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Home , Conchoidal fracture, Cryptocrystalline, Lithic flake

CHAPTER 1

Toolstone Geography and the Larger Landscape

Terry L. Ozbun Archaeological Investigations Northwest, Inc. ([email protected])

What Is Toolstone Geography?

“Toolstone” is a combination of two terms that Jackson 1984). One aspect of geography that was form a compound word referring to lithic materials particularly import for ancient economies was the used for technological purposes – quite literally, raw material sources for stone industries. The stone for making into . Since time immemorial Pacific Northwest contains abundant geological ancient people of the Pacific Northwest made and deposits of lithic materials suitable for making used stone tools as critical components of stone tools. However, these geological deposits of , economy and culture. These ranged toolstones are not uniformly distributed across the from simple hand-held lithic flake tools (Crabtree landscape. Instead, there are distinct variations in 1982) to sophisticated composite tools containing the quantities and qualities of toolstones in different hafted stone elements (Daugherty et al. 1987a; places. This geographical variability in toolstone is 1987b) to elaborately flaked masterpieces of expert poorly understood by archaeologists, largely knappers (Meatte 2012; Wilke et al. 1991). Over because the characteristics of useful toolstone are many thousands of years, myriad lithic not always obvious to people who have not used in the region have been introduced or stone to make a living and are not familiar with the invented, developed and proliferated, then been mechanics of use. Conversely, traditional adapted or replaced by newer lithic technologies native people maintained intimate knowledge of the better suited to changing needs and lifeways. These natural landscape, including the toolstones and their lithic technologies represented complex systems of geological and geographical contexts – also known knowledge and skills for obtaining suitable raw as the lithic landscape or toolstone geography materials, along with hundreds or thousands of (Gould and Saggers 1985:127; Reid 1997:67). techniques for manufacture, use, maintenance, Traditional practitioners of lithic technologies knew repair, and recycling of stone tools (Flenniken where to find different types of lithic resources 1981). The highly-developed ancient systems of within the territories they traveled. As mobility and lithic technological knowledge and skills are trade were key components of culture and economy largely lost today. Few modern people maintain the in the ancient Pacific Northwest, certain cultural practice of traditional lithic technologies and these groups may have been associated with premium or are small surviving remnants of a rich heritage in abundant mineral resources endemic to their stone working and use in the Pacific Northwest. respective home ranges. Also lost is much of the knowledge of the toolstones used in traditional lithic technologies Why Is Toolstone Geography Important? (Andrefsky 1998:40). Geography is the study of the physical features Ancient lithic technological traditions have of the earth’s surface and their arrangement and survived in ways similar to native languages. From relationships, especially with regard to the eighteenth century to today, European and other interaction with the environment (Bates and non-native invasions of the Pacific Northwest led to

Toolstone Geography of the Pacific Northwest Edited by Terry L. Ozbun and Ron L. Adams, pp. 1-11 Press, Simon Fraser University, 2015 catastrophic changes devastating native populations for to source attribution. However, the and cultures. During this period, very small peculiar geological classificatory schemes numbers of native people have maintained the emanating from the academy were not part of the knowledge and practice of both languages and traditional technologist’s nomenclature for traditional lithic technologies. Now, native toolstones. Ancient knappers likely identified languages are resurgent and a small cadre of materials according to visual and technical technicians works to bring back lithic tool attributes. For the purposes of this paper a simpler traditions as . For both language and lithic division of toolstones is used to bridge the divide technology, vast bodies of traditional knowledge between geological and technological have been lost. Oral traditions have maintained classifications. some languages or remnants thereof. Rare historical These basic toolstone types are flakeable, transcripts and recordings of native speakers are meaning that they exhibit smooth conchoidal (shell- mined for clues to language traditions, but these go like form) characteristics and, for the most back a few hundreds of years, at best. However, suitable varieties, tend not to break along natural clues to ancient lithic technological traditions are planes in the material. Thus, they can be written indelibly in stone going back to the earliest predictably shaped through specially directed inhabitants of the Pacific Northwest. If we can application of percussion and pressure forces to learn to read these clues encoded into the lithic particular configurations of the exterior surfaces of flakes and stone tools left behind by ancient people, the stone in controlled breakage or fracture we can begin to reconstruct lost lithic technological processes (Cotterell and Kaminga 1987). Pieces traditions. removed in this way are called flakes mirrored by Knowledge of the raw materials used in these concavities remaining on the parent stone called ancient lithic technologies is one aspect of these flake scars. The flakeable toolstones also generally traditions that we can begin to understand at both share the characteristic of sharp edges on the flakes local and regional levels. This chapter takes a broad and flaked pieces. The sharp edges are usually the regional look at toolstone geography in the key functional attribute of the tools made by flaking southern Columbia Plateau and adjacent areas. stone as these sharp edges are useful for a variety of Most other chapters in this book deal with cutting, piercing, scraping, and shaving activities. subregions and more local toolstone geography. Although hardness and durability of the stones and their sharp edges vary considerably within and Classes of Flakeable Toolstones between the three basic toolstone types described here, stone is generally more durable than the Three basic classes of flakeable toolstones are organic materials it is most often intended to work. common at archaeological sites in the Pacific For example, stone tools are typically tougher than Northwest. These are cryptocrystalline silicates or plant fibers they might be used to cut, or hides they CCS; volcanic , particularly rhyolitic might be used to pierce, or wood they might be ; and crystalline volcanic rocks such as used to scrape, or they might be used to shave. basalt, andesite, dacite, and . In local areas Nonetheless, tool use cuts both ways and wear other types of toolstone such as orthoquartizites, analysts observe that stone tool edges dull or break- silcretes, and mudstones or argillites are important down. Therefore, more durable toolstones were for certain tool types. Voluminous descriptions and sought for rough-duty tasks and for situations sometimes acrimonious debates can be found in the requiring tool longevity. archaeological literature regarding specific geological or mineralogical names for toolstones Cryptocrystalline silicates (CCS) and whether it is nobler to subdivide them into ever finer categories. Certainly the geological Cryptocrystalline silicates or CCS is a catch-all classifications of positivist, reductionist, western category traditionally used in American science (Mazzocchi 2006:464) has its place and can archaeology to lump together a variety of fine- be useful in archaeological studies. In fact, grained, silica-rich, sedimentary rocks composed petrographic and geochemical analyses are the only primarily of microcrystalline, cryptocrystalline and reliable methods available to most archaeologists microfibrous varieties of (in geology often

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called secondary siliceous sediments). “Crypto,” provides several definitions of and describes meaning hidden, refers to the small size of quartz “true jasper” as a term widely used “…for SiO2 , or the stone’s fine crystalline texture, bearing rocks of predominantly metasomatic or which is not visible to the naked eye or even with metamorphic origin.” The term metasomatic refers ordinary light microscopes. Microcrystalline to the process by which the chemical composition textures are slightly coarser and visible with light of a rock is changed through the introduction or microscopy. Since the early use of these terms, extraction of chemicals dissolved in fluids that electron and other high-powered microscopes have migrate through rock pores. Chalcedony can form been developed which allow virtually any size of in a variety of contexts, often as a precipitate during to be seen so that the original meaning of emplacement of silicic to intermediate volcanic the terms cryptocrystalline and microcrystalline is rocks. Chalcedonies have a microfibrous structure, obscured. Also, the continuous distribution of meaning that the crystals “…grow as radiating crystal sizes in these rocks reduces the utility of fibers in bundles” and are typically translucent and distinctions between cryptocrystalline and pale colored (Luedtke 1992:24). Petrified or microcrystalline. silicified wood forms by silica replacement of Instead of CCS, many archaeologists and organic structures in trees and often other organic geologists prefer the term “” as generic for materials entrained or entombed in the same “…all the protean varieties of sedimentary fine- sedimentary deposits. The degree of mineralization grained siliceous rocks (Luedtke 1992:5).” in petrified wood can vary such that the outer layers European archaeologists sometimes use terms such of a tree trunk appear to be a homogeneous as silex (French) or Feuerstein (German) as names chalcedony that no longer exhibits its woody for this generic class of siliceous sedimentary character while the inner layers of the same toolstones. Whatever the name, these are some of petrified tree truck retain rings and cellular the most widespread and abundant flakeable structures along with remnant organic compounds toolstones on earth. Their primary ingredient, silica (Luedtke 1992:35). or (SiO2), constitutes over 12 All of these CCS materials are classified in a percent of the weight of the earth’s crust (Götze variety of ways depending on the orientation of the 2010:164) although CCS materials comprise less writer. Typically, classifications are based on either than 1 percent of the earth’s volume of rock genetic criteria determined by how the rocks or (Luedtke 1992:17). CCS materials occur in a wide minerals form or practical criteria based on variety of geological contexts including marine and technical properties that make them useful for lacustrine deposits and in hydrothermal veins, vugs, specific industries. Because these sedimentary and interbeds associated with igneous rocks. rocks can form over millions of years and under The most common varieties of CCS are often changing geological conditions (diagenesis), the distinguished as chert, , jasper, chalcedony, and same piece of rock, or hand specimen, can include petrified wood. CCS materials referred to as layers, lenses, or conglomerated clasts of different and typically form in marine or lacustrine varieties of CCS. Silica mineral diagenesis is a sediments and are generally opaque and contain dissolution-precipitation process “…characterised microfossils derived from aquatic silica-secreting by increasing crystallinity, crystal size, and microorganisms essential to their silica mineral structural order. Total water content decreases as formation. Cherts and flints are commonly colored the microstructures becomes (sic) more ordered and in dull brown and gray hues and may be compacted. This is reflected in the mineral densities distinguished from one another by color value with which increase as they become more crystalline the lighter colors typically characterized as cherts (Lee 2007: 16).” This diagenetic view of silica and darker colors called flints. Others differentiate minerals explains why heterogeneous individual cherts as CCS materials formed in limestones and hand specimens can be difficult to categorize flints as formed in chalks (Brandl 2010:183). according to traditional classification systems based typically form in hydrothermal on macroscopic visual traits. That is, a single piece environments and are generally opaque, and red, of CCS material may exhibit a variety of colors, brown, yellow, or green reflecting traces of iron or may be translucent in one area and opaque in other oxidizing mineral content. Kostov (2010:209) another, and may exhibit fossilized organic

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structures in some parts and not in others. basaltic, andesitic, dacitic, or rhyolitic, depending CCS materials occur throughout the Pacific on silica content. Northwest. Cherts occur in the Coast Ranges and The most common and abundant type of obsidian jaspers in the Cascades. The Columbia Plateau is rhyolitic obsidian, formed by silica-rich (68 to 77 contains unusually abundant high-quality CCS percent SiO2) viscous lava flows or domes (Skinner materials in large clast sizes. One area, known as 1983:28; Shackley 2005:Figure 2.3). The high the Yakima Folds, is a geological region percentage of silicon dioxides defines, in part, its characterized by compression folds or wrinkles in classification as rhyolite and also causes (along the Columbia River Basalts. CCS materials occur in with bonding to alumina) the lava to be highly beds sandwiched between massive basalt flows and viscous thereby inhibiting the movement of ions these layers are exposed by the folding of the and crystal formation. A very small percentage of basalts and subsequent erosion. These interbeded microscopic iron oxide crystals, commonly deposits contain petrified wood and other silicified magnetite, finely dispersed in the non-crystalline organic materials often composed of cherts, give obsidian a dark or black color. Red, chalcedony and (the latter a non-crystalline brown, or green hues sometimes result from silicate). Some of the most productive bedrock or variation in the oxidation state of the iron minerals. primary geological CCS toolstone quarries or Color banding is caused by oxidation of flow quarry areas in the Yakima Folds region are: Saddle surfaces subsequently folded into the lava as it Mountains (Flenniken and Ozbun 1993; moves. Tiny gas bubbles stretched by the flow of McCutcheon et al. 2008); Yakima Firing Center the viscous lava can produce a reflective sheen or (Chatters and Zweiffel 1987); Ridge (Ozbun chatoyancy, also called cat’s eye effect in some et al. 2002); and Columbia Hills (Adams, this (USGS 2012). volume). Basaltic glass could also be called obsidian in These CCS toolstone sources and many others in some instances because of its texture, but is more the Yakima Folds region provided high-quality and often called tachylyte or tachylite to distinguish its large-size raw materials for rich lithic industries of relatively low silica content and geochemistry. the southern Columbia Plateau (Figure 1). Clovis Because its low viscosity melt does not inhibit knappers were among the first to take advantage of crystallization during cooling, tachylyte generally this resource as evidenced by the spectacular large forms as thin rinds at the margins of basalt flow bifaces of the East Wenatchee Clovis Cache sills and dikes where it cools more quickly than (Meatte 2012). crystals can form (James et al. 1996:95). These rinds are often too thin for use as toolstone but Volcanic Glass or Obsidian occasionally exceed 5 mm in thickness and are suitable for technological purposes (e.g. Weisler Volcanic glass or natural glass is a non-crystalline 1990). igneous rock (George 1924). Obsidian is the glassy Volcanic glasses also form or occur in pyroclastic textural class of volcanic rock formed when ash flows. Ash flow tuffs or ignimbrites are extruded magma cools too rapidly for mineral produced from explosive volcanism and consist of crystallization or is prevented from crystallizing ash, pumice, welded tuff, and other lithic materials due to high viscosity (James et al. 1996:95; (Wilson and Hildreth 2003). Hot gases exsolving Shackley 2005:11; Skinner 1983:27). A glassy from the magma expand and propel the ash flow to texture completely lacking in granularity is called a form voluminous and wide-spread ignimbrite holohyaline texture and volcanic glasses are deposits consisting mainly of ash and frothy typically described as nearly holohyaline meaning a pumice but also sometimes volcanic glass. These glassy texture with a few tiny crystals or microlites. deposits are generally associated with evolved Sometimes the term aphanitic is also used, but this magma compositions, as are rhyolitic obsidian term applies better to crystalline volcanic rocks flows or domes, sometimes from the same volcano. with small crystals less than 1 mm in diameter (see Portions of the magma that contain little or no below). Since obsidian is simply a textural water may not froth from degassing and instead classification applicable to glassy igneous rocks of form glass nodules. The heat of the ash flow or varying chemical compositions, obsidian can be glowing avalanche may round these clasts or cast

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Figure 1. Geographic distribution of toolstone sources mentioned in the text. impressions of pumice grains on their surfaces. development of a distinctive wrinkled (raisin-like) Clast shrinkage during cooling can wrinkle the pyroclastic cortex. Also, previously formed cortical surfaces of obsidian nodules resulting in obsidian from within or near a volcanic vent can be

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violently shattered and obsidian clasts entrained in this volume for a discussion of Glass Buttes). These the ash flows become incorporated into the materials were also exported broadly to ignimbrite deposits. Aerially ejected obsidian surrounding areas. Some have argued that, in bombs typically have vesiculated centers unsuitable addition to its utilitarian value, obsidian signaled for use as toolstone. prestige on the Northwest Coast and elsewhere Beds or layers of glassy welded tuffs called outside of obsidian source areas (Dillian et al. vitrophyre (porphyritic volcanic rock with 2007; Sobel 2006). phenocrysts in a glassy groundmass) can also form within the ignimbrite deposits as a result of heat Crystalline Volcanic Rocks and pressure associated with the volcanic events that produce them. Vitrophyre is typically opaque Dark gray extrusive (erupted onto the surface of the and welded glass shards representing the parent ash earth) volcanic rocks are abundant and occur in are visible in microscopic thin section (Skinner widespread voluminous deposits through much of 1983:33-35, 55-56). Welded tuffs are sometimes the Pacific Northwest. These crystalline volcanic called ignimbrites in the older geological literature. rocks vary in mineral composition (particularly Obsidian is relatively soft – 5 to 5.5 on Moh’s alkalis) and in silica content on a continuum hardness scale, so it requires application of less (Bakewell 1993; Bakewell and Irving 1994). By force in flaking to shape into stone tools and is less weight percent SiO2, they range from basalt (less durable that most other toolstones. The brittleness than 52 percent silica) to andesite (52 to 63 percent of obsidian may have been turned to an advantage silica) to dacite (63 to 68 percent silica) to rhyolite for some purposes, such as use for (greater than 68 percent silica). They also vary in tips, since it can shatter in a wound and cause rapid texture from glassy or aphyric (lacking in hemorrhaging, leading to faster death in prey phenocrysts, see volcanic glass or obsidian above) animals. Nonetheless, the more durable obsidians to aphanitic (fine-grained crystals too small to be tended to be favored in some ancient technologies. seen by the naked eye or smaller than about 1 mm) The key attribute of obsidian is its fracture edges to phaneritic (crystals visible to the naked eye or which are sharper than the ground edges of surgical larger than about 1 mm) to porphyritic (containing steel scalpels. Sharp but durable edges on obsidian larger phenocrysts in a glassy or fine-grained tools can be formed by specialized and radial ground mass) (Bates and Jackson 1984). Typically, break techniques that produce square or nearly the longer a lava takes to cool the larger the crystals square margins. can grow. Most extrusive lavas cool too quickly to Oregon is the epicenter of obsidian toolstone in form rocks with crystals larger than about 2 mm in the Pacific Northwest. Craig Skinner’s Northwest diameter and therefore are generally aphanitic Obsidian Studies Laboratory lists the top ten (fine-grained) or nearly aphanitic. The fine-grained obsidian sources in Oregon, meaning those to and more silicic volcanic rocks generally exhibit which artifacts found in Oregon archaeological better conchoidal fracture (are easier to knap) and sites have been most frequently sourced. These top form sharper edges on stone tools. Crystalline ten are: Newberry Volcano; Obsidian Cliffs; volcanic rocks are generally harder or tougher than Whitewater Ridge; Silver Lake/Sycan Marsh; obsidians and therefore hold their edges better Inman Creek; Spodue Mountain; Quartz Mountain; when used for rough-duty tasks (See Reid et al. this McKay Butte; Glass Buttes; and Medicine Lake volume). Highlands. Traditionally in archaeology, fine-grained gray These major obsidian sources cluster in central toolstones have been classified as basalt. However, and southcentral Oregon, although the last is in an most of the artifacts that have been casually adjacent area of northern California (Figure 1). characterized as basalt in the archaeological These sources are some of the more than 60 literature are actually andesites, dacites, or other rhyolitic domes and dome complexes of the High similar varieties of fine-grained and highly silicic Lava Plains and adjacent volcanic regions. rocks (Bakewell 1993; 1996; Reid 1997). The low Intensive extraction and initial reduction of silica content of basalt, in fact, makes it unlikely obsidian materials throughout that basalt would be selected for flakeable characterizes all ten of these sources (See Stueber, toolstone, although it is well-suited for use in

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tools such as pestles which are exported to surrounding areas is unknown. This reduced using a pecking technology rather than by may be a reflection of the broad availability of flaking. The higher silica content of these andesites, similar materials elsewhere, or perhaps, a measure dacites, and typically makes them easier of our inability to identify patterns of trade and to flake. From a geological and geographical exchange in these materials. perspective higher silica content produces more viscous magma or lava that tends to mound-up and The Larger Lithic Landscape form more localized domes than the fluid lavas that form expansive flows of basalt. Therefore, primary The geographical clustering of highly productive geological deposits of the glassier volcanic toolstone quarries for CCS, obsidian, and volcanic toolstones like dacite (and obsidian) are likely to be crystalline rock shows a distinct regional pattern. confined to relatively smaller hills or mountains Geologically, the CCS cluster is associated with the than are the less glassy widespread basalts spread Yakima Folds region of south central Washington. over vast horizontal plains. The obsidian cluster is in the High Lava Plains of While the Columbia River Basalt Group is best south central Oregon and adjacent areas to the known for its expansive basalt flows, its various south and east. The volcanic crystalline or fine- member formations also included more localized grained volcanic toolstone cluster is associated with and silica rich andesites and dacites, particularly in Chief Joseph dike swarm or the Grand Ronde their eruptive centers. The more siliceous rocks of formation. This pattern is, of course, a reflection of the Grand Ronde Basalt Formation and the Powder simple geological availability – people went to the River Volcanic Field were widely used for stone. However, it also shows that ancient knappers toolstone in the “tri-state uplands” area where the selectively favored certain lithic raw material boundaries of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho sources and returned to those sources repeatedly come together (see Reid et al. and Smits and Davis, over many millennia. These quarries and source this volume). This is the area where a concentration areas show evidence of extensive use over the of eruptive vents known as the Chief Joseph dike whole period of human residency in the region. swarm produced main phase basaltic eruptions as These toolstone sources share certain traits that well as subsequent silicic eruptions (Wagner et al. made them highly attractive for ancient toolstone 2012:2; Camp and Hanan 2008:480-481). users. All of these toolstones are aphanitic or fine- Among the crystalline volcanic rock prehistoric grained – a trait that allows creation of sharp edges. quarries identified in this area, the Stockhoff quarry They are also isotropic and homogeneous providing complex on Craig Mountain, may have produced excellent flakability or control of conchoidal the most stone tools through the (see fracture. They are abundant and not easily depleted Smits and Davis, this volume). The Stockhoff within the source locations, so they are a quarry complex and the other quarries listed below dependable resource over time. However, perhaps have been described in the archaeological literature the characteristic that sets them apart from many as productive toolstone quarries for volcanic other sources is availability of large pieces or clasts crystalline rocks: Stockhoff/Craig Mountain (Smits of raw material, typically much greater than 256 and Davis, this volume); Pataha Canyon/Kelly mm in diameter (boulder-sized on the Wentworth Camp (Reid et al., this volume; Flenniken et al. scale). 1991); Mesa Hill; Midvale Hill (Bucy 1974); High Lithic technologies are strictly reductive. Breaks Ridge (Dickerson 1998); Starvation Spring Materials can only get smaller as they are shaped, (Jaehnig 1992); and Elk Mountain (Nisbet and used, and maintained. Although many ingenious Drake 1982). strategies were used in prehistory to extend lithic These major crystalline volcanic toolstone tool lives through resharpening, reworking, and sources form a distinct cluster in the tri-state recycling, eventually lithic tools become too small uplands area of the Chief Joseph dike swarm for effective use. Large geological clast sizes allow (Figure 1). Intensive extraction and initial reduction for production of cores, flakes, blanks, and finished of andesites and dacites, especially during the early tools of large sizes. Large initial size serves to and middle Holocene characterizes these sources. sustain long tool lives, an important factor in However, the degree to which they have been ancient tool design (Ozbun 1991; Meatte 2012).

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Bedrock or primary geological deposits typically materials were sometimes used in the place of stone have larger clast sizes than secondary deposits. By projectile points, although stone seems to have been their very nature, secondary deposits are weathered preferred for most types of hunting weaponry. and broken fragments of the bedrock or primary Interestingly, when glass bottles were introduced to geological materials and occur as gravels. the lower Columbia River area during the fur-trade Sometimes these gravels are as large as boulders or era, the bottle glass was used much like obsidian to cobbles, but the farther they are transported by make projectile points, scrapers, and burin tools for colluvial, alluvial, or glacial processes, the smaller bone and wood working (Ozbun 2008). they become. The major toolstone centers described There are many other geological, technological, above are all primary geological deposits of and cultural factors to consider in studies of relatively recent age and available clasts are as toolstone geography for the Pacific Northwest. The large as is practicable for designing and papers in this volume detail some of these manufacturing long-lasting tools. considerations, but there is much more to know. Of course, identifying the most desirable Noteworthy topics of future study might include the toolstone sources is only part of understanding abundance and distribution of hydrothermal jaspers toolstone geography. Many less desirable sources in the Cascade Range, pyroclastic obsidian in were also used because they were conveniently southern Oregon and southern Idaho, and bedded located closer to the places where flaked stone tools cherts in adjacent areas of the Great Basin. Another were needed. Some lithic technologies were worthy area of further study is the redistribution of specifically developed to make use of smaller, toolstones by secondary geological processes which duller, checked, faulted, or otherwise imperfect can be partially addressed through the often toolstones. For example, small pebbles of grainy neglected identification on artifacts of cortex types vein quartz were reduced using a bipolar – cortex types that reflect primary or secondary technology to create tiny for into geological origins of toolstones, such as the efficient composite fish at Hoko River on distinctive incipient cone cortex type characteristic the Olympic Peninsula (Flenniken 1981). This area, of the alluvial transport of gravels in the traction like most of western Washington, is notoriously loads of streams. However, understanding the impoverished with regard to high-quality flakeable application of diverse technological strategies to toolstones. particular geological conditions offers the most Where high-quality toolstones are not present, promise for insight into toolstone geography of the marginal toolstone materials are often pressed into ancient past in the Pacific Northwest. service. These may be from primary or secondary geological sources. At the Bear Creek Acknowledgements. Drafts of this paper were re- archaeological site in Redmond, Washington, viewed by John Fagan and Steve Shackley, who coarse-grained volcanic and metamorphic rocks both offered helpful suggestions and guidance. My obtained from on-site or nearby glacial tills were employer, Archaeological Investigations North- used to manufacture a variety of flaked-stone west, Inc. (AINW) provided key support, including implements (Kopperl et al. 2010). Ill-formed tools use of company facilities and equipment, assistance and flakes with indistinct attributes were produced with graphics and encouragement. My colleagues at from these poor-quality raw materials. Nonetheless, AINW, especially Ron Adams, Dave Cox, Sara they were expedient and adequately served local Davis, Lia Kershaw, Jo Reese, Karla Hambelton, needs along with some imported higher-quality and Dan Stueber assisted with many other aspects materials. of this work. Archaeology Press Managing Editor, People adapted to toolstone deprivation by Roy Carlson, endured patiently. Contributors to this developing ways to use what was available, volume helped me to understand something about sometimes through the substitution of organic toolstones in areas of the Pacific Northwest outside materials, for example to arm weaponry. Bone was of my experience. Geographer, Margaret McCrea, commonly used for projectile point tips on the inspired me to think about toolstone geography in lower Columbia River (Fuld 2012) and elsewhere the first place. Patty McCauley and Hannah Ozbun in the northwest, particularly west of the Cascade indulged me during late nights at the computer. Range (Ogle 2004). Bone, antler, or wooden Errors and omissions belong to me alone.

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