomerates.

The Pantokrator Limestone is largely restricted to the region east of Prosymna and the upper elevations to the west of the village. The flysch and marl are restricted to the area to the west of Prosymna, and stratigraphically overlie the Pantokrator Limestone. In terms of locating chert, the conglomerates within the flysch and marls would be a potential source, but the overall potential for finding chert in these contexts was considered to be limited.

72 One area that showed promise was the region to the east of Limnes, consisting of a narrow valley linking the village of Angleokastron and the Epidauria with the Berbati-

Limnes valley (fig. 5.8). Geological maps and previous work by Baumgartner indicated that cherts would be located in this vicinity. Investigation consisted of walking sections of the valley bottom and looking for signs of eroded chert cobbles. Additional investigations included areas where geological maps indicated the presence of cherts. Both of these investigations discovered examples of chert, albeit highly unusable. One sample was taken from an alluvial context (G20), and can be considered typical of the material.

The cherts from this area belong to the Angelokastron Chert type discussed by

Baumgartner (1985). This chert overlies the pelagic Pantokrator Limestone, and consists of red thin-bedded cherts alternating with breccias of calcarenites (Baumgartner 1985). The chert changes to red siliceous mudstones of the Dhimaina Formation – a series consisting largely of clastic limestone extending from Epidavros to Berbati (Baumgartner 1985, plate

4). Additional examples of this chert were found in the southern sections of the Berbati valley, in association with flysch and conglomerate formations of the Upper Pliocene.

EPIDAURIA (figs. 5.2, 5.3, 5.9 and 5.10)

In the Epidauria, chert is found primarily in four geological contexts:

1) Ayios Nikolaos Chert (fig. 5.12): A ribbon-bedded, slightly calcareous

radiolarian chert underlying a limestone and chert breccia of a post-Late

Jurassic date. It primarily overlies a pink Late Middle Jurassic pelagic

limestone, and consists of beds 1 to 5 cm thick with shaly or marly

73 partings. Farther northeast towards the Asklipion, the formation decreases

in thickness with more inclusions of clay. Colors range from gray-green to

reddish purple (Baumgartner 1985).

2) Angelokastron Chert (fig. 5.13): A thin-bedded (3 - 5 cm thick) red

radiolarian chert. It exhibits variable carbonate content as part of the

matrix or as sparse calcite cement. Its thin beds alternate with a carbonate

breccia made of calcerenites. Angelokastron Chert overlies either Late

Jurassic pelagic limestones or Late Triassic/Early Jurassic shallow water

limestones and is overlain by red siliceous mudstones (Baumgartner 1985).

3) Koliaki Chert (fig. 5.14): A thickly bedded, dark red vitreous chert of late

Oxfordian age. It overlies Middle Triassic to Liassic chert-bearing

limestones and underlies the Migdhalitsa Ophiolite Unit (Baumgartner

1985).

4) Migdhalitsa Ophiolite Unit (fig. 5.15): Red ribbon-bedded manganiferous

radiolarian cherts of middle to late Callovian age that change to poorly

bedded siliceous mudstones and limestones (Baumgartner 1985). Cherts in

this unit overlie variolitic pillow basalts. These cherts in thin section show

intense recrystallization, fracturing, and brecciation showing a redeposition

of calcite and macrocrystalline quartz.

The four contexts were sampled to determine their usefulness as raw material for stone tool manufacturing. For each sample area a "Geological Site Form" was used (fig.

5.16). The sampled areas are shown in figures 5.6 through 5.11. Of the four chert types sampled, the only one found to yield workable material was the Koliaki Formation. All of

74 the usable material came from areas G05, G09, G10, G13, G14 and G22, which were taken from a single deposit of bedded chert, roughly 5 kilometers long and 400 m wide at its deepest point (fig. 5.17). This bedded formation has been termed "Ayia Eleni Chert" for ease of reference.

Initially, sample area G05 was inspected; it yielded cherts mostly with a high clay content and multiple fractures – altogether unusable for stone tools. However, the chert itself was fine-grained and vitreous, and it was decided to intensively sample the deposit.

Additional areas were chosen approximately one kilometer apart with the goal of obtaining information regarding the bed's overall characteristics (areas G08, G09, G10, G13, G14 and

G22). G22 was chosen due to its location near the juncture between the bed and the underlying Pantokrator limestone, while G13 and G10 lay near the interface of the overlying

Ophiolite Unit. Many of the samples obtained were similar to those pulled from G05 – a fine-grained chert with large numbers of fractures and internally weathered surfaces. These surfaces caused the samples to splinter into unusable pieces when tested, although workable pieces of chert c. 20cm in circumference were found occasionally.

G10, however, was different. Located c. 200 m southeast of Ayia Eleni, the area consists of a low ridge extending into the alluvial valley to the south. Its surface is littered with cobbles eroding from the bedrock, many of which are usable (fig. 5.18). Samples were obtained both from the surface and from a road cut on the west face of the ridge. The material is fine-grained, vitreous, contains few impurities or fractures, and is easily worked.

Colors ranged from 7YR 1/2 to 3YR 2/5. Testing of these cobbles produced flakes ranging from 2 to 6 cm long; the material responded well to both hard-hammer percussion and pressure-flaked retouch with no need for thermal alteration.

75 An additional sample area – G04 – lies near the Ayia Eleni bed. It consists of a cherty limestone, ranging in color from a red 5YR 1/2 to 4YR 3/4, with an additional yellow- gray color ranging from 5Y 5/3 to 5Y 7/3 forming bands or patches within the main matrix color. The chert is found in isolated nodules within the limestone bed. It is nearly identical with the Ayia Eleni chert in terms of color, translucency, flaking quality, and grain size. The only discriminating differences occur in thin section, from inspection of which it is clear that samples from G04 have inclusions of calcite – totally absent from the Ayia Eleni samples.

CONCLUSIONS

Results of the geological survey indicate that the chert resources of the Epidauria,

Argeia, Nemea Valley, and Berbati Valley are largely confined to the bedded sources found around the village of Ayia Eleni, with possible minor deposits in alluvial contexts near the villages of Drepano and Yiannouleïka. The location of most of these deposits are some distance from the Argive Plain - at least a full day's walk. In addition, their location places them between the settlements of the Argive Plain and the Saronic Gulf, within a natural pass leading between these two regions. In the following chapters, I will compare cherts identified in my geological survey with those represented in archaeological assemblages from Lerna, Midea, Mycenae, and Tzoungiza, and I will suggest possible explanations to the movements of this raw material from its natural to cultural context.

CHAPTER VI: TECHNO-TYPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF LITHIC ARTIFACTS

The following chapter describes samples of lithics from archaeological assemblages from the sites of Lerna, Tzoungiza, Midea, and Mycenae (fig. 6.1). The chapter is subdivided into separate sections for each site. Each site is discussed on its own, beginning with a brief discussion of the sampling methods used to select a representative sample of the material. Within each site description, the different types of material from each phase are given their own individual discussions according to the criteria established by Costin (1991) and described in Chapter I – specifically those elements relating to skill (blank thickness), standardization (uniformity in blank dimensions), and efficiency (presence/absence of crested blades in blade core technologies, blank thickness, and the proportion of trapezoidal blades present).

After these specific discussions, conclusions about the chipped stone industry during that specific phase at that specific site will be summarized. After each major phase has been discussed, a final discussion of the use of chipped stone at that site will be provided. The final section of the chapter provides the reader with a summary discussion of chipped stone use at the regional level, divided according to major chronological phases.

LERNA

Lerna is a low mound, located near the town of Myloi (fig. 6.1). Excavations by the

American School of Classical Studies in the 1950s under the direction of J.L. Caskey revealed habitation levels ranging from the Neolithic to Late Bronze Age (Caskey 1958).

The primary phases belonged to the Early Helladic II, Early Helladic III, and Middle

Helladic periods (Lerna phases III – V).

Recent final analysis of the chipped stone has been published by Kozlowski,

Kaczanowska, and Pawlikowski (1996) and Hartenberger and Runnels (2001), indicating extensive use of lithic material throughout all phases of habitation. While the report was thorough in regards to the obsidian industry and the overall trends of the assemblage, their discussions did not discuss chert artifacts extensively. Therefore, discussions regarding the overall assemblage and obsidian will consist of summaries of the results published by

Hartenberger and Runnels. A separate sampling strategy – focused on the chert only – was implemented to gain additional information about this data subset and is here presented in detail.

SAMPLING STRATEGY

In the storeroom at the Argos Museum, the lithic material from Lerna is divided between catalogued and non-catalogued pieces. My sampling method was designed to take a

30% sample of both groups. Since the obsidian was being studied concurrently by

78 Hartenberger and Runnels using a similar typology, these pieces were not included in my analysis. Summaries of their work are presented for each period below.

The catalogued pieces were stored according to inventory number, a number that was not reflective of site phase or location. The cataloqued pieces, therefore, were considered to have been randomly sorted. A random number between 1 and 10 was chosen by the use of a random number chart, and every tenth piece was selected for analysis, beginning with the randomly chosen piece.

The non-catalogued pieces were stored in shoe-sized boxes and labeled by trench.

Since it was desired to obtain a sample representative of the entire site distribution, the entire number of boxes were counted, noting the number of boxes assigned to each excavation unit.

Assuming that each container held approximately the same number of lithics, one-third of the boxes for each excavated area was analyzed.

ANALYSIS

Owing to the previous publication of the assemblage, a summary of the previous work by Hartenberger and Runnels will be presented, outlining the general trends seen at

Lerna. Separate sections for Lerna III – Lerna V (the EH II, EH III, and MH phases) will then address the use of cherts in these respective phases.

Previous Work

Table 6.1 presents the distribution of chipped stone material according to period, as described in Hartenberger and Runnels (2001, table 2). Note that the greatest amount of

79 material was retrieved from the EH II phase, and that the amount of obsidian proportional to chert decreased through time. Note also the difference in proportions of obsidian seen in the three periods. In Early Helladic II, obsidian accounts for 94.1% of the population. By the

Middle Helladic, the proportion has fallen to 87.1%. Overall, the proportion of obsidian is higher when compared with Midea and Tzoungiza.

In addition to a change in raw material proportions, there also appears to be a shift in the production of obsidian blanks through time. In the Early Helladic II Period, the greatest proportion of obsidian was found as blades (40.4%). Flakes followed as a close second

(38.7%). In the Middle Helladic Period, prismatic blades account for only 19.2% of the overall obsidian population, the categories of flakes, and cortical flakes having risen considerably. This indicates a decrease in the production of obsidian prismatic blades at

Lerna, and a rise in the production and use of basic flake blank types.

EH II

Table 6.2 presents the Early Helladic II chert material sampled from Lerna, divided by blank. The Early Helladic II sample accounts for 11.9% of the total sampled from Lerna, and 29.4% of the total EH II population. The following discussion presents the chert dataset, exploring the evidence for production practices and signs for craft specialization.

Forty pieces of chert were sampled from EH II contexts (1.7% of all EH II material).

Table 6.2 indicates that the largest proportion of chert pieces consisted of flake blanks

(N=26, 65%), including of a single primary flake (2.5%), secondary flakes (N=17, 42.5%), secondary cortical flakes (N=5, 12.5%), and tertiary flakes (N=3, 7.5%). In addition, flake cores, and debris were observed, suggesting that a certain amount of flake production

80 occurred on site. Of particular note is the significant number of prismatic blades (N=11,

27.5%) and a lack of corresponding prismatic cores. This indicates that most – if not all – blades were brought into the site as performs. This pattern was also noted by Runnels (1985) in his preliminary assessment of the assemblage.

Table 6.3 presents the distribution of chert tools from the sampled EH II assemblage.

The principal types included those produced from flake blanks – utilized flakes (N=4), retouched flakes (N=6), burins (N=3), and sickle elements (N=6). Other types include such items as scrapers (N=1) and denticulates (N=1). These types follow the general trends found in assemblages that produce flake blanks for robust uses such as chopping, cutting, and processing grains.

Eleven chert types were found in EH II contexts at Lerna (table 6.4, fig. 6.3). Chert

Type 1 is characterized by elements commensurate with Ayia Eleni chert, and comprise the largest group found (N=20, 48.7%). The second most plentiful type – Type 2 (N=6, 14.6%)

– consists of a pale yellow, fine-grained, and highly translucent chert, identified as "honey flint."

EH III

One hundred and fifty-eight pieces of chert were sampled from EH III contexts (3.6% of all EH III material). Table 6.2 presents the EH III assemblage, and indicates that the largest proportion of chert pieces were flake blanks (N=108, 68.4%), consisting of secondary flakes (N=49, 31.0%), secondary cortical flakes (N=17, 10.8%), and tertiary flakes (N=39,

24.7%). In addition, flake cores, and debris were observed, suggesting that a certain amount of flake production occurred on site. Of particular note is the significant number of prismatic blades (N=27, 17.1%) and a lack of prismatic cores corresponding to the different types of

81 cherts represented by the blades. This indicates that most – if not all – blades were brought into the site as performs, an observation was also made by Runnels (1985).

Table 6.3 presents the distribution of chert tools from the sampled EH III assemblage.

During this phase, it appears that there was an expansion in the number of tool types occurred, although it is uncertain whether this result is a function of sampling or if it reflects an actual change in the toolkit. The principal types included those produced from flake blanks – utilized flakes (N=9), retouched flakes (N=12), and sickle elements (N=4) – and also retouched blades (N=5). These types follow the general trends found in assemblages that produce blanks for robust uses such as chopping, cutting, and processing grains.

Twenty chert types were found in EH III contexts at Lerna (table 6.4, Fig. 6.4) – significantly more than in EH II. Chert Type 1 is characterized by elements commensurate with Ayia Eleni chert, and comprise the largest group found (N=81, 50.0%). Within this chert type, all aspects of the reduction sequence were identified. As in the EH II phase, Chert

Type 2 consists of the second largest category (N=13, 8.0%).

One hundred thirty-eight pieces of chert were sampled from MH contexts at Lerna.

Table 6.2 presents the MH assemblage, and indicates that the largest proportion of chert pieces were flake blanks (primarily secondary and tertiary flakes). In addition, flake cores, secondary cortical flakes, and debris were observed, suggesting that a certain amount of flake production occurred on site. Of particular note is the significant number of prismatic blades

(N=22, 15.9%) and a lack of corresponding prismatic cores. This indicates that most – if not

82 all – blades were brought into the site as performs, similar to the findings of Runnels (1985) and Hartenberger and Runnels (2001).

Sixty-seven chert tools were identified (47.5% of all MH cherts; see table 6.3). In general, the distribution of tool types follow the same trend observed for the EH II and EH III periods – primarily utilized flakes, retouched flakes, and sickle elements.

Fifteen chert types were identified to MH Lerna (table 6.4, fig. 6.5). Ninety-two pieces (65.2%) were identified as Ayia Eleni Chert – a noticeable increase from previous periods. All aspects of the reduction sequence were identified for this chert type. As in other periods, Chert Type 2 contained the second largest number of samples found (N=11, 7.8%).

Summary

Two trends appear from studying the chert lithic material at Lerna: a gradual increase in Ayia Eleni chert, combined with a decrease in the quantity of obsidian and honey flint (fig.

6.6). This trend is not dramatic, however, and it appears that obsidian was already the primary raw material type of choice for chipped stone tools at Lerna. Within the lithic assemblage as a whole, chert played a niche role, being used primarily for retouched flakes and sickle elements/denticulates.

MIDEA

In 1939, Axel Persson first began investigations at Midea, a site located on a large outcrop c. 1km southeast of the tombs at Dendra. From 1983 to 1998, investigations were

83 conducted there by K. Demakopoulou, M. Divari-Valakhou, P. Åström, and G. Walberg; their work focused on areas around the East and West Gates and lower terraces (Walberg

1998). The large Cyclopean walls, close association with the numerous burials uncovered at

Dendra, and the presence of storerooms, monumental gated entrances, and a large rectangular structure suggest that the site was prominent in the Late Bronze Age.

SAMPLING STRATEGY

The lower terraces (fig. 6.7), excavated by a team directed by G. Walberg, uncovered habitation levels primarily dating from LH IIIA to LH IIIC (Walberg 1998, forthcoming).

The material for this study was pulled from these lower terrace trenches. This section of the site is characterized by a terrace system dating in part to the Middle Helladic Period.

Throughout the history of human habitation, the hill on which the site is located experienced extensive erosion, resulting in numerous instances of disturbed contexts. Based on the site stratigraphy published by Walberg (1998, forthcoming), those areas where intact strata were preserved were identified. All chipped stone from these contexts was then analyzed. The quantity of material from each period is given in table 6.5, and figures 6.8 through 6.10 show the units from which the samples were taken.

ANALYSIS

Table 6.5 presents the assemblages from Midea, divided according to material and period. The proportion of obsidian remains relatively constant through time (roughly 66%),

84 unlike Lerna, where it decreased through time. Of further note is the dependence upon obsidian for prismatic blades in all periods, and the focus on flake production in the chert industry – a pattern seen in all other archaeological assemblages examined for this thesis.

Middle Helladic

Only three pieces of obsidian were recoverable from Middle Helladic contexts at

Midea. Because of this extremely small sample, no generalizations are possible.

LH I – LH II

Fifty-four pieces (6.3% of total) were obtained from Early Mycenaean (LH I – LH II) contexts.

In the LH I – LH II periods, the differing focus of obsidian and chert industries is most apparent when comparing tool types. Table 6.6 shows that the obsidian blades were formed into tools useful for cutting and incising, while the chert flakes were chosen for more robust uses, such as processing cereals. Three pieces of chipped stone were retrieved that were manufactured of other material: 1 of silicated limestone, 1 of schist, and a third of shale.

Because of their low numbers, the following discussion will not include these pieces.

Obsidian Thirty-three pieces were found within Early Mycenaean contexts. The blank distribution (table 6.5) shows a dependence upon the use of prismatic blades, with some ancillary use of flakes. Tool types parallel this observation. 70% of the tool types consist of those made from prismatic blades (the "other" category in this instance consists of two composite tools made from blades). The overall quantity prevents definitive statements

85 regarding specialization, although blade widths and thicknesses are shown to be commensurate with other Aegean assemblages (table 6.7).

Chert Twenty-one pieces of chert date to the Early Mycenaean phase. As in the case of the

MH phase, the such small quantity limits generalizations. Blank and tool type distributions confirm the expected pattern consistent with a flake-based industry. Blanks consist of flake types and associated debitage, and tool types are mainly those commonly made from flake blanks (utilized flakes, notched pieces, denticulates, retouched flakes, and sickle elements).

Six chert tools were identified from Early Mycenaean contexts (table 6.6). Given the small numbers, little can be said regarding distribution trends, although the fact that the only two sickle elements found in this assemblage were made from chert should be noted. This observation falls in line with the regional tendency to select chert as the material of choice for these implements.

Thirteen chert types were found in Early Mycenaean contexts (table 6.8, fig. 6.10).

Ayia Eleni chert made up the majority of this assemblage (N=5, 23.8%), indicating a chosen preference for it. Other types were used in minor amounts, and most of these types were in final blank form, indicating that they were most likely brought to the site in that form.

LH IIIB

A sizable assemblage was found in LH IIIB contexts (N=377; 44.1% of the total from

Midea). During this phase, the large megaron structure was built, causing the leveling of the area and compromising the integrity of previous habitation layers (Demakopoulou, Divari-

86 Valakou, Åström, and Walberg 1996). The units from which the LH IIIB material was taken are shown in figure 6.8.

Obsidian Two hundred and forty-eight pieces of obsidian (65.6% of LH IIIB assemblage) were retrieved from LH IIIB contexts (table 6.5). The predominant blank types consisted of prismatic blades (N=65, 25.8%) and tertiary flakes (N=88, 35.5%), proportions nearly identical to the Early Mycenaean period. In addition, debitage types (debris, trimming flakes, cortical flakes, and cores) were also identified, indicating that production activities occurred on-site. The proportion of this material is similar to that of other Bronze Age sites, suggesting that production was of a part-time nature (Runnels 1985; Kardulias 1992;

Hartenberger and Runnels 2001).

A comparison of average blade widths and thicknesses from Midea with other Bronze

Age settlements (table 6.7) indicates that the skill level of Midean knappers was commensurate with that of individuals in other settlements (observed by the relatively consistent standard deviations and coefficients of variation). However, efficiency was higher at Midea, as evidenced by the significantly lower average width and thickness values for prismatic blades, indicating that knappers at Midea desired to produce narrower and thinner blades. Since there appears to be no apparent reason for this from a typological standpoint

(the uses for these blanks do not differ from those at other settlements), it is concluded that an economizing strategy was employed for this material. This suggests that the settlement at

Midea experienced a constriction of obsidian supply in this period. This conclusion is supported by the smaller proportion of obsidian present at Midea compared with other settlements.

87 Sixty-eight obsidian tools (68% of LH IIIB tools) were identified (table 6.6). 63.2% of the tools included those manufactured from blades (N=43), including utilized blades

(N=17), retouched blades (N=4), notched blades (N=3), truncated pieces (N=7), burins

(N=2), scrapers (N=3), composite tools (N=6), and a single geometric. In general, the distribution of blade tool types suggests uses relating to fine-cutting and incising activities.

The remaining tools were made from flakes, and consisted of a projectile point pre-form, a pièce esquillée, completed projectile points (N=6), scrapers (N =2), utilized flakes (N=6), and marginally retouched flakes (N=8). In general, these types – especially the latter two – exhibited extensive utilization scars, suggesting long-term utilization or a use involving either hard materials or intensive force.

In sum, the obsidian industry from LHIIIB Midea differs significantly from other assemblages in the study. While blade production predominates, the overall sizes of these pieces are indicative of material conservation. In addition, utilization traces on the tools indicate that they were used so extensively as to make these implements unusable. Taken in concert, these observations suggest that obsidian at Midea was scarce relative to settlements such as Lerna and Tzoungiza.

Chert One hundred and twenty-nine pieces (34.9%) of chert were found in LH IIIB contexts

(table 6.5). Predominant blank types consisted of secondary flakes (N=43, 33.3%) and tertiary flakes (N=40, 31.0%). Prismatic blades were scarce (N=3, 2.3%) and prismatic cores were completely absent. Five cobbles and three flake cores were also identified. Taken together, the blank proportions indicate that the chert industry was focused upon producing flake blanks, some of which occurred on-site.

88 As seen in other assemblages, chert tools tended towards types produced from flake blanks, useful for robust activities. Indeed, all sickle elements and denticulates were produced from chert, and all of these were made from flake blanks. No tool types thought to be associated with incising or fine cutting activities (burins and perçoirs) were made from chert.

Twenty-five chert types were found within the LH IIIB assemblage (table 6.8, fig.

6.10). The predominant type was Chert Type 1 (N=42, 32.6%), identical to Ayia Eleni chert

(p>.96 for all variables). A second type (Chert Types 5 and 6) was also found in some quantity (N=23, 17.8%), and is likely to be from a semi-local source yet unidentified. Honey flint (Chert Type 2) was also present (N=2, 1.6%), and consisted of one prismatic blade and one tertiary flake. The lack of extensive production debris indicates that the honey flint and other types were likely brought to Midea in a form close to their final blank form.

LH IIIC

According to Walberg, an earthquake marked the end of the LH IIIB phase at Midea.

Rebuilding did not occur before the latter part of LH IIIC early (Walberg 1999). The LH

IIIC phase is noted for extensive modification to the megaron building and the addition of buildings to the west. The site yielded several intact strata (as defined above), shown in figure 6.9.

Obsidian Two hundred and seventy-two pieces of obsidian (64.2%) were found in LH IIIC strata (table 6.5). Compared to the LH IIIB material, no differences were observed in blank type proportions, with the exception of a slight rise in the proportion of secondary flakes, a

89 decrease in tertiary flakes, and the presence of two crested blades. These changes were not found to be a significant difference, however, and conclusions about the level of obsidian production during the LH IIIB are relevant to the LH IIIC phase.

The same material constraints continued in the LH IIIC period. Table 6.7 presents

LH IIIC obsidian blade width and thickness measurements, indicating nearly identical values to those of the LH IIIB data. Therefore, based upon these similarities, it may be concluded that the same economizing strategy for producing prismatic blades continued into the LH

IIIC period.

Table 6.6 presents the tool type distributions for LH IIIC Midea (N=97, 73% of LH

IIIC tools). Compared to the LH IIIB assemblage, the LHIIIC material indicates a rise in the proportions of notched pieces, perçoirs, and burins. The assemblage shows an increase in the number of incomplete projectile points, and obsidian sickle elements make their first appearance. In addition, the overall proportion of tools rises slightly (from 27.0% in LH IIIB to 30.9% in LH IIIC). The slight increase in the number of tool types and an increase in intensity of use suggest that constraints upon the use of obsidian continued.

Chert One hundred and fifty-two pieces of chert (35.8%) were retrieved from LH IIIC contexts. In addition to the expected preponderance of flake blanks and evidence for flake blank production, the assemblage included sizable numbers of crested blades (N=16, 10.5%).

This proportion is the highest for all assemblages included in the study, and is a significant outlier. The anomaly is even more noteworthy when compared with the relatively low frequency of prismatic blades (N=8, 5.3%) and prismatic cores (N=2, 1.3%) in the assemblages. The number of crested blades should, therefore, indicate that chert prismatic

90 blade production was frequent, but the lack of supporting debitage types and final blanks makes this conclusion tenuous.

Thirty-four chert tools (27% of LH IIIC tools) were recovered from LH IIIC contexts

(table 6.6, fig. 6.9). As in the obsidian assemblage, the chert tools saw changes in this period. In the LH IIIC period, the number of chert tool types expanded (from 8 types in LH

IIIB to 10 in LH IIIC), although the proportion of tools within the chert assemblage remained relatively stable (from 25.5% in LH IIIB to 22.4% in LH IIIC). Therefore, while the quantity of chert tools remained the same, the functional use of chert expanded, suggesting that a general change in the use of chipped stone had occurred.

Twenty-seven chert types were found in LH IIIC contexts (table 6.8, fig. 6.12), the most prominent being Type 1 (Ayia Eleni, N=42, 27.6%). As in the LH IIIB period, the second most numerous types were Chert Types 5 and 6, (N=20, 13.2%). Other types appeared in smaller quantites, and were found predominantly in final blank form, indicating that they came to Midea as pre-formed blanks.

Summary

Figure 6.14 indicates the trends in raw material use through time. While the proportion of obsidian to chert remains fairly constant between the LH IIIB and LH IIIC periods, a distinct increase in the use of obsidian and local cherts is observed between the early Mycenaean and LH IIB periods. Presence of exotic cherts falls during this time, but rises during the LH IIIC period. This pattern is different than Lerna, which shows a minor rise in Ayia Eleni Chert and a minor drop in obsidian and exotic chert use through time.

91 Compared to Lerna, the assemblage contains proportionally more chert. In addition, the chert tool assemblage consists of more denticulates/sickle elements than the assemblage at Lerna, which was comprised of a greater number of tool types. This difference may reflect an intential choice by the knappers at Midea, either based upon functional or economic constraints. The obsidian assemblage at Midea, owing to the smaller on average blades and greater number of tool types in the LH III periods, points to an economizing strategy, suggesting an economic rather than functional explanation behind the lower proportion of obsdian.

MYCENAE

Ninety-seven pieces of chipped stone were studied from the site of Mycenae. These include assemblages from the Citadel House excavations by Taylour (1981) and the excavations for the new museum directed by Onassoglou (1995) (figs. 6.14 and 6.15). Most pieces (N= 63) came from LH III contexts, while the other 34 pieces came from surface or highly mixed strata.

SAMPLING STRATEGY

All pieces that were retrieved from the above areas and stored at the Museum at

Mycenae were examined. The extremely small number of pieces found suggest that all conclusions presented in the following sections should be treated with caution.

ANALYSIS

Because the assemblage consisted of two general find contexts – one on the acropolis within the citadel walls, and one to the northwest of the acropolis, immediately outside the fortifications – the possibility existed that the subsets would present evidence for differences in use. This difference would be seen in significant differences in the proportions of material or tool types. Tables 6.9 and 6.10 present these distributions, indicating that tool types most commonly used for incising and specialized tasks (the two notched pieces and the solitary perçoir) were found within the citadel, while more general tool types were found in the northwest section. Unfortunately the small sample size makes the strengths of these comparisons doubtful. Therefore, for the purpose of this study, the two contexts will be treated as a single assemblage.

Obsidian

Forty-five pieces of obsidian were found (71% of the total). Obsidian blades constituted 27% of the total (table 6.11). Of particular note is the fact that secondary cortical flakes consisted of the largest percentage of obsidian blank types (N=17, 38%). In addition, two crested blades, two pieces of debris, and one trimming flake were found, although cores were absent form the assemblage. In general, the presence of debitage types indicate production, although the absence of cores and low numbers of pieces overall suggests that the scale of production was small. Comparison of blade widths and thicknesses with other

93 assemblages indicates commensurate skill and efficiency (table 6.7), although the small numbers of available blades at Mycenae adds a note of caution to this comparison.

Table 6.12 (Obsidian tool types) indicates a slight preference for blade blanks. Eight tools (57%) were made from blades, including utilized blades (N=3), simple retouched blades

(N=3), and notched pieces (N=2). Obsidian flake tools consisted of utilized pieces (N=4), a single perçoir, and one pièce esquillée. Overall, the obsidian tools appear devoted to simple cutting and incising activities.

Chert

As in other assemblages, chert blanks largely consisted of flake blanks (N=12, 75%), consisting of secondary flakes (N=11) and a single secondary cortical flake (table 6.11). A single crested blade was also retrieved, although the piece did not belong to the same chert types as the recovered prismatic blades. As in the case of the obsidian, no cores were found.

Other debitage types (debris and trimming flakes) were also lacking, suggesting that chert production occurred at places other than the contexts sampled – either at some other location at Mycenae or external to the settlement.

Nine chert tools (39% of the total assemblage) were identified. Given the small numbers, little can be said regarding distribution trends, although the only two sickle elements found in the assemblage were made from chert. This observation falls in line with the regional trend for selecting chert as the material of choice for these implements.

Five chert types were found within the LH III assemblage (table 6.13, fig. 6.16). The predominant type was Chert Type 1 (N=11, 52% of the studied assemblage), which

94 measurements were consistent with Ayia Eleni chert. Other chert types were found in lesser amounts.

Summary

Despite the low amount of material from Mycenae, some general conclusions can be reached. The proportion of obsidian to chert is roughly 7:3 – a proportion closer to that found at Midea than Lerna. Of the chert types observed, Ayia Eleni formed the largest type.

In addition, the assemblage from Mycenae appears to have similar tool types and production methods as seen elsewhere in the Argolid.

TZOUNGIZA

The settlement at Tzoungiza (fig. 6.1) lies within a valley upon a low hill directly to the north of the modern town of Herakleio (also known as Ancient Nemea), and about 1/2 km west of the Classical sanctuary of Nemean Zeus.

Investigations at the site of Tzoungiza were first begun in the 1920s by Carl Blegen.

Investigations initially focused upon a series of clefts in the bedrock, within which Neolithic pottery had fallen. Further excavations were supervised by J.P. Harland, who expanded

Blegen's work to uncover Early Helladic through Late Helladic habitation phases (Blegen

1927; Harland 1928; Thomas 1992). In the mid-1970s, S.G. Miller conducted rescue excavations in sections of the site – investigations which were later expanded by J.C. Wright in the 1980s as part of the Nemea Valley Archaeological Project (NVAP) (fig. 6.17). The

95 purpose of these investigations was to document fully the results of the early excavations, as well as to further explore societal changes that occurred between the Early Helladic and Late

Helladic periods (Wright et al. 1990; Cherry and Davis 2001).

SAMPLING STRATEGY

Excavated chipped stone artifacts were stored in shoe-sized boxes organized according to excavation units. All chipped stone from each locus was bagged together. It was assumed that pieces were stored according to excavation unit in a random fashion.

Therefore, in order to obtain a 10% random sample of the entire assemblage, every 10th locus in the box was sampled. This strategy, therefore, provided a stratified horizontal and random vertical (chronological) sample of the assemblage.

ANALYSIS

The following discussion first presents some general observations about the assemblage, organized by chronological phase. This is followed by some general observations about the chronological trends observed in the data, with specific attention given to the use of chert at the site.

Early Helladic

Table 6.14 presents the Early Helladic material from Tzoungiza, divided by blank and material. Of the total amount, the Early Helladic accounts for 34.9% of the total sample

96 retrieved from Tzoungiza, and the ratio of obsidian to chert is roughly 8:2. The following discussions describe the obsidian and chert datasets and explore the evidence for production practices and signs for craft specialization.

Obsidian The obsidian blank distribution indicates a distinct preference for prismatic blades

(63.6%) and tools made from them requiring little to no retouch (53.8%; table 6.15). Only 66 obsidian pieces were retrieved that were datable to the EH period. Therefore, the conclusions reached below must be tempered by the low numbers of artifacts represented in the sample.

Spatially, the preponderance of obsidian (N = 64, 97%) was found in Excavation Unit

(EU) 5 (table 6.16), associated with the House of the Querns and other EH structures (Pullen

1990). The proportionally large number of obsidian finds from this single location suggests that chipped stone production at Tzoungiza was, to some extent, cenrally organnized. The overall amount recovered, however, indicates that the scale of production was quite small.

The widths and thicknesses of artifacts in the Tzoungiza assemblage were compared against those from other sites, and the assemblage was checked for the presence of production debris in order to estimate relative levels of skill and efficiency. An inspection of the widths and thicknesses (table 6.7) show values for EH Tzoungiza commensurate with other Aegean settlements. This result suggests that the same level of skill was used to manufacture these blades as elsewhere. In terms of efficiency, the average blade width and thickness from Tzoungiza is smaller than other EH examples. In addition, core preparation flakes are present. These observations suggest that the inhabitants of Tzoungiza were intent upon making efficient use of their obsidian resources to produce standardized obsidian

97 blades, although the lack of cores and crested blades makes a confidant estimation of skill problematic.

Chert Seventeen pieces of chert were recovered from Early Helladic contexts. Taking the chert assemblage as a whole, the primary blanks encountered included secondary flakes

(N=6, 35.3%) and prismatic blades (N=4, 23.5%). 7.6% of the obsidian tools were made from secondary flakes, compared with 35.3% for chert, indicating that the chert tool industry was focused upon flake production. This difference in chert usage is also seen in the tool type distribution (table 6.15); chert use focuses upon scrapers, denticulates and sickle elements.

Seven chert types were found within the EH assemblage (table 6.17, fig. 6.18). The predominant types included Chert Type 1 (N=4, 24%), which displayed measurements consistent with Ayia Eleni chert. Chert Type 2 (N=4, 24%) consisted of a yellowish-gray chert, containing 15 – 30% inclusions of tiny light-gray spheres (most likely lithified radiolaria), medium to medium-fine grain size, and medium to medium-fine luster. Chert

Type 5 (n=4, 24%) consisted of a lighter, more robust yellowish-brown chert with consistently fine grain size and vitreous luster. Inclusion density ranged between 7% and

13%, and consisted of tiny circular to anhedral light gray material (most likely lithified radiolaria). The yellowish-brown color and high scores in luster, grain size, and translucency suggests that it closely resembles the chert type commonly known as "honey flint."

98 Middle Helladic

The excavators determined that a break occurred in the habitation of the site following the EH III phase (Wright 1990). Remains dating to the later phase of the Middle

Helladic period, although sparse, were found in some areas. Forty-seven pieces (19.7% of total) were found within MH strata, nearly half (N=23, 47.9%) from EU 2. This context consisted of a possible wine production area and other surfaces disturbed by later (LH IIIB) infilling (Wright et al. 1990).

Obsidian Roughly half of the obsidian material came from EU 2, while the remaining pieces were split between EUs 6, 7, 8, and 10 (table 6.18). In total, 30 pieces of obsidian were studied from MH strata. The two largest proportions of blank types consisted of prismatic blades (N=9, 30%) and tertiary flakes (N=10, 33.3%). While the numbers are small, the proportions, in comparison to the EH dataset, show a trend away from prismatic blade production – from 63.6% in the EH period to 30% in the MH period. This shift is partially paralleled in the tool types found – while the number of utilized blades and flakes stays the same proportionally, the types commonly associated with prismatic blades (retouched blades and truncated pieces) are absent from the MH assemblage.

An inspection of the widths and thicknesses (table 6.7) of obsidian blades shows average values for MH Tzoungiza commensurate with those at other Aegean settlements. A significantly lower standard deviation and coefficient of variation indicate a lowered variability within the sample – a result most likely due to the small sample size.

99 Chert Seventeen pieces of chert were recovered from Middle Helladic contexts. The principal blank types encountered consisted of secondary flakes (N=9, 52.9%). When compared to the obsidian assemblage, a focus on using chert for flake tools becomes apparent. 7.6% of the obsidian dataset consists of secondary flakes, compared with 35.3% for chert. This difference in chert usage is also seen in the tool type distribution, where chert use focuses upon scrapers, denticulates and sickle elements.

Three chert types were found within the MH sample (table 6.17, fig. 6.19). Fifteen of the 17 pieces (88% of the MH cherts studied) consisted of Chert Type 1, which displayed measurements consistent with Ayia Eleni chert. The other two types found (Chert Types 6 and 7) consisted of single examples. Chert types 2 and 5 – observed in the EH period – are completely absent in the MH assemblage. The distinct preference for Ayia Eleni chert suggests that access to other sources was constrained in this period.

Late Helladic

One hundred and eight pieces were studied from Late Helladic contexts, one-third of which were found in EU2 (table 6.19). EU 7, 8, and 10 also contributed sizable percentages

(13.8% - 22.9%). As in the MH period, the obsidian to chert ratio remained about 2:1. As will be seen in the following analyses, while some general trends continued from the MH, slight differences in tool and blank types are found, indicating a slight change in stone tool usage.

Obsidian The obsidian blank distribution indicates a distinct preference for prismatic blades

(23.8%) and tools made from them that require little or no retouch (40%, table 6.15).

100 Spatially, the preponderance of obsidian (N = 23, 33.8%) was found in EU 2, associated with a building dating to LH IIB that contained a cache of ceramics on the floor.

(Wright 1990). Other EUs that yielded sizable amounts included 7, 8 , and 10, associated with poorly preserved structures tentatively dated to LH IIA (EU 7 and 8) and a partially preserved structure dated to LH IIIA (EU 10) (Wright 1990).

The assemblage was compared to other assemblages with regards to widths and thicknesses, and was checked for the presence of production debris. An inspection the coefficients of variation for widths and thicknesses (table 6.7) show values for LH Tzoungiza commensurate with those at other Aegean settlements. This suggests that the same level of skill was used to manufacture these blades as elsewhere in the Aegean. In terms of efficiency, the average blade width and thickness from Tzoungiza is smaller than other LH examples (table 6.7). In addition, core preparation flakes are present and there is a single crested blade. These observations suggest that the inhabitants of Tzoungiza were intent upon making efficient use of their obsidian resources to produce standardized obsidian blades, while the lack of cores and crested blades makes a confidant estimation of skill hazardous.

Chert Forty pieces of chert were recovered from Late Helladic contexts. Taking the chert assemblage as a whole, the principal blank types encountered included secondary flakes

(N=13, 32.5%) and tertiary flakes (N=12, 30.0%). When compared to the obsidian assemblage, the distinctiveness of the chert flake industry becomes apparent. 11.8% of the obsidian dataset consists of secondary flakes, compared with 32.5% for chert. This difference in chert usage is also seen in the tool type distribution, where chert use appears to focus upon denticulates and sickle elements.

101 Seven chert types were found in LH contexts at Tzoungiza (table 6.17, fig. 6.20).

Twenty-five of the pieces (63% of the LH cherts studied) consisted of Chert Type 1, which displayed measurements consistent with Ayia Eleni chert. All other chert types were found in small amounts, except for Chert Type 2 which was not present.

Summary

At Tzoungiza, Early Helladic and Late Helladic levels produced the greatest quantity of lithic artifacts. This pattern is obviously due to the small size of the settlement at

Tzoungiza during the Middle Helladic period, rather than to any difference in manufacturing or utilization practices. Note also the difference in proportions of obsidian to chert in the three periods (table 6.14). In the Early Helladic period, obsidian accounts for 79.5%. In the

Middle Helladic period, the proportion drops to 63.8%, but stays relatively stable in the Late

Helladic period (62.9%). Overall, these numbers are low when compared to Lerna, and more in line with the figures reported from Midea. Figure 6.21 presents the trends in raw material usage at Tzoungiza. Being mindful of the fact that the amount of MH material is relatively small and that the distributions for this period may therefore be less reliable, the graph indicates that obsidian consistently declined through time.

In addition to the change in raw material proportions, there also appears to have been a shift in the use of obsidian through time. In the Early Helladic Period, the greatest proportion of obsidian was found as blades (64%). Tertiary flakes followed as a distant second (17%). In the Middle and Late Helladic Periods, prismatic blades account for only

30% – 34% of the overall obsidian population, the categories of tertiary flakes, secondary flakes, secondary cortical flakes, and primary flakes having risen considerably. This

102 indicates a decrease in the production of obsidian prismatic blades at Tzoungiza, and a rise in the production and use of basic flake blank types.

REGIONAL ANALYSIS

All studied assemblages contained obsidian industries that focused upon the production and use of prismatic blades. Chert production, however, focused upon the production of flake blanks. At most settlements, evidence was found for on-site production of both obsidian and chert implements. However, the ratio of chert to obsidian differed amongst settlements, suggesting that chert played a more significant role in lithic toolkits at some sites than at others. The following sections discuss these patterns. First, the proportions of chert to obsidian produced from this study will be compared to expectations derived from a model depicting assumed chert and obsidian proportions. The second section presents a regional comparison of the use of local and non-local cherts.

A MODEL COMPARING CHERT AND OBSIDIAN PROPORTIONS IN THE ARGOLID

In 1985, Runnels published a preliminary report on the Early Helladic and Middle

Helladic material from Lerna. Prior to the final publication by Hartenberger and Runnels

(2001) and the publication by Newhard of the chipped stone material from Midea

(forthcoming), this article was the most detailed account of a single Bronze Age assemblage from the Argive Plain. Percentages of chert from Lerna indicated limited use throughout all

103 periods, with a slight increase of use over time. Using this data, analysts (either explicitly or implicitly) suggested that chipped stone usage occurred throughout the Bronze Age in the region. To date, data from other assemblages have confirmed this model. For example, work in the southern Argolid demonstrated the same trends for chipped stone usage as discovered at Lerna (Kardulias and Runnels 1995). Work at the site of Ayios Stephanos likewise showed the same proportions in material and typological characteristics (Kardulias

1992).

While the results of this study corroborate the general techno-typological results of other studies, the general premise that chert was in limited use in all periods and settlements is questioned. Using the proportions from EH and MH Lerna and data from Ayios

Stephanos, Manika, and Lithares, I created a model to describe the change in chert usage.

Since these assemblages all predate the Late Bronze Age, this later period was hypothetically projected, based upon the proportional increases seen between the previous two periods. The model is illustrated in table 6.20 and figure 6.22. According to the model, EH assemblages should consist of between 5% and 7% chert, MH assemblages between 12% and 14%, and

LH assemblages between 16% and 18%. In the following section, data from the present study are compared with the predictions of this model to determine if the assumptions regarding the frequency of chert use are valid.

REGIONAL VARIATION IN CHERT DATASETS

Table 6.21 presents the percentages of chert found at each sampled site, sorted according to period. The site of Lerna appears to conform to the model, while the sites of

104 Tzoungiza, Midea, and Mycenae are seen as outliers. The general model does not hold true.

Tzoungiza, Midea, and Mycenae used chert for their needs in significantly greater quantities than Lerna and the other sites of Lithares, Manika, and Ayios Stephanos. This relationship is shown graphically in figure 6.23. In this graph, the percentage of chert in each assemblage is divided by the percentage for obsidian. Thus, the closer an assemblage approaches "1," the greater the amount of chert present in the assemblage. The chart shows a distinct difference in the proportions of chert to obsidian between Lerna and the other sites in the study.

In addition to the noticable differences in proportions between obsidian and chert, there is a noticable difference between the percentage of Ayia Eleni chert and cherts with unknown provenance. Table 6.22 presents the percentage of Ayia Eleni chert found in each period, divided by site. For all periods, the proportion of Ayia Eleni chert at Tzoungiza,

Midea, and Mycenae is higher than that found at Lerna. Combining these two observations

(fig. 6.24), the data indicates that Midea, Tzoungiza, and Mycenae were both using and producing a greater amount of chert tools made from Ayia Eleni chert than Lerna.

Two further features about chert distribution should be noted. First, in all of the assemblages studied – regardless of period – the primary resource used for chipped stone tools was obsidian. Second, the proportion of blank types found at Tzoungiza, Mycenae, and

Midea do not siginificantly vary from each other (p <.0001), indicating that there was in all likliehood no regional organization of production.

105 CONCLUSIONS

Analysis of lithic assemblages from the Argolid indicates that all settlements shared the same general technological skills in manufacturing stone tools. In all cases, the primary material of choice was obsidian, and this material was used primarily to produce prismatic blades, useful for fine cutting and incising activities. The secondary material of choice – chert – was reduced to form flakes that were then used for activities that were more robust.

The main differences within the sampled assemblages involved the proportion of chert and the amount of chert that was found nearby. In this regard, the sites of Tzoungiza,

Midea, and Mycenae contained in general a larger proportion of chert – specifically Ayia

Eleni chert. In addition, the distribution of blank types at these sites pointed to on-site production at each location.

The conclusions reached by the preceding analysis relates to observed trends in the data only – they do not explain these patterns. In the following chapter, these patterns are examined in greater detail and are set within a discussion that relates the observed trends in the data to possible cultural explanations for them.

106

CHAPTER VII: DISCUSSION

The previous chapter noted both spatial and temporal trends in the use of chert in the

Argolid during the Bronze Age. In this chapter, these trends will be put into context, bearing in mind the overall socio-economic structures presented in Chapters I and II.

LITHIC STRATEGIES OF THE BRONZE AGE ARGOLID

Having introduced a general framework for discussing chipped stone industries, attention is now turned to the specific Argive assemblages presented in Chapter VI.

Discussion will progress through each strategy outlined in Chapter I – raw material procurement, tool production, and tool curation.

RAW MATERIALS

Two raw materials – obsidian and chert – were the main types of stone used in producing chipped stone tools. In discussing the parameter of supply, both of these stone types had different constraints, relating to ease of access and ease of extraction. As the

107 following sections indicate, these constraints were dealt with in different ways by the settlements under study.

Obsidian Supply

The primary stone of choice in the Aegean was obsidian, which originated from the island of Melos. Use of this material in the Argolid dates back to the Paleolithic period

(Perlès 1990a), and by the Bronze Age had become a well-established feature of the toolkit.

Acquisition and distribution patterns have been thoroughly discussed in the literature

(Runnels 1985; Torrence 1986; Perlès 1990a, 1990b, 1992a, 1992b), and these debates were summarized by Kardulias (1999). As discussed in Chapter II, obsidian appears to have been accessed directly at the source, and taken to seaside settlements. From there, the material was further distributed.

In the Argive plain, this distribution appears to have been a basic down-the-line system, where both macrocores and blanks moved from those areas near the sea to inland areas. As has been noted (Newhard 1998), no sign of a centralized production site has yet been recorded in the Argive Plain as in the southern Argolid or Messenia, and it is likely that many settlements in this region reduced obsidian from macrocore to finished tool.

However, slight differences in the proportions of obsidian to chert have been observed, as Chapter VI illustrated. As one travels further from the sea, the proportion of obsidian grows smaller within the assemblage, indicating that the supply of obsidian contracts relative to distance from the coast. Another difference can be seen in the size of obsidian prismatic blades. Table 6.7 indicated a significant difference in the width and thicknesses of prismatic blades found at Midea, compared to other assemblages. Assuming

108 that this tool form served the same functional purpose at Midea as elsewhere, the smaller size is an indication of some constraints upon the raw material supply. Since raw material access was in some way restricted, producers of obsidian blades at Midea seem to have made the most efficient use of the material at hand.

Chert Supply

As presented in Chapter V, the Argolid had a source of raw material within close reach – the chert beds at the modern village of Ayia Eleni. This resource is relatively easy to extract: numerous easily worked cobbles are found on the surface today and it is probable that similar conditions existed in antiquity. Therefore, the efforts of extraction at the source would have been quite low. The quality of the raw material is also high: replication activities have yielded suitable flake blanks with minimal effort, and the natural habit of the material in many cases is to split along parallel fracture lines, forming thin tabular sheets suitable for retouching into forms such as hollow-based points or denticulates. Therefore, in terms of quality, abundance, extraction, and matching functional needs to the proper material, the Ayia Eleni source was highly favorable.

As in the case of obsidian, the primary factors in determining how these sources were used focus upon questions of access to the resource – whether the material was obtained directly by traveling to the source, or indirectly by obtaining the material through a

"middleman." In both of these cases, socio-economic factors could affect chert supply– either through restricted access of the resource itself, or through the activities of the party originally accessing the material.

109 If the source itself was under the control of a socio-political entity, remnants of the activities used to restrict access could be visible. These would include elements such as specialized structures, boundary markers, evidence for a preferred choice of outcrops, and signs of organized extraction (such as discrete areas for extraction and reduction activities)

(Torrence 1986). In documenting the locations of the Ayia Eleni chert beds, no sign of boundary markers or structures, preference of one outcrop over another equally viable area, or discrete areas for extraction or reduction activities was found. It is plausible that the ancient quarried outcrops have been destroyed through mining, erosional forces, or subsequent human activities, effectively obscuring such patterns. Given the nature of the material to degrade and fracture, it is possible that this occurred. Current thinking regarding this region in antiquity suggest that the area was sparsely populated. Hope Simpson and

Dickinson (1979) report only one site in the region near the village of Tracheia of unknown date and size. Owing to the current evidence for open access at the source and the overall dearth of evidence for local habitation in general, I conclude that access to the sources was not controlled or monitored, and that direct access was the most likely means of acquisition.

Despite the fact that access to the resource was open, the question remains as to whether individuals from the Argolid personally made the journey. In presenting the site assemblages in Chapter VI, a distinct difference was noted in the amount of Ayia Eleni chert found. Midea, Tzoungiza, and Mycenae contained a larger proportion than that of Lerna, suggesting that acquisition, production, or curation needs differed. From an acquisition standpoint, these differences could have occurred either from the result of socio-economic constraints or because of the varying degrees of effort required to obtain the material.

110 If Ayia Eleni chert was acquired directly, an explanation for the distribution pattern can be postulated based upon the increased effort required by Lerna to obtain the raw material. Table 7.1 presents three distances to the source from the sampled settlements. The first is a direct line measurement, while the second and third represent potential routes accounting for natural terrain. Route 1 (fig. 7.1) traverses the Argive Plain, passes the site of

Tiryns, and turns east through the valley between Mt. Arachneo and the high hills to the south. At the town of Ligourio, the route turns south passing the Asklipio sanctuary, and cuts through the highlands via natural passes to the valley headed by Tracheia. Route 2 (fig. 7.1) likewise begins in the Argive Plain, but turns east through a pass near the site of Midea. The route then moves through passes in the foothills of Mt. Arachneo, joining Route 1 near the prehistoric site of Kazarma. While the differences in the routes for Lerna are negligible

(50.81km for Route 1, versus 54.76km for Route 2), those settlements lying further north would be much closer to the source using Route 2 (for Midea: Route 1 is 43.08km; Route 2 is 36.86km). The preference for Route 2 is even more attractive considering the wetland that was found in the western section of the Argive Plain north of Lerna (Zangger 1993). It seems likely that, given the distance and partial isolation caused by the wetlands directly to the north of the settlement, it would be more difficult for Lerna to obtain the raw material directly via a land-based route, thus accounting for the differences in quantity.

However, the distance to the resource from all of the sampled sites range between 30 and 60 kilometers (table 7.1). While this distance is outside the parameters of local access, it would be possible to make direct trips to the resource. These trips would likely have taken several days. Given the overall low proportion of Ayia Eleni chert found in the assemblages, it is doubtful that such trips would have been made for the exclusive purpose of acquiring the

111 chert. A model of embedded procurement – where chert resources would be acquired within a larger set of activities – best explains the means by which the raw material was accessed.

TOOL PRODUCTION

In producing stone tools from obsidian, several strategies are found in the Argolid.

These strategies can be discussed in terms of obsidian supply, functional needs, and chosen tool forms.

Obsidian Supply

The supply of obsidian is tied to strategies of raw material acquisition. As noted above, those settlements closest to the source likely had greater access to the material. In terms of obsidian supply, the coastal town of Lerna is the closest to the Melian quarries of the sites examined in this thesis. The proportion of tools made from obsidian prismatic blades at

Lerna compared to Midea and Tzoungiza reflects this difference in supply. Greater access to obsidian created the opportunity for Lerna to produce a greater proportion of tools from obsidian.

Chert Supply

As discussed above, the supply of chert varied across the landscape. Owing to their location, the settlements of Midea, Tzoungiza, and Mycenae had greater access to this material than Lerna, which owing to its location on the coast, had easier access to obsidian.

Accordingly, a greater proportion of chert debitage is observed in the Midea and Tzoungiza

112 assemblages, indicating that greater effort was expended upon chert tool production at those sites.

Functional Needs

Understanding functional differences between settlements requires data acquired via high-powered microwear analysis. Since this was not a component of my study, a gross comparison via tool types and their presumed use is given. The assumptions within this approach are problematic, in that tool form does not necessarily equate to tool function

(Kardulias and Runnels 1995). The following assessment of functional needs must therefore be viewed with caution.

The primary economic focus of the sites studied was agricultural in nature. In addition, Mycenae contains signs of specialized production (cf. Tournavitou 1995) and elite- based activities (such as the tholoi, grave circles, monumental architecture, and long-distance elite exchange items). Therefore, functional requirements will likely differ between

Mycenae and the other three settlements, and may be seen in a preference for agricultural implements at Lerna, Midea, and Tzoungiza and implements for incising and other fine- cutting activities at Mycenae.

The tool types most useful for incising and fine-cutting would be burins, prismatic blades (complete or truncated), and perçoirs/becs. Flakes, denticulates, and sickle elements are more suited for robust activities, and therefore are more indicative of an agriculturally- based economy. Unfortunately, the paucity of material from Mycenae make a comparison between sites based on functional needs problematic.

113 Tool Forms

As has been noted in Chapter VI, the general reduction sequence and tool types were uniform throughout the assemblages studied. No significant differences seemed to occur in the various assemblages. Denticulates and sickle elements, however, differed according to their blank type. At Lerna, 71.4% of chert denticulates or sickle elements were made from prismatic blades – many of which were from non-local sources. This is a significant difference when compared with the material from Midea or Tzoungiza, which used flakes or other blank types from Ayia Eleni chert (table 8.2). The differences in tool forms largely reflect the differing supply of the raw material, but also the mechanical tendencies of Ayia

Eleni chert to fracture along joint planes, creating thick flakes or tabular-shaped pieces.

These tabular pieces – already naturally backed – can become denticulates with a minimal amount of time invested in retouch. The "denticulated tranchets" reported by Van Horn

(1977) are examples of how the mechanical limitations of a raw material are used to minimize production costs.

The differences in this tool form are an example of the effects that raw material acquisition played in the choices made in producing the lithic toolkit. The inhabitants at

Lerna, using their extra-local connections, were able to acquire a greater percentage of exotic cherts in final blank form – in this case in the form of prismatic blades. Given this supply, the denticulated/sickle element form requiring the least amount of investment in terms of retouch would be based upon prismatic blades. In the northern and eastern sections of the region, where the supply of imported chert blades appears to have been limited, the chain of operations requiring the fewest steps would be that of modifying chert flake blanks into the required tool type.

114

Cultural Traditions

As has been previously addressed, by the Bronze Age the custom of using prismatic blades as blanks for stone tools had become firmly established. The investment of time required to produce a prismatic core was offset by the production of a uniform blank with a large cutting surface, useful for a variety of cutting purposes. In cases where the needs required a robust material, chert implements were used. As noted in the previous section, the choice of blank was largely dependent upon raw material supply. Despite this fact, evidence exists for the production of prismatic blades from local materials, despite the mechanical limitations inherent in the raw material (table 7.3). While the quantities are small, their presence reflects the conscious choice to use a sequence of operations that required a greater investment of time and energy than would have flake core reduction.

Summary of Tool Production Strategies

In each of the sections above (raw material supply, functional needs, tool form, and cultural traditions), the varying supply in raw material played an important role. While functional needs and cultural traditions were basically the same across the region, the tendency for increased utilization of Ayia Eleni chert in the north and east affected the overall chains of operations used to produce the final tool form. In the final strategy – curation – the supply of raw material available to the various settlements is a major contributing factor to the means by which lithic toolkits were mangaged.

115 TOOL CURATION

Curation activities – measured in the incidences of re-use, the overall size of tools, and the intensity of utilization – can vary between sites and raw material types. In measuring the incidences of re-use and intensity of utilization, occurrences of utilization overlain by retouch are often noted, in addition to examples of tool transformation – the act of using a previous tool or debitage type as a blank for a second functional use.

Table 7.4 presents the occurrence of overlain retouch and tool transformations for obsidian tools, divided by site. While numerical data was not readily available from Lerna, work by Runnels (1985) and Hartenberger and Runnels (2001) indicate that the extent of curation activities was relatively minimal, suggesting that a constant supply obsidian was available. At Midea and Tzoungiza, however, evidence exists for intensive utilization and tool type transformation, features that indicate economizing behavior. Comparatively speaking, obsidian use at sites to the north and east appear to be subject to increased curation activities.

Table 7.5 presents the frequencies by site of observed curatorial activities for chert tools. As in the case of obsidian, incidents of curation were more prevalent in the northeastern settlements. The data thus indicates an overall strategy of curation in the northeast section, as compared to that of Lerna, which evidently had fewer constraints upon its supply of obsidian and chert.

REGIONAL SUMMARY OF LITHIC STRATEGIES

From the preceding analysis, several trends in the data are observed. Raw material acquisition played an important role in determining the overall lithic strategies employed by

116 the various settlements. In the northeast, the greater availability of Ayia Eleni chert, combined with a lesser presence of obsidian, affected strategies relating to tool production.

In addition to raw material supply, curation practices also differed. This is seen in the larger proportion of curatorial activities in the northeast for both chert and obsidian, as compared with the south. The combination of these patterns – greater use of local resources and curatorial activities – suggests that the northeastern section of the Argive Plain was more limited in access to obsidian and exotic chert blanks than the south. Of the three sites where solid stratigraphic contexts were sampled, functional needs and production traditions were relatively the same, suggesting an economic explanation for assemblage differentiation. The following section explores the possible economic processes involved in acquiring the materials. Since much work has already occurred regarding obsidian acquisition (Torrence

1986; Perlès 1990a, 1990b), the discussion focuses upon chert acquisition practices, with specific focus upon the semi-local Ayia Eleni chert.

ECONOMIC PROCESSES OF CHERT ACQUISITION

As presented in Chapter II, Polanyi introduced into economic theory several patterns to help explain economic exchange (fig. 2.1). Reciprocity can be broadly defined as a symmetrical relationship between at least two individuals or social groups, where the structure of the exchange is mutually defined. Redistribution generally involves a hierarchical system, where goods are either locationally or appropriatively sent to a central authority, which then reassigns the goods. Of the patterns presented, redistribution and

117 reciprocity are the two that are most often proposed for pre-monetary societies (Polanyi

1957). Market exchange consists of temporary one-to-one relationships between groups or individuals for the express purpose of exchange, which is guided by a set of equivalencies.

In market exchange, relationships between the two parties have little or no social context, and the activity is considered a "disembedded" means of exchange (Polanyi 1957).

While a market economy can exist without the use of money, the types of goods exchanged within these early market systems are often low bulk/high value non-utilitarian goods

(Polanyi 1957). Since chert would not fall into this category and there is an absence of an observable medium of exchange, the option of using market exchange as a model for explaining chert acquisition is not suggested.

Key to assigning the redistributional mode of exchange to the movements of resources is evidence of centralization and/or a bureaucratic system structured to administer the disbursement of resources (Polyani 1957). If redistribution of Ayia Eleni chert was occurring, certain lithic activities would be concentrated in a single location, or a system of record keeping would be present. Evidence of redistribution would be observable in the storage of raw materials, cores, blanks, or tools in discrete locations; in clusters of debris indicating some organized form of production; or in the administrative records of the responsible officials. No such patterns for the settlements have been found (Newhard 1998;

Kardulias 1999; Hartenberger and Runnels 2001), indicating that the lithic industry of the

Argive Plain was not guided by a redistributive system.

The utilitarian nature of chert would disqualify it as a ready candidate for participation within an early market-based exchange system (Polanyi 1957), and the absence of its mention in the Linear B texts suggests that it was not part of the palatial redistributive

118 system. The other mode of exchange – reciprocity – appears more reasonable. In addition, the distance to the source and overall low quantity of Ayia Eleni chert extracted suggests acquistion by means of embedded procurement. If this was indeed the method of procurement, then the chert was not the main focus for forays into the Epidauria. The following section presents possible explanations for the means by which chert was distributed to the Argive settlements.

METHODS OF CHERT ACQUISITION

If Argive chert was obtained by the settlements, what were the exact mechanisms by which the raw material traveled from the source? In discussing raw material acquisition above, it was proposed that chert was acquired indirectly by the settlements via an embedded procurement model.

Several different types of activities can be postulated that would require movement from the Argive Plain to (or through) the area containing the Ayia Eleni beds. Pastoral transhumance is one possibility. The wide-ranging movements of shepherds is known from the Venetian period (Topping 1977). During this time, shepherds originating from the

Tripolis basin were known to make seasonal trips to the area around Ligourio, and it is possible that similar long-range patterns existed prior to this time. Such long-distance movements by herders have been suggested for earlier periods, based upon ethnographic research in Macedonia and the southern Argolid (Chang and Tourtellorte 1993; Chang 1994).

119 Others (Lewthwaite 1981; Halstead 1987; Cherry 1988) argue that pastoralism in prehistory was a more localized event, consisting of small flocks that were raised in close proximity to settlements. Their conclusions are based upon the notion that large-scale deforestation (producing grassland and scrub environments), and the agricultural method of bare fallowing (as opposed to crop rotation) were used to sustain a level of animal husbandry within a subsistence farming strategy. The fields that lay fallow would serve as pasture for the flocks, who would at the same time replenish the soil by depositing manure (Cherry

1988). In addition, modern ethnographic examples from Thessaly (Halstead 1987) indicate that the present system of long-distance pastoralism is embedded within a market-based economy, in which wool or butchered animals are sold or exchanged for grazing rights or commodities. In a subsistence economy, large-scale and intensive shepherding would be an unlikely strategy, owing to the amount of labor involved and the the likely disruption of the relationship between subsistence farming and pastoralism.

Chang and Tourtellorte (1993) emphasize the need to contextualize pastoralism within the economic structure of the society. While it is likely that the majority of people in the Bronze Age practiced a subsistence economy, the palatial centers were clearly involved in a redistributive economic system, the focus of which was the production of luxury goods.

One of these goods appears to have been textiles (Ventris and Chadwick 1973), which would have required the large-scale production of wool (and, by inference, flocks). Linear B evidence from Pylos and Knossos indicate the presence of a palatially-controlled pastoral element to the economy (Killen 1984), and the mention of cloth in Linear B texts from

Mycenae suggests that it was also engaged in some form of cloth production (Ventris and

120 Chadwick 1973). The need to manage the supply of wool would cause the appearance of large flocks, triggering the strategy of long-distance pastoral transhumance.

Pastoral transhumants could easily have obtained chert at the Ayia Eleni beds for use in exchange with settlements along their route. This hypothesis is strengthened if we consider that pastoralists would likely have been dissuaded from accessing the plain during certain parts of the year, owing to its probable use for grain production, keeping instead to the surrounding foothills which are better suited to grazing than agricultural production.

While the above explanation could be applied to the Late Bronze Age, it is less suitable for the Early and Middle Bronze Ages – periods when large-scale pastoralism was highly unlikely. Given the extent of trade occurring between the Argive Plain and the settlements in or on the Saronic Gulf (such as Ayios Kostantinos on Methana or Kolonna on

Aegina) during the Early and Middle Bronze Age (Runnels 1981; Lindblom 2001; Rutter

2001), it is possible that Ayia Eleni chert was exchanged between these two regions. The chert beds at Ayia Eleni are located roughly midway between the Argive Plain and the

Saronic Gulf, but may have been more easily accessed by individuals from Aegina or

Methana. If a land-based route was used for trade purposes, the route taken would have passed near or through the source region. While these activities and movements are hypothetical, the presence of Saronic Gulf pottery and millstones in the Argolid is a well- attested fact (Runnels 1981; Lindblom 2001; Rutter 2001), indicating that some exchange process was occurring between the two regions. In addition to the ceramics and ground stone tools, chert may now be added to the list of potential items for exchange between these two regions.

121 AYIA ELENI CHERT: A WORLD-SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE

As discussed in Chapter I and II, Kardulias (1999) described an economic system where chert played no part in interregional trade. This conclusion was based upon the assumption that local chert resources played a minor role in the regional economic system, and were likely obtained via an embedded procurement model. This minor role was due to the inferior quality of the local cherts, and the increasing international trade during the

Bronze Age, which allowed for greater access to the obsidian resources at Melos.

This model was brought under scrutiny in this thesis. The results of this study suggest that cherts were acquired within the context of other activities. In all analyzed assemblages, the amount of chert never rose above 37%, suggesting that chert in the Bronze

Age was seen as a resource secondary to obsidian. A geological survey indentified a chert resource that contained high quality stone and was near enough to the Argive Plain to be considered semi-local. The increased use of this chert in the northeastern section of the

Argolid points to the presence of interaction between these settlements and areas to the east and south – the areas considered to be part of the periphery or semi-periphery in a world- systems model. Furthermore, the notion that the use of obsidian increased owing to the rise in international trade is contradicted by published reports showing a general trend away from obsidian usage with time (Runnels 1985; Hartenberger and Runnels 2001). The results of this study also indicate that theere was an increasingly greater reliance upon local resources through time. Thus, while the overall ratio of cherts and obsidian suggest that chert played a minor role in the Bronze Age lithic industries, the difference between the ratio found at Lerna

122 and sites to the north and east suggests that "acquisition costs" varied from settlement to settlement.

According to the general tenets of World-Systems Theory, peripheral regions are those places that provide raw materials for the more socially, politically, or economically complex core (Wallerstein 1974). The region surrounding the Ayia Eleni beds appear to be such a place, owing to its lack of any sizable prehistoric settlement (Hope Simpson and

Dickinson 1979). In addition to the chert, the region would have offered ideal pasturage – a resource essential for Mycenaean centers focused on specialized textile production and feasting (Halstead 1992). The Linear B texts found at Mycenae suggest that textile production activities were occurring within the area controlled by this center, and it is clear that there was a need for wool. It may be within the movements of this raw material that the distribution of chert occurs. While both raw material types are found within the periphery and are distributed to the core region, the institutions within which these items circulate differ. The flocks – useful for wool and raw meat – are a concern for the elites and are exchanged within a redistributive system. The cherts, carried by transhumants, likewise move to the center, but because they are unimportant in promoting elite status, the mechanism for exchange falls outside the scope of the elite socio-economic structures, and the exchange mechanism appears to be reciprocal in nature. Although the cherts would not have been exchanged within the system of redistribution, the movement of a raw material from the periphery to the center would still place the exchange activity within the confines of a core/periphery relationship. Both hypothesized exchanges illustrate the idea that multiple modes of economic integration can occur simultaneously within a given society. The

123 differences between these modes are based upon the social and political contexts within which the movements of these items occur.

In 1999, Kardulias responded to Sherratt's question of "What would a Bronze Age world-system look like" (1993) by stating that the "system was multi-tiered, with some central elements and activities, while others were decentralized" (Kardulias 1999, 71). The results of this study agree with this conclusion, adding detail to the "multi-tiered" component of the system. In Kardulias', model, movements of goods occurred within the core, as well as betweeen the core and semiperiphery and periphery. Long-distance movements of non-local utilitarian commodities (such as chipped stone tools or lithic raw material) were also occurring within the larger provisioning goals. Thus, according to Kardulias, as long- distance exchange routes expanded to facilitate trade in elite items, access to obsidian became easier. While this study does not support an increase in obsidian use through time, it does support the idea that non-elite items may have been acquired within the context of elite- based economic activities: viz., that chert may have been acquired in association with intensive long-distance pastoralism.

FURTHER RESEARCH

This study has added detail to our understanding of lithic procurement and lithic production practices. Regional in scope, the study sampled several assemblages from the

Argive Plain, and compared them to the results of a corresponding geological survey to determine how Argive chert resources were being used. Patterns within the archaeological

124 sample suggested that the northeastern section of the region was accessing chert from a source 60 kilometers distant to a greater extent than areas to the south and west. An overland route to and from this chert resource was proposed, and it was suggested that such a route could have been used simultaneously for pastoral activities. The methods used, sampling strategy employed, and conclusions reached all suggest further areas of research.

While this study endeavored to examine a sample of lithics that was chronologically and regionally broad, the results would be further aided by the inclusion of additional sites.

Unfortunately, several of the remaining settlements were excavated before the archaeological importance of chipped stone was fully realized. Therefore, many lithic assemblages from these sites must be seeen as incomplete, the artifacts having been recovered according to the predilections of the excavator. Furthermore, while a minimum 10% sample was obtained from the sites within the study, larger samples would greatly aid in solidifying the results of the analysis.

In addition, the sampled assemblages were all within (or adjacent to) the Argive

Plain. The location of the Ayia Eleni chert beds within an area that is both peripheral to this region and close to the Saronic Gulf raises questions regarding its acquisition by settlements such as Kolonna and Ayios Kostandinos. In adition, a brief examination of the lithics from the Asea Survey, directed by Dr. J. Forsèn, suggest that this resource was used as far west as the Tripolis Basin. The question of the geographical extent of this chert's use was outside the scope of this study, but additional research in this area would aid in answering questions regarding the long-distance acquisition or exchange of this resource and the interactions between the Argolid and nearby regions.

125 The characterization of the chert suggested a protocol by which the order of analysis progressed from macroscopic observations to geochemical trace element analysis. Critics have doubted the efficacy of chert characterization, owing to its intraformational variability.

However, this and other studies have demonstrated the utility of attempting chert characterization. While it is not as exacting as obtaining provenance for obsidian, the use of a structured approach enables the sources to be characterized and the artifacts to be associated with a source within a certain level of confidence.

It has been proposed that chert was transported from the Epidauria to the sites in and around the Argive plain by means of direct-access procurement, embedded within long- distance pastoralism or exchange activities between the Saronic Gulf and the Argolid. The explanation involving long-distance pastoralism is largely hypothetical, and is based upon an assumption that palatial centers had a need to control large amounts of wool. This explanation requires additional testing. Chang and Tourtellotte (1993) have discussed the physical patterns resulting from pastoral transhumance, some of which could be visible within the archaeological record. To date, no intensive archaeological survey has taken place in the region. The question of whether pastoral transhumance occurred within this area would be a viable research question within a diachronic multi-disciplinary analysis of the region. Similar studies – such as the Argolid Exploration Project – have indicated that areas thought to be largely absent of cultural activity can in actuality reveal significant evidence of land use and can help us understand relationships between core and periphery. The area around the Ayia Eleni beds would be a location worthy of such research, and would undoubtedly yield significant patterns relating to regional and inter-regional socio-economic activities.

126 TABLES

127

Table 4.1. Translucency Case Study. Descriptive Statistics of All Cases, Split by Weather Condition. Mean S.D. Min Max C.V. Skew Total 0.064 0.010 0.04 0.09 0.163 -0.355 evening cloudy 0.062 0.013 0.04 0.08 0.203 -0.349 evening shaded sunlight 0.065 0.009 0.04 0.08 0.138 -0.490 midday cloudy 0.061 0.010 0.04 0.08 0.162 -0.494 midday full sunlight 0.067 0.009 0.05 0.09 0.138 0.085 morning cloudy 0.058 0.011 0.04 0.08 0.191 0.203 morning shaded sunlight 0.065 0.010 0.04 0.08 0.157 -0.486

Table 4.2. Translucency Case Study. Descriptive Statistics of All Cases, Split by Sample. Mean S.D. Min Max C.V. Skew Total 0.064 0.010 0.04 0.09 0.163 -0.355 1 0.064 0.009 0.04 0.09 0.144 -0.965 2 0.064 0.012 0.04 0.08 0.190 -0.557 3 0.065 0.010 0.05 0.09 0.151 -0.079 4 0.063 0.009 0.04 0.08 0.145 -0.062 5 0.065 0.010 0.05 0.08 0.152 -0.084 6 0.062 0.013 0.04 0.08 0.212 -0.568 7 0.062 0.009 0.04 0.07 0.149 -0.308 8 0.064 0.009 0.05 0.08 0.141 0.122 9 0.065 0.012 0.04 0.08 0.185 -0.179 10 0.064 0.011 0.04 0.08 0.168 -0.364

Table 4.3. Translucency Case Study. Kolmogorov-Smirnov One-Sample Test Results. Variable N-of-Cases MaxDif Lilliefors Probability (2-tail) Measurement 300 0.056 0.026

128 Table 4.4. Tool Types Found in the Argolid. A. Indistinguishable utilization, no retouch G. Sickle elements 1 blade 41 denticulate on blade 2 flake 42 denticulate on flake 43 denticulate on unknown B. Retouched blades 44 retouched blades 3 direct, unilateral 45 plain blades 4 direct, bilateral 46 retouched flakes 5 inverse, unilateral 47 on plain flakes 6 inverse, bilateral 48 unknown retouched blank 7 alternating, unilateral 49 unknown plain blank 8 alternating, bilateral 9 opposed, unilateral H. Percoirs/Becs 10 opposed, bilateral 50 unknown blank 11 bifacial 51 on blades 12 other 52 on flakes 13 backed I. Truncated pieces C. Retouched flakes 53 on blades 14 direct, unilateral 54 on flakes 15 direct, bilateral 55 retouched end 16 inverse, unilateral 17 inverse, bilateral J. Geometrics 18 alternating, unilateral 56 rectangles 19 alternating, bilateral 57 triangles 20 opposed, unilateral 58 trapezoids 21 opposed, bilateral 59 other 22 bifacial 23 other K. Burins 24 backed 60 on unknown blank 61 on blade D. Scrapers 62 on flake 25 distal end of blade 26 distal end of retouched blade M. Projectile Points 27 distal end of flake 64 Preform 28 proximal end of flake 65 hollow based 29 end of retouched flake 66 tanged 30 side scraper 67 Indeterminant 31 racloir 32 bilateral on blade N. Piece esquillees 33 bilateral on flake 68 any blank 34 end of unknown blank O. Other E. Notched pieces 69 bifacial, unknown blank 35 blade 70 unifacial, unknown blank - direct 36 flake 71 unifacial, unknown blank - inverse 37 bilateral on blade 99 retouched non-flake, non-blade blank 38 bilateral on flake

F. Denticulates 39 blade 40 flake

129 Table 6.1. Distribution of Blank Types from Lerna, Divided by Phase and Material.8 EH II EH III MH Obsidian Chert Obsidian Chert Obsidian Chert N % N % N % N % N % N % blades 879 40.4 7 5.1 979 24.4 17 5.1 510 19.2 6 1.5 cortical flakes 232 10.7 3 2.2 515 12.9 10 3.0 438 16.5 18 4.6 cores 22 1.0 2 1.5 47 1.2 6 1.8 21 0.8 21 5.3 crested blades 25 1.1 - - 51 1.3 - - 21 0.8 2 0.5 debris 25 1.1 10 7.4 37 0.9 31 9.3 178 6.7 33 8.4 flakes 843 38.7 56 41.2 1904 47.5 169 50.6 1021 38.4 130 33.1 tools 150 6.9 58 42.6 474 11.8 101 30.2 471 17.7 183 46.6 Total 2176 99.9 136 100.0 4007 100.0 334 100.00 2660 100.1 393 100.0

Table 6.2. Sampled Distribution of Chert Blank Types from Lerna, Divided by Phase. EH II EH III MH Total N % N % N % N % debris 1 2.5 16 10.1 7 5.1 24 7.1 flake core - - 3 1.9 3 2.2 6 1.8 other 2 5.0 3 1.9 7 5.1 12 3.6 primary flake 1 2.5 3 1.9 7 5.1 11 3.3 prismatic 11 27.5 27 17.1 22 15.9 60 17.9 prismatic core - - 1 0.6 1 0.7 2 0.6 secondary flake 17 42.5 49 31.0 45 32.6 111 33.0 secondary cortical flake 5 12.5 17 10.8 23 16.7 45 13.4 tertiary flake 3 7.5 39 24.7 23 16.7 65 19.3 Grand Total 40 100.0 158 100.0 138 100.0 336 100.0

8 According to Hartenberger and Runnels (2001: Table 2).

130 Table 6.3. Sampled Distribution of Chert Tool Types from Lerna, Divided by Phase and Material. EH II EH III MH Total N % N % N % N % Utilized Blades 1 3.8 7 13.5 6 9.0 14 9.7 Utilized Flakes 4 15.4 9 17.3 15 22.4 28 19.3 Retouched Blades - - 5 9.6 1 1.5 6 4.1 Retouched Flakes 6 23.1 12 23.1 12 17.9 30 20.7 Scrapers 1 3.8 2 3.8 6 9.0 9 6.2 Notched Pieces - - 3 5.8 1 1.5 4 2.8 Denticulates 1 3.8 2 3.8 4 6.0 7 4.8 Sickle Elements 6 23.1 4 7.7 12 17.9 22 15.2 Percoirs/Becs - - 3 5.8 - - 3 2.1 Truncated Pieces - - 1 1.9 1 1.5 2 1.4 Geometrics 1 3.8 - - - - 1 0.7 Burins 3 11.5 1 1.9 3 4.5 7 4.8 Projectile Point Preforms - - - - 1 1.5 1 0.7 Projectile Points 1 3.8 - - 3 4.5 4 2.8 Piece Esquillees 1 3.8 1 1.9 1 1.5 3 2.1 Other 1 3.8 2 3.8 1 1.5 4 2.8 Total 26 100.0 52 100.0 67 100.0 145 100.0

131 Table 6.4. Chert Type Summaries for Lerna. Type EH II EH MH Total Color Inclusion% Translucency Grain Size Luster III 1 20 81 92 193 5YR 3/2.5 – 3YR 3.5/3.5 4.1 – 15.3 0.00 – 0.73 2.8 – 4.3 2.5 – 4.0 2 6 13 11 30 3Y 6.5/4 – 1Y 7/5.5 2.5 – 16.0 1.90 – translucent 4.4 – 5.0 4.5 – 5.0 3 1 7 4 12 6YR 6.5/1 – 3.5YR 7/1.5 0.4 – 3.5 0.00 – 2.20 3.9 – 5.0 3.4 – 4.7 4 - 1 - 1 4YR 3/.5 – 2.5YR 3/3.5 17.2 – 27.8 0.06 – 0.16 1.6 – 4.4 1.6 – 4.4 6 - 6 4 10 4.5G 5/1 – 3.5Y 5/1 1.8 – 5.1 0.12 – 0.23 4.2 – 5.0 3.1 – 4.5 7 - 3 - 3 2Y 6.5/1.5 – 9YR 7/3 60 0.49 – translucent 2.0 – 4.0 1.2 – 3.5 8 - 4 1 5 4.5YR 4/3.5 – 4YR 4.5/4.5 2.4 – 4.0 0.00 – 3.43 5 3.8 – 4.8 9 - 5 6 11 2YR 3.5/5.5 – 2YR 4/6.5 2.5 – 5.0 0.08 – 0.21 2.2 – 4.1 2.7 – 4.4 10 1 3 5 9 3Y 6.5/2 – .5Y 7/3.5 15.3 – 18.8 0.00 – 2.50 3.5 – 4.9 3.3 – 4.7 11 - 2 - 2 8.5YR 3.5/2.5 – 2.5YR 4.5/5.5 50 0.30 – 0.38 5 3.3 – 4.7 12 2 6 4 12 N4 – 1.5Y 4/1 11.2 – 16.1 0.18 – 0.28 2.1 – 3.8 2.0 – 3.6 13 - 3 - 3 2Y 5/1.5 – 1Y 5/3.5 30 0.59 – translucent 3.8 – 4.9 3.1 – 4.2 15 1 2 2 5 8.5YR 2.5/.5 – 7YR 3/1.5 7.5 – 11.3 0.02 – 0.09 1.5 – 3.7 1.5 – 3.7 16 1 2 2 5 10YR 6/3 – 9.5YR 6/4 1.9 – 4.3 1.68 – translucent 5 5 17 1 - - 1 2.5Y 4/1 75 0.29 1 1 18 1 4 1 6 4YR 5/5.5 – 4YR 5.5/7 6.2 – 10.5 0.93 – translucent 3.7 – 4.7 3.7 – 4.7 19 3 3 1 7 9.5GY 6/.5 – 3Y 6.5/1 9.0 – 13.2 0.11 – 0.19 2.3 – 4.1 1.6 – 3.0 20 - 4 1 5 1Y 7/.5 – 8YR 7.5/1.5 24.8 – 29.2 1.33 – translucent 4.2 – 5.0 3.1 – 4.9 21 - 2 - 2 9YR 3/3 – 5.5YR 4/4 10 0.09 – 0.17 5 3.3 – 4.7 25 3 5 4 12 5.5Y 7.5/1.5 – 9.5YR 8/2.5 1.3 – 4.5 3.09 – translucent 3.9 – 5.0 4.4 – 5.0 29 1 6 3 10 1Y 5/3 – 9YR 5/4 4.8 – 9.7 0.03 – 3.40 4.5 – 5.0 4.3 – 5.0 Total 41 162 141 344

132 Table 6.5. Distribution of Blank Types from Midea, Divided by Phase and Material. LH I – LH II LH IIIB LH IIIC Obsidian Chert Obsidian Chert Obsidian Chert N % N % N % N % N % N % Cobble - - 3 14.3 - - 5 3.9 - - 3 2.0 Crested blade ------2 0.7 16 10.5 Debris 4 12.1 1 4.8 24 9.7 10 7.8 19 7.0 3 2.0 Flake core - - - - 1 0.4 3 2.3 1 0.4 - - Indeterminable - - - - 7 2.8 3 2.3 7 2.6 5 3.3 Primary flake 1 3.0 1 4.8 12 4.8 4 3.1 20 7.4 4 2.6 Prismatic blade 8 24.2 1 4.8 64 25.8 3 2.3 86 31.6 8 5.3 Prismatic core 1 3.0 - - 1 0.4 - - 2 0.7 2 1.3 Secondary flake 1 3.0 6 28.6 15 6.0 43 33.3 30 11.0 42 27.6 Secondary cortical flake 5 15.2 7 33.3 33 13.3 16 12.4 34 12.5 39 25.7 Tertiary flake 13 39.4 2 9.5 88 35.5 40 31.0 66 24.3 26 17.1 Trimming flake - - - - 3 1.2 2 1.6 5 1.8 4 2.6 Total 33 100.0 21 100.0 248 100.0 129 100.0 272 100.0 152 100.0

133 Table 6.6. Distribution of Tool Types from Midea, Divided by Phase and Material. LH I – LH II LH IIIB LH IIIC Obsidian Chert Obsidian Chert Obsidian Chert N % N % N % N % N % N % Utilized Blades 1 10.0 - - 17 25.0 - - 20 20.6 1 2.9 Utilized Flakes 2 20.0 1 16.7 6 8.8 5 15.2 11 11.3 9 26.5 Retouched Blades 1 10.0 - - 4 5.9 - - 6 6.2 1 2.9 Retouched Flakes 1 10.0 1 16.7 8 11.8 4 12.1 12 12.4 2 5.9 Scrapers - - - - 5 7.4 3 9.1 1 1.0 - - Notched Pieces - - 1 16.7 3 4.4 1 3.0 7 7.2 - - Denticulates - - 1 16.7 - - 8 24.2 - - 7 20.6 Sickle Elements - - 2 33.3 - - 8 24.2 6 6.2 9 26.5 Percoirs/Becs - - - - 1 1.5 - - 3 3.1 - - Truncated Pieces 2 20.0 - - 7 10.3 - - 11 11.3 - - Geometrics - - - - 1 1.5 - - 1 1.0 - - Burins 1 10.0 - - 2 2.9 - - 5 5.2 1 2.9 Projectile Point Prefoms - - - - 1 1.5 - - 4 4.1 2 5.9 Projectile Points - - - - 6 8.8 3 9.1 5 5.2 1 2.9 Piece Esquillees - - - - 1 1.5 ------Other 2 20.0 - - 6 8.8 1 3.0 5 5.2 1 2.9 Total 10 100.0 6 100.0 68 100.0 33 100.0 97 100.0 34 100.0

134 Table 6.7. Comparison of Obsidian Blade Widths and Thicknesses.9 Site width thickness N Avg S.D. C.V. N Avg S.D. C.V. Aghia Irini 0.97 0.29 Korakochorio 0.89 0.33 Pyrgos 0.91 0.29 Knossos Royal Road Total 902 0.83 0.23 27.7 902 0.22 0.08 36.4 Knossos Royal Road Workshop 295 0.78 0.22 28.2 295 0.19 0.08 42.1 Pylakopi Total 2058 1.09 0.31 28.4 2059 0.34 0.19 55.9 Phylakopi Obsidian Deposit 517 0.98 0.31 31.6 517 0.31 0.16 51.6 Southern Argolid 308 0.86 0.24 27.9 308 0.26 0.08 30.8 Oropos Site 1990/2 18 0.90 0.21 22.9 18 0.26 0.12 46.8 Lerna EH II 81 13.0 81 26.6 Lerna EH III 76 22.9 76 30.3 Lerna MH10 90 16.3 90 26.2 Midea, LH I – LH II 8 0.85 0.26 31.0 8 0.26 0.05 18.0 Midea, LH IIIB 64 0.78 0.30 38.0 64 0.23 0.09 37.0 Midea, LH IIIC 86 0.75 0.40 53.0 84 0.22 0.12 54.0 Tzoungiza, EH 42 0.84 0.25 29.6 42 0.23 0.09 38.6 Tzoungiza, MH 9 0.92 0.16 17.3 9 0.29 0.06 21.5 Tzoungiza, LH 23 0.93 0.30 31.8 23 0.29 0.14 48.2

9 Data for this table were are taken from the following sources: Aghia Irini, Korakochorio, Pyrgos –

Torrence 1986: Table 8; Knossos, and Phylakopi – Torrence 1986: Table 16; Southern Argolid – Kardulias and Runnels 1995: Table 5.15; Oropos Site 1990/2 – Newhard 2001: Table VII; Lerna – Hartenberger and

Runnels 2001: Table 3.

10 Value represents bladelets. Hartenberger and Runnels (2001) report that blades were too few in number to provide a C.V.

135 Table 6.8. Chert Type Summaries for Midea. Type LH I- LH LH Total Color Inclusion% Translucency Grain Size Luster II IIIB IIIC 1 5 42 42 89 2.5YR 3/3 – 1YR 3/3.5 1.3 – 16.1 0.00 – 0.60 3.3 – 4.7 3.2 – 4.6 2 - 3 6 9 2.5 5/3 – 2Y 5/3.5 2.5 – 6.2 0.00 – 2.72 2.9 – 4.2 3.0 – 4.3 3 3 1 2 6 9.5B 2.5/.5 – 2.5Y 3/.5 43.4 – 46.6 0.00 – 3.41 1.8 – 3.9 1.8 – 3.9 4 - 6 5 11 7Y 5/1.5 – 9YR 5/2 1.6 – 5.1 1.17 – translucent 2.6 – 4.1 2.1 – 3.9 5 - 10 12 22 4Y 4/1 – 2Y 4/2 0.6 – 3.0 0.00 – 2.32 3.0 – 4.5 3.0 – 4.5 6 1 13 8 22 1Y 2.5/1 – 7.5YR 3/2 3.8 – 6.2 0.10 – 0.20 1.6 – 3.1 1.7 – 2.9 7 - 4 6 10 4Y 6/3 – 2.5Y 7/4 1.1 – 3.5 0.10 – 0.23 2.6 – 4.4 2.5 – 4.3 8 2 2 8 12 6B 2.5/1 – N3 1.4 – 5.3 1.54 – translucent 2.8 – 4.2 2.5 – 4.1 9 - 1 5 6 1.5YR 3.5/3.5 – .5YR 4/4.5 2.0 2.20 – translucent 2.9 – 4.4 2.9 – 4.3 10 - - 2 2 N1 – N2 0 0.00 – translucent 3.0 3.0 11 - 6 7 13 4Y 2.5/1.5 – 1Y 3/2 12.5 – 16.8 0.00 – 2.11 2.5 – 3.5 2.5 – 3.5 12 1 2 4 7 2Y 6.5/2.5 – 9YR 7/3.5 17.7 – 23.8 0.00 – 3.09 2.1 – 3.6 1.7 – 3.2 13 2 7 2 11 6.5YR 2.5/1 – 3YR 3/2.5 26.9 – 29.4 0.10 – 0.20 2.6 – 4.1 2.5 – 3.9 14 2 2 4 8 8Y 6/.5 – 8YR 6/2 2.3 – 7.0 0.03 – 0.18 2.2 – 3.6 1.7 – 3.1 15 1 8 2 11 3Y 4/1 – 10YR 4.5/2 12.8 –17.2 0.12 – 0.23 2.0 – 3.6 2.2 – 3.6 16 - - 3 3 4.5 Y7/2.5 – 3Y 7/3 40.2 – 43.1 0.20 – 0.30 3.5 – 4.5 3.1 – 4.2 17 1 1 6 8 2YR 3.5/5.5 – 2YR 4/6.5 0.0 – 1.6 0.07 – 0.38 3.8 – 4.7 3.6 – 4.6 18 - 1 1 2 1GY 4/1 – 6Y 5/2 45.7 – 49.3 0.01 – 0.05 1.0 1.0 19 - 2 1 3 1YR 3/4 – .5YR 3/4.5 10.4 – 16.2 0.00 – 0.10 2.9 – 4.2 2.8 – 4.1 20 - 1 1 2 6.5PB 7/.5 – 8R 8/1 31.5 – 38.5 0.09 – 0.17 1.3 – 2.7 1.3 – 2.7 21 - 2 1 3 1Y 5/5.5 – 9YR 5.5/6.5 - 0.53 – 5.65 5.0 4.4 – 5.0 23 - 2 2 4 N7 – 6.5YR 8/1 0 - 1 1.97 – translucent 1.7 – 3.8 1.7 – 3.8 24 1 1 3 5 3.5Y 4/1.5 – 10YR 4.5/2.5 30 1.36 – translucent 2.6 – 4.2 2.4 – 3.6 25 1 1 1 3 .5YR 4/4.5 – 10R 4.5/6 20.4 – 26.2 0.02 – 0.05 1.0 – 1.6 1.0 26 - 4 4 8 10BG 4/.5 – N4.5 0.7 – 4.8 0.00 – 2.81 1.2 – 2.3 1.2 – 2.3 27 1 4 6 11 7YR 3/1.5 – 3.5YR 3/2.5 0.0 – 1.8 translucent 3.0 – 4.6 2.9 – 4.5 29 - 3 6 9 1.5Y 3/3.5 – 9.5YR 3.5/4 0.5 – 6.0 0.14 – 0.23 3.3 – 4.9 2.9 – 4.6 Total 21 129 152 302

136 Table 6.9. Distribution of Blank Types from Mycenae, Divided by Context.11 Citadel House Museum Area Tholoi House of Sphinxes Unknown Grand Total crested blade 2 - - - 1 3 debris 2 1 - - - 3 indeterminable 1 - - - - 1 pebble - 2 1 - - 3 primary flake 7 3 - - - 10 prismatic 10 15 - - - 25 secondary cortical flake 15 9 1 - 1 26 secondary flake 1 9 - 3 4 18 tertiary flake 1 6 - - - 7 trimming flake 1 - - - - 1 Grand Total 40 47 2 3 6 97

11 Subtotals include data from disturbed contexts.

137 Table 6.10. Distribution of Tool Types from Mycenae, Divided by Geographical Context.12 Citadel House Museum Area Tholoi House of Sphinxes unknown Grand Total unilateral utilization 1 7 - - 1 9 bilateral utilization - 1 - - - 1 bifacial retouch, utilized - 1 - - - 1 bilateral retouch 1 - - 2 - 3 denticulate - - - - 1 1 notched and utilized - 1 - - - 1 notched piece 2 - - - - 2 perçoir 1 - - 1 - 2 pièce esquillée 1 - - - - 1 point, hollow-based 1 - - - - 1 sickle element - 1 - - - 1 Grand Total 7 11 - 3 2 23

12 Subtotals include data from disturbed contexts.

138

Table 6.11. Distribution of Blank Types from Mycenae, Divided by Material.13 Obsidian Chert Total N % N % N % Crested blade 2 4.4 1 5.6 3 4.8 Debris 2 4.4 - - 2 3.2 Indeterminable - - 1 5.6 1 1.6 Pebble - - 2 11.1 2 3.2 Primary flake 8 17.8 - - 8 12.7 Prismatic 12 26.7 2 11.1 14 22.2 Secondary cortical flake 17 37.8 1 5.6 18 28.6 Secondary flake 2 4.4 11 61.1 13 20.6 Tertiary flake 1 2.2 - - 1 1.6 Trimming flake 1 2.2 - - 1 1.6 Grand Total 45 100.0 18 100.0 63 100.0

Table 6.12. Distribution of Tool Types from Mycenae, Divided by Material. Obsidian Chert Total N % N % N % utilized blade 3 21.4 1 11.1 4 17.4 utilized flake 4 28.6 3 33.3 7 30.4 retouched blade 3 21.4 - - 3 13.0 retouched flake - - 2 22.2 2 8.7 notched piece 2 14.3 - - 2 8.7 sickle element - - 2 22.2 2 8.7 percoir 1 7.1 - - 1 4.3 projectile point - - 1 11.1 1 4.3 piece esquillee 1 7.1 - - 1 4.3 Total 14 100.0 9 100.0 23 100.0

13 Type characteristics incorporated data from disturbed contexts.

139

Table 6.13. Counts and Percentages of Chert Groups at Mycenae. Type LH LH LH Total Color Inclusion% Translucency Grain Size Luster IIIA IIIB IIIC 1 2 9 - 11 2YR 3/3.5 – 2YR 3.5/4 12.2 – 19.0 0.01 – 0.03 4.0 – 5.0 3.4 – 3.9 2 - 3 - 3 3YR 4.5/4 - .5YR 5/5.5 0.0 – 0.0 0.03 – 0.05 5 5 3 2 2 - 4 9.5YR 6/1 – 6YR 7.5/2 0.0 – 0.0 0.12 – 0.18 5 5 4 - - 1 1 10R 7/3 0.0 0.00 4 3 5 - 2 - 2 9Y 3/1 – 3.5Y 3/1 5.1 – 5.9 0.21 – 0.29 2.4 – 4.6 3.3 – 4.7 Total 4 16 1 21

Table 6.14. Distribution of Blank Types from Tzoungiza, Divided by Phase and Material. EH MH LH Obsidian Chert Obsidian Chert Obsidian Chert Total N % N % N % N % N % N % N % Cobble ------2 5.0 2 0.8 Crested blade - - - - 1 3.3 - - 1 1.5 - - 2 0.8 Debris 1 1.5 1 5.9 1 3.3 1 5.9 1 1.5 - - 5 2.1 Flake core ------1 5.9 - - 2 5.0 3 1.2 Indeterminable - - - - 1 3.3 - - 1 1.5 - - 2 0.8 Primary 1 1.5 - - 2 6.7 1 5.9 6 8.8 4 10.0 14 5.9 Prismatic 42 63.6 4 23.5 9 30.0 2 11.8 23 33.8 4 10.0 84 35.3 Prismatic core - - 1 5.9 ------1 0.4 Secondary 6 9.1 6 35.3 2 6.7 9 52.9 8 11.8 13 32.5 44 18.5 Secondary cortical flake 5 7.6 2 11.8 3 10.0 1 5.9 11 16.2 3 7.5 25 10.5 Tertiary 11 16.7 3 17.7 10 33.3 2 11.8 16 23.5 12 30.0 54 22.7 Trimming - - - - 1 3.3 - - 1 1.5 - - 2 0.8 Total 66 100.0 17 100.0 30 100.0 17 100.0 68 100.0 40 100.0 238 100.0

140

Table 6.15. Distribution of Tool Types from Tzoungiza, Divided by Phase and Material. EH MH LH Total Obsidian Chert Obsidian Chert Obsidian Chert Tool Type N % N % N % N % N % N % N % Utilized Blades 2 15.4 1 16.7 1 12.5 1 16.7 9 36.0 - - 14 21.2 Utilized Flakes 2 15.4 - - 1 12.5 2 33.3 2 8.0 1 12.5 8 12.1 Retouched Blades 3 23.1 ------1 4.0 - - 4 6.1 Retouched Flakes - - - - 1 12.5 2 33.3 1 4.0 2 25.0 6 9.1 Scrapers - - 1 16.7 1 12.5 - - 2 8.0 - - 4 6.1 Notched Pieces 2 15.4 ------4 16.0 1 12.5 7 10.6 Denticulates - - 1 16.7 ------2 25.0 3 4.6 Sickle Elements - - 3 50.0 - - 1 16.7 - - 1 12.5 5 7.6 Percoirs/Becs ------Truncated Pieces 2 15.4 ------3 12.0 1 12.5 6 9.1 Geometrics ------Burins - - - - 3 37.5 - - 1 4.0 - - 4 6.1 Projectile Points ------1 4.0 - - 1 1.5 Piece Esquillees 1 7.7 - - 1 12.5 ------2 3.0 Composite Tools 1 7.7 ------1 4.0 - - 2 3.0 Total 13 100.0 6 100.0 8 100.0 6 100.0 25 100.0 8 100.0 66 100.0

141

Table 6.16. EH Material from Tzoungiza According to Excavation Unit. chert obsidian other Total EU N % N % N % N % 3 0.00% 1 1.52% 0.00% 1 1.19% 5 14 82.35% 64 96.97% 1 100.00% 79 94.05% 7 1 5.88% 1 1.52% 0.00% 2 2.38% 10 1 5.88% 0.00% 0.00% 1 1.19% 11 1 5.88% 0.00% 0.00% 1 1.19% Total 17 100.00% 66 100.00% 1 100.00% 84 100.00%

Table 6.17. Counts and Type Characteristics for Chert Groups at Tzoungiza, Split by Period. 14 Type EH MH LH Total Color Inclusion% Translucency 1 4 15 25 44 4.5YR 3/3 – 3YR 3.5/4 7.7 – 14.8 0.03 – 0.08 2 4 - - 4 2Y 4/2.5 – 1Y 4.5/3.5 15.3 – 29.7 0.02 – translucent 3 1 - 1 2 4YR 4/3 – 3YR 5/3.5 8.4 – 21.5 0.04 – translucent 4 2 - 3 5 .5YR 3/3 – 10R 3/4 5.2 – 13.9 opaque 5 4 - 2 6 2Y 6.5/3.5 - 10YR 7/5.5 6.9 – 13.1 0.24 – translucent 6 - 1 2 3 2Y 6.5/1 – 10YR 7/2 6.6 – 10.1 0.11 – 0.26 7 1 1 5 7 4.5Y 3/.5 – 9.5YR 4/1 3.0 – 18.1 0.02 – 0.21 8 1 - 2 3 4.5YR 6/3 – 4.5YR 6.5/4 2.1 – 5.2 .02 – .08 Total 17 17 40 74

14 Type characteristics incorporated data from disturbed contexts.

142

Table 6.18. MH Material from Tzoungiza According to Excavation Unit. Chert Obsidian Other Total EU N % N % N % N % 2 6 35.3% 16 53.3% 1 100.0% 23 47.9% 6 3 17.7% 4 13.3% - - 7 14.6% 7 - - 2 6.7% - - 2 4.2% 8 2 11.7% 3 10.0% - - 5 10.4% 10 6 35.3% 5 16.7% - - 11 22.9% Total 17 100.0% 30 100.0% 1 100.0% 48 100.0%

Table 6.19. LH Material from Tzoungiza According to Excavation Unit. Chert Obsidian Other Total EU N % N % N % N % 2 13 32.5% 23 33.8% - - 36 33.0% 3 2 5.0% 2 2.9% 1 100.0% 5 4.6% 5 2 5.0% 2 2.9% - - 4 3.7% 7 7 17.5% 10 14.7% - - 17 15.6% 8 8 20.0% 7 10.3% - - 15 13.8% 9 2 5.0% 5 7.4% - - 7 6.4% 10 6 15.0% 19 27.9% - - 25 22.9% Total 40 100.0% 68 100.0% 1 100.0% 109 100.0%

Table 6.20. Percentage of Chert in Published Examples. Period Site Chert% Margin of Error % Range EH Lerna III 5.9 0.5 5.4 – 6.4 Lerna IV 7.7 0.4 7.3 – 8.1 Lithares 5.8 0.7 5.1 – 6.6 Manika 3.8 0.6 3.2 – 4.4 Ayios Stephanos 9 0.8 8.1 – 9.8 MH Lerna V 12.9 0.6 12.3 – 13.5 LH Hypothetical 22.9 – 34.3

Table 6.21. Percentage of Chert in Study Assemblages According to Period. Period Site Chert% Margin of Error % Range EH Tzoungiza 20.5 4.4 16.1 – 24.9 Lerna 7.115 0.3 6.8 – 7.5 MH Tzoungiza 36.2 7.0 29.2 – 42.2 Lerna 12.916 0.6 12.3 – 13.5 LH Tzoungiza 37.0 4.6 32.4 – 41.6 Midea 35.3 1.6 33.7 – 36.9 Mycenae 28.6 5.7 22.9 – 34.3

15 Derived from Hartenberger and Runnels 2001: Table 1.

16 Hartenberger and Runnels 2001: Table 1.

143

Table 6.22. Percentage of Ayia Eleni Chert in Study Assemblages According to Period. Period Site Ayia Eleni% EH Tzoungiza 23.5 Lerna 18.2 MH Tzoungiza 88.2 Lerna 29.7 LH Tzoungiza 62.5 Midea 26.5 Mycenae 58.8

Table 7.1. Distance to Ayia Eleni Outcrops from Studied Settlements. Site Direct Route 1 Route 2 (through Ligourio pass) (through Kazarma pass) Tzoungiza 51.71 62.25 59.36 Mycenae 42.75 53.04 50.14 Midea 32.80 43.08 36.86 Tiryns 34.94 37.48 43.91 Lerna 41.73 50.81 54.76

Table 7.2. Distribution of Chert Denticulates and Sickle Elements, Split between Flake and Blade Blanks. Site Blades Flakes N % N % Lerna 30 71.4 12 28.6 Midea 5 14.3 30 85.7 Tzoungiza 5 50.0 5 50.0 Mycenae - - 2 100.0

Table 7.3. Distribution of Chert Prismatic Blades. Site Ayia Eleni Exotic Type N % N % Lerna 38 37.6 63 62.4 Midea 3 14.3 18 85.7 Tzoungiza 2 18.2 9 81.8

Table 7.4. Obsidian Curation Activities. site overlain retouch tool transformation N % of obsidian tools N % of obsidian tools Lerna no data no data no data no data Midea 6 3.3 26 14.5 Tzoungiza 4 8.5 6 12.8

144

Table 7.5. Chert Curation Activities. site overlain retouch tool transformation N % of chert tools N % of chert tools Lerna 5 3.4 6 4.0 Midea 10 17.0 16 27.1 Tzoungiza 4 17.3 4 17.3

Table 7.6. Tool Type Size (in cm3). Tool Type Lerna Midea Tzoungiza Obsidian Chert Obsidian Chert Obsidian Chert Total no data 3.13 1.57 5.29 1.24 16.14 Utilized Blades/Flakes no data 4.29 1.58 3.54 0.94 2.05 Scrapers no data 3.14 .67 3.41 2.52 4.75 Sickle Elements/Denticulates no data 8.99 1.92 7.68 1.70 8.42

145

FIGURES

146

5051015Kilometers

Key N $ Sites W E Towns S Roads

Contours $# Contour Interval = 200m

$# Tzoungiza Mycenae Midea

# Argos

# Nafplio

Lerna $#

Figure 1.1. Map of the Argolid, Showing Roads, Modern Towns, and Sampled Archaeological Sites.

147

A. Reciprocity

B. Redistribution

C. Market Exchange D. Householding

Figure 2.1. Polanyi's Formal Models.

148

Minerals

Silicates Sulfides,Carbonates, etc.

Inosilicates Phylosilicates Sorosilicates Cyclosilicates

Tectosilicates

Quartz Feldspars

Low Pressure/Low Temperature High Pressure/High Temperature

α quartz High Pressure High Temperature

Macrocrystalline Microcrystalline Coesite Stishovite β quartz Tridymite Cristobalite

Non-Fibrous Fibrous Chert Chalcedony

Figure 3.1. The Relationship of Chert to Other Types of Minerals.

149

Figure 3.2. Structural Form and Crystal Shape of Quartz (after Hurlbut 1950, fig. 370).

Figure 4.1. Form Used in Macroscopic Chert Analysis.

150

Figure 4.2. Idealized Sketch of a Flake.

151

Chipped Stone

Flakes Cores

Orientation No Orientation Prismatic Cores Flake Cores

Cortical Non-Cortical Debris

Cortex < 50% Cortex > 50% Flakes Blades

Blades Flakes Blades Flakes l < 0.5 0.5 < l < 1.75 l > 1.75 Flaked Arris Non-Flaked Arris

Secondary Secondary Primary Primary Trimming Tertiary Secondary Crested Prismatic Decortication Decortication Decortication Decortication Flake Flake Flake Blade Blade Blades Flakes Blades Flakes

Figure 4.3. Organizational Chart of Blank Typology.

152

Chipped Stone

Retouched Utilized No Modification

Denticulates Burins Marginal Bifacial Sickle Gloss No Sickle Gloss Blank Debitage Manipulation

Lateral/ Notched Backed Truncated Unilateral Multilateral Multilateral

Figure 4.4. Organizational Chart of Tool Typology.

153

Figure 4.5. Form Used in Describing Tool Typology and Technology.

154

N 101234Kilometers Contour Interval = 200 m W E

0 # Geological Sites 0 4 $ Archaeological Sites Towns $ G26 2 0 0 4 Roads # 00 Contours Mycenae 6 0 0 G15 #

# G24 Midea 0 4 0 #

12 00 G23 # # Argos 8 2 # 0 00 0 Nafplio 6 00 $ Lerna

Figure 5.1. Topographic Map of Survey Area, Western Section.

155

N 101234Kilometers W E Contour Interval = 200 m

S # Geological Sites # $ Archaeological Sites G20 Towns Roads Contours # G15

$ Ligourio 2 0 0 Midea 800 600 400 G16 # # G25 # $ # G02 Asklipio # G01 G03 # # # G21 G17 600 G19 400 # 200 G18 #

Figure 5.2. Topographic Map of Survey Area, Central Section.

156

N 2024Kilometers W E Contour Interval = 200 m

# Geological Sites $ Archaeological Sites Towns Roads Contours

2 0 0 G06, G07, G08 800 Ligourio G16, G22

# G14 G02 # # $ ## G16 ## # G25 Asklipio

G03 # # G13 G04 # # G10 # # # ## G17 # 0 G09 60 G19 # # 40 # 0 G12 G11 200 G18 #

Figure 5.3. Topographic Map of Survey Area, Eastern Section.

157

N 1012Kilometers W E Contour Interval = 200 m

Nemea # Geological Sites $ # Archaeological Sites

$ Towns Roads Contours 400 Tzoungiza 800

400

$ 200 # G20 Mycenae 600

# G15

Argos Midea $

200

400

Figure 5.4. Topographic Map of Survey Area, Northern Section.

158

Figure 5.5. Areas Surveyed by Kozlowski et al. Gray Flint Source Indicated by Arrow.

159

200 # G26

Argos

# 400

G24 Geology 0 # Geological Sites 00 Area Surveyed Alluvial Dolomitic Limestone Towns Flysch Contours Marl 00 Pantokrator Limestone 40 8 N 0 # Pindos Limestone # Schist W E Serpentinites G23 Shale Chert Limestone S Shale Chert Sandstone 1012Kilometers

Figure 5.6. Areas Surveyed in Western Argeia.

160

Geology # Geological Sites Adhami Alluvial Areas Surveyed Ayios Nikolaos # $ Archaeological Sites Flysch Marl G15 Towns Ophiolites Contours Pantokrator Limestone Pindos Limestone Tuff/Diabase

1012Kilometers N

$ W E Midea Contour Interval = 200 m S

# G16 Nafplio # G25

# G01 # G03 #

# # G21 G17

Figure 5.7. Areas Surveyed in Central Argeia.

161

Berbati #

# # Angelokastro Limnes

# G15

Midea $

Geology # Geological Sites Alluvial Areas Surveyed Angelokastron Flysch $ Archaeological Sites Marl Towns Ophiolites Contours Pantokrator Limestone Pindos Limestone

W E Contour Interval = 200 m G16 # S G25 fplio1012Kilometers #

Figure 5.8. Areas Surveyed Between Berbati Valley and Angelokastron.

162

Geology # Geological Sites Adhami Area Surveyed Alluvial $T Archaeological Sites Ayios Nikolaos Flysch Towns Koliaki Contours Marl Ophiolites Pantokrator Limestone N Pindos Limestone Rudist Limestone W E Serpentinites S Tuff/Diabase 2024Kilometers 80 Ligourio Contour Interval = 200 m 0

# # $ G16 # G02 G25 Asklipio # G01 G03 #

# # G21 G17 600 400 200

Figure 5.9. Areas Surveyed Between Tolo and Ligourio.

163

Geology # Geological Sites Adhami Area Surveyed Alluvial Ammonitico Rosso $T Archaeological Sites Angelokastron Towns Ayia Eleni Ayios Nikolaos Contours Breccia Flysch Koliaki Marl N Ophiolites Pantokrator Limestone W E Rudist Limestone Serpentinites S Tuff/Diabase 1012Kilometers

Contour Interval = 200 m G08 G06 G07 G22 G14 G13 G11

#G02 G10 # $T ### ## G09 G04 0 40 Asklipio

600

## # # # G05 ## ## ##

# ## # G19

# 200 G18

Figure 5.10. Areas Surveyed in Epidauria. Sampled Areas Labeled.

164

Geology Surveyed Alluvial $T Archaeological Sites Dolomitic Limestone Towns Flysch Pindos Limestone Contours Marl Pantokrator Limestone N Serpentinites Nemea

W E Shale Chert Limestone Shale Chert Sandstone S

# 1 0 1 2 Kilometers Tzoungiza Contour Interval = 200 m $T

400 800

400

Figure 5.11. Areas Surveyed in Nemea Valley.

165

Geology # Ayios Nikolaos Adhami Areas Surveyed Alluvial Ayios Nikolaos $T Sites Breccia Towns Flysch Contours Koliaki Marl Ophiolites # Pantokrator Limestone Pindos Limestone Rudist Limestone Ligourio Serpentinites Contour Interval = 200 m Tuff/Diabase N $T 1012Kilometers W E

S 0 40 Asklipio

600 G03 #

20 Figure 5.12. Locations of Ayios Nikolaos Chert within Areas Surveyed. 0

166

Berbati # G20

# # # # Angelokastro Limnes

# G15

Midea $T

Geology # Angelokastron Chert Alluvial Angelokastron Areas Surveyed Flysch $T Archaeological Sites Koliaki Towns Pindos Limestone Marl Contours Ophiolites Pantokrator Limestone N

W E Contour Interval = 200 m

S 1012Kilometers

Figure 5.13. Locations of Angelokastron Chert within Areas Surveyed.

167

Geology # Koliaki Chert Adhami Area Surveyed Alluvial Ammonitico Rosso $T Archaeological Sites Ayia Eleni Chert Towns Breccia Contours Flysch Koliaki Chert N Pindos Limestone Marl W E Ophiolites Pantokrator Limestone S Rudist Limestone Serpentinites Contour Interval = 200 m Tuff/Diabase

# 1 0 1 2 Kilometers G02 # $T # G08 Asklipio 400

Ayia Eleni 600

Tracheia #

200

Figure 5.14. Locations of Koliaki Chert within Areas Surveyed.

168

Geology % Migdhalitsa Alluvium Adhami Alluvial # Migdhalitsa Ammonitico Rosso Ayia Eleni Chert Areas Surveyed Breccia $T Archaeological Sites Flysch Koliaki Chert Towns Pindos Limestone Contours Marl Ophiolites N Pantokrator Limestone Rudist Limestone W E Serpentinites S Tuff/Diabase

# 1012Kilometers

Contour Interval = 200 m $T # G07 Asklipio 400

Ayia Eleni 600

Tracheia #

G12 # # # G19 G11

% 200 G18

Figure 5.15. Surveyed Areas Belonging to the Migdhalitsa Ophiolite Unit. Sampled Areas Labeled.

169

Figure 5.16. Geological Site Form.

170

Geology # Ayia Eleni Adhami Alluvial % Fanario Ammonitico Rosso Areas Surveyed Ayia Eleni Chert $ Archaeological Sites Breccia Towns Flysch Koliaki Chert N Contours Pindos Limestone Marl W E Ophiolites Pantokrator Limestone S Rudist Limestone Serpentinites $ Contour Interval = 200 m Tuff/Diabase

1012Kilometers 400 Asklipio

600

# Tracheia G22 # G13 # # # G10 G04 G05 # % # G14 # Ayia Eleni G09

200

Figure 5.17. Ayia Eleni Chert Beds.

171

Figure 5.18. Site G10. Cobbles found on Surface.

Figure 5.19. Site G10. Sampled Road Cut Area.

172

$ Archaeological Sites N Tzoungiza $ Contours W E S Contour Interval = 200 m 400 20246Kilometers 800

400

0 $ 20 Mycenae

600

Midea $

400

800

$ Lerna

Bay of Argos

Figure 6.1. Locations of Lerna, Midea, Mycenae, and Tzoungiza within the Argolid.

173

Figure 6.2. Lerna, Plan of Trenches.

174

Count Chert Type 0 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 20 21 1 3 10 15 16 17 18 29 2 12 3 19 25 4 5 6 2 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 20 1 Figure 6.3. Stem and Leaf Plot, EH II Chert Types.

Count Chert Type 0 17 1 4 2 11 15 16 21 3 7 10 13 19 4 8 18 20 5 9 25 6 6 12 29 7 3 8 9 10 11 12 13 2 14 15 16 18 20 20+ 1 Figure 6.4. Stem and Leaf Plot, EH III Chert Types.

175

Count Chert Type 0 4 7 11 13 17 21 1 8 18 19 20 2 15 16 3 29 4 3 6 12 25 5 10 6 9 7 8 9 10 11 2 12 13 14 15 16 18 20 20+ 1 Figure 6.5. Stem and Leaf Plot, MH Chert Types.

Shown as % Change from EH II

5 4 3 2 1 Ayia Eleni 0 Obsidian -1 EH II EH III MH Other Cherts -2 Percent Change -3 -4 -5 Time

Figure 6.6. Trends in Proportions of Ayia Eleni, Other Cherts, and Obsidian at Lerna.

176

N W E S Ye Nd Yb NuN NpN NqN Nr Yd Nb Yc Ya Nu Np Nq Ne Na Xw AA Zw Ze Xe Nn Nl Nj Nf Mu Xs NcMk Mc Me Mg Mi Ng Mv Md Mf Nm Nk Ni Mh Mj Ml Nh Mt Ms Mm Mn Mp Mq Nv Nt Ns Mw Mx Mr

0 5 m

Figure 6.7. Trench Plan of the Site of Midea.

177

LH IIIB 0.3% - 0.8%

0.8% - 1.5% N 1.5% - 4.1% W E 4.1% - 10.1% S 10.1% - 31% Absent Ye Nd Yb Nr Yd Yc Ya Ne Na

Nf Mu Mc Me

Ng Mv Md Mf Nm Mh Ni Nh Mt Mq Mx Mr

0 5 m

Figure 6.8. Trenches from Midea Yielding LH IIIB Material.

178

LH IIIC 6.8% - 11.4% 3.4% - 6.8% N 2.3% - 3.4% W 0.8% - 2.3% E 0% - 0.8% S Absent Yb NpN Yd Nb Nr Yc Ya Ne Na Xw AA AA Xs Xe Nj Nf # Mc Me Ng Md Nm Ni Mf Mj Nh Ml Mt Mq Nt Ns Mx Mr

0 5 m

Figure 6.9. Trenches from Midea Yielding LH IIIC Material.

179

Count Chert Type 0 2 4 5 7 9 10 11 16 18 19 20 21 23 26 29 1 6 12 15 17 24 25 27 2 8 13 14 3 1 4 5 1 Figure 6.10. Stem and Leaf Plot, LH I – II Chert Types.

Count Chert Type 0 10 16 1 1 9 17 18 20 24 25 2 3 8 12 14 19 21 23 3 2 29 4 7 26 27 5 6 4 11 7 13 8 15 9 10 5 11 12 13 6 14 15 16 18 20 22 24 25+ 1 Figure 6.11. Stem and Leaf Plot, LH IIIB Chert Types.

180

Count Chert Type 0 1 18 19 20 21 25 2 3 10 13 15 23 3 16 24 4 12 14 26 5 4 9 6 2 7 17 27 29 7 11 8 6 8 9 10 11 12 5 13 14 15 16 18 20 22 24 25+ 1 Figure 6.12. Stem and Leaf Plot, LH IIIC Chert Types.

Shown as % Change from LH I - LH II

5 Ayia Eleni 0 Obsidian LH I - LH II LH IIIB LH IIIC -5 Other Cherts Percent Change -10

-15 Ti m e

Figure 6.13. Trends in Proportions of Ayia Eleni, Other Cherts, and Obsidian at Midea.

181

Figure 6.14. Excavations at the Citadel House Area of Mycenae by Taylour.

182

Figure 6.15. Plan of Excavations at Mycenae by Onassoglou.

183

Count Chert Type 0 1 4 2 5 3 2 4 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 Figure 6.16. Stem and Leaf Plots, LH Chert Types from Mycenae.

184

Figure 6.17. Tzoungiza, Plan of Trenches.

185

Count Chert Type 0 6 1 3 7 8 2 4 3 4 1 2 5 Figure 6.18. Stem and Leaf Plot, EH Chert Types.

Count Chert Type 0 2 3 4 5 8 1 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 15 Figure 6.19. Stem and Leaf Plot, MH Chert Types.

Count Chert Type 0 2 1 3 2 5 6 8 3 4 4 5 7 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 20 22 24 25 1 Figure 6.20. Stem and Leaf Plot, LH Chert Types.

186

Shown as % Change from EH

10 Ayia Eleni Obsidian 0 Other Cherts EH MH LH Percent Change -10

-20 Time

Figure 6.21. Trends in Proportions of Ayia Eleni, Other Cherts, and Obsidian at Tzoungiza.

18% 16% 14% 12% 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% EH EH EH II EH III EH MH LH Manika Lithares Lerna Lerna Ayios Lerna hypothesis Stephanos

Figure 6.22. Predicted Trends in Chert Usage, According to Published Examples.

187

Chert/Obsidian

0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 Chert/Obsidian 0.2 0.1 0

a a e rna iza e e g ena Lern L ungiza zo EH MH LH Mid Myc H L H T EH Tzoun MH Tzoungiza L Site and Period

Figure 6.23. Ratio of Chert to Obsidian, According to Date and Settlement.

.4 EH Lerna

EH Tzoungiza

LH Midea .3 LH Mycenae LH Tzoungiza Chert/Obsidian MH Lerna .2

.2 .4 .6 .8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Ay.Eleni/Other

Figure 6.24. Ratios of Chert/Obsidian and Ayia Eleni/Other Chert Types.

188

20246810Kilometers Contour Interval = 200 m Legend

Towns Ayia Eleni Contours ÚÊ Sites Roads

Tzoungiza Trade Routes N $ Route 1 Route 2 W E Rte. 2 & 3

Mycenae $

Midea $

Lerna $

Figure 7.1. Proposed Routes to the Ayia Eleni Chert Beds.

189

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APPENDIX A: GAZETTEER OF GEOLOGICAL SITES

Site Number: G01 Nearest Village: Pyrgiotika Coordinates: Lat. 37.58 N. Long. 22.89 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Ophiolite Unit Overlies: Pantokrator Limestone Underlies: Flyschine/Alluvial Deposit Formational Description: Local Formation: Three meters of alternating bands of gray chert and limestone with marly partings between bands. Site Description: Roadcut on way to Kantia/Iria, 400 meters after turnoff from Nafplio/Epidavros road. Method of Collection: Lower one meter of formation. References: IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Nafplio Sheet. Samples Taken: G01-0-001 G01R-0-003 G01R-0-004 G01R-0-005 G01R-0-144

Site Number: G02 Nearest Village: Asklipio Coordinates: Lat. 37.60 N. Long. 23.07 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Koliaki Chert, Theokafta Subunit Overlies: Adhami Limestone Underlies: Overturned Asklipion Limestone Formational Description: Beds of fine-grained chert three to six centimeters in thickness alternate with clay-rich mm-cm thick partings. Local Formation: Vitreous, brittle chert. Colors range from red to black. Three samples taken - all from surface. Two are red, brittle, and exhibit lamellar parting planes. The third sample is gray, highly crazed and faulted, and coarse to medium grain size. Assumed to be from overlying formation. Site Description: Entire lower slope of Theokafta hill. Method of Collection: Random References: IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Ligourio Sheet; Baumgartner 1985, 65. Samples Taken: G02-0-002

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Site Number: G03 Nearest Village: Ayios Nikolaos Coordinates: Lat. 37.56 N. Long. 22.99 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Ayios Nikolaos Chert Overlies: Rosso Ammonitico Underlies: Arenite-bearing mudstones of the Kandhia Breccia. Formational Description: ribbon bedded, slightly calcareous with shaley or marly partings Local Formation: Ribbon-bedded exposure with shaley or marly partings. Dusky red (10R 3/2), medium-grained, medium to dull luster, numerous fractures and several narrow veins of carbonate. Translucency .2mm Site Description: Deposits lie directly above church of Agios Nikolaos. Alternating layers of chert and carbonates. Poor quality and generally unworkable. No samples taken Method of Collection: None taken References: IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Nafplio Sheet; Baumgartner 1985, 36, 41. Samples Taken: None taken

Site Number: G04 Nearest Village: Ano Fanario Coordinates: Lat. 37.55 N. Long. 23.22 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Migdhalitsa Ophiolite Unit Overlies: Pantokrator Limestone Underlies: Serpentinized olistoliths and folded mustones of Potami Formation Formational Description: Red siliceous limestone with interspersed chert nodules, banding is often seen, often with shaley or carbonate partings. Local Formation: Material weathering into bands 2 to 15 cm wide. Alternates colors from greenish yellow to reddish-brown to dark red. Dark red regions are the most siliceous. Site Description: Exposed roadcut on road to Methana. Exposure c. 8m high. Method of Collection: Samples number 6 and 7 taken randomly. For others, a transect was laid along exposure. Formation sampled every 10m. References: IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Nafplio Sheet; Baumgartner 1985, 32, 33 Figure 12, plate 1. Samples Taken: G04-0-006 G04-0-007 G04R-0-022 G04R-0-023 G04R-1-024 G04R-1-025 G04R-2-026 G04R-2-027 G04R-2-028 G04R-2-029 G04R-2-030 G04R-2-031 G04R-2-032 G04R-3-033 G04R-5-035 G04R-5-036 G04R-5-037 G04R-5-038 G04R-5-039 G04R-5-040 G04R-5-041 G04R-5-042 G04R-6-044 G04R-6-045 G04R-6-046 G04R-6-047 G04R-6-048 G04R-7-034 G04R-7-049 G04R-7-050 G04R-7-051 G04R-7-052 G04R-7-053 G04R-7-054 G04R-7-055 G04R-7-056 G04R-7-057

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Site Number: G05 Nearest Village: Tracheia Coordinates: Lat. 37.56 N. Long. 23.16 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Koliaki Chert Overlies: Pantokrator? Underlies: Migdhalitsa Ophiolite Unit Formational Description: Deposit runs from Tracheia to Karatzas, forming a rough band 5k long and maximum depth of 400 m at one point. Nearing Tracheia and Karatzas the deposit appears more shaley. Local Formation: Most is brittle and severely weathered, but some workable pieces found. Site Description: 100m stretch of red chert along road. Deposit extends to the north for a width of approximately 200m. Map labels it as T2-4,k, hn. Method of Collection: Every 20m along exposed roadcut. References: IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Ligourio sheet; Baumgartner 1985, 71, 75. Samples Taken: G05-1-008 G05-1-009 G05-2-010 G05-2-011 G05-3-012 G05-3-013 G05-4-014 G05-5-015 G05-6-016 G05-6-017 G05-6-018 G05-6-019 G05R-0-154

Site Number: G06 Nearest Village: Paleo Epidavros Coordinates: Lat. 37.60 N. Long. 23.16 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Koliaki Overlies: Alluvium Underlies: None Formational Description: Secondary deposit of chert. Chert very weathered. Local Formation: Chert cobbles in random association with limestone - all in secondary deposit of alluvium. Chert very weathered, but some workable material found. Site Description: South of Paleo Epidavros, just north of Koliaki. Alluvial deposit forms a plateau, with a steep slope to the east running into a rema. Dirt road leads off main paved road running from Koliaki/Tracheia to Epidavros, cuts through site, and continues to Koliaki around hill noted as "Rachi" on map. Method of Collection: Random References: IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Ligourio Sheet; Baumgartner 1985, 73-5. Samples Taken: G06-0-020 G06-0-021

Site Number: G07 Nearest Village: Koliaki Coordinates: Lat. 37.60 N. Long. 23.16 E.

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Geological Unit/Chert Type: Migdhalitsa Ophiolite Unit Overlies: Koliaki Chert Underlies: Alluvium Formational Description: Basal: green to black cherts with occasional carbonate debris. Overlying: red cherts containing more clay in shaley partings. Local Formation: Bands of chert between bands of limestone, serpentinite, mudstones, and marl. Chert is very friable and of no workable condition - very shaley. Site Description: Roadcut and erosional surface along dirt path from Koliaki village that joins with main road leading to Paleo Epidavros. Method of Collection: None taken References: IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Ligourio Sheet; Baumgartner 1985, 78, Plate 6 section D. Samples Taken: None taken

Site Number: G08 Nearest Village: Paleo Epidavros Coordinates: Lat. 37.60 N. Long. 23.16 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Koliaki Overlies: Adhami Limestone Underlies: Migdhalitsa Ophiolite Unit Formational Description: Greenish black with occasional carbonate inclusions grade to a red semi-vitreous chert with increased clay content seen by partings of shale. Beds average between 3 and 10 cm thick with shale partings. Local Formation: Three meter thick deposit of bedded chert. Fine-grained, but highly fractured, brittle, and containing numerous veins and marly partings. Material from G06 eroded from this spot. Site Description: In situ chert underlying limestone. In same association as G05. Severe maquis makes the full extent of the deposit unknown. Exposed chert is of poor quality due to roots and weathering. Method of Collection: None taken. References: IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Ligourio sheet; Baumgartner 1985, 73-5. Samples Taken: None taken

Site Number: G09 Nearest Village: Karatzas Coordinates: Lat. 37.54 N. Long. 23.21 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Koliaki Overlies: Adhami Limestone Underlies: Migdhalitsa Ophiolite Unit Formational Description: From same general formation as site G05. Labeled as T2-4,k, hn on geological map.

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Local Formation: Chert has high carbonate content, and weathers easily. Workable pieces can be found, although with some difficulty. Site Description: Exposed hill directly north of Karatzas. Appears to be easternmost extent of deposit that starts with G05. Method of Collection: random References: Geological map 1:50,000, Ligourio Sheet; Baumgartner 1985, 71, 75. Samples Taken: G09-0-058 G09-0-059 G09-0-060 G09-0-061 G09-0-062 G09-0-063 G09-0-153

Site Number: G10 Nearest Village: Ayia Eleni Coordinates: Lat. 37.55 N. Long. 23.19 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Koliaki Overlies: Adhami limestone. Underlies: Migdhalitsa Ophiolite Unit Formational Description: Extensive chert deposit running between Tracheia and Karatzas. Local Formation: Highly vitreous and easily-worked material. Site Description: Exposed hill about 100 southeast of Ayia Eleni. Village of Ayia Eleni sits upon another exposure, although this section appears to be less vitreous with increased clay inclusions. Below hill, Adhami Limestone exposed on surface. Method of Collection: Random samples taken from exposed roadcut; samples from hilltop surface taken by laying out a single transect with collection units spaced every 10m. References: Geological map 1:50,000, Ligourio sheet; Baumgartner 1985, 71, 73-5. Samples Taken: G10-0-064 G10-0-065 G10-0-066 G10-0-067 G10-0-068 G10-0-069 G10-0-070 G10-0-071 G10-0-072 G10-0-073 G10-0-074 G10-0-075 G10-0-076 G10-0-077 G10-0-078 G10-0-079 G10-0-080 G10-0-081 G10-0-082 G10-0-083 G10-0-084 G10-0-085 G10-0-086 G10-0-087 G10-0-088 G10-0-089 G10-0-090

Site Number: G11 Nearest Village: Katsantonaika Coordinates: Lat. 37.53 N. Long. 23.18 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Migdhalitsa Ophiolite Unit Overlies: Pantokrator - Dhidhimi-Trapezona Basal Sequence Underlies: Quaternary alluvium Formational Description: Ribbon-bedded chert with large amounts of recrystallization and diagenesis. Veins of macroquartz/calcites seen. Local Formation: Same as formational description.

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Site Description: Weathered exposure at border between Ophiolite unit and alluvium as marked on geological maps. Method of Collection: Random References: IGME Geological Maps 1:50,000 Ligourio Sheet; Baumgartner 1985, 78 - 82. Samples Taken: G11-0-091 G11-0-092 G11-0-093 G11-0-094

Site Number: G12 Nearest Village: Katsantonaika Coordinates: Lat. 10° peak of Megalovouni Long. 40° peak marked "o" west of G04 Geological Unit/Chert Type: Magdhalitsa Ophiolite Unit Overlies: Pantokrator - Dhidhimi-Trapezona Basal Sequence Underlies: Quaternary alluvium Formational Description: Ribbon-bedded with large amounts of recrystallization and diagenesis. Veins of macroquartz and calcites seen. Local Formation: Exposure is extremely weathered. Isolated cobbles seen with veins of calcites or macroquartz. Site Description: Weathered exposures at border between Ophiolite unit and alluvium. Method of Collection: Collection area consists of two areas: the section exposing the Ophiolite Unit and a section of Quarternary alluvium. Within alluvium lies cobbles of chert ranging from 3cm to 30cm in diameter. All show characteristic calcite or quartz grains. References: IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Ligourio Sheet; Baumgartner 1985, 78- 82. Samples Taken: G12-0-095 G12-0-096 G12-0-097

Site Number: G13 Nearest Village: Ayia Eleni Coordinates: Lat. 37.55 N. Long. 23.18 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Koliaki Overlies: Adhami limestone. Underlies: Migdhalitsa Ophiolite Unit Formational Description: Extensive chert deposit running between Tracheia and Karatzas. Local Formation: Highly vitreous and easily-worked material. Site Description: Exposed hill c. 200 southeast of Ayia Eleni. Deposit continues to east and west. Village of Ayia Eleni sits upon another exposure, although this section appears to be less vitreous with increased clay inclusions. Method of Collection: Random References: IGME Geological map 1:50,000, Ligourio Sheet; Baumgartner 1985, 73-5. Samples Taken: G13-0-098 G13-0-099 G13-0-100 G13-0-101 G13-0-102 G13-0-103 G13-0-104 G13-0-105 G13-0-106 G13-0-107

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Site Number: G14 Nearest Village: Tracheia Coordinates: Lat. 37.55 N. Long. 23.16 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Koliaki Overlies: Adhami Limestone. Underlies: Migdhalitsa Ophiolite Unit Formational Description: Extensive chert deposit running between Tracheia and Karatzas. Local Formation: Highly vitreous and easily-worked material. Site Description: Exposed hill c. 200 southeast of Ayia Eleni. Deposit continues to east and west. Village of Ayia Eleni sits upon another exposure, although this section appears to be less vitreous with increased clay inclusions. Method of Collection: Bedded samples taken from exposed road cut; random samples taken from hilltop surface. References: IGME Geological map 1:50,000, Ligourio Sheet; Baumgartner 1985, 73-5. Samples Taken: G14-0-108 G14-0-109 G14-0-110 G14-0-111 G14-0-112 G14-0-113 G14-0-114 G14-0-115 G14-0-116

Site Number: G15 Nearest Village: Metochi Coordinates: Lat. 37.69 N. Long. 22.82 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Quaternary Alluvium and Upper Pliocene conglomerates. Overlies: Cherts and limestones within conglomerate of Upper Pliocene age. Underlies: Nothing Formational Description: Quarternary alluvium consisting of eroded limestone and chert cobbles from Upper Pliocene conglomerates and Angelokastron Chert. Local Formation: Same as Formational Description. Site Description: Conglomerates consist of limestone and chert nodules within carbonate matrix. Size of cobbles are approximately 1 to 4 cm in diameter. Cherts are dark red, medium to fine-grained with marly parting. Alluvial deposits consisting of conglomerates of Upper Pliocene age and Angelokastron formation. Rema empties into Argive plain. Method of Collection: Transect bearing 38 degrees from initial coordinates for 100m. Samples of chert collected every 10m. References: IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Nafplio Sheet; Baumgartner 1985, 36-40. Samples Taken: G15-1-117 G15-1-118 G15-1-119 G15-1-120 G15-1-121 G15-1-122 G15-1-123

Site Number: G16 Nearest Village: Yiannopoulaïka Coordinates: Lat. 37.59 N.

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Long. 22.96 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Pantokrator Limestone Overlies: Alluvium Underlies: Alluvium Formational Description: Late Triassic to Middle Liassic shallow water limestone. Locally, topmost section was subjected to post-lithification brecciation and intrusions of pelagic ooze in the Jurassic period. Local Formation: Alluvium. Site Description: Alluviated cobbles in intermittent stream flowing from Mt. Arachneo. Method of Collection: Random References: IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Nafplio Sheet; Baumgartner 1985, 19. Samples Taken: G16-1-124 G16-1-125 G16-1-126

Site Number: G17 Nearest Village: Ayios Nikolaos Coordinates: Lat. 37.55 N. Long. 22.99 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Rosso Ammonitico Overlies: Pantokrator Limestone Underlies: Ayios Nikolaos Chert Formational Description: Pink pelagic limestone of Late Liassic to Middle Jurassic age. Local Formation: Twenty meter thick deposit of pink limestone underlying ribbon- bedded calcareous Ayios Nikolaos chert. Site Description: Quarry site south of Ayios Nikolaos. Method of Collection: Random References: IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Nafplio Sheet; Baumgartner 1985, 20-3. Samples Taken: G17-0-127 G17-1-128 G17-2-129 G17-4-130 G17-5-131

Site Number: G18 Nearest Village: Ayios Dimitrios Coordinates: Lat. 37.52 N. Long. 23.13 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Alluvial deposit Overlies: Migdhalitsa Ophiolite Unit Underlies: Nothing Formational Description: Secondary alluvium, primarily coming from the Migdhalitsa Ophiolite Unit. Local Formation: Cherts located in transects of varying colors, lithologies, and flaking qualities. Site Description: Alluvial deposit emenating from Migdhalitsa Ophiolite Unit. Method of Collection: Two transects, following course of riverbed. First at bearing 190º from original coordinates heading north. Second 80º degrees heading south. References: IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Ligourio Sheet.

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Samples Taken: G18-1-132 G18-1-133 G18-0-134 G18-3-135 G18-3-136 G18-2-137 G18-0-138 G18-0-139

Site Number: G19 Nearest Village: Vothiko Coordinates: Lat. 37.53 N. Long. 23.14 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Mighdhalitsa Ophiolite Unit Overlies: Pantokrator Limestone Underlies: Alluvium Formational Description: Red radiolarian chert and siliceous mudstones set between grennish-white limestones and angular pillow breccia with a clayey matrix (Baumgartner 1985, 82). Local Formation: Ribbon-bedded cherts passing into silicated limestones and mudstones. Serpentinites overly cherts. Site Description: Roadcut on road from Vothiko to Karnezaika. Method of Collection: Random References: IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Ligourio Sheet; Baumgartner 1985, 78-83. Samples Taken: G19-0-140 G19-0-141

Site Number: G20 Nearest Village: Limnes Coordinates: Lat. 37.72 N. Long. 22.91 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Alluvial deposit Overlies: Pantokrator Limestone Underlies: Nothing Formational Description: Alluvial formation consisting of eroded cobbles derived from Pantokrator Limestone and Angelokastron Chert formations. Local Formation: Same as Formational Description. Site Description: Dry riverbed between Limnes and Angelokastron. Method of Collection: Random References: IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Napflio Sheet; Baumgartner 1985, 36-40. Samples Taken: G20-0-142

Site Number: G21 Nearest Village: Drepano Coordinates: Lat. 37.55 N. Long. 22.88 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Secondary alluvial deposit Overlies: Quaternary alluvium Underlies: Nothing Formational Description: Alluvial deposit originating from area near Arkadiko.

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Local Formation: Cobble size ranging from 3cm to 1m in diameter, in density of 20/1m2. All of a coarse-grained fabric, silicified limestone or marble, 5Y 7/2 light gray. Not found in archaeological sample. Site Description: Dry riverbed about 10 meters wide. 10% visibility. Method of Collection: 100 m long transect down middle of riverbed. Random windowing of 50% of usable cobbles seen; 3 random samples of these taken in. Samples #145 - 148 References: Kozlowski, J.K., M. Kaczanowska, and M. Pawlikowski 1996; IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Nafplio sheet Samples Taken: G20-0-145 G20-0-146 G20-0-147 G20-0-148

Site Number: G22 Nearest Village: Tracheia Coordinates: Lat. 37.56 N. Long. 23.16 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Koliaki Overlies: Adhami Limestone Underlies: Migdhalitsa Ophiolite Unit Formational Description: Extensive chert deposit running between Tracheia and Karatzas. Local Formation: Chert noticably more gray-green-yellow, with some red seen interbedded with Pantokrator. All highly fractured and faulted - no workable material found. Site Description: Directly above G05, at interface between Pantokrator and chert. Method of Collection: Random samples taken from roadcut and field directly below roadcut. References: IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Ligourio sheet Samples Taken: G22-0-149 G22-0-150 G22-0-151 G22-0-152

Site Number: G23 Nearest Village: Kryo Neri Coordinates: Lat. 37.58 N. Long. 22.54 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: System of shales, cherts, and sandstones Overlies: Upper-Middle Eocene Flysch Underlies: Upper Cretaceous Limestones Formational Description: Thin-bedded deposits of dark-red shales and cherts with some sandstone. Forms border between Cretaceous Limestones and overthrust Eocene Flysch. Local Formation: Thin-bedded (3 - 6 cm) deposits of dark-red shales and cherts. Some clastic limestones. Site Description: Slopes of Mt. Ktenias. Two transects 500m long bisecting road. First transect started 100m west of Kryo Neri. Second transect 800m east of village.

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Geological map indicated chert band near village at distance of no more than 200m. No cherts of any quality found. Coordinates given are those of Kryo Neri. Method of Collection: None taken References: IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Argos Sheet. Samples Taken: None taken

Site Number: G24 Nearest Village: Houni Coordinates: Lat. 36.62 N. Long. 22.60 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Alluvium Overlies: Old torrential Quarternary conglomerates. Underlies: Nothing Formational Description: Alluvial deposit. Local Formation: Limestones eroding from conglomerates. No cherts. Deposits consist of several cobbles of silicated limestones with some conchoidal fracture. Too brittle to be used, and is not seen archaeologically. Site Description: Same as Local Formation. Method of Collection: Walked 2 100m transects following contour of rema. Transects seperated by 100m, and ran west from coordinates given. References: IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Argos Sheet. Samples Taken: None taken

Site Number: G25 Nearest Village: Yiannouleika Coordinates: Lat. 37.59 N. Long. 22.96 E. Geological Unit/Chert Type: Quaternary alluvium Overlies: Quaternary alluvium. Underlies: Nothing Formational Description: Material derived from Adhami Limestone complex to the south and Pantokrator Limestone from the north. Local Formation: 158 cobbles of fist-size or larger. 5 chert pieces found. Others of limestone. Cherts are of poor quality and unusable. Tabular conditions suggests original provenance from within the larger limestone formations. No beds. Site Description: Alluvial deposit at bottom of valley between Mt. Arachneo and hills to the south. Main wash for the valley. All potential cobbles tested and returned to field. Method of Collection: One 100m transect walked east from coordinates given. All cobbles larger than fist-sized tested. All cherts found were recorded. References: Kozlowski, J.K., M. Kaczanowska, and M. Pawlikowski 1996; IGME Geological Map 1:50,000, Nafplio Sheet. Samples Taken: G25-0-155 G25-0-156 G25-0-157 G25-0-158 G25-0-159

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APPENDIX B: MACROSCOPIC SUMMARY OF CHERT TYPES

AYIOS NIKOLAOS CHERT Sampled Areas: G03

Criteria Min (2σ) Avg Max (2σ) Matrix Color Range 1YR 2.5/1.5 2YR 2.5/2 3YR 3/2 Translucency: .03 cm .03 cm .03 cm Luster: .5 1.7 2.8 Grain Size: .5 1.7 2.8 Flaking Quality: Unworkable: 100.0% Limited: 0.0% Workable: 0.0% Good: 0.0% Excellent: 0.0%

Fractures: All samples examined showed numerous fractures in random to sub-parallel orientation.

Inclusions: None seen.

Veins: All samples examined showed several narrow to wide veins in random orientation, consisting of macroquartz or calcite.

Other: No samples were taken to the laboratory for analysis. Data for the above characterization was obtained in the field.

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ANGELOKASTRON CHERT Sampled Areas: G15, G20

Criteria Min (2σ) Avg Max (2σ) Matrix Color Range 4YR 1/2 4YR 1/3 5YR 2/4 Translucency: .03 cm .03 cm .03 cm Luster: .5 1.7 2.8 Grain Size: .5 1.7 2.8 Flaking Quality: Unworkable: 87.5% Limited: 12.5% Workable: 0.0% Good: 0.0% Excellent: 0.0%

Fractures: All samples contained several to numerous fractures in random orientation.

Inclusions: 75% of samples exhibited 0% - 8% (2σ) density of anhedral quartz inclusions.

Veins: 40% of samples contained occasional to several veins in random orientation, most often consisting of macroquartz and calcite.

MIGDHALITSA OPHIOLITE UNIT Sampled Areas: G07, G11, G12, G17, G19, G27

Criteria Min (2σ) Avg Max (2σ) Matrix Color Range 5YR 1/5 4YR 2/4 3YR 3/4 Translucency: .00 cm .03 cm .05 cm Luster: .6 1.7 2.7 Grain Size: .6 1.6 2.5 Flaking Quality: Unworkable: 100.0% Limited: 0.0% Workable: 0.0% Good: 0.0% Excellent: 0.0%

Fractures: 78% of samples exhibited several to numerous fractures in random orientation.

Inclusions: All samples exhibited 0% - 23% (2σ) density of anhedral quartz inclusions.

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Veins: All samples contained several to numerous, narrow to wide veins in random orientation. Veins contained mostly quartz, although calcite was also present.

AYIA ELENI CHERT Sampled Areas: G05, G09, G10, G13, G14, G22

Criteria Min (2σ) Avg Max (2σ) Matrix Color Range 7YR 1/2 4YR 2/3 3YR 2/5 Translucency: .01 cm .04 cm .08 cm Luster: 2.4 3.5 4.6 Grain Size: 3.0 4.1 5.0 Flaking Quality: Unworkable: 50.7% Limited: 23.9% Workable: 7.5% Good: 7.5% Excellent: 10.4%

Fractures: All samples exhibited several to numerous fractures, most often in random orientation. 14% exhibited sub- parallel orientation, causing the material to separate into slabs .25 - 1 cm thick.

Inclusions: All samples exhibited 2% - 23% (2σ) density of anhedral quartz inclusions.

Veins: 74% of samples exhibited narrow veins in random orientations consisting of macroquartz or chalcedony.

KOLIAKI CHERT Sampled Areas: G02, G06, G08

Criteria Min (2σ) Avg Max (2σ) Matrix Color Range 3YR 1/2 5YR 2/3 5YR 3/4 Translucency: .01 cm .02 cm .05 cm Luster: 1.1 2.3 3.5 Grain Size: 1.1 2.3 3.5

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Flaking Quality: Unworkable: 33.3% Limited: 33.3% Workable: 33.3% Good: 0.0% Excellent: 0.0%

Fractures: All samples exhibited numerous fractures in random orientation.

Inclusions: None observed.

Veins: All samples exhibited occasional narrow veins in random orientation of macroquartz.

ANO FANARIO Sampled Areas: G04

Criteria Min (2σ) Avg Max (2σ) Matrix Color Range 5YR 1/2 5YR 2/3 4YR 3/4 5Y 5/3 5Y 6/3 5Y 7/3 Translucency: .02 cm .04 cm .06 cm Luster: 0.9 1.7 2.5 Grain Size: 1.0 1.9 2.7 Flaking Quality: Unworkable: 11.8% Limited: 64.7% Workable: 8.8% Good: 11.8% Excellent: 2.9%

Fractures: 88% of samples contained occasional to several fractures, most often in sub-parallel orientation perpendicular to the bedding plane.

Inclusions: All samples exhibited 0% - 19% (2σ) density of small to medium-sized anhedral to circular-shaped inclusions of calcite or macroquartz.

Veins: 97% of samples contained occasional to several narrow to medium-width veins in random to sub-parallel orientation.

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