HIV/AIDS, the Double Rhetoric, and Grassroots Activism in from 1987-1993

by E. Janice O’Connor, A.A., B.A.

A Thesis In History

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty Of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Approved

Erin-Marie Legacey, PhD Chair of Committee

Emily Skidmore, PhD

Mark Sheridan Dean of the Graduate School

August 2018

Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Copyright 2018, E. Janice O'Connor

Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would first like to thank activist Gérard Pelé who took time from his busy schedule for interviews on Facebook Messenger, to scan and email documents that made this work possible.

Despite the time zone difference and his work with the Games Pelé helped make sure I understood the events he participated in during the first two decades of HIV/AIDS in France and the May 1968 protests. Next I would like to thank my chair for her support and advice through the whole process. She knew when to stop me and get advice from professors who had experience with oral histories. Such as the amazing Dr. Julie Willett, Dr. Laura Calkins, Dr.

Jeffery Mosher, Dr. Richard B. Verrone, and Dr. Paul Bjerk. Their wisdom helped direct me to complete this project despite no previous experience with oral histories. Expertise on all LGBTQ writing and sources came from the brilliant Dr. Emily Skidmore: Thank you Dr. Skidmore. She made this experience very field specific yet bright and engaging. In addition Dr. Barbara Hahn gave the best advice and insights into the work of being a historian. Her recommendation for The

Modern Researcher was a great help for someone starting off like me.

Translation advice and country expertise came from Dr. Carole Edwards. Her assistance helped keep me on track when French history or culture risked derailing the accuracy of this project. Her unfailing support was a balm. Colleagues that deserve the most heartfelt gratitude include Melanie Highsmith, “Nipa” Nabanipa Majumder, Aritra De. Years ago one international student showed me that if a woman from another country can finish her master’s degree and PhD in a foreign land then surely I should be able to finish mine also. Since then she has gone on to find a new galaxy and educate others at TED talks: Burçin Mutlu-Pakdil. She showed me the light of the Koran and importance of giving to the community. She is a model academic and friend.

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Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

At home assistance came in the form of peer editing. Thank you Mansell C. Gilmore for acting as the HIV/AIDS expert. We were the two AIDS experts in the department at the time and leaned on each other for sources and corrections. Thank you Linda Gilmore for all you editing help. Thank you Family for all your support during this long and exhausting process.

Thank you Mary Helen Carrizales for all the breakfasts, lunches, and the cuddly friend

Roxy. She listened when no one else was around and you supported me like an angel from above. You always understood what was important and how to calm my mind. Thank you Vicki

De Leon for being a friend on hard days and celebrating on better ones. Thank you Carly D. Kahl for all your academic brilliance and emotional support.

iii Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

.TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... ii ABSTRACT...... v LIST OF FIGURES...... vi I. INTRODUCTION...... 1 Organization...... 7 Terminology...... 9

II. THE HOMOSEXUAL THREAT, FROM THE REVOLUTION TO HIV...... 13 Historiography...... 16 Background...... 18 The Threat...... 25

III. THE RAPIN REPORT AND MICHÈLE BARZACH...... 39 The AIDS work group...... 43 AIDES (the HIV/AIDS support and education group)...... 42 Making AIDS a National Project...... 55 The Rapin Report...... 62 Michèle Barzach Minister of Health and Family, and AIDS, 1986-1989...... 65 AIDS education Campaigns...... 72 Conclusion: The Got Report...... 77

VI. MAKING SEX SAFE...... 83 Gérard Pelé...... 85 The ’s Health Crisis in New York...... 87 American Jacks ...... 91 Health and Gay Pleasure...... 95 The SPG and the French Alliance Against AIDS (AFLS)...... 103 Gérard Pelé and the AFLS...... 110

V. CONCLUSION...... 121 BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 124 APPENDIX: AUTHOR’S INTERVIEW WITH GÉRARD PELÉ...... 146

iv Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

ABSTRACT

This thesis examines the historical context men who slept with men faced in France during the emergence of HIV/AIDS during the late twentieth century. Specifically, it addresses the first and second round of state HIV/AIDS responses from 1987 to 1993. It argues that despite

Michèle Barzach’s accolades as “the AIDS minister” she did not create the state response out of her own insights about disease prevention or public health. Instead, Barzach used guidelines set forth in Maurice Rapin’s report on the state of the nation’s HIV/AIDS responses, the Rapin

Report. In addition, this thesis argues against Martel’s popular history, The Pink and The Black, that gay communities are to blame for the spread of HIV/AIDS into the general population because of their in inadequate action. Drawing on interviews with Health and Gay Pleasure co- founder, Gérard Pelé, this thesis demonstrates a relatively quick and pragmatic response to

HIV/AIDS from the gay community for all men who slept with men. While France was slower to response to HIV/AIDS than most other western European nations at a state level, this research demonstrates that it was not because of disdain for the gay men the emergent disease was associated with, but a complex interaction of factors, such as medical doctors not receiving quick or adequate funding for their initial research into the disease and gay men fearing the removal of newly won rights and further stigmatization through associations with disease. From 1980 to

1993, men who slept with men in France legally changed their status as a legally defined pathology and state scourge to a group of men targeted in campaigns designed to preserve their lives and validate their existence as legitimate French citizens.

v Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

LIST OF FIGURES

3.1 The first Barzach HIV/AIDS campaign...... 82

4.1 Gérard Pelé (SPG) at the Duplex bar...... 116

4.2 “All you ever wanted to know about Jack-Off Parties...But were afraid to ask” cover...... 117

4.3 “Jack-off parties...how to guide” cover...... 118

4.4 “Safer Sex, All you ever wanted to know about safer sex between men” cover...... 119

4.5 “Safer Sex, All you ever wanted to know about safer sex between men” panels 2 and 3.....120

vi Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Somewhat fantastical suffering, sitting in the restaurant near that vibrant little boy sitting with his parents, horrible of course, and his brother, at resigning myself to the definitive idea, on this side of death, that I will never have a son of my own, and that at the precise age at which my father was awaiting the birth of his son, me, I have only death to wait for.

-Hervé Guibert, The Mausoleum of Lovers, Journals 1976- 19911

French photographer and author, Hervé Guibert, died of AIDS complications in 1991

“following a failed suicide attempt.”2 Already a well-established novelist when he published the controversial autobiographical novel To the Friend Who Did Not Save My Life, where he announced his HIV status in 1990, Guibert’s independent nature and unabashed creativity made him loved and hated, but above all famous. Much like the food historian Jean Paul Aron, who announced his HIV status in the press, Guibert announced his status both in the novel and during the television interviews that followed. His was not the first AIDS book, nor was it the first controversial AIDS book. This work set Guibert apart because it was his fourteenth book and the one that made him famous for his portrayal of gay men taking risks with unprotected sex and sex with strangers. One character, he said, was based on longtime friend Michael Foucault. The fictionalized Foucault rejected the idea that there could be a “gay cancer” when talking with

1 Hervé Guibert, The Mausoleum of Lovers, Journals 1976-1991, Nathanaël trans. (Brooklyn, New York: Nightboat Books, 2014), 481. 2 Ibid. 1

Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 friends in New York. His fictionalized self asserts that this disease must be the product of

American puritanism to keep gay men down. The real Foucault died of AIDS complications in

1984 without ever being told he had AIDS. This story demonstrates Guibert’s understanding of

AIDS. The fictionalized Foucault was not alone in his denial, that there was a “gay cancer,” or in thinking that HIV was an American invention. He also is an example of how many gay men were acutely aware of the killer in their midst. Guibert acted on his experience through writing, photography, and filmmaking. The last few months of his life (from June 1990 to March 1991) were recorded as home movie and played on television, ‘Modesty or Immodesty,’ in January

1992.3

This work illustrates the context many gay men faced at the time a mysterious new disease emerged. HIV/AIDS emerged in France just as gay men and women were gaining civil rights that had been denied to them since the Vichy era. President François Mitterrand had removed laws that made a mental illness (June 1981), made the age for sexual consent fifteen years old for homosexuals and heterosexual acts alike, decriminalized of homosexual sex acts (August 1982), and made homosexual illegal (July 1985) just as AIDS was appearing in France. The state’s blessing, through the removal of anti- homosexual laws and addition of anti-discrimination laws, enabled many gay men and women in

France, especially and Marseille, to open gay businesses with a reduced fear of repercussions. For many gay men in France the 1980s was a time of unprecedented sexual and social liberation. AIDS appeared right at the moment of their greatest victories.

Very little historical research has been published on the history of HIV/AIDS in France.

The scholarship on AIDS in France has been primarily from sociologists and political scientists.

Research has focused on gay sexuality and HIV, state prevention campaigns, HIV/AIDS

3 Jean-Pierre Boulé, Hervé Guibert: Voices of the Self (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1999), 1-3.

2 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 activism, the medical history of HIV/AIDS, the HIV blood contamination scandal, and injection drug use. 4 The closest thing to a history of the disease is Patrice Pinell’s interdisciplinary publication, Une épidémie politique, La lutte contre le sida en France, 1981-1996, which includes one contribution by a social historian, Pierre-Olivier de Busscher.5 This edited volume covers the history of AIDS activist groups as they emerged out of a history of social activism in response to insufficient state response to disease. Pinell’s goal was to outline how AIDS groups organized themselves in relationship to the state’s HIV/AIDS response. Authors argued that when the state stepped in to fill a role that they played, activists stepped out and focused on other gaps in HIV/AIDS response, such as clean needle access or distributing information about HIV transmission and condoms to men in parks. Another work that is indispensable for French AIDS research is Pierre Favre's Sida et politique, Les premiers affrontements (1981-1987).6 This edited volume considers HIV/AIDS from a political science perspective. Topics covered include the relationship between doctors and the state, how Michèle Barzach set up the first state response to

HIV/AIDS, and how the National Front’s ultra conservative politics impacted the state’s response to HIV/AIDS.

This lack of research on HIV/AIDS, considered a ‘gay issue’ since the first news reports, runs parallel to the unpopularity of gay and studies in France.7 French Republicanism and

4 Christophe Broqua, France Lert, and Yves Souteyrand eds. Homosexualités au temps du sida, Tension sociale et identitaires (Paris : ANRS, 2003). Genevieve Paicheler, Prévention du sida et agenda politique, Les campagnes en direction grand public (1987-1996) (Paris: CNRS Éditions, 2002). Gwenola Le Naour, Drogue, SIDA, et action publique, Une très discrète politique de réduction des risques, Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2010. Casteret, Anne-Marie, L’affaire du sang, Paris: Éditions la Découverte, 1992. Grmek, Marko D. The History of AIDS, The Emergence of a Modern Pandemic [Histoire du sida: Début et origine d’un pandémie actuelle, Paris, Éditions Payot, 1989] Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990. Lebowitch, Jacques. A Virus of Strange and Unknown Origin, Richard Howard trans. [Un virus étrange venu d’ailleurs, Paris: Éditions Grasset et Fasquelle] Ballantine Books, 1985. 5 Patrice Pinell, ed. Une épidémie politique, La Lutte contre le sida en France, 1981-1996 (Paris: Presses Universitaire de France, 2002). 6 Pierre Favre, Sida et politique, Les premiers affrontements (1981-1987)) (Paris: Paris: L’Harmattan, 1992). 7 Bruno Perreau, Theory, The French Response (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2016), 1-17.

3 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Universalism make community politics difficult because communities threaten the myth of universalism.8 Consequently, little research into gay and lesbian history has occurred in the last thirty years compared to Anglophone nations. Most gay history research has come from

Anglophone scholars and has been limited to research based in police archives. The result, from

1989 to 2005, was early histories of criminal sexual behavior, morality, and morality laws in the

19th century.9 However, after 2004, historians started writing gay history around nationalism, in the form of Pronatalists’ ideals and the impact on expectations of men, and the relationship between wartime objectives and the actions of men.10 More recently histories have expanded into the 20th century through studies of the persecution of gay men and women during the Second

World War, queer clubs and periodicals from the 1950s to the 1980s, and studies of gay masculinity, , and effeminacy.11 One program was created in France in 2014, the Centre d’études féminines et de genre (CEFEG). This program demonstrates the emerging field of study in a relatively conservative nation. The lack of scholarship in France, relative to Anglophone nations, on same-sex sexuality in France can be explained through the rejection of . In France, gay and lesbian studies have been largely rejected as too

8 Herman Lebovics, Brining the Empire Back Home, France in the Global Age (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004), 179-190. 9 Antony Copley, Sexualities and Moralities in France 1780-1980 (New York: Routledge, 1989). Janine Mossuz- Lavau, Les Lois d’amour, Les politiques de la sexualité en France (1950-2002) (Paris: Petite Bibliothèque Payot, 2002). Patrice Corrivea, Judging Homosexuals, a History of Gay Persecution in Quebec and France, Kathe Roth trans. (Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia, 2011). Marc Boninachi, Vichy et l’ordre moral (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2005). 10 William A. Peniston, Pederasts and others, Urban Culture and in Nineteenth- Century Paris (New York: Harrington Park Press, 2004). Brian Joseph Martin. Napoleonic Friendship, Military Fraternity, Intimacy & Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century France (Durham, New Hampshire: University of New Hampshire Press, 2011). Florence Tamagne, A in , , London, Paris, 1919- 1939, Volumes I & II (New York: Algora, 2006). 11 Maxime Foerster, Elle ou lui ? : Une histoire des transsexuals en France (Paris: La Musardine, 2012). Jean-Yves Le Talec, Folles de France, Repenser l’homosexualité masculine (Paris: Éditions la Découverte, 2008). Laure Muret. La loi du genre, Une histoire culturelle du “troisième sexe,” (Paris: Fayard, 2006). Jackson, Julian. Living in Arcadia, Homosexuality, Politics, and Morality in France from the Liberation to AIDS (Chicago University of Chicago Press, 2009).

4 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

American.12 Some French fear “queer propaganda that will not only pervert young people but also destroy the French nation itself.”13 That is, some French fear the effects of multiculturalism should queer studies be adopted.14

One response to the emergence of gay community in the midst of HIV/AIDS came from journalist Frederic Martel. Martel claimed in his popular history, The Pink and The Black, that gay community politics caused delays in the response to HIV/AIDS. His work has been largely rejected by actors who worked on the projects and organizations he critiques, and by experts in

HIV/AIDS, yet scholars unfamiliar with French gay historiography continue to reference this popular history as if it were an academic publication.15

Recently, the film Beats Per Minute showed a fictionalized history of Act-Up Paris as an early gay friendly HIV/AIDS group. But I will show what preceded Act-Up Paris and that it was not the first gay HIV/AIDS activist group. This thesis demonstrates how HIV/AIDS policies were created during the late 1980s and early 1990s with the input from gay AIDS activists in groups such as AIDES and Health and Gay Pleasure. Situating the first decade of state

12 Anne Emmanuelle Berger, “Gender Springtime in Paris: A Twenty-First-Century Tale of season” in Differences, Transatlantic Gender Crossings, Anne Emmanuelle Berger and Eric Fassin eds, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Durham NC: Duke University Press, 2003), 1-5. Perreau, 2016, 1-17. 13 This was French studies scholar, Bruno Perreau’s interpretation of the massive demonstrations, that received unprecedented media attention, against gay marriage in the winter of 2012-2013. Perreau, 2016, 1-3. 14 Anne Emmanuelle Berger, “Gender Springtime in Paris: A Twenty-First-Century Tale of season.” Perreau, 2016, 1-3. 15 Larys Frogier, “Homosexuals and the AIDS Crisis in France, Assimilation, Denial, Activism,” in Action on AIDS: Sex, Drugs, & Politics (New York: Serpent’s Tail, 1997), 346-359. Edmund White, “AIDS awareness and gay culture in France,” in Action on AIDS: Sex, Drugs, & Politics (New York: Serpent’s Tail, 1997), 339-345. Murry Pratt, “AIDS Prevention, Gay Identity, and National in France” in Why Europe? Problems of Cultural and Identity, Volume 2: Media, Film, Gender, Youth and Education, Joe Andrew, Malcolm Crook, Diana Holmes, and Eva Kolinsky eds. (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000), 146-150. Willam J. Poulin-Deltour “French Gay Activism and the American Referent in Contemporary France,” The French Review Vol. 78, No. 1, October 2004. David Caron, “Liberté, Égalité, Séropositivité: AIDS, the French Republic, and the question of community” PCS, ix, 1998, 281-293. , Hervé Chevaux, and Bruno Proth, Citoyen de seconde zone, Trente ans de lutte pour la reconnaissance de l’homosexualité en France (1971-2002) (Paris: Hachette, 2003). Anna Clark, Desire: A History of European Sexuality (New York: Routledge, 2008), 209-217. Didier Eribon, Insult and the Making of the Gay Self, Michael Lucey trans. [Réflexions sur la question gay, Paris: 1999] (Durham NC: Duke University Press, 2004), 351-353 n.5.

5 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

HIV/AIDS response historically builds on sociologists’ and political scientists’ research. My aim is to help readers understand the complex nature of crafting HIV/AIDS health policy and prevention campaigns in France. This work adds to gay history of France and attempts to illuminate an understudied portion of grassroots work in French AIDS history.

This thesis investigates how the marginalization of the gay community impacted the

French response to HIV/AIDS It also investigates how this community responded to HIV/AIDS as a consequence of their marginalization. It argues that the marginalization of gays in the 20th century was the result of a double rhetoric, that is a fear of stigmatizing the very group of people

HIV/AIDS campaign creators hoped to alert to the dangers of HIV contraction, specifically in initial state HIV/AIDS response. Initially the gay press denied the existence of a disease that was killing gay men at higher numbers than any other group. Doctors were discouraged from doing research on the disease because of its association with gay men, and politicians, including

François Mitterrand, did not talk about HIV/AIDS by name until December 1986.16 Once the state responded to HIV/AIDS, through the efforts of Health and Family Minister Michèle

Barzach, it was through a Universalist message. That is, the first state campaigns featured young, heterosexual men and women who promoted an image of control through education, but provided very little information on the disease itself. Because this first generation of HIV/AIDS campaigns were strongly critiqued in the Got Report, an analysis of the effectiveness of the previous administration’s HIV/AIDS prevention policies, the new administration released ad campaigns targeting at risk groups. Experts from HIV/AIDS organizations, those who had the most experience with prevention were employed in crafting behavior-centered ads targeting many specific groups of heterosexual and non-heterosexual men and women. And that in the

16 Franck Nouchi, “L'épidémie de SIDA ne doit pas menacer les libertés,” December 17, 1986, Le Monde, https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1986/12/17/l-epidemie-de-sida-ne-doit-pas-menacer-les- libertes_2929958_1819218.html?xtmc=sida_et_mitterrand&xtcr=20

6 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 second round of state campaigns gay activists (Health and Gay Pleasure) played an important role in crafting HIV/AIDS and safer sex messages targeting men who sleep with men (MSM).

Organization

In chapter two I argue that the perceived threat MSM posed over the last two hundred years in France started with the Revolutionaries who nationalized families and patriotic gender roles. Notions of a nationalized gender continued into the Second World War where the threat of

MSM was seen in new morality laws put in place during the Vichy government. Later, Catholic psychologist Dr. Eck and popular playwright Marcel Oraison promoted the same conservative national ideals for men. Finally, MSM became a perceived threat to the nation because of their higher contraction rates of HIV/AIDS. Primary sources include the works of 19th century proto- psychologists and doctors, 20th century authors Dr. Eck and Marcel Oraison. This chapter demonstrates the infiltration of anti-homosexual sentiment in mainstream French thought. It situates the emergence of HIV/AIDS in already marginalized gay men who only were just starting to gain equal rights in France.

Chapter three covers the first HIV/AIDS interventions at a national level. The largely unknown physician Michèle Barzach was appointed Minister of Health and Family in 1986.

Once in office she became known as the “AIDS Minister” because she very publicly initiated the first French state HIV/AIDS prevention campaigns, over the counter needle sales, and anonymous HIV/AIDS testing centers. She was the first state representative to talk openly and often about what the state was doing to combat the emergent epidemic. Barzach’s self promotion through announcements on national health policy issues combined with her attractive features

7 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 helped spread her message about HIV/AIDS response while she framed herself as protector of the French family. However, I argue against claims that Michèle Barzach, “The AIDS minister,” created and implemented her own AIDS agenda. Sources indicate that Barzach based policy on established AIDS research and the experience of doctors that had been working on the disease since 1980. Primary sources include Le Monde articles, Barzach’s memoires, AIDS doctors’ publications, and governmental archival documents. This chapter contextualizes Barzach’s response to HIV/AIDS in existing research and activism. It shows that the state did not act alone or against gay men when formulating the first prevention measures.

Chapter four starts in 1987, the year AIDS became a National Cause under Barzach. In this chapter I intervene on the history of Health and Gay Pleasure’s crucial role in shaping AIDS prevention policy in France. Their actions as a grassroots organization and gay expert consultant to the state were instrumental in shaping ads targeting men who slept with men. Health and Gay

Pleasure came out of AIDES volunteers who wanted to stop the spread of HIV/AIDS in MSM.

At the time of the group’s formation neither state nor volunteer organization existed to exclusively educate MSM about the risks of HIV contraction or provide practical solutions for an erotic sex life without sharing bodily fluids. This chapter is based on interviews with Health and

Gay Pleasure co-founder Gérard Pelé, archival documents from the state, from Pelé’s personal archive, periodicals, and sociologists’ research. This chapter demonstrates how gay men worked to stop the spread of HIV/AIDS when the state and AIDES were not addressing the needs of

MSM. It situates the growth and success of Health and Gay Pleasure in the context of emergent prevention measures and newly won rights that helped to fuel through jack off parties. More importantly, Health and Gay Pleasure helped secure the future of MSM in the eyes of the state through state funding of their projects and participation in the creation of targeted

8 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 safer sex and HIV/AIDS education campaigns. The validation of MSM was never before seen in

France and set precedence in gay rights in France. Since then civil unions (PACS, 1999) and gay marriage (2013) have been legalized. As for the role of jack off parties in gay, safer sex, and masturbation histories, this chapter adds new research to the feild.

The sources for this research include sociologists’ publications on HIV/AIDS and on

Health and Gay Pleasure (SPG), the gay periodical Gai Pied and Gai Pied Hebdo, and the mainstream press Le Monde, from their online archive. These sources provide insights into ideas circulating in the gay community as well as those of moderate mainstream press. Archival documents come from the Centre Régional d’Information et de Prévention du Sida et Pour la

Santé des Jeunes (CRIPS) online archive in Paris, Pelé’s personal archive, and from the French

National Library’s online archive (BNF/Gallica). Pelé’s archive of SPG publications was essential in completing this history. He provided previously scanned and scanned new documents creating a more complete picture of the organization’s educational material, activities, and priorities. Additional sources come from the author’s personal collection, such as

Barzach’s memoires and the Got Report.

Terminology A note on terms and translations in this research: all translations are the author’s unless otherwise noted. Organizational names that have already been translated elsewhere were kept for continuity between documents. Except for the name of Santé et Plaisir Gai (SPG). In this case other authors have translated the group’s name as Gay Health and Pleasure, I have taken the

English form of their name from Santé et Plaisir Gai’s English documents: Health and Gay

Pleasure.

9 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Gendered and sexual terms: gay is the term many men and women have used to self- identity in the US since the late 19th and early 20th century and became used in mainstream US press in 1978.17 Gay is usually “employed as an identity based descriptor” and was associated with “pleasure and flamboyance.”18 The term, gay, was not used much in France until 1979 with the publication Gai Pied, a popular monthly gay magazine, the creation of Association of Gay

Physicians (AMG), and radio station Fréquence Gaie. Gay was adopted from English and considered by some a community identifier as early as 1985.19 The term, gay, is used today in

Gay Pride parades that take place annually in Paris and Marseille.20 Since 1968, Activist organizations used instead the terms pédéraste and homosexual(ité) to define themselves and their movements.21 Pederast in English today refers to “a man who has illegal sexual activity with a young boy,” originated in the French word pédéraste (colloquially it is often shortened form pédé (often written PD).22 The French word pédéraste was first seen in 1580 referring to a variety of sexual deviant acts (I.E. heterosexual oral sex, sodomy, and sex between men) among the Spanish. Later it came to include sexual relations between older men and adolescences or young men from any nation.23 In the 20th century pédé has been used as an insult and also taken back as a term to radically embrace liberated sexuality (in a similar way some lesbian rights movements, like Dykes and Faggots Together, and the Dyke Action Machine and pride marches

17 Marc Stein, Rethinking the Gay and Lesbian Movement (New York: Routledge, 2012), 5-6. Vicki L. Eaklor, Queer America, A GLBT History of the 20th Century (Westport CT: Greenwood press, 2008), 2-3. 18 John Howard, Men Like That, A Southern Queer History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), xix. Stein, 5. 19 Claude Courouve, Vocabulaire de l’ homosexualite mascunline (Paris: Payot, 1985), 111-112. 20 Parades started in Paris in 1977. David Caron, My Father and I, The Marias & the Queerness of Community (Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press, 2009), 61. “L’Origine des GayPride,” January 18, 2005, https://www.gaypride.fr/lorigine-des-gaypride/ 21 Pederastic Revolutionary Committee (CAPR, 1968), Radical Homosexual Front for Revolutionary Action (FHAR, founded 1971), Group for Homosexual Revolution (GLH, founded 1974), Emergency Committee against Homosexual Oppression (CUARH, founded 1979). 22 “Pederast,” Cambridge Dictionary online, https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/pederast, in English today refers to “sexual activity between a man and a boy,” “Pederasty,” Oxford Living Dictionary online, https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/pederasty, Courouve, 1985, 169-179. 23 Courouve, 1985, 169-179.

10 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 have embraced the term dyke).24 Homosexual(ity) was coined in 1869 as a pro sexual rights term, but has taken on new anti-gay meaning since then in Anglophone and Francophone nations alike because it was used do denote a psychological or biological pathology and crime.25

In France, the term was used in gay rights organization titles during the 1980s.26 The term

Homosexuality, has been used since the 1980s in writing by and about gay men, and as seen in the writing and interviews with Gérard Pelé, Jean Le Bitoux, and Didier Eribon.27 Therefore outside of its use for the association with gay rights activism, deviancy, or criminality I will use the terms gay, same-sex sex, or men who sleep with men (MSM) to avoid using terms heavy with political meaning.

Often I use the term men who sleep with men (MSM), instead of bi sexual or homosexual or gay because MSM can represent either men who sleep with men or males who sleep with males and encompasses men who self-identify as gay, bisexual, homosexual, pan sexual, and men who occasionally have sex with men but have not self-identify as any one of the above groups. MSM also includes males who sleep with other males in the absence of women

(prisons, the armed forces, all male work camps, and boarding schools). In my interview with

Health and Gay Pleasure co-founder Gérard Pelé he sometimes used gay, homosexual, or MSM.

For example, he called the organization the only purely gay HIV/AIDS organization who served

24 Such as with the May 1968 group Pederastic Revolutionary Committee (CAPR). Katherine McFarland Bruce, Pride Parades, How a Parade changed the world (New York: New York University Press, 2016), 7, 194, 204-205. Cherry Smyth, Talk Queer Nations excerpt in Queer Cultures, Deborah Carlin and Jennifer DiGrazia eds. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson publishing, 2004), 47. 25 Robert Beachy, Gay Berlin, Birthplace of a Modern Identity (New York: Vintage books, 2014), 28-33. Stein, 5. Eaklor, 2-3. 26 Groups include: Radical Homosexual Front for Revolutionary Action (FHAR, founded 1971), Group for Homosexual Revolution (GLH, founded 1974), Emergency Committee against Homosexual Oppression (CUARH, founded 1979). 27 “Pour une reconnaissance légale du couple homosexuel,” Le Monde, March 1, 1996. Jean Le Bitoux, Hervé Chevaux, and Bruno Proth, Citoyen de seconde zone, Trente ans de lute pour la reconnaissance de l’homosexualité en France (1971-2002) (Paris: Hachette, 2003). Patrick Pognan, La Répression Sexuelle par les psychiatres, 1850- 1930 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2002), 121-150. Hélène Buisson-Fenet, Un sexe problématique, L’Église et l’homosexualité masculine en France (1971-2000) (Saint-Denis, France: Presses Universitaires de Vincennes, 2004), 5-53. See interview in appendices for Pelé’s use of homosexual.

11 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 all men who slept with men. Meaning the founders considered themselves gay, buy they recognized not all men who had sexual relations with other men self-identified outside ordinary terms. Other sources had similar uses of the terms.

12 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

CHAPTER 2

THE HOMOSEXUAL THREAT, FROM THE REVOLUTION TO HIV

“Homosexuals bring us the plague” appeared as a headline on a January 1982 edition of the sensationalist newspaper France-Soir. The gay rights publication Homophonies responded by asking readers if there could be a disease that only effected gay men and if this disease weren’t really just conservative rhetoric meant to scare gays away from their liberated morality.28 Ever since the CDC reported forty gay men as the first AIDS mortalities press around the world was slow to shake off the link between gay men and AIDS.29 Within months of the CDC report AIDS appeared in IV drug users, Haitians, and hemophiliacs, but the press kept calling it “gay cancer” in headlines.30 By the time printed press and television reporters stopped calling it gay cancer,

Gay Immune Related Disease (GIRD), or other similar names, and doctors renamed the condition AIDS the association with gay men stuck.

France has long perceived men who have sex with men (MSM) as a threat to the state, family, and children.31 Since the French Revolution removed anti-sodomy laws, laws that dated

28 “Les homosexuels nous amènent la peste” reported by the Commission Médecine in “Charme discret...et risques de vagabondage,” February 1982, Homophonies, 18. Archives of Sexuality and Gender, tinyurl.galegroup.com/tinyurl/4MMuy4. 29 Lawrence K. Altman, “Rare Cancer seen in 41 Homosexuals” The New York Times, July 3 1981, http://www.nytimes.com/1981/07/03/us/rare-cancer-seen-in-41-homosexuals.html?pagewanted=print#. 30 Lawrence K. Altman, “Five States Report Disorders in Haitians' Immune Systems,” The New York Times, July 9 1981, http://www.nytimes.com/1982/07/09/us/five-states-report-disorders-in-haitians-immune- systems.html?pagewanted=print#. 31 MSM is also used for males who have sex with males. MSM includes men who today self-identify as gay, bisexual, or pansexual, as well as men who have sex with men in prison, armed service, or just as an alternative to traditional heterosexual sex. Not all men who have sex with men have penetrative sex nor do all MSM consider their sexuality the defining factor in their identity. This concept became salient with the appearance of HIV/AIDS. The term is not ideal for transposons or for men who have sex with transpersons. Khan, S. and Khan, O. A. “The Trouble with MSM” American Journal of Public Health, May 2006, 96(5), 765–766.

13 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 back to 1270 when sodomy was associated with bestially and the cause of natural calamities, legislators still felt the need to curtail the spread of sex between men.32 The threat was perceived at first through Catholic dogma, then through the influence of the Enlightenment. Though, not all enlightenment thinkers agreed. Diderot advanced that sex was a private matter that should not be inhibited by superstitions of the church.33 Helvetius attacked the church for its attempts to regulate sex, believed chastity was unnatural, and defended same-sex relations with historical evidence of “Greek love.”34 In contrast, Rousseau thought that the family needed to be reinforced through the traditional gender roles.35 Rousseau’s ideals carried through to the Revolution.

Revolutionary François Chabot believed “unhappy was the man who doesn’t love women,” that loving women was a sacred “inclination in nature,” and part of being a good republican.36 This made sex between men anathema to the Revolution.

During the revolution, the 1791 Penal Code was passed, the only sexual crime included was rape. Rape, in this case, meant men forcing unwanted sex on women.37 However, another

1791 law dealt with public indecency applied to “offenses against the decency of women...the

http://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2005.084665. Marc Stein, Rethinking the Gay and Lesbian Movement (New York: Routledge, 2012), 147. 32 It is useful to avoid period terms, such as invert or sodomite, because of their negative connotations. Also not all men who have sex with men (MSM) are exclusive to same sex partners for sexual encounters. This term can be applied to men who may only have same sex encounters while women are not available, such as in prisons, boarding schools, and the armed services. The terms homosexual, gay or queer would be anachronistic. Patrice Corriveau, Judging Homosexuals, A History of Gay Persecution in Quebec and France (Vancouver, BC: University British Columbia Press, 2011), 23-25. Michael D. Sibalis, “The Regulation of Male Homosexuality in Revolutionary and Napoleonic France, 1789-1815” in Homosexuality in Modern France, Jeffrey Merrick and Bryant T. Ragan eds, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 80-82. 33 Denis Diderot, Supplément au voyage de Bougainville (1771), http://planetariumzuylenburgh.com/wp- content/uploads/PDF/Denis%20Diderot%20- %20Supplément%20Au%20Voyage%20De%20Bougainville%20%281772%29.pdf Anna Clark, Desire a History of European Sexuality (Routledge, 2008), 108-110. 34 Bryan T. Ragan, Jr. “The Enlightenment Confronts Homosexuality” in Homosexuality in Modern France, 21. 35 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, L'Émile, ou l'éducation, Volumes 1-3, 1762, http://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc87632 36 François Chabot was quoted in Suzanne Desan, The Family on Trial in Revolutionary France (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 75. 37 Geaorges Vigarello, A History of Rape: Sexual Violence in France from the 16th to the 20th Century (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2001), 87-105.

14 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 displaying and selling of obscene images, and of having encouraged debauchery, of having corrupted young people of either sex.”38 Public indecency laws were expanded in 1810 under the Napoleonic code. They applied to all non-normative sexual acts performed in public by men and women. The Indian, Napoleonic, and Franco-Prussian wars helped shore up the idea that

France lost battles because there were not enough men to perform all the tasks related to was

(administration, supply, industry, and fighting). This pro-natalist idea that the population of fighting men was too small supported the notion that the French family needed to support the nation. To do this the French family was nationalized and same-sex sex was demonized as not in the state’s best interests.

The moral threat posed by MSM reappeared over the next two centuries of French history, as did the perceived population problem connected to them. In this chapter I will demonstrate the perceived threat MSM posed over the last two hundred years in France was connected to nationalized pronatalists ideals about the gendered family. First with the

Revolutionaries Nationalized families and patriotic gender roles that preoccupied early legislatures of the young republic. Next, I will show that despite increased visibility of same-sex relations in the third republic, 1870-1940, tolerance did not increase and policing of same-sex encounters continued. Then I will demonstrate how during the thirty years after the Second

World War, the threat of MSM was reproached by Catholic psychologist Dr. Eck and popular playwright Marcel Oraison. Their popularity shows the extent of idealized and the fear of sexual deviants. Despite these traditionalist fears of MSM, gay rights activism started in the 1970s France. Finally, AIDS presented the most recent threat from MSM because they were accused of being vectors and targets for the deadly disease. During the 20th century, France saw men and women who had been oppressed through morality laws stand up against their

38 Sibalis, 1996, 80-82.

15 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 oppressors. This struggle is demonstrated in relationship to its origins in US and French civil rights activism. I argue, that despite the threat anti-homosexual laws posed to men and women in sexual minorities, gay rights activists worked to end their legal oppression. Activists worked against conservatives who held on to traditional ideas about family and reproduction. Pronatalists considered men who did not marry, produce offspring, produce at work, and create stable homes a threat to the nation’s demographic, economic, social, and military success. Police considered

MSM a threat to Paris because they participated in blackmail and seduced youth into the same deviant lifestyle. After the Second World War psychologists saw them as a threat to themselves

(they would never have fulfilling lives without wife, children, and fulfilling their national vocation as men) and as a threat to the state’s mortality. Mental health doctors considered MSM a threat to the nation because of their neurosis and instability. Finally the media painted MSM as a threat to the world because they were thought to spread AIDS in the 1980s and 1990s.

Historiography Since the 1980s historians have been researching gay history from the perspective gender, masculinities, and gay rights. Historians include Jeffrey Merrick, Michael Sibalis, Régis

Revenin, and Julian Jackson, have addressed periods from the old regime to the emergence of the

AIDS crisis.39 Issues addressed have included police surveillance, gay novels and press, locations of gay culture, and gay rights activism. These authors have also focused on the

39 Merrick, Jeffrey and Bryant T. Regan eds. Homosexuality in Modern France (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1996). Sibalis, Michael and Jeffrey Merrick eds. Homosexuality in French History and Culture (New York: Harrington Part Press. 2001). Carolyn J. Dean, The Frail Social Body, Pornography, Homosexuality, and Other Fantasies in Interwar France (Berkley: University California Press, 2000). Régis Revenin, Homosexualité et prostitution masculines à Paris, 1870-1918 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2005). Régis Revenin, Une Histoire des garçonnes et des filles, Amour, genre, sexualité dans la France d’après-guerre (Paris: Vendémaiaire, 2015). Julian Jackson, Living in Arcadia, Homosexuality, Politics, and Morality in France From the Liberation to AIDS (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009).

16 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 development of gay as an accepted identity in relationship to traditionalist priorities of the state and church. Activist authors include Jacques Girard, Jean Le Bitoux, Alain-Gilles Minella, and

Thomas Dupuy. Many relied heavily on personal experience, oral histories, and gay press for their research.40 Activist writers fill in important gaps in this emerging field of history that is considered too recent for many 21st century French historians to write. By shifting analysis and interpretation to a lens of dominant heteronormative ideals readers gain a more complete understanding of gay men’s history and why gay men did not want to be associated with the contagion AIDS.

Robert Nye’s Masculinity and Male Codes of Honor in Modern France and Miranda

Pollard’s Reign of Virtue: Mobilizing Gender in , 1940-1944 initiated the history of

French masculinities.41 These monographs outline the role of the state in forming a strong nation in the late 19th century and the interwar period respectively. They argued that men had the job of creating a strong republic through fatherhood, military participation, and workplace productivity.

Since 2000, Judith Surkis, Joan Tumblety, and Geoff Read have added to the research through their interventions on the male body and misogyny in political parties during the interwar period.42 Kristen S. Childers Fathers, Families, and the State in France, 1914-1945 covers both world wars arguing that the state “cast [citizens] in gendered roles” to protect the state and family. Each of these authors describes how the state dealt with deviant sexuality through

40 Jacques Girard, Le Mouvement homosexuel en France, 1945-1980 (Paris: Editions Syros, 1981). Jean Le Bitoux, Hervé Chevaux, and Bruno Proth, Citoyen de seconde zone, Trente ans de lutte pour la reconnaissance de l’homosexualité en France (1971-2002) (Paris: Hachette, 2003). Alain-Gilles Minella and Philippe Angelotti. Generations Gay (Paris: editions du Rocher, 1996), and Thomas Dupuy. Les Années gai pied, Tant et si peu: l’homosexualité il y a 30 ans (Paris: Des ailes sur in tracteur éditions, 2014). 41 Robert A. Nye, Masculinity and Male Codes of Honor in Modern France (Berkley: University California Press. 1993). Miranda Pollard, Reign of Virtue: Mobilizing Gender in Vichy France, 1940-944 (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1998). 42 Judith Surkis, Sexing the Citizen, Morality and Masculinity in France, 1870-1920 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 2006). Geoff. Read, The Republic of Men, Gender, and the Political Parties in Interwar France (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. 2014). Joan Tumblety. Remaking the male body: masculinity and the uses of physical culture in interwar and Vichy France (Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2012).

17 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 pronatalists measures, promotion of the reproductive Republican family, and Catholic family ideals.43

Background

Members of the National Assembly, during the French Revolution, defined marriage as a civil contract. This meant that the state regulated marriage, divorce, and paternal authority. In

1789, The Younger sons of Provence announced, “the family is a small state, just as the state is a large family.”44 During the Revolution the family was moved out of the clergy’s hands and into the national agenda while keeping the male dominance and traditional gender roles in place.

Marriage became secular and the state the record keeper for family law. Suzanne Desan described this as the state “tying the nation to the wife and husband.”45 By binding the family to the state Revolutionaries infused existing ideals of masculinity and femininity to national goals.

Ideal men and women became a state project and deviance from the ideal was perceived as a threat to the nation.

Revolutionaries were unhappy with single men because they threatened the state by not contributing to its future population. In 1792, pronatalists saw as sterile and selfish.

Pronatalists believed that France’s population was too small and that more children would increase production in the fields, industry, and armed forces. They believed that the low population, compared to neighboring European nations, decreased their military power and that

France simple lacked enough qualified soldiers. A strong nation was built on a strong population and that came from prolific families. They went up against people who promoted Malthusian

43Kristen S. Childers, Fathers, Families, and the State in France, 1914-1945 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003). 44 Suzanne Desan, The Family on Trial in Revolutionary France (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 1. 45 Desan, 49.

18 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 ideas of overpopulation and diminishing natural resources. Malthusians believed that soon there would be too many people on the planet, and subsequently, food and housing production would not be able to keep up. Malthusians supported small families and contraception. President of the

National assembly and writer of cahiers de doléances, Honoré Muriare disagreed. He thought marriage was a duty to the nation; a duty to produce at work and reproduce at home. A slogan at the time announced, “bachelors form a useless weight on the earth that nourishes them.”46 The

National Assembly decided that married men with children were preferred for sales of French state land, while bachelors thirty-six years and older were placed in a higher tax bracket.

Assembly members applied a carrot and stick approach to motivate marriage and large families while deterring celibacy with increased taxes for single men.

In 1791, the Constitutional Assemblies determined that most sexual acts were private because they were performed in the privacy of their homes. Therefore, sex was not under the state’s purview. Following this logic the National Assembly removed anti-sodomy (laws that had been enforced since 1270).47 In 1810, under Napoleon, Penal codes were added. Articles 331 and

334 punished crimes of public indecency and debauchery or corruption respectively.48 Both crimes were punished with imprisonment and fines. Rape of men, women, or children was maintained as a crime with four years hard labor as punishment. The 1810 laws against public indecency represent the solidification of the republican ideals of men, women, and the family.

46 Desan, 55. 47 Sibalis, “The Regulation of Male Homosexuality,” 80-82. Revolutionaries thought sexual acts performed in public (such as traditional, oral, anal, same-sex acts that were completed in alleys, parks, and urinals)47 threatened the state’s stability and youth (family). By keeping the laws off the books the reformers also kept the concept out of the public eye and made the topic even more taboo. The law’s removal was associated with Catholic superstitions that had become outdated in the secular Revolutionary age.47 With this in mind National Assembly members removed the centuries old law that condemned sodomy to being burnt at the stake while later adding laws against public indecency of all kinds. Sibalis, “The Regulation of Male Homosexuality.” 48This law was used against same-sex perpetrators without mentioning sodomy or pederasty. It was used equally against heterosexual who performed sexual acts in public. Sibalis, “The Regulation of Male Homosexuality.”

19 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Fornication in public became a punishable crime, worse if it involved a minor or a person of the same sex. Any deviation from the desired Republican gender roles was seen as a threat to the nation. Napoleon I’s implementation of male citizen soldier defined the role of Frenchmen in war. Soldiers were patriotic, strong, and faithful to the nation and therefore earned the rights to full citizenship. Heterosexuality was an important element in the soldier himself and as a reward for service to the emperor and France. Soldiers were called “lovers, drinkers and warriors.” The two elements, fighter and lover, were intertwined in the ideal male soldier.49

Heteronormative Napoleonic laws continued through the end of the 19th century and into the twentieth century. Rhetoric used to justify laws centered on the French child and keeping children from catching same-sex sexual behavior from socialization with MSM. Despite the removal of anti-sodomy laws, modesty and deviancy laws enabled police to charge, prosecute, or harass MSM in France. Despite this oppression, from the 1870 to 1918, there was a marked increase in gay businesses in Paris and increased visibility of same sex relations. Around 110

“gay” commercial locations existed during this period.50 This included forty-four bars and cafes, thirty-six hotels, two massage parlors, ten dance halls, and twelve bathhouses. The existence of

“gay” businesses did not stop police harassment, arrests, or end the taboo on same-sex relations.

If caught and prosecuted men and women risked their reputations, family, and livelihood. 51

Again during the 1920s and 1930s, gay men and women experienced increased visibility through gay establishments in Paris as well as cabaret performers, film characters, and at public balls as well as literature.52 Increased visibility did not always come with “acceptance.”53 Specifically,

49 Hughes, 123. 50 It is called gay business today but would not have been at the time and place of this paragraph. 51 Régis Revenin, Homosexualité et prostitution masculines à Paris, 1870-1918 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2005), 46-47, 51-55. 52 Tamagne, 221. Jean-Yves Le Talec, Folles de France, repenser l’homosexualité masculine (Paris: Éditions La Découverte, 2008), 88-114. Brassai, Le Paris Secret des années 30 (Paris: Gallimard 1976). Antony Copley, Sexual Moralities in France, 1780-1980, New Ideas on the Family, Divorce, and Homosexuality (New York: Routledge,

20 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

“fag busters ” attacked men who did not fit the ideal male or deviated from normative gendered behaviors.54 In 1934, the Department of the Marines attempted to create stronger laws against male prostitution because civilian men who had sex with marines could not be convicted of a crime under the current law and prosecuting civilians who had relations with marines risked ruining the military’s reputation. However, the attorney general failed to create a law penalizing male prostitution.

This type of intolerance explains, in part, the emergence of new pro family laws in

1939.55 These laws predated requirements that would soon follow in fascist/collaborationist

Vichy government in 1941. The Family Code allocated funds for larger families and aggressively prosecuted abortion.56 In addition the law of March 19, 1939 made the age of consent for same- sex sexual acts eighteen years old. Authors believed French children had to be protected from contracting same-sex preference through contact with “deviants” and the law was in the best interest of the “political family.”57 That is, heterosexuality and reproduction was in the nation’s best interests. Soon the law was replaced with broader restrictions on same-sex sexual acts age of consent from eighteen to twenty-one years old. The law of August 6,1942, conferred this restriction: heterosexual sex act age of consent was set to fifteen years old and twenty one years old for same-sex sex for certain sexual acts. The Reich approved it, then French police and

German soldiers applied the law.58 This law, article 334, was maintained until 1982 when president Mitterrand removed it. Despite the date of the law’s creation, under German

1989). André Gide, Corydon (Paris: Nouvelle Revue Française, 1924). Marcel Proust, À la recherche du temps perdu seven volume series published from 1913 to 1927. 53 Tamagne, 221. 54 Ibid. 55 This was before Vichy era started in July 1940. 56 K. H. Adler, Jews and Gender in Liberation France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 71. “Code de l'action sociale et des familles,” http://dictionnaire.sensagent.leparisien.fr/Code%20de%20l%27action%20sociale%20et%20des%20familles/fr-fr/. 57 Marc Boninchi, Vichy et l’ordre moral (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2005), 143-156. 58 Boninchi, 143-152.

21 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 occupation, the law came out of French judicial concerns about its service members same sex activities with civilians. That is, French judges actively worked to suppress same-sex sexual behaviors. They saw same-sex sexuality as a threat to French morality, French children, and the future of the nation.

During the German annexation of , , and Haut-Rhin departments an estimated 10,000 to 350,000 gay men and women were rounded up and deported to work camps.59 Names came from existing police records.60 Some died at camps from overwork or disease, while others were murdered for their sexual preferences. These men and women who survived never received state allocated holocaust survivor funds and, until recently, have been largely left out of French history.61 Adding the homosexual holocaust to textbooks, war memorials, and distributing state funds to the camp survivors risked validating same-sex preference.62 The Reich’s persecution of gay men and women indeed validated existing beliefs about non-normative sexuality: it was a threat to the reproductive and productivity not only of

France, but to the race and to Europe. The continued denial of reparations to camp survivors and their inability to talk openly about their experiences attest to the continued threat gay men and women posed to France. Admitting publicly to surviving the camp for gay men and women would have been tantamount to admitting sexual deviancy and risked the loss of reputation, income, and family.63

59 The number most widely accepted is around 10,000 men and women were deported, from France, to work or concentration camps for their sexuality during the German occupation. 60 , I, Pierre Seel, Deported Homosexual, A memoire of Nazi Terror, trans. (New York: Basic Books, 1995), 1-25. 61 Seel, 149. Jean Le Bitoux, Les Oubliés de la mémoire (Hachette Littératures, 2002). 62 The term homosexual is used profusely by the author-self identified- and works cited (including German documents and French periodicals) to describe deportations of men and women who had gay preferences in Pierre Seel, I ,Pierre Seel, Deported Homosexual, A Memoire of Nazi Terror. Also gay rights activist, journalist, and author Jean Le Bitoux calls the event “homosexual deportation.” He uses this term throughout Les Oubliés de la mémoire (Paris: Hachette, 2002) 63 Ibid.

22 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Following the Second World War, General kept the August 6, 1942 law and revalidated it on February 8, 1945 when it was re-signed into law.64 According to Karen

Adler, this law “made explicit, the politics of demography concerned nationalism, race, ethnicity and gender.” Adler contends that “homophobic legislation ...was retained... and adjusted to greater precision” by the liberation and reconstruction governments .65 On July 27, 1945 De

Gaulle adopted paragraph 3 of section 331 on indecent assault,

Anyone who commits an indecent act or an unnatural act with another individual of his sex under twenty-one years shall be punished with a fine...and imprisonment of from six months to three years.66

Pro-family and pronatalists of the 1930s succeeded through the Vichy regime and into the postwar era passing laws to increase births and decrease non-reproductive behaviors (including abortion and deviant sexuality).67 During the Fourth Republic, 1946 to 1958, France saw a return to traditional ideals about family. Despite a large increase in birthrates, pronatalists continued to work for growth in French reproductive rates and the nationalized family through increased family allowances based on the number of children. Youth and children became the focus of commercialism and the state. They were seen simultaneously as the nation’s hope for the future and embodied fears around deviancy (such as crime sexuality).68 The Kinsey report (translated in to French in 1949), expanded roles for women in the workforce, and traditional family ideals met new depictions of men and women in film and literature. Françoise Sagan’s Bonjour tristesse threatened the ideal woman as chaste before marriage and submissive with a heroin who rejected

64 Patrice Corriveau, Judging Homosexuals, A History of Gay Persecution in Quebec and France (Vancouver, BC: University British Columbia Press, 2011), 160. 65 Karen Adler, Jews and Gender in Liberation France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 83, 97. 66 Cited by Patric Corrivea, Kathe Roth trans. Judging Homosexuals, a History of Gay Persecution in Quebec and France (Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia, 2011), 107-8. 67 Adler, 1-30. 68 Lee Edelman, No Future, and the Death Drive (Durham NC: Duke University Press, 2004), 1-60. Richard Ivan Jobs, Riding the New Wave, Youth and the Rejuvenation of France after the Second World War (Standford: Stanford University Press, 2007), Jobs, 1-15.

23 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 gendered norms for a fast sexual life, free of parental rules. 69 Simone de Beauvoir’s feminist manifesto The Second Sex (1949) refuted the idea that women were innately mothering, supported abortion and contraception.70 Jean Genet’s popular autobiographical and openly gay fiction demonstrated how publishers were more willing to produce this non-normative fiction and readers were very interested in buying it. During the late 1950s and 1960s children started to self-identify as gay while social workers noted this sexual preference without using it against children in their reports. These events reflect slowly emerging changes in French thought that challenged the idea that women had to be chaste till marriage and only men could have premarital sex.71 However, many French still believed that same-sex desire threatened the nation following the war.

Despite continued state promotion of the Republican heterosexual family through the continuation of anti-homosexual Vichy era laws a homophile movement emerged in Paris.

Parisian men were prohibited from dancing in public with a new law on February 1, 1949. One answer to this prohibition was private parties. Catholic André Baudry formed the club Arcadie in

1954. This organization followed in the footsteps of the homophile movement that had started in

1945 in other nations. This club produced a monthly publication that focused on the history of same sex relations between men dating to the Greeks, held talks, dances, and allowed men to socialize with other men without the fear of police harassment. Women were welcome at the club, but it was mostly white, middle-class men who participated in the organization.72 However,

69 Jobs, 2007, 1-15. 70 Jackson, 45. 71 Adler, 1-30. Copley, 198-228. Revenin, 2015, 111-123. Jobs, 2007, 1-15, 145, 161-171, 188-190, 217-273. Sarah Fishmen, From Vichy to the Sexual Revolution, Gender and the Family Life in Postwar France (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), xi-17, 30-33, 43-4998-113, 162. 72 Jackson, 2009, 1-93.

24 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 in face of growing openness to talking about sex, taboos around sexuality remained.73

Conservatives continued to work towards preserving the traditional family, but they were faced with a slowly changing society. The ability to discuss sexuality and gender roles should not be overemphasized. Heteronormative pro-family national ideas remained the norm for the whole of the 20th century.

The Homophile Threat

In the 1960s, when gay behavior had moved from taboo into the vocabulary of social workers and children, a new law was passed making homosexuality a social scourge.74

Politicians addressed the threat to France with the 1960 Mirguet law. On July 18, 1960 Paul

Mirguet proposed and passed a new law making homosexuality a “social scourge” with alcohol and tuberculosis. Once titled legally as a social scourge legislators and police were enabled to take all measures necessary to protect the nation. Rhetoric around this amendment was couched in nationalism, specifically the protection of the nation’s youth:

I think it is not necessary to insist at length, as you are all conscious of the seriousness of this scourge that is homosexuality, against which we have the duty to protect our children.

At the moment when our civilization, dangerously in a minority when compared to the rest of the world, becomes so vulnerable we must fight against all that can diminish its prestige; in this area as in others, France must lead by example.75

73 Adler, 1-30. Copley, 198-228. Revenin, 2015, 111-123. Jobs, 2007, 1-15, 145, 161-171, 188-190, 217-273. Fishmen, 2017, xi-17, 30-33, 43-4998-113, 162. 74 Revenin, 2015, 111-123. 75 Trans Marek Redburn. The Dictionary of Homophobia, Louis-George Tin ed. (Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp Press, 2008). Assemblée Nationale 2e séance du July 19, 1960. Journal Officiel (Assemblée Nationale 1960), 1981. http://archives.assemblee-nationale.fr/1/cri/1959-1960-ordinaire2/060.pdf.

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Charles de Gaulle was president at the time with Michel Debrė as prime minister. At this point

Arcadie (the longest running homophile group at the time) had been around for over a decade and changing ideas about sexuality were eating away at the gay taboo. Children started using the term pédé (faggot) to self identify. However, this was often more of a revolt against normative masculinity in late 1960s among youth: men and adolescent who had long hair, jeans, and used perfume.76 Social workers reported on children without stigma around this minority sexual preference. 77 This changed in daily language and the emerging gay rights appeared as a real and growing threat to the post-war ultra-conservative government. For some it appeared as if their fears had started to come to fruition. The threat to French masculinity had a face and a name in

Arcadie. The Mirguet law was a reaction to the change. The police had failed stop the perceived wave of increased same-sex preference resulted in the state’s intervention.

Pro-family conservatism of Charles de Gaulle had re-emerged in support of the 1960 law.

In the 1960s government and health officials saw gay men as a threat to the national health. The minister of public health, M. Chenot, believed antibiotic resistance and gay men caused a sharp rise in cases of syphilis. On July 23, 1967 he reported to the National Assembly, “in reality, there are two causes of this: microbes’ increased resistance to antibiotic [and] the considerable expansion of homosexuality in all countries [...] How can we fight this resurgence? By imposing stronger sentences on homosexuals.”78 Chenot’s was first to advocate anti-homosexual laws in the 1960s, but not all senators agreed. Frederic-Dupont argued against any more measures to counter the disease because what France was doing, by international agreement, was enough.

76 Régis Revenin, Une Histoire des garçonnes et des filles, Amour, genre, sexualité dans la France d’après-guerre (Paris: Vendémaiaire, 2015), 114-123. Julian Jackson, Living in Arcadia 77 Revenin, 2015, 114-123. Julian Jackson, Living in Arcadia 78 Kathe Roth Trans. Judging Homosexuals, 183. “La recrudescence des maladies vénériennes n'est pas particulière à la France” July 24, 1967, Le Monde http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1961/07/24/la-recrudescence-des-maladies-veneriennes-n-est-pas- particuliere-a-la-france_2266205_1819218.html?xtmc=chenot&xtcr=3.

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Dupont spoke only about prostitutes and did not address Chenot’s concern about gay men. This article follows a 1964 report on increased syphilis in , which blamed prostitutes exclusively.79 This change, blaming prostitutes from blaming gay men and prostitutes, demonstrated dissent in popular ideas about sexual deviancy. Some no longer considered same- sex sex a problem or vector for illness; it was no longer a national threat to them. However, deviant sexuality continued to pose a problem and was still associated with disease and seen as a threat to the nation.

Psychologists agreed with the medical doctors that MSM posed a threat to the nation.80

The same year this Mirguet law was passed Catholic psychologist Marcel Eck published The

Parents and the educators before the threat of homosexuals through the . He asserted, “homosexuality appears to be growing at alarming rates. It's to the point we could call it a homosexual risk.”81 Eck “helped shape official attitudes” towards gay men that resulted in the 1960 Miguet law.82 Later in the decade Eck expanded on his ideas with the inclusion of biblical references attesting to the moral threat homosexuality posed: “In the context of Leviticus

18, 22, and 20, 13 and one of the chapters in Romans 1, 26 and 27 it is here that the sin of the transgression [whose punishment] is left in the hands of god.”83 Eck mixed Christianity with psychology arguing, “pure homosexuality, free from any potential neurosis, would be exceptional, we never see that in our clinic.” 84 Jackson notes the impact Dr. Eck’s heteronormative Christian comments had on the homosexual debate and that the writers of

79 “Deux cent quinze cas de syphilis constatés en 1963 à Toulouse contre cinq en 1958” February 28, 1964. Le Monde, http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1964/02/28/deux-cent-quinze-cas-de-syphilis-constates-en-1963-a- toulouse-contre-cinq-en-1958_2130998_1819218.html?xtmc=maladies_veneriennes&xtcr=32. 80 Marcel Eck, Les parents et les éducateurs devant le péril homosexuel (Paris, Centre Catholique d'Éducation familiale, 1960) 81 Eck, 1960. 82 Copley, 217. Jackson, 2009, 106-109, 159, 182. 83 Marcel Eck, Sodome ou essai sur l'homosexualité (Paris: Fayard 1966), 267-8. 84 Eck, 1966.

27 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Arcadie tackled them.85 Not only did Catholics feel threatened by gay men and women, gay men and women felt threatened by their Catholic attackers. During the thirty years following the

Second World War same-sex preference appeared to be growing more and more commonplace; more and more youth in the 1960s self-identified as gay.86 Politicians, psychologists, and religious leaders failed to stop the very slow tide of change in sexuality and gender that emerged out of World War Two.

Medical doctors, psychiatrists, religious figures, and politicians debated how best to protect youth. While at first this applied to the baby boomer generation, later it was applied to other generations of children.87 The law was the state’s reaction to the perceived spread of

MSM. The appearance of syphilis was manipulated to help establish the threat in the public eye.

This same public was becoming used to MSM and the medico-legal establishment felt threatened.

Similar arguments and debates went on during the 20th century in the United States and

France. Much like France’s Club Arcadie, the 1950s and 1960s saw a US homophile movement.

In 1951, Harry Hay founded the Mattachine Society in Los Angeles “to unify homosexuals.”

The California branch ended in 1953, but new regional groups formed in six cities across the

US.88 Daughters of Bilitis came out of the Mattachine Society, in San Francisco in 1955, when

Rose Bamberger wanted an alternative to bars and clubs for lesbian socializing. Unlike France, pro-gay riots, demonstrations, and sit-ins took place in New York, Philadelphia, San Francisco,

85 Jackson, 106-109. 86 Revenin, 2015, 110-124. Fishman, 110-113. 87 J-3 is what the French baby boomers were called in the 1950s The term came from the adolescent ration card classification. In 1957 Nouveau vague was coined by a journalist speaking about the baby boomers. They were a wave of population on demographic charts. 88 Stein, 46, 55.

28 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 and Los Angeles from 1959 into the late 1960s, before Stonewall.89 In addition, the US saw more wide-spread radical activism through the 1960s and 1970s from gays and lesbians. The

Gay Liberation Front (GLF) formed in 1969 after the . The Gay Liberation Front rejected traditional marriage believing the institution “imprisoned women and daughters.” Its members organized into cells, each cell had a specialty, such as hosting queer balls or editing the newsletter. They have been credited with the removal of homosexuality from the American

Psychiatric Associations (APA) lists of mental illnesses because of their disruptive presence at the APA national conventions from the summer of 1970 to 1973.90 However, neither U.S., nor

French activists were unified in their goals: some wanted to be accepted as normal while others did not care if they met the heteronormative ideal forced on them by an unaccepting society.

In 1970, the Gay Activist Alliances (GAA) broke away from the Gay Liberation Front.

Vitto Russo and Morty Manford were two of the GAA early members. This group used

Freemasonry’s Robert’s Rules to organize meetings and had one goal: “civil liberties for gay people.” The Gay Activist Alliances method for achieving civil rights was through “zaps” where activists “confronted homophobic public figures.”91 Because of internal disagreements, GAA member, Bruce Voeller created the National Gay Task Force (NGTF, known today as the

National LGBTQ Task Force). Voeller and others wanted to move gay rights into the mainstream civil rights movement.92 Voeller believed “gay liberation had become a nine-to-five job.”93 The National Gay Task Force worked to end anti-sodomy laws and increase gay

89 Marc Stein, Rethinking the Gay and Lesbian Movement (New York: Routledge, 2012), 81. Lilian Faderman and Stuart Timmons, Gay L.A., A history of Sexual Outlaws, Power Politics, and Lipstick Lesbians (New York: Basic Books, 2006), 1-6. Marc Stein, City of Sisterly & Brotherly Love, Lesbian and Gay Philadelphia, 1945-1972 (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2000), 226-315. 90 Martin Duberman, Has the Gay Movement Failed? (Oakland: University of California Press, 2018),1-11, 42. 91 Ibid, 27, 39. 92 Ibid, 39-42. https://www.nyclgbtsites.org/site/national-gay-task-force-headquarters/ 93 Lillian Faderman, The Gay Revolution, The Story of the Struggle (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2015), 258- 261.

29 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 visibility. Despite concerted efforts and the support of key politicians, the group failed to pass the Equality Act or the 1975 Civil Rights Amendment.94 American gays and lesbians have not seen ever-increasing rights since the Stonewall riots and activists disagree on their objectives.95

Some American activists wanted full sexual liberation for consenting adults sexual activities.

Others only wanted and end to legalized gay discrimination, gain trans acceptance, rights to same-sex parenting, or equal access to marriage.

Unlike France, in the US there have been more gay rights organizations from the 1950s to

1990s. Moreover, the period in the USA saw the development of more gay medical associations and clinics than in France. For example, in 1971 the Los Angeles Gay Liberation Front’s Gay

Survival Committee coined the term “oppression sickness” to explore how “homophobia literally made people sick” and resulted in the creation of the Los Angeles Gay Community

Services Center to meet medical, legal, housing and social needs.96 In San Francisco doctor

Robert K. Bolan cofounded the National Coalition of Gay Sexually Transmitted disease that

“had over fifty services groups or members across the country.” In 1975, Boston had the Fenway clinic for gays and lesbians.97 In France, the Association of Gay Doctors founded was in 1979 by

Dr. Claude LeJeune, but it never achieved its goal of a dedicated clinic for gay men. Internal divisions around HIV/AIDS response and gay needs in general split the organization and weakened their response to the healthcare needs of gay men.98 These events in the USA and

94 Faderman, 261. 95 Steven Epstein, “Gay and Lesbian Movements in the United States: Dilemmas of Identity, Diversity, and Political Strategy” in The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics, National Imprints of a Worldwide Movement, Berry Adams, Jan William Duyvendak, and Andre Krouwel eds. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), 30- 39. Stein, 79-182. 96 Katie Batza, Before AIDS, Gay Health Politics in the 1970s (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018), 24-30. 97 Jennifer Brier, Infectious Ideas, US Political Responses to the AIDS Crisis (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 15-27. 98 Association des médecins gais (AMG) was informally created in 1979 and became an official organization on May 5, 1981. Pinell, 2002, 35-37. Olivier Fillieule and Jan William Duyvendak, “Gay and Lesbian Activism in

30 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

France demonstrate that the narrative that following Stonewall gay rights activism reversed years of sexual oppression and resulted in gay men and women gaining equal rights in every American state and most western European nations is not accurate.99

More specifically, the May 1968 riots protests at the Sorbonne produced one quickly squelched sexual liberation and gay rights group, the Pederastic Revolutionary Committee

(CAPR). This small group of men attempted to include same-sex sexuality and other sexual freedoms in the May ‘68 social, political, and civil rights movements that emerged during the riots. However, posters were quickly torn down, no formal organization emerged, and by the first week of June 1968 the group had disbanded. In 1971, the Radical Homosexual Front for

Revolutionary Action (FHAR, 1971-1974) formed and demanded “the right to be different.”100

One founder, who wished to remain anonymous, had left for a teaching position in New York after the failure of Pederastic Revolutionary Committee.101 While, in New York he saw the

Stonewall riots and participated in the Gay Liberation Front. The Gay Liberation Front taught him “how to stage demonstrations and invent slogans.” 102 Other Radical Homosexual Front for

Revolutionary Action members had been to California and picked up activism ideas there.

Unlike Pederastic Revolutionary Committee, the Homosexual Front for Revolutionary Action quickly gained a large following. Thousands attended weekly meetings. The diversity in membership resulted in a split group. For example, the gazolines went out in gender bending or drag attire to very public venues where they danced and sang just to disrupt people around

France” in The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics. 195. “AMG,” https://centrelgbtparis.org/association-de-medecine-gay-et-gay-friendly. Olivier Jablonski, Georges Sideris, Jean- Yves Le Talec, Santé gaie (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2010), 33. 99 Stein 2012, 79-207. 100 Olivier Fillieule and Jan William Duyvendak, “Gay and Lesbian Activism in France” in The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics. 101 Michael Sibalis interview with CAPR member in “And What then about “Our” Problem’- Gay Liberation in the Occupied Sorbonne in May 1968” in May 68, Rethinking France’s Last Revolution, Julian Jackson, Anne-Louise Milne and James S. Williams eds. (New York: Palgrave McMillan, 2011), 131. 102 Sibalis, “The Spring of May ’68 and the Origins of the Gay Liberation Movement in France” (2009), 245.

31 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 them.103 The gazolines consisted of around twelve queens and transgendered activists from 1972 to 1974 and got their name from the use of camp stoves used to make tea and sausage at meetings.104 However, within the most effeminate portion of FHAR, the gazolines, there was a split: the communist side and the politically left side.105 Other members debated how do advocate for sexual rights and which were the most important. In 1974, police intervened at weekly meetings and the group disbanded. The Homosexual Front for Revolutionary Action was the more radical end of French gay rights activism. In 1974 the Group for Homosexual

Revolution (GLH) formed. Like Homosexual Front for Revolutionary Action, the Group for

Homosexual Revolution held meetings in several of the major cities in France, and much like

Homosexual Front for Revolutionary Action and gay rights groups in the USA, members did not all agree on the agenda nor the methods to obtain their goals. The result was the Group for

Homosexual Revolution branched into three related groups in December 1975. One branch, the

Politics and Daily Life group, held the first gay in 1977. In 1979 activists from the

Politics and Daily Life group reorganized into more tightly organized political goals and methods, resulting in the creation of the Emergency Committee against Homosexual Oppression

(CUARH).106

The Emergency Committee against Homosexual Oppression was unlike the previous gay rights group in France. It’s branches across France were centrally organized, worked with the media, trade unions, and, most importantly, activists lobbied for gay rights. This “umbrella organization” supervised political and media actions of sixteen other gay and lesbian rights

103 Sibalis, 2009, 245. 104 Jean Le Bitoux, 2003, 89. Sibalis, 2009, 245. Les Gazolines, http://paris70.free.fr/gazoline.htm. 105 Jean-Yves le Talec, Folles de France, Repenser l’homosexualité masculine (Paris: Éditions la Découverte, 2009), 198-99. 106 Sibalis, 2009, 236-249. Sibalis, 2011, 122-133.

32 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 groups.107 In 1980, the group campaigned in the presidential elections through national demonstrations forcing “candidates to talk publicly about anti-homosexual discrimination.”108

The result was President François Mitterrand’s removal of anti-homosexual laws in 1981, 1982, and 1985.109 The success of the Emergency Committee against Homosexual Oppression was also its demise. In 1982 regional branches disbanded and its monthly publication and

Homophonies stopped printing in 1986.110 The success of the Emergency Committee against

Homosexual Oppression did not mean an end to the appearances of a homosexual threat or their acceptance. Instead, gay men and women appeared to some more threatening. Their politics had won them rights that appeared to go against the French ideal of Universalism and at a time when same-sex sexuality re-emerged through its link to contagion- HIV/AIDS.

Comparing US and French gay rights activism reveals first, that the myth of Stonewall,

(gay oppression resulted in global activism, activism sparked by the Stonewall riots, and in turn upturned cultural and institutional gay oppression) is not accurate for either the US or France.111

Neither country has full rights for gay or transpersons in every aspect of life and what it means to be gay varies by location. Second, this comparison also reveals how established gay rights groups in the US resulted in the creation of HIV/AIDS medical centers and networks that helped gay men in the US respond quickly. The lack of the same type of gay rights organizations and dissent in its only gay medical organization made it much harder for gay men in France to establish resources once HIV/AIDS emerged. In addition, this comparison places France and gay men in France at a precarious position once HIV/AIDS emerged. Gay health continued to present

107 Fillieule and Duyvendak, 2012, 191. 108 “Présidentielles,” Homophonies 1, November 1980, 6-7. Quoted in Sibalis, 2009, 248. 109 Sibalis, 2009, 236-249. Sibalis, 2011, 122-133. 110 Fillieule and Duyvendak, 2012, 193. 111 Martin F. Manalansan IV, “In the Shadow of Stonewall, Examining Gay Transnational Politics and the Diasporic Dilemma,” GLQ, Vol 2, 425-438.

33 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 real problems with access to care and bias of doctors who had preconceived ideas about MSM, but it was not the most important thing for gay men in France in the first half of the 1980s.

Unlike the US, in France gay men and women were only just starting to gain liberties and rights that had been more well established in the US when AIDS emerged.

In 1981, when socialist Françoise Mitterrand was elected president, he started removing laws targeting gay men and women (including the status of homosexuality as a social scourge) and AIDS appeared around the world (some called AIDS the new social scourge). At first, it was called “gay cancer,” because the CDC first reported the illness in 40 gay men. Yet even after non-gay men and women had all the symptoms, that is the “four H” group: hemophiliacs, heroin users, gay men, and Haitians “gay cancer” remained in press headline and as the dominant association with the disease112 Doctors had confirmed what they already had anticipated, AIDS

(believed to be caused by a virus) was not limited to gay men. Finally, the disease appeared in apparently normal people-straight mothers and fathers who did not use drugs, travel to Haiti, nor have sex with men who had sex with men: any sexually active person was a risk.113

Regardless of new cases of HIV/AIDS in non-gay men, the myth of contagion posed by gay men was refreshed in the most deadly manner through AIDS. AIDS appeared when many thought science had conquered contagious disease. Early AIDS history paralleled a gay history trajectory of mystical threat guarded by taboo and secrecy that had shackled men who slept with men to lives of secrecy and shame since the Revolution. To announce one’s HIV positive status was tantamount to admitting to same-sex sexual relations. to one’s family and

112 The first 40 patients reported by the CDC in the MMR were homosexuals. 113 Lawrence K. Altman “New Homosexual Disorder Worries Health Officials,” May 11, 1982, The New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/1982/05/11/science/new-homosexual-disorder-worries-health-officials.html.

34 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 friends in the 1980s and 1990s France, much like today, risked loss of reputation and career.114

This was seen in how doctors handled AIDS patients and how patients kept their HIV status a secret. At first doctors did not tell patients their HIV/AIDS status.115 For example, in 1984,

Michael Foucault died of AIDS complications without ever knowing that he’d had the syndrome.

Later, doctors recommended their patients keep their HIV status a secret. Silence around HIV-

AIDS status eventually ended especially as patients, family, and friends saw that not only did friends need to know their HIV status, but also the state was not acting to treat or prevent the spread of AIDS. As long as it was kept quiet the state could deny the gravity of the problem.

Patients and their families wanted action taken in treatment and prevention of the disease.116

The “gay cancer” myth was enhanced by the media’s sound bite styled reporting.

Sensationalism, through the use of a very quickly dispelled “gay cancer” myth, demonstrates the ongoing threat gay men posed. This threat is what caused an almost absent response to the epidemic. By 1984 116 people had died of AIDS in France and 70% of HIV positive patents were gay in January 1985.117 Medical doctors never thought the disease was limited to gays, but because media continued to use the term “gay cancer” in headlines the perception that gay meant

AIDS, and AIDS meant gay stuck with readers and their interlocutors.

It appeared to politicians that if they were to intervene they would be pandering to the gay community. Journalist Frederic Martel blamed the failure of French AIDS response on men

114 Éduard Louis, The End of Eddy, Micheal Lucey trans. [En finir avec Eddy Bellegueule, Paris: Seuil, 2014] (New York, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2017). Gaëtan Duchateau and Florant Guerlain, Dernier Inventaire avant le marriage pour tous (Paris: stock, 2012), 7. Alian-Gilles Minella and Philippe Angelotti, Generations Gay (Paris: Éditions Rocher, 1996). Éric Fassin, L’Inversion de la question homosexuelle (Paris: Éditions Amsterdam, 2005), 161-163. Didier Eribon, Insult and the Making of the Gay Self, Michael Lucey trans. [Réflexions sur la question gay, Paris: 1999] (Durham NC: Duke University Press, 2004). 115 Laura Mellini, Albero Godenzi, and Jacqueline de Puy, Le SIDA ne se dit pas, analyse des forms de secret autour du VHI/sida (Paris: L’Hermattan, 2004), 17-32. Christian Ebendinger-Cury, Le SIDA, Un secret en cache toujours un autre (Revigny-sur-Ornain, France: Martin Media, 1996), 11-32. 116 Jean Le Bitoux, Herve Chevaux, and Bruno Proth. Citoyen de seconde zone (Paris: Hachette, 2003) 117 Pierre Favre, Sida et Politique, Les premiers affrontements (1981-1987) (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1992), 35-7.

35 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 and women in the gay community itself. He took the term communautarisme, normally used for race or ethic related politics and applied it to his idea of the gay community in France.118

Supporting any form of communitiarism (communautarisme) went against Republican and

Universalist philosophies because it supposed another identity before identity to the French state.119 Communitiarism has been defined as “the embrace of one’s particularity in the public sphere.”120 The gay community constituted a form of communitiarism (e.g., the Marais neighborhood of Paris and gay activism) and was seen as threat to civic unity and the ideal of universality in France.121 The association of HIV/AIDS with the USA and the association of gay activism with anti-republican values furthered the idea that gay men were a threat to the nation.

Martel’s popular history only added flames to the fire. He asserted that had the gay community acted differently HIV/AIDS might have not become the epidemic that it was in 1999. Also despite Mitterrand’s recent removal of anti-homosexual laws, among the far right MSM continued to threatened the nation. This threat could not be addressed without politicians looking like a threat to universalism themselves.122

In 1986, Michèle Barzach was made minister of social affairs, employment, and family health.123 Frank Arnal, journalist for Gai Pied and gay rights activists, vilified Barzach for targeting IV drug users and children in the first condom and AIDS education campaigns when

118 Frédéric Martel, The Pink and the Black, Homosexuals in France Since 1968, Jane Marie Todd trans. [Rose et le noir : les homosexuels en France depuis 1968, Paris: Seuil, 1996] (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000), xvii- xviii, 200, 206-208, 212, 229-229, 347-359. Herman Lebovics, Brining Empire Back Home, France in he Global Age (Durham NC: Duke University Press, 2004). 119 Since the publication of The Pink and the Black and the works of Lebovics, Mack, and Fernando, communitiarism has expanded to ‘“a basic loyalty to a given community (whether ethnic, religious, cultural, or sexual) ...a democratic corrupting illness”’ according to Perreau, 2016, 145. Favre, 35-7. 120 Mayanthi L. Fernando, The Unsettled Republic, Muslim French and the Contradictions of Secularism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014), 36. Lebovics, 179-190. 121 Mehammed Amadeus Mack, Sexagon, Muslims, France, and the Sexualization of National Culture (New York: Fordham University Press, 2017), 30. Mayanthi L. Fernando, The Unsettled Republic, Muslim French and the Contradictions of Secularism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014), 36. Lebovics, 179-190. 122 Patrice Pinell, ed. Une épidémie politique, La Lutte contre le sida en France, 1981-1996 (Paris: Presses Universitaire de France, 2002), 90-97, 132-154. 123 Favre, 35-7.

36 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 gays made up an estimated 70% of the infected population.124 Arnal cites the visibility of gays in

France as a determining factor.125 France had gay pride parades annually since 1977. In 1982,

Presidential candidate Solange d’Harcourt had campaigned stating “The immorality that sociologists are spreading across France is a socialist project. It is this sort of freedom that will let homosexuals spread their disease to our children”126 D’Harcourt confirmed Arnal’s conviction that changing the law, visibility on the streets, and in printed press, did not equal acceptance by France. Le Quotidien de Paris printed “Homosexuals punished by cancer” demonstrating the moral threat MSM posed in a secular state.127

For Arnal, this resulted in one of the slowest government responses to AIDS in a country with one of the largest populations with the disease. Arnal and Pinell and others blamed Jean-

Marie Le Pen, founder of the Front National (FN), for perpetuating homophobic politics and for policies made during the Bazach period in health administration. However, they clarify that it was not only apathy towards gays but also politicking. Barzach acted strategically to demonstrate a universal approach to caring for each individual citizen, avoiding gay right leanings, under the auspice of avoiding stigmatization of a group, and setting up safe sex (condoms) education for youth and syringe sales for IV drug users. All the while Barzach “Profited from her near total monopoly on the media.” 128 The result of government inaction, delayed needle sales, condom advertisement, and government sponsored AIDS education (aimed at the larges at risks groups –

124 Gai Pied was a gay magazine started by Jean Le Bitoux that spanned the 1970s and 80s. Gai Pied was known for its affiliation with commercialized gay culture and popular press. It represented the a new generation of gay men in France because it did not try to assimilate with mainstream French culture as Arcadie was known toFrank Arnal, Résister ou disparaitre, Les homosexuels face au SIDA, La prévention de 1982 a 1992 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1993). 125 Arnal, 66. 126 Thomas Dupuy. Les Années gai pied, Tant et si peu: l’homosexualité il y a 30 ans (Paris: Des Ailes sur un tracteur Éditions, 2014), 65. 127 Quoted in Dupuy. Les Années gai pied, 81. Rene von Schomberg ed. Science, Politics and Morality: Scientific Uncertainty and Decision Making (Springer, 1993) DOI: 10.1007/978-94-015-8143-1, cited as Le Matin, January 2, 1982. The article may have been syndicated. 128 Pinell, 2002, 90-97, 132-154.

37 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 needle drug users and the gay community) resulted in more AIDS deaths than any community wanted to see.129

Conclusion

Same-sex sexual preference may have finally breached the borders of taboo because of the gay rights movements and increased visibility in mainstream press, television, and gay pride parades. Civil unions (Pacs) in the 1999 and legalized marriage in 2013 are now available to same-sex couples. However, there have been marches of up to 10,000 people against gay marriage since the 2013 law passed. Threats to the child and family exist in the laws that prohibit same-sex couples access to fertility treatment (because same-sex couples cannot demonstrate a medical need for fertility treatments). The Vatican still opposes same-sex sexuality despite a stance of love the person and pray for the lifestyle. The threat has not left, only advocates of traditional families have condensed into different groups of people who hold out for a homogenous heteronormative French state.

129 Arnal, 72.

38 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

CHAPTER 3

THE RAPIN REPORT AND MICHÈLE BARZACH

In the global HIV/AIDS crisis France’s role appears contradictory: quickly French scientists identified the virus that causes AIDS (HIV), but France was among the slowest nations to respond in the industrialized world. In March 1983, French doctor, Luc Montagnier isolated

HIV and called it LAV. In 1984 there were between 150 and 200 gay men in France diagnosed with AIDS.1 The cases appeared at a rate of one per week. More importantly, the number of cases of AIDS among gay men had doubled since 1983 and continued to double every three months.2 Despite discovering HIV, having the highest percentage and raw number of HIV infected persons Europe, France also was one of the slowest European nations to respond at the state level. The UK, Germany, and Sweden started state HIV/AIDS prevention initiatives before

France.3 This chapter will explain how the first French state response to HIV/AIDS occurred in

1987 under physician and Minister of Health and Family Michèle Barzach. It will explain why

Barzach implemented over the counter needle sales, anonymous testing centers, and launched a universalized HIV/AIDS education campaign on television, radio, theatres, and Minitel.

When the largely unknown Parisian physician Michèle Barzach was named Minister of

Health and Family on March 24, 1986, she set in motion the first French national response to

1 Laurent Greilsamer. “Les militants gays prennent le SIDA au sérieux,” Le Monde, September 10, 1984, http://abonnes.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1984/09/10/les-militants-gays-pr...au- serieux_3020248_1819218.html?xtmc=l_association_des_medecins_gays&xtcr=1. 2 Pollak, 1990, 84. And Laurent Greilsamer September 10,1984, Le Monde. 3 Monika Steffen, The Fight Against AIDS (Grenoble, France: Presses Universitaires de Grenoble, 1996), 7-45. Young Soo Kim, “Domestic contexts for responses to global HIV/AIDS in France: perception, Media Role and civil society” International Politics 2016, Vol. 53, 3, 343-360.

39 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

HIV/AIDS. At every decision Barzach made an appearance on TV, in the newspapers, or in magazines. Her very public presence was unprecedented for any public figure in France.

Traditionally, politicians and ministers did not use the media to promote themselves, agendas, or policy decisions. However, Barzach appeared on the cover of popular magazines Paris Match

May 22, 1987 and Le Figaro May 3, 1986 and Catholic magazines like La Vie February 15, 1989 and Pèlerin March 9, 1990 in addition to televised interviews.4 She appeared in the news:

Antenne 2 Le Journal de 20H on June 23, 1986 to discuss condom advertisement, Apostrophes

February 17, 1989 in a panel discussion on health and to promote her book Le Paravent des

Égoïsmes. She also appeared television shows L’Heure de vérité June 3, 1987.5 This small sample of Barzach’s media presence shows unprecedented media use for any public figure.

Since 1987, Minister Barzach has been called the “AIDS Minister.”6 Frank Le Floch argued Barzach’s “personal initiative, ...voluntarism, intense work, and systemization of initiatives” combined with her ferocious use of the media made the state AIDS response appear as if it were her own. Le Floch used Liberation’s title for the new Minister of Health and Family as the “AIDS Minister.”7 From November 27, 1986, when she announced her AIDS response at the Paris AIDS conference, Barzach made her actions appear as if they came from her own initiative. She announced 1987 AIDS would be the “Grande National Cause” and that France would keep its place as leader in scientific research. She emphasized that the battle against

HIV/AIDS was a race against the clock, France would not fall victim to panic, but would

4 Le Figaro, No. 57, 984, March 26, 1988 and Elle, No. 2153, April 13, 1987. 5 “Plateau Michèle Barzach : autorisation de la publicité pour les préservatifs,” audio-visual archive Ina.fr. http://www.ina.fr/video/CAB86016238. https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/michele-barzach-and- amiral-philippe-de-gaulle-on-tv-show-news-photo/111076074#/michele-barzach-and-amiral-philippe-de-gaulle-on- tv-show-lheure-de-picture-id111076074 6 Conan, Eric. "Le SIDA Dans L'espace Public," Esprit, no. 136/137 (3/4) (1988): 65. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24469019. 7 Frank Le Floch cited a Libération February 25, 1987 article that called Barzach “minister du sida,” in his chapter “MICHÈLE BARZACH, MINISTRE DU SIDA” in Pierre Favre dir. SIDA et Politiques, Les primiers affrontements (1981-1987) (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1992), 175-177.

40 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 respond in measure to the gravity of the situation. She asserted that the rapidly growing number of IV drug users and heterosexual cases required that an “arsenal of measures be adopted by the state.”8 Le Floch and Paicheler argued Barzach was courageous, fast, and used the media like no politicians before. Barzach tackled politically hot topics, such as needle sales and condom advertisement, when politicians did not want to risk their careers in a politically volatile period.

While it is true that Barzach used the media for political and public health campaigns like no other politician or political appointee ever had, what has been overlooked is how Barzach used the media to dictate the narrative of the state’s HIV/AIDS response. This narrative depicts a responsive and smart physician ready to learn about and tackle the new disease like no one had ever before. In this story she, within six months of her appointment, had become an expert in

HIV/AIDS, asserted policy changes, and made HIV/AIDS a state administrated epidemic.9

In this chapter I will refute claims that Michèle Barzach was “the AIDS minister,” who created and implemented her own AIDS agenda. Instead, I will demonstrate how she operated within established schools of thought based on AIDS research and the experience of doctors, politicians, journalists, and AIDS activists that had come before her. She worked within the confines of a cohabitation government and a paradigm of “double rhetoric.”10 This double rhetoric centered on avoiding the stigmatization of marginalized groups (IV drug users, gay men,

Africans, Haitians, and hemophiliacs) while targeting them in AIDS prevention campaigns and policies. This was the result of several intertwined political and social elements related to AIDS

8 “Mobilization National” November 29, 1986, Le Monde, http://abonnes.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1986/11/29/mobilisation- nationale_2927833_1819218.html?xtmc=barzach&xtcr=31. 9 La Floch, 1992, 175-177. Genevieve Paicheler, Prévention du sida et agenda politique, Les campagnes en direction grand public (1987-1996) (Paris: CNRS Éditions, 2002), 50-55. Monika Steffen, “normalization of AIDS policies in Europe” in AIDS in Europe, New Changes for the Social Sciences (London: Routledge, 2000), 213-213. Robert Elgie, “’Cohabitation’: Divided Government French-Style” in Robert Elgie ed. Comparative Politics, Divided Government in Comparative Perspective (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 106-126. 10 Sociologist and homosexual researcher Pollak introduced this concept in his chapter “AIDS Policy in France: Biomedical Leadership and Preventative Impotence”

41 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 and perceived notions of personal responsibility in HIV contraction. In short, some French politicians perceived gays and IV drug users as guilty of behaviors that resulted in the contraction or spread of HIV. These perceptions were seen in public debates around clean needle access, condom advertisements, HIV/AIDS testing requirements, and HIV/AIDS status disclosure. This chapter argues Barzach’s AIDS response followed recommendations from

Rapport du groupe de travail sur le sida, commonly called the Rapin Report. It begins by outlining the major actors who created the knowledge base used to define the state AIDS response. Next, it outlines the major issues and debates that helped form the content of the Rapin

Report (such as needle sales/exchange debate and the condom advertisement ban). Then it summarizes the Rapin Report. Next, it outlines Barzach’s implementation of a state AIDS response and concludes with the reaction to her campaigns through the Got Report.

Barzach’s AIDS response followed recommendations from the Rapin Report.11 This internal document contained recommendations from the ministry of health and The AIDS work group (GTFS). The AIDS work group was an interdisciplinary medical team, that had been collaborating with association AIDES (the AIDS support and education group), collecting data, and distributing AIDS information since 1984.12 The Rapin Report’s recommendations included condom advertisement and over the counter sale of needles to prevent the spread of HIV, and the creation of anonymous HIV/AIDS testing centers (CDAG).13 The Directorate general of Health

(DGS) produced this report from May 1985 to 1986. The Directorate general of Health was a branch of the Ministère des Affaires sociales et de l’Emploi. Professor Maurice Rapin directed

11 Pinell, 2002, 95-97. Steffen, 1992, 237. Jean-Philippe De Oliveira. Communication publique et formes de gouvernabilité contemporaines de l’Etat. Le cas de l’homosexualité dans les campagnes de prévention du sida en France (1987-2007).. Sciences de l’information et de la communication. Université de Grenoble, 2012. Français. , 58. 12 Steffen, 1992, 137. 13 Christian Rollet and Conseil national de l'évaluation; France. Commissariat général du plan, “La politique de lutte contre le sida : 1994-2000,” February 2003. http://www.ladocumentationfrancaise.fr/rapports- publics/034000083/index.shtml.

42 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 the completion of the report that had been started under Secretary of Health Edmond Hervé, during Françoise Mitterrand’s first presidency. The report was passed on to members of the new government, the cohabitation government under socialist Prime Minister .14

Portions of the report were influenced by the Ethic Committee recommendations, the AIDS work group, AIDES volunteers, doctors, and other members of the Ministry of Health.15

The AIDS work group

In 1982 Dr. Willy Rozenbaum, a largely unknown infectious disease specialist, created the AIDS work group (GTFS) from a smaller interdisciplinary group of doctors who researched and collected data in the early years of the AIDS epidemic. Some members had been working on opportunistic infections on the rise in their patients, the same opportunistic infections associated with emergent AIDS. These men and women saw trends in America and wanted to curtail the epidemic in France and around the globe. None of the doctors had yet established themselves in any of their respective fields. On June 5, 1981, when the CDC released information on the first cases in Los Angeles and New York, Dr. Rozenbaum had already been working with his own patient who had presented the same sort of symptoms described in the CDC report.16 Next,

Rozenbaum consulted with Dr. Charles Mayaud. Mayaud had already been researching the

“opportunistic infection pneumocystosis with unknown origins.” Later, Rozenbaum and Mayaud teamed up with immunologist Jacques Leibowitch. Dr. Leibowitch had already been treating two patients with Kaposi sarcoma, a skin cancer associated with the CDC’s reports of a new disease.

14 Steffen, 1992, 237. Oliveira, 2003, 58. 15 Michael Pollak, 1990, 86 16 Favre, 1992, 42.

43 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

By December 1981 the AIDS work group had accumulated seven patient cases of what would be called HIV/AIDS.17 At the time, these doctors risked their careers by associating with gay men and a perceived gay disease. Peers suggested that they change their focus to avoid this stigma. Regardless of the risk, Rozenbaum’s connections in the Ministry of Health helped the small group get funding for research and create a national surveillance system for AIDS and other contagious diseases.18 It was the first AIDS data collection Europe. The Health Ministry connections included Rozenbaum’s old friend Dr. Claude Weisselberg, head of the ministry’s epidemiological unit and Dr. Brunet, from the General Director of Health, Dr. Rozenbaum’s former student.19 Weisselberg and Brunet, not only helped the initial research team get funding, but also helped them set up a dedicated telephone line for data collection from regional hospitals.

In March 1982, Dr. Brunet was given $10,000 and leave from his normal duties at the Ministry of Health to start AIDS surveillance system.

Dr. Brunet stated the research “came from a working group that had gays among its members! This would have been unthinkable had no two participants from the ministry been active participants. They knew how to present the proposal.”20 This statement demonstrates resistance to researching AIDS because of its association with gay men. In the end, the group created a systematic data collection center and database that worked with 250 hospitals.21 Early

AIDS work group members included physicians, virologists, tropical disease experts, and Health

Ministry representatives who made important advances in HIV/AIDS research. This team gathered and computed information on AIDS patients and disease epidemiology despite a very small state budget.

17 Favre, 1992, 42-45. 18 Steffen,1992, 227. 19 Favre, 1992, 42-45. 20 Steffen, 1992, 231. 21 P. Pinel, 2002, 39.

44 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

In March 1983, the first major advance was the isolation of a virus called LAV. This triggered the work group to split into units that worked on epidemiology under Dr. Montagnier.

This first group became the Association for Research against AIDS (ARSIDA). The second group focused on clinical and scientific research under Dr. Brunet. In November 1984, Dr.

Brunet’s group became the World Health Organization’s AIDS monitoring group for Europe.

Brunet retained leadership for this branch of the World Health Organization after the split from the AIDS work group.22

In 1981, the AIDS work group attempted to establish a rapport with the Association of

Gay Physicians (AMG) and the Homosexual Anti-Repression Emergency Committee (CUARH) for better data collection. However, the Gay Doctors Association and Homosexual Anti-

Repression Emergency Committee remained skeptical of the doctors’ research, initially refusing to participate. They also made contacts with popular press, including Le Monde, Le Quotidien du

Médecin, Le Monde de la Médicine, and Liberation.23 The media helped the group find three new cases. While the doctors’ contact with the press helped find new patients, the mainstream press also presented the emergent disease as a gay pathology.

Between 1981 and July 1983 the press used anti-gay terms to describe the mysterious illness: “homosexual syndrome, gay syndrome, homosexual pneumonia, homosexual cancer, and gay cancer.” 24 On June 18, 1983 Le Monde, quoted Dr. Michel Canesi, “homosexuals should be responsible...we need to ask what sexual freedom means: does it mean having fifteen different partners each day or to have the right to live one’s homosexuality? ” and Dr. Montagnier’s comments that “among homosexuals, there are a great number who have a very high number of

22 Steffen, 1992, 232-233. 23 Favre, 1992, 42-45. 24 These terms were identified by Claudine Herzlich and Janine Pierret in “Une maladie dans l'espace public. Le SIDA dans six quotidiens français,” Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations. 43ᵉ année, N. 5, 1988. pp. 1114. DOI : 10.3406/ahess.1988.283546, www.persee.fr/doc/ahess_0395-2649_1988_num_43_5_283546.

45 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 sexual partners who carry the biggest risk. It is up to these homosexuals to take responsibility for the risk they pose to themselves and to their partners” only helped to estrange gay men from the disease and increase already present denial.25 On September 18, 1983, Le Matin quoted Dr.

Leibowitch saying that, “people must take personal responsibility.”26 This is the type of “double rhetoric” that Pollak described as one of the factors that constrained a public health response. It is directly related to how gay men responded to the message. Blame and shame from medical doctors through the press was met with hostility in the gay community. The Medical

Commission, a branch of Homosexual Anti-Repression Emergency Committee, published in its monthly Homophonies:

“There has been a lot of talk lately about this infection from North America that has effected gay men, specifically Kaposi sarcoma ... Here is the problem: could there be a disease that only impacted homosexual men? Could these be the findings of moralists who want to return homosexuals to the margins of society? One must be made aware that STDs have always been used as a threat against the liberation of mores.”27

The Medical Commission was responding to a January 1982 France-Soir article, “Homosexuals bring us the plague.” By this time, The Medical Commission asserted, the mysterious disease had been found in heterosexual Africans. Therefore, The Medical Commission claimed, the disease was caused not by gay men, but through a compromised immune system and passed through sexual contact. Because many gay men had many partners, authors continued, it was seen in gay men. This report maintained that much like other STDs, such as Syphilis or

Hepatitis, found in promiscuous people, the new illness should be managed through regular

25 Jean-Yves Nau, “La prévention au secours de la morale” Le Monde, September 19, 1983, En savoir plus sur http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1983/09/19/la-prevention-au-secours-de-la- morale_2830897_1819218.html#sex6CIfBZ85Wfd1z.99. 26 “New York struggles, Paris continues to dance” June 18, 1983, Le Matin, here. Cited by Favre, 1992, 52-53. 27 Commission Médicine, “Charme discret et risques du vagabondage,” Homophonies, February 1982, 18. Archive of Sexuality & Gender, tinyurl.galgroup.com/tinyurl/4MMuy4.

46 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 medical checks. The AIDS work group faced challenges connecting with the gay community that went back further than the first cases of the new disease. As discussed in chapter two, gay men and women had a longstanding contempt for medical and mental health physicians who considered same-sex preference pathological and criminal. Had the AIDS work group doctors been more adept with their gay community contacts and how disease information was communicated in the press doctors might have been able to bridge this historic gap sooner.

This heated debate around same-sex preference and disease was heightened by the government’s apparent commitment to gay rights. François Mitterrand was the first left wing politician to win the Presidency since 1958 and this was first time the left held the majority in parliament during the fifth Republic. In 1981 and 1982, Mitterrand followed through on a campaign promise to remove the Vichy era laws that legalized gay discrimination. The removal of the laws did not bring full rights to gay people, but, removed the classification of homosexuality as a mental illness (June 1981), made fifteen years old the age of consent for heterosexual and same-sex sexual acts (August 4, 1982, Penal code Section 331), and made work place discrimination on the basis of sexual preference illegal (July 25, 1985, Act 85-772) was a step towards full citizenship for gay men and women. However, marriage, adoption, reproductive assistance all remained off limits for same-sex couples. Mitterrand’s changes legalized same-sex preference and showed that France was moving towards giving gay men and women full citizenship.

However, not all lawmakers wanted gay men and women to have the same rights as traditional couples. The senate opposed the removal of Article 331.28 Homosexual Anti-

Repression Emergency Committee stated that the vote to make the age of majority the same for

28 “Huit mille personnes ont participé à la deuxième ‘Marche Nationale’ des homosexuels,” June 22, 1982, Le Monde, http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1982/06/22/huit-mille-personnes-ont-participe-a-la-deuxieme- marche-nationale-des-homosexuels_2904546_1819218.html#FdKxQLgU7bVMYAFr.99

47 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 gay and heterosexual sex acts “occurred in an almost total absence of the homophobic senators of the (PS) and the Communist Party (PC).” Twice the senate refused to abrogate the Vichy era law, on Dec 20, 1981 and June 24,1982 before Mitterrand finally removed it. 29

For gay AIDS activists these victories were precarious because they feared the association with AIDS might result in a reversal of recently won rights. Gay men founded the majority of HIV/AIDS associations and played key roles as activists and volunteers. However,

HIV/AIDS associations directed work at the general population, all persons with HIV/AIDS, and also at risk groups (IV drug users and males who slept with males). HIV/AIDS groups at this time did not self-identify as pro-gay. For the second HIV/AIDS association, AIDES, reaching the general population with HIV/AIDS prevention, education, and patient support was essential to their efforts. Associations with the still taboo gay life risked derailing their larger objectives and alienating donors. Keeping up the momentum for gay rights as well as avoiding further stigmatization that AIDS –gay associations brought was essential for gay men and women.

It is hard to disentangle the response to gay rights with gay-AIDS association. One thing is certain: violence and discrimination based on sexual preference continued after the removal of the Vichy era laws. Linking the cause and effect of social and political change remains ambiguous. However, gay discrimination and police abuse continued. For example, on the nights of February 20 and 21 1981, homophobia was seen in violence towards three men in the

Tuileries park (a Parisian park known as a gay and prostitute pick up location), that resulted in the death of Philippe Martinot. Homosexual Anti-Repression Emergency Committee (CUARH) spokesmen explained the homophobic violence as an “apogee of hatred towards millions of

29 Josyane Svigneau, “Le Derniert Mot,” July 24, 1982, Le Monde, http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1982/07/24/le-dernier-mot_2889718_1819218.html#siBMu879buGj4pxV.99

48 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 individuals.”30 Paris had been the center for the lives of many gay men and women since the 19th century. It was not the only one. Large cities around the world support populations large enough to form gay communities. In this case, gays in Paris were seen as a threat to French family values. However, the threat existed outside Paris and into the French provinces. For example, in

Rennes, Birttany, gays experienced daily insults if discovered, the local Homosexual Liberation

Group (GLH) was refused use of the local youth hall for their annual conference and told to move their weekly meetings to another location. This caused the group to break up. By March

29, 1982 only youth risked gay rights activities in Rennes. Some gay men seeking a likeminded community joined the Christian gay group, David and Johnathan (Arcadie members created this organization that had branches across France). Some lesbians formed a group that was allowed to meet at a local restaurant as long as they kept their group identity quiet.31 This type of secrecy permeated the lives of gays in France since the Revolution. As discussed in chapter two, the legalization of sodomy during the Revolution, just like the removal of Vichy era laws, did not make all sympathetic to gay men and women. Longstanding ideas of heterosexual normalcy permeated France into the 21st century.

For some gay parents, in 1982, the word homosexual was still taboo. One parent interviewed in Le Monde explained that they had never uttered that word in front of their children. In addition, the nature of the parental relationship was kept secret from non-family members, the children interviewed never spoke of their parents’ sexual preference with their friends.32 This article was met with vehement anger from Le Monde reader G. Dumas. This

30 “Agression à Paris contre des homosexuels : un mort,“ February 24, 1981, Le Monde, http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1981/02/24/agression-a-paris-contre-des-homosexuels-un- mort_2707207_1819218.html#P1mDlZUK0ZKHWpys.99. 31 André Meury, “La fin de la clandestinité,” March 29, 1982, Le Monde, http://abonnes.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1982/03/29/la-fin-de-la- clandestinite_2889151_1819218.html?xtmc=homosexuel&xtcr=49. 32 Families interviewed were from Nantes and Lyon. Claude Baraf and Marie-Odile Fargier, “Les enfants

49 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 reader wrote the Le Monde stating that this type of sensationalist press only worked as a new opium for the masses, imported from the United States, and contributed to the “putrefaction of advanced peoples, such as the inhabitants of the largest cities.” The Le Monde reader described the newspaper as having fallen victim to the “new culture that operated under a pretext of liberty.”33 Because editors chose to print this letter, one might assume it was representative of other readers’ feedback since the gay parenting article was printed. This demonstrates that in

1982 not all French people were comfortable with the idea of gay men and women attaining full citizenship or equal rights. This anti-gay attitude was confirmed by a participant in the June 19,

1982 National March for gays and lesbians in Paris. Joel, a parade participant said, “[gay] repression was ongoing. It’s a daily event.” 34 Considering the anti-gay sentiment that threatened gay French men and women into the 1980s and 1990s it is not surprising that gay men and women avoided associating with the new killer disease. Connecting their sexuality to HIV/AIDS risked increasing the already hostile environment French gay men and women faced.

Despite the removal of anti-gay laws in 1981 and 1982 French clergy demonstrated anti- gay sentiment. This was seen in , when Monseigneur Leon-Arthur Elchinger stated that he considered same-sex sexuality an illness.35 When Mgr Elchinger was taken to court for refusing promised housing during the International Gay Association convention in 1982 the court awarded Elchinger for his suffering at the hands of gay men who accused him of discrimination.

d'homosexuel(le)s,” March 29, 1982, Le Monde, http://abonnes.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1982/03/29/les-enfants- d-homosexuel-le-s_2887675_1819218.html?xtmc=homosexuel&xtcr=50. 33 G. Dumas, “Putréfaction avancée,” Le Monde, April 19, 1982, http://abonnes.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1982/04/19/putrefaction- avancee_2902206_1819218.html?xtmc=homosexuel&xtcr=56. 34 “Huit mille personnes ont participé à la deuxième ‘Marche Nationale’ des homosexuels,” June 22, 1982, Le Monde, http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1982/06/22/huit-mille-personnes-ont-participe-a-la-deuxieme- marche-nationale-des-homosexuels_2904546_1819218.html#FdKxQLgU7bVMYAFr.99 35 “Mgr: Elichinger : des infirmes,” April 10, 1982, Le Monde, http://abonnes.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1982/04/10/mgr-elchinger-des- infirmes_2902623_1819218.html?xtmc=homosexuel&xtcr=53.

50 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

The decision was upheld based on interpretation of sexism under the Roudy law.36

This anti-gay sentiment extended into an attempt to place a wreath for the gay men and women imprisoned during the German occupation of France during the Second World War. In

April 1985, the Comtois Homosexual Collective, a regional gay organization, attempted to place a wreath at memorial in Besançon in the department of Bourgogne-Franche-

Compté, but were turned away by the “authorities of the deported.”37 The regional gay rights organization wanted to recognize gay men and women who were killed, worked to death, or tortured to death at the hands of Germans during the Second World War. This deportee group, the church, and lay people alike demonstrated continued intolerance for gays in 1980s and 1990s

France and desired to remove gay men and women from French history. The state supported exclusion of gay men and women from Holocaust war memorials despite their deportations during the war.

In June 1985, Prime Minister, M. Ozal, passed a measure giving more power to the

Mondaine, the morality police. The measure enabled them to imprison deviants for up to twenty- four hours. Deviancy was defined as “persons walking too close hand in hand, immoral videos, public drunkenness, swearing, homosexual or other deviant activities in public space.”38 This measure shows that in the early 1980s and facing association with AIDS, gays had very real reasons to fear retribution. In addition, on October 14, 1985, the state upheld an Air France refusal the reduced price normally afforded to traditionally married and common law couples

36 Laurent Greilsamer, “Des Homosexuels perdent leur procès contre Mgr Elchinger,” June 29, 1983, http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1983/06/29/des-homosexuels-perdent-leur-proces-contre-mgr- elchinger_2828145_1819218.html#PMbC3tGPMKh2Ayr0.99. 37 Pierre Fontanié, “Les homosexuels et la guerre,’ June 16, 1985, Le Monde, http://abonnes.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1985/05/16/les-homosexuels-et-la- guerre_2745350_1819218.html?xtmc=homosexuel&xtcr=65. 38 Associated Press de France syndicated article printed in Le Monde, “Aggravation de la répression La police promue gardienne de l'ordre moral,” June 18, 1985, Le Monde, http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1985/06/18/aggravation-de-la-repression-la-police-promue-gardienne-de-l- ordre-moral_3048871_1819218.html#a70XQq3F0c5HVK4L.99.

51 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

(concubinage in French) for same-sex couples. The magistrate explained the state’s decision based on the definition of common law marriage as “between partners of opposite sex.”39 Clearly the new French laws did not result in acceptance of gay men and women as seen in continued discrimination. This treatment threatened to grow with the new association of gay men with

HIV/AIDS.

This political context and persistent media association of gay with AIDS strained relations with AIDS work group contacts in Association of Gay Physicians and Homosexual

Anti-Repression Emergency Committee. Much like gay men and women in the United States, gay men and women in France initially rejected the idea that there could be a “gay disease.”

Technically they were right, HIV could and can infect all humans, but initially gay men were the group most impacted in western countries. Dr. Claude LeJeune, the Association of Gay

Physicians president and founder, famously rejected the idea that there could have been a gay cancer when he wrote for Gai Pied on the issue.

Regarding mainstream doctors LeJeune wrote in 1979, “but it was not enough

[mainstream doctors medical assistance] and we saw the necessity to create health information centers designed for homosexuals.” The creation of the Association of Gay Physicians itself had come out of long-term distrust of doctors who had for years understood same-sex preference as a pathology before even considering the health care needs of gay men. As discussed in chapter two, since the end of the 19th century medical and psychological doctors helped maintain the perception of homosexuality as a mental illness or pathology. In 1960 France officially defined homosexuality a social scourge (with alcoholism and other diseases) and in 1968 France adopted the World Health Organization’s recognition of homosexuality as mental illness. LeJeune

39 “Le droit ignore le concubinage homosexuel,” October 16, 1985, Le Monde, http://abonnes.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1985/10/16/le-droit-ignore-le-concubinage- homosexuel_2736100_1819218.html?xtmc=homosexuel&xtcr=86.

52 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 explained that the health care needs of gays had been rejected because mainstream doctors and the public stigmatized gay men and women. In April 1982, Association of Gay Physicians held a seminar to address concerns around STDs and the opportunistic infection Kaposi Sarcoma and in

April 1983 held a conference on AIDS.40 Doctors at the French AIDS workgroup faced a gay community who distrusted mainstream doctors because of a history discrimination and blame.

Following the death of Foucault in 1984, the Association of Gay Physicians admitted “AIDS had practically become a gay disease.”41 Lejeune stated that gay men must “limit the number of partners, abstain from blood donations, and use condoms.”42 At this point denial of HIV/AIDS in the gay communities was decreasing, but consensus on how to respond remained elusive. While

Lejeune recommended condom use and other precautions, M. Liffran, a representative of

Homosexual Anti-Repression Emergency Committee, thought gay men would not change their lifestyle and that a belief in a medical solution was right around the corner. This resulted in many gay men to continue unprotected sex despite the almost 100% death rate among AIDS patients. 43

Liffran urged personal responsibility because “to speak of a homosexual community is a fantasy.

The French are self centered and individualists.” 44 This message echoed mainstream doctors described above: each person should take personal responsibility by limiting sexual partners and using condoms. Until a vaccine was created limiting sexual partners and using condoms appeared to be the best means of prevention.

AIDES (the HIV/AIDS support and education group)

40 Murielle Collet, “L'Association des médecins gais, De la conquête de la parole aux difficultés de dire,” from Journal du sida, n°194 - March 2007, http://www.arcat- sante.org/a/articleJDS/706/L_Association_des_medecins_gais_De_la_conquete_de_la_parole_aux_difficultes_de_di re. 41 Quoted in Pollak, 1990, 84. Laurent Greilsamer, September 10,1984, Le Monde. 42 Greilsamer September 10,1984, Le Monde. 43 Greilsamer September 10,1984, Le Monde. 44 Greilsamer September 10,1984, Le Monde.

53 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

In 1984, Daniel Defert created the association AIDES following the death of his partner

Michel Foucault (June 25, 1984). He describes the history of AIDES as “full of anguish...not neat and tidy”45 When Foucault died, he had not been told he had all the symptoms of AIDS.

This information was also left out of the initial newspaper reports of his death. Defert’s first step on the discovery that Foucualt had died of AIDS was to contact lawyers and doctors. Defert wanted to understand this strange event.46 Next, Defert contacted the British AIDS group

Terrence Higgins Trust while in London. It was this experience with the Higgins Trust that helped Defert decide to create his own HIV/AIDS group. Following his return to France Defert started recruiting members for his HIV/AIDS group. This eventually included a scientific team recruited from Paris hospitals. Doctors included Jean-Paul Escande, dermatologist, Marc

Gentilini, infectious disease specialist, Françoise Vachon head of the prestigious hospital

Claude-Bernard.47 On October 20,1984 Defert announced the creation of the association AIDES in Liberation.48 On November 28, 1984 AIDES submitted their Official Declaration of

Association to the police. This official document contained a list of their priorities: “to find and help with meeting the social needs of the sick, to create support networks for the sick, distribute medically sound information to groups most at risk and the public, support HIV/AIDS research through public interventions and financial means, organization of education, prevention, funding, and defense of the sick campaigns.” Association statutes included organizational goals that aligned that with priorities listed above: educational campaigns, defense of the sick’s dignity and rights, networks to support the sick, and sound scientific research for the ill.49 AIDES initially

45 Quoted by Emmanuel Hirsch from interview with the author in Introduction to Emmanuel Hirsch, AIDES, Solitaire (Paris: Les Editions du CERF, 1991), 15. 46 Hirsch, 1992, 20. 47 Hirsch, 1992, 20-21. 48 Hirsch, 1992, 20-21. 49 “Déclaration officielle de l’association Aides le 28 novembre 1984” reprinted in Hirsch, 1991, 94-95.

54 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 acted on HIV/AIDS through the creation and distribution of an educational pamphlets and brochures. One pamphlet was mailed out in Gai Pied, the most widely circulated gay magazine in France. In addition, AIDES volunteers distributed condoms at “gay meeting Places” and handed out clean needles to intravenous drug users over the winter of 1985-1986.50 On the political and public side, AIDES held conferences, pushed for policies to protect the medical and social needs of infected persons.51 In addition, AIDES worked with the French state national education board to create a professional book on HIV/AIDS. The publication was created to help doctors understand the disease, how to work with patients, and understand the social dimensions of the disease. 52

Making AIDS a National Project In addition to targeting gay men’s sexual practices, the AIDS work group doctors wanted

HIV/AIDS to take priority over other competing national issues. In 1992, Steffen described this as making HIV/AIDS a Grand National Project like the TGV, the high-speed rail system that connects all the major cities in France.53 That is, action on HIV/AIDS was in the national interest beyond a bad flu season or one time emergency. Acting on HIV/AIDS at a national level was integral to the nation’s future. Dr. Liebowitch described the emergent disease as “this grave public health problem” in a Libération article in February 1982.54 Later, in 1983, Liebowitch compared US statistics with those of France warning of the inevitable massive death toll this condition might take if the state did not intervene.55 As the numbers of HIV/AIDS patients and

AIDS deaths rapidly increased, French doctors saw the growth of the disease in France following

50 Steffen, 1992, 236 51 Steffen, 1992, 236-7. 52 Ibid. 53 Steffen, 1992, 226 54 Favre, 1992, 46. 55 Ibid.

55 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 the same patterns as the United States, only at higher concentration in France. As mentioned above, in 1984 there were between 150 and 200 gay men in France diagnosed with HIV/AIDS and around 400 total cases.56 The cases appeared at a rate of one per week. More importantly, the number of cases of HIV/AIDS among gay men had doubled since 1983 and continued to double every three months.57 In the USA there were around 12,000 cases in 1985.58 In 1986 there were

83 cases per million persons in the USA and 13 cases per million persons in France.59

On May 7, 1986, Le Monde printed the demands of nine physicians who believed that

AIDS must be made a “national priority.” They asserted that tight budgets restricted scientific research and France lagged behind the US, Japan, Sweden, and England. Each of these nations allocated more than the 2.2% of France’s annual budget to medical research.60 Doctors feared state inaction and wanted more public education, research, testing, and influence over how the emergent disease was managed. By making AIDS a national project the AIDS work group could gain more resources and enlarge prevention measures. Condoms and clean needles were essential to early attempts at stopping the spread of HIV. Both condom advertisement and needle sales were restricted under French laws. Condoms advertisements were restricted to medical journals

56 Laurent Greilsamer. “Les militants gays prennent le SIDA au sérieux,” Le Monde, September 10, 1984, http://abonnes.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1984/09/10/les-militants-gays-pr...au- serieux_3020248_1819218.html?xtmc=l_association_des_medecins_gays&xtcr=1. 57 Pollak, 1990, 84. Greilsamer, September 10, 1984, Le Monde. 58 Franck Nouchi, “SIDA: Informer sans deformer,” August 19, 1985, Le Monde, http://abonnes.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1985/08/19/sida-informer-sans- deformer_2759799_1819218.html?xtmc=taux_du_sida&xtcr=8. 59 Dr. E.-L. “En Europe, le nombre de cas a augmente de 163% en un an,” June 25, 1986, Le Monde, http://abonnes.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1986/06/25/en-europe-le-nombre-de-cas-a-augmente-de-163-en-un- an_2912541_1819218.html?xtmc=taux_du_sida&xtcr=29. 60 Pierre Chambon, Director of research at the CNRS, Jean-Pierre Changeux, professor at the Collège de France, Jean Dausset, Nobel prize in Medicine winner, François Jacob, Nobel prize in Medicine winner, Claude Kordon, Director of research at the CNRS, Henri Korn, Director of research at the INSERM, Philippe Kourilsky, Director of research at the CNRS, Mme Françoise Héritier-Augé, professor at the Collège de France, et M. Jean-Didier Vincent, professor at the Université Bordeaux-X, “Neuf scientifiques de renom dénoncent la réduction des crédits de la recherche ‘Une priorité nationale’," May 7, 1986. Le Monde, http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1986/05/07/neuf-scientifiques-de-renom-denoncent-la-reduction-des-credits- de-la-recherche-une-priorite-nationale_3117668_1819218.html#g7piwY6S52ARZD0F.99.

56 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 and needles required a prescription at state pharmacies. Each of these preventative tools also was associated with issues and debates in morality.

Socialist legislators feared association with condom advertisements or over the counter needle sales because they did not want to “appear indifferent to demographics or encourage drug addiction.”61 Further, this fear of association resulted in inaction before the election cycle (1986

National Assembly elections). The Catholic Church had long refused to support the use of condoms, even during state syphilis campaigns earlier in the 20th century.62 And needles had become associated with delinquency and unwanted unemployed foreigners. This made their use as HIV prevention tools highly contested. However, as discussed above, early AIDES actions against the spread of HIV included distribution of condoms and clean needles, and advocated their use as part of risk reduction. The Rapin Report contributors advocated clean needle access and removed restrictions on condom advertisement as essential to HIV/AIDS prevention. This shows how Minister of Health and Family, Michèle Barzach, did not invent or create condom or needle campaigns to stop the spread of HIV. Indeed, Barzach extended existing HIV/AIDS preventions measures into state policies.

The AIDS work group advocated the use of condoms as an AIDS prevention method.

Sexual contact was considered the most potent way to spread HIV, that is outside of intravenous drug use, blood, blood products, and organ transplants. Condom advertisements, outside medical journals, had been banned in France since the 1967 Neuwirth Law.63 In 1984, Dr. Rozenbaum supported condom use publicly, stating, “We have been talking a lot about condoms as a block against the disease, and why not [use condoms]?” In September 1984, the Association of Gay

61 Pollak, 1990, 87. 62 Pollak, 1990, 79-100. 63 Melanie Latham, Regulating reproduction, A century of conflict in Britain and France (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002), 36-39.

57 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Physicians (AMG) officially agreed with the AIDS doctors about the promotion of monogamy and condom use. In a statement released September 1984 the Association of Gay Physicians called the emergent disease “practically a homosexual disease,” because the majority of cases continued to appear in gay men.64 The association AIDES had been passing out condoms early on. At the grassroots level, condoms were understood as so important that volunteers felt obligated to provide them to anyone who would use them and stop the spread of HIV.

Considering the still present taboo on sex and condoms, passing out condoms in public put volunteers at risk of losing their reputation.

In March 1986, Dr. Luc Montagnier, Nobel Prize of Physiology or Medicine winner for the discovery of the HIV virus, asserted that condoms could protect everyone, heterosexual and gay men, from contracting HIV through vaginal, anal, or oral sex.65 Montagnier lamented the continued interdiction on condom advertisement and related condom use to individual liberty, but emphasized, “individual liberty ended where one risks the life of another.”66 By this time the doctors Liebowitch and Rozenbaum had been advocating the use of condoms for gay men in the popular press and in internal reports to the state.67

Before HIV/AIDS hit France the debate around how to stop intravenous drug use had been going on a since the 1960s. More recently the debates on stopping drug used had centered around formerly middle-class men and women hit hard by the 1970s economic crisis. Heroin use

64 Thomas Dupuy, Gai Pied (1979-1992), « Tant et si peu » L’homosexualité il y al 30 ans (Paris: Éditions « Des Ailes sur un Tracteur »), 118-119. 65 Montagnier was awarded the prize with colleagues Francoise Barre-Sonoussi and Harald zur Hausen in 2008. Credit for the discovery of the virus had been contested in the media and the courts when American virologist Gallo claimed to have found the virus before the French team. This delayed access to HIV testing because of copyright laws and the related financial issues. ELISA eventually became the French standard. 66 Luc Montagnier, Vaincre le Sida, Entretiens avec Pierre Bourget (Paris: Éditions Cana, 1986), 171. Montagnier was awarded the prize with colleagues Francoise Barre-Sonoussi and Harald zur Hausen in 2008. Credit for the discovery of the virus had been contested in the media and the courts when American virologist Gallo claimed to have found the virus before the French team. This delayed access to HIV testing because of copyright laws and the related financial issues. ELISA eventually became the French standard HIV test. 67 Favre, 1992, 46.

58 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 had become problem for the unemployed traditional French citizens as well as immigrants and other marginalized populations. Since 1972 the sale of syringes had been limited to prescription by adults with identification in pharmacies.68 This law was passed in hopes of reducing IV drug addiction. However, the restriction on needle sales resulted users sharing needles. Sharing needles had spread hepatitis long before HIV/AIDS was a public threat. Unlike HIV/AIDS, hepatitis did not result in any extensive public outcry. In 1985, IV drug users were the fastest growing group of HIV positive people in France. In 1988 IV drug users made up 17% of AIDS cases and by 1990 they made up 25% of the HIV positive population.69 However, because of the long association with illegal drug use, mostly in southern France, proposed clean needle sales or exchange programs sparked a huge political debate.

The association with HIV/AIDS was not enough to convince the state to open up the sale of clean needles to the public. Georgina Dufoix, Minister of Health, February 7, 1985 attempt to restrict the sale of needles to those sold with vaccines.70 On August 30, 1985 Edmond Hervé,

Secretary of Health, announced plans to make clean needles available to IV drug users to prevent the spread of AIDS. At this press conference Hervé used the support of “medical specialist,” who had been advocating a lift on syringe restriction to bolster his argument.71 Treatment of drug addicts was under the Directorate General of Health where Hervé worked. Following the failure

68 Christoph Martet, Les Combattants du sida, (Paris: Flammarion, 1993), 46-7. “Petite histoire de la distribution et de l'echange de seringues en France,” https://www.rvh-synergie.org/prises-en-charge-des-addictions/penser- ensemble-les-prises-en-charge/therapeutiques/reduction-des-risques/114-petite-histoire-de-la-distribution-et-de- lechange-de-seringues-en-france.html. 69 Michael Pollak, “AIDS policy in France: Biomedical Leadership and preventative Impotence” in Action on AIDS: National Policies in Comparative Perspectives (Greenwood Press, 1990), 80. BEH report cited in in Jean-Philippe De Oliveira, “Communication publique et formes de gouvernabilité contemporaines de l’Etat. Le cas de l’homosexualité dans les campagnes de prévention du sida en France (1987- 2007)” (Doctorate, Université de Grenoble, 2012), 168, https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00740256v2/document. 70 Dupuy,136. Anne Coppel, “Les intervenants en toxicomanie, le sida et la réduction des risques en France,”Communications, 62, 1996. Vivre avec les drogues. 82; doi : 10.3406/comm.1996.1937 http://www.persee.fr/doc/comm_0588-8018_1996_num_62_1_1937. 71 Jean-Yves Nau, “Les autorités françaises envisagent la mise en vente libre des seringues,” LeMonde, August 30, 1985, http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1985/08/30/les-autorites-francaises-envisagent-la-mise-en-vente-libre- des-seringues_2759141_1819218.html#UPYxc9by1YghoCv7.99.

59 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 of Hervé’s bill over the counter needle sales the recommendation appeared in the Rapin Report.

Hervé may not have been successful in changing clean needle access, but he was able to keep the recommendation in the HIV/AIDS suggestions passed on to his predecessors in the Ministry of

Health and Family.

The association AIDES had experimented with handing out clean needles to drug users from December 1985 to January 1986 under their campaign “Needles, we don’t share them.”72

AIDES was responding to the growing number of AIDS cases found in IV drug users since June

1984.73 Activists broke the law that required a prescription to buy needles at the pharmacy.74 At the time there was one needle for every four IV drug users.75 Awareness of clean needles scarcity has recently started replacing the concept of a “sharing culture” among drug treatment center employees. Despite the traditional perception of addiction in France as a coping mechanism for mental illness, during the mid 1980s sharing needles began to be seen as the result of blocked access to clean needles.76 Because AIDES volunteers and AIDES founder Daniel Defert wanted to change society in fighting through HIV/AIDS actions, volunteers willingly broke the law in their needle exchange program. The goal was to change the law or “move the line” between illegal and legal. As AIDES volunteer Dominique Descharles explained, “we were operating completely outside the law with our needle exchange program. But at least this would shake up

72 David Michels, “Les programmes d’échange de seringues en pharmacies (PESP) Etat des lieux 2014” presentation for the conference Colloque Le pharmacien face aux addictions held November 25, 2014, slides distributed by the Réseau de Prévention des addictions (re & padd), http://www.respadd.org/wp- content/uploads/2016/08/13.MICHELS.pdf. AIDES.org, “Réduction des risques liés à l'usage de drogues,” copyright 2017, http://www.aides.org/reduction-des-risques-lies-usage-de-drogues. 73 Dr. Sylvie Geismar-Wieviorka, “La Reduction des risques,” in Soigner les drogue: Du sevrage aux salles des shoot (Paris: Odile Jacob, 2016) 6. http://fulltext.bdsp.ehesp.fr/Toxibase/RevueToxibase/1996/3/01.pdf. 74 “Histoire de la vente de seringues en officine,” in Journée Nationale de L’ÉCHANGE de Seringues en Pharmacies, Confrence paper March 26, 2001. Lyon France, C.H. S. Sant-Jean de Dieu, http://doc.hubsante.org/doc_num.php?explnum_id=14588. 75 Fred, 40 years old, quoted in “C dans AIDES,” Les CAARUD, published by AIDES, 6. http://mediatheque.lecrips.net/doc_num.php?explnum_id=48986. 76 France Lert, “Drug use, AIDS and social exclusion in France,” in AIDS in Europe, New Challenges for social sciences, Jean-Paul Moattie, Yves Souteyrand, Annick Prieur, Theo Sandfort, and Peter Aggleton eds. (London: Routledge, 2000), 192-193.

60 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 the law. Our role was there. And always keep AIDS in the public eye.”77 AIDES volunteers took big risks through civil disobedience to grab the attention of the public and more importantly, to grab the attention of politicians.78

On August 19, 1985, Dr. Rozenbaum pointed out, in an interview for Le Monde, that the

“needle sale restriction never prevented IV drug users from using, but....increased the risk of

HIV contraction [and]... all sorts of infectious disease.”79 Dr. Rozenbaum asserted he was for

“the abolition of the restriction on needle sales” and no longer considered needles a route to drug addiction, but a vector for HIV.80 It was not drug culture, but simply lack of access to clean needles that caused users to share needles. This emerging sentiment of harm reduction in public health appeared years before Barzach’s appointment and was a response to heroin addiction in

Europe. Harm reduction strategies target changing behaviors associated with negative health outcomes (such as dirty needles or unprotected sex).81 In this paradigm, policies makers worked to change the environment of addicts and stop blaming the users for their problems.82 As described below, in 1987, when the Minster of Health Barzach opened up over the counter needle sales she was implementing harm reduction strategies to reduce the spread of HIV and other infectious diseases.

77 Interview with Dominique Descharles in Jean-Philippe De Oliveira. Communication publique et formes de gouvernabilité contemporaines de l’État. Le cas de l’homosexualité dans les campagnes de prévention du sida en France (1987-2007).. Sciences de l’information et de la communication. Université de Grenoble, 2012. Français. , 400. https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00740256v2. 78 Interview with David Auerbach in Jean-Philippe De Oliveira. Communication publique et formes de gouvernabilité contemporaines de l’État. Le cas de l’homosexualité dans les campagnes de prévention du sida en France (1987-2007). 401 79 Franck Nouchi, “SIDA: Informer sans déformer” August 19, 1985, Le Monde, http://abonnes.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1985/08/19/sida-informer-sans- deformer_2759799_1819218.html?xtmc=seringue&xtcr=56. 80 Nouchi, August 19, 1985, LeMonde. 81 World Health Organization regional office Europe (May 2005) definition quoted from WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific, Inside Out: HIV Harm Reduction Education for Closed Settings (Geneva: WHO, 2007), 50. 82 Richard Pates, and Diane Riley eds, Harm Reduction in Substance Use and High-Risk Behaviour (John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2012), 11. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ttu/detail.action?docID=931630.

61 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Since February 22, 1985, systematic HIV testing for blood donors was required at the

National center of blood transfusion.83 The ELISA test became available eighteen months after the discovery of the virus, but was not used to test blood and blood products in storage until

1985. Untested stored blood and blood products were not thrown away as AIDS experts recommended, but sold for a profit. This resulted in lawsuits and the conviction of several state officials with in the Ministry of Health. It also resulted in HIV infection in around 40% of all

French hemophiliacs. Lawsuits against the state appeared and created a very heated public debate about the financial interests of the state and blood product businesses created a context where free HIV blood testing became central to the French and more importantly to those most at risk for HIV contraction.84

The Rapin Report

Rapport du groupe de travail sur le sida [sous la présidence du Professeur Rapin], or

Rapin Report was started in May 1985 and handed to Minister of Health Barzach in June 1986.85

At this time there was one new AIDS case a day in France.86 That is the total number of cases doubled every three months. The Rapin Report, an internal document, was created in the

83 Dr. Escoffier-Lamboiotte, “Dépistage systématique pour les donneurs de sang,” February 22, 1985, Le Monde, http://abonnes.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1985/02/22/depistage-systematique-pour-les-donneurs-de- sang_2750229_1819218.html?xtmc=homosexuel&xtcr=54. 84 Erick A. Feldman and Ronald Bayer eds. Blood Feuds, AIDS, Blood, and the Politics of Medical Disaster (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 95-127. Ann-Mari Casteret, L’affaire du sang (Paris: Éditions de la Découverte, 1992), 105-119. Laurence Lacour, Le chante sacré, Une histoire du sang contaminé, 1955-1983 (Paris: Les Documents Stock, 2008), 165-314. 85 The extended title, Rapport du groupe de travail sur le sida sous la présidence du Professeur Rapin (Paris, Direction General de la Santé, 1986) comes from Jérôme Strazzulla’s Le Sida, 1981-1985 (Paris: La Documentation Française, 1993), 127. “TOXICOMANIE A la suite d'un recours déposé par une étudiante La chronologie du décret de 1987 sur la mise en vente libre des seringues est précise,” February 25, 1994, Le Monde, http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1994/02/25/toxicomanie-a-la-suite-d-un-recours-depose-par-une-etudiante- la-chronologie-du-decret-de-1987-sur-la-mise-en-vente-libre-des-seringues-est- precisee_3799298_1819218.html#6OSoJOv7Ce0mSlgq.99. 86 “SIDA: Le Mal court”, August 31, 1985, Le Monde, http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1985/08/31/sida-le- mal-court_2759399_1819218.html?xtmc=seringues&xtcr=4.

62 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Directorate General of Health, a branch of the Ministry of Health, under the HIV/AIDS experts in the AIDS work group and in cooperation with AIDES.87 Professor Maurice Rapin directed the production of the report under Secretary of Health Edmond Hervé. At the time the Directorate

General of Health was one of the weakest branches of the Ministry of Health. As we have seen

Hervé wanted to make clean needles available to drug users. The association AIDES wanted needle exchange programs, open condom advertisements, while doctors wanted clean needle access and to promoted condoms as HIV/AIDS prevention in education campaigns.

In 1986, the Rapin Report document was handed down from Minister of Health Edmond

Hervé’s left wing coalition to Chirac’s Health Ministry, under newly appointed Minister of

Health Barzach. Barzach’s “task [was] to legislate the prevention policy formulated by the first

AIDS expert group.”88 Her national AIDS education campaigns, condom advertisement, clean needle access, HIV/AIDS testing centers, and universalization of HIV/AIDS issues in France reflected pre-existing concerns presented by doctors, activists, gays, and politicians. The report suggested targeting specific groups in public campaigns as well as targeting the youth through the state education system and campaigns.89 HIV Testing was central to the report. The report suggested voluntary testing because it was thought that only if the person wanted to know their

HIV status would the test results be beneficial.

At the time the report was written there were no HIV treatment available. To many HIV contraction was a death sentence. However, it was thought knowing one’s HIV status could help

87 Steffen, 1992, 237. “TOXICOMANIE A la suite d'un recours déposé par une étudiante La chronologie du décret de 1987 sur la mise en vente libre des seringues est précise,” February 25, 1994, Le Monde, https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1994/02/25/toxicomanie-a-la-suite-d-un-recours-depose-par-une-etudiante- la-chronologie-du-decret-de-1987-sur-la-mise-en-vente-libre-des-seringues-est- precisee_3799298_1819218.html?xtmc=toxicomanie_a_la_suite_d_un_recours_depose_par_une&xtcr=1 88 Steffen, 1993, 251. 89 Pinell’s interdisciplinary history of AIDS in France, Une épidémie politique, La lutte contre le sida en France, 1981-1996, provides an important summary of the report.

63 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 patients seek medical care and take preventative measures.90 Authors considered prophylaxis, that is education on disease prevention, would prevent panic. They wanted to rid France of

HIV/AIDS myths, such as HIV was spread by touching or kissing. These myths had proliferated in the absence of sound epidemiological information. Now that doctors knew mosquitos, touching, and saliva did not spread HIV, but that blood and semen did it was important to educate the public and the medical community. Report contributors also believed in education to stop the stigmatization of people in risk groups (such as IV drug users, gay men, Haitians,

Africans, and Hemophiliacs).91 Christian Rollet of the Conseil national de l'évaluation summarized the key recommendations as follows, “starting politics of prevention, condom advertisement [through removal of the restriction of ads in medical journals], the sale of needles, and the creation of anonymous HIV/AIDS testing centers.”92 In 1985, The Central Ethics

Committee published policy recommendations pushed for HIV screening only with patient consent and test results provided to patients. The Ethics Committee was made up of

“prestigious...medical and biological researchers” who advised the government on policy issues related to reproductive health.93 These suggestions were taken seriously by the newly appointed

Minister of Health and Family Michèle Barzach through 1986 and 1989.

90 Rapport du groupe de travail sur le sida. Président M. Rapin. Direction générale de la santé. Ministère des Affaires sociales et de l’Emploi. June 1986, 24-5. Mimeographed copy of original quoted in Pinel, 2002, 95. 91 Ibid. 92 “le Rapport Rapin, en mai 1986, qui recommandait la mise en œuvre d’une politique de prévention, sera suivi d’effet avec, en 1987, l’autorisation de la publicité sur le préservatif, la libéralisation des ventes de seringues et, en 1988, la création des centres de dépistage anonyme et gratuit (CDAG) ; (sic),” Christian Rollet and Conseil national de l'évaluation; France. Commissariat général du plan, “La politique de lutte contre le sida : 1994-2000,” February 2003. http://www.ladocumentationfrancaise.fr/rapports-publics/034000083/index.shtml. 93 Pollak, 1990, 86.

64 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Michèle Barzach Minister of Health and Family, and AIDS, 1986-1989.

On March 25, 1986, Prime Minster Jacques Chirac appointed Michèle Barzach the new

Minister of Health and Family.94 Barzach had only heard of AIDS from her patients in 1985.95 At the time she was a gynecologist and Jungian analyst with limited political experience who many considered a token woman appointment for the Chirac government.96 Appointing women to ministry positions was a way to give women a voice in politics since the women’s rights movement in France. Many believed it was simply a way for the president or prime minister to appease voters. At the time having ministers was considered good politics. Journalists have argued that the President and Prime Minister appointed Barzach so he could say he had a woman in the ministry and fill the position with a non-political appointee. Her appointment allowed Prime Minister Jacques Chirac to respond to the emerging AIDS epidemic without loss of support from his party and constituents or alienation of the opposition party (socialist part) because Barzach’s decisions would not appear political but medical.97 The Health Minister had to make controversial decisions that risked alienating the opposition party (the socialist party) so the appearance of political neutrality mattered. Through the appointment of a non-political doctor decisions could be made around HIV/AIDS that appeared unrelated to politics, but tied to medical opinion.

The role of the expert in public health removed political liability for decisions that were not popular with voters. Chernobyl fall out, drug addiction, and HIV/AIDS were important

94 Paicheler stated that the Minster of Health had traditional received or declined its agenda from the CFES or Comité Français d’éducation pour la santé. But Barzach worked on her own projects. She accepted the risks and maintained total control over media around any health projects that fell under her domain. Paicheler, 2002, 57. 95 Sida Info Service, “Michèle Barzach, présidente de l’Association Les Amis du Fonds Mondial Europe, ancien ministre de la santé et de la famille de 1986 à 1988,” November 28, 2006, https://www.sida-info-service.org/spip.php?page=imprimir_articulo&id_article=2492. 96 Barzach, 1994, 11. Catherine Magin and Elizabeth Martichoux, Ces Femmes qui nous gouvernent, (Paris: Albin Michel, 1991), 97-125. 97 Claude Tiaudière and Patrice Pinell, “Une Phase de transition (1986-1989)” in Pinell, 2002, 75-106.

65 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 political issues at the time. Specifically, HIV/AIDS debates centered on obligatory or optional

HIV testing, HIV/AIDS education, prevention, and treatment. Gay, drug using, and heterosexual patients increasingly appeared in HIV/AIDS contraction and mortality statistics that appeared more and more often in the press. This meant politicians needed to face the increasingly populist concerns in the emerging epidemic. Not facing this epidemic meant risking lost political support from constituents. In addition, if politicians helped gay AIDS patients they also risked appearing to stigmatize a group that had only recently increased their rights (through President Mitterrand’s removal of anti-gay laws). Michèle Barzach the new Minister of health and Family was charged with tackling HIV/AIDS per recommendations of doctors who authored the Rapin Report. The

Rapin Report was co-authored by AIDES, the Ministry of Health medical professionals, and the

Ethics Committee in 1986.98 The report recommended: the sale of needles to prevent the spread of HIV through contaminated needles among drug addicts, condom advertisement as AIDS prevention, and the creation of anonymous HIV/AIDS testing centers. As we will see, Rapin

Report recommendations helped Barzach create policies within her first six months in the

Ministry.

The 1986 Paris International AIDS conference focused on AIDS as everyman’s threat, not just minority groups. On June 23, 1986, Michèle Barzach announced at the Second Annual

International AIDS Conference in Paris that the 1967 Neurwirth Law, a law that had restricted advertisement of condoms to medical journals would be removed. Formerly, the law indicated a six-month to two-year sentence and between two and twenty thousand-franc fine for advertising

98 Young Soo Kim, “Domestic contexts for response to global HIV/ AIDS in France: Perception, media role and civil society,” International Politics (2016) 53, 354-355. doi:10.1057/ip.2016.4.

66 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 any type of birth control. Now, condom producers could advertise their products to the public through television, radio, newspapers, magazines, and posters.99

At a November 27, 1986 press conference Barzach announced AIDS would be 1987’s

“Grand National Cause.” She asserted AIDS would “no longer cause panic but would be handled in measure based on the gravity of the situation (...) It was a race against the clock that

France would engage in and they would win.” She framed this change in state response in terms of new heterosexual cases. They made up 32% of the new AIDS cases and intravenous drug users made up an ever-growing 6% of new AIDS cases. Barzach insisted on keeping France a world leader in scientific and AIDS research. She announced more money would be allotted for

AIDS research and a national education campaign, targeting French youth, would start in 1987.

She planned on working with the French Committee of Health Education in the creation of public HIV/AIDS education campaigns.100

Following a February 24, 1987 press conference, Barzach implemented over the counter needle sales on May 13, 1987.101 The “Barzach decree” suspended the decree of 1972 that had prohibited over the counter needle sales.102 Harm reduction strategies, such as this, had only recently started replacing older ideas about drug use and addition. Formerly, it was thought that

99 “La publicité pour les préservatifs sera autorisée,” June 25, 1986 Le Monde, http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1986/06/25/la-publicite-pour-les-preservatifs-sera- autorisee_2913607_1819218.html#LKIyUXbKDEpBFwxJ.99 100 “Mobilization nationale,” November 29, 1986, Le Monde, http://abonnes.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1986/11/29/mobilisation- nationale_2927833_1819218.html?xtmc=michele_barzach_sida&xtcr=4. 101 “Campagne d'information, mesures de prévention Un plan anti-SIDA,” February 29, 1987, Le Monde, http://abonnes.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1987/02/26/campagne-d-informatio...n-un-plan-anti- sida_4020551_1819218.html?xtmc=michele_barzach_sida&xtcr=15. Christian Saout ed., AIDES, AIDES, de l’action de proximité a la revendication politique (Paris : AIDES, June 2007), 89. PDF. Usagers de drogues, “Texte reglementaires,” July 27, 2011, Santé Publique France, Institut de veille sanitaire, http://invs.santepubliquefrance.fr/fr../layout/set/print/Dossiers-thematiques/Populations-et-sante/Usagers-de- drogues/Textes-reglementaires. 102 The decree of 1972 was called decree No. 72-200. Kevin Condé, “Réduction des Risques : le « Décret Barzach » fête ses 25 ans !,” May 12, 2012, htt p://www.agoravox.fr/actualites/societe/article/reduction-des-risques-le-decret- 116673.

67 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 easy access to needles would encourage heroin, cocaine, and amphetamine addiction and that a culture of shared needles and suicidal desire permeated the world of drug addicts.103 However, during the first half of the 1980s ideas around addiction, needle use, and disease started to transform the dominant paradigm. The new paradigm centered on reducing risk, harm reduction, in drug addiction.104 Restricted access to clean needles resulted in the spread of disease.105

Barzach stated during the press conference, “the extent of the problem that AIDS poses must concern all of France” and “the progression of AIDS poses a real threat to public health.”

Barzach emphasized that AIDS was society’s problem and this problem could be addressed, in part, through access to clean needles. When Barzach framed AIDS in terms of France and not risk groups she re-iterated the universality of the problem and the state’s intervention. Barzach removed addiction from the equation and framed AIDS prevention as a national priority.106

In May 1987, a year long over the counter needle sales trail started. Barzach wanted to remove articles 282 and 293 from law 87-39 in January 1987, but formalization of this law was delayed because many pharmacists refused to implement the measure.107 In 1987, Barzach sent out a decree to pharmacies explaining the change in law. Some pharmacists resisted over the counter needle sales, “refuse[d] to sell to drug users, charging excessive prices,” and refused to

103 Caballero Francisa and Bisiou Yann, Droit de la drogue (Paris: Dalloz, 2000),595. Eric Farges, subsection 2.1.1 De La prevention des risques sanitaire a la prevention de la toxicomanie in “Les Etats face aux Drogues,” University Pierre Mendes France, IEP Grenoble, France, 2002, Memoireonline, https://www.memoireonline.com/12/05/11/m_les-etats-face-aux-drogues31.html. 104 Anne Borge and Nicolas Bonnet, RESPADD, AFR, and ASCODE, Contributions a la mise en place d’une programme d’echange de seringues en pharmacie (Paris: Direction General de Santé and Le Mission interministerielle de lute contre la drogue et la toxicomanie, December 2011), 8. http://www.respadd.org/wp- content/uploads/2015/09/Guide-methodologique-PESP.pdf. Jacques Chaeban-Delmas, “Décret n°72-200 du 13 mars 1972 réglementant le commerce et l'importation des seringues et des aiguilles destinées aux injections parentérales en vue de lutter contre l'extension de la toxicomanie,” Journal Oficiel de la Republique Francaise, March 14, 1972, https://bdoc.ofdt.fr/index.php?lvl=notice_display&id=26. 105 Eric Farges, “Les Etats face aux Drogues,” subsection 2.1.1 De La prevention des risques sanitaire a la prevention de la toxicomanie, 106 Press conference notes cited in La Floch, 182. 107 Steffen, 1992, 237.

68 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 sell single needles [outside the bag of thirty].108 Barzach was forced to send out a second decree in 1988. In 1988, some regions had doubled in over the counter needles sales. This prompted the state to increase the trial period of over the counter sales by another year. In 1988 the law was formalized when counter needle sales were considered a success. So much so that Barzach’s successor, Claude Evin, the new Minister of Health and Family, added Steribox kits to the sale of over the counter needle sales.109 “Steribox® is a pack whose aim is to reduce the risk of infection among people who inject drugs.” These kits contain two “syringes...Two Stericup, each containing one sterile cooker, one cotton filter and one post injection swab, two water...vials..., two...alcohol swabs, one condom, information and instructions,” (Steribox kits are still used today).110

Barzach’s decision to make clean needles available to intravenous drug addicts through over the counter needle sales was controversial. Not only was she seen risking exposing more people to drug addiction with the easy access to drug addict tools, needles, she was also seen deviating from the tradition of her own field, psychology. Psychologists had been the experts in addiction since the late 19th century. Addicts were associated with foreigners, the poor, and other minority groups. This made the move to over the counter needle sales even more politically charged. However, when the trial period was extended a year and then expanded with the

Steribox sales it confirmed that lawmakers saw the benefit of clean needle access. Statistics also confirm a reduction in HIV cases among IV drug users. HIV infection statistics are limited to people who admit themselves to drug addiction treatment centers. Therefore the statistics cannot be generalized to the entire intravenous drug using population. However, HIV screening in drug

108 Lert, 189. 109 Alexandre Marchant, “La ‘légende noire’ du décret Barzach de 1987 sur la libéralisation de la vente des seringues en France,” in Swaps, Paris, Pistes, 2012/1, n°66, "Prohibition des drogues," 19-23, http://www.pistes.fr/swaps/66_4.htm. 110 “Présentation” and “Histoire Clinique,” Steribox, http://www.apothicom.org/steribox-general-presentation.htm.

69 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 addiction centers dropped from around 34% of drug users infected with HIV in 1983 to around

2% infected in 1992.111

In June 1987, at the second annual international AIDS conference in New York, Barzach announced the creation of HIV/AIDS testing centers. This concept of anonymous and free HIV testing came from Rapin Report contributors. Barzach stated that as long as they were anonymous, free, and the results were not shared beyond the patient and doctor they would benefit the health of individuals and the state. Sociologist, Michael Pollak, argued that it was in response to perceptions of skewed HIV numbers in required blood donation tests that caused the state to open HIV testing centers. He argued that it was the used of blood donation, in 1985, as a route to free HIV screening, that caused HIV contraction rates in blood donors to reach 7%. This number was perceived as higher than real blood donor contraction because it was believed that non-traditional blood donors had donated to get a free HIV test. Blood donation was the only method for free HIV screening before Médecins du monde (the domestic branch of Doctors without Borders) began free HIV testing in 1987.112

The secrecy of results was important because first because Barzach wanted to avoid stigmatizing HIV positive individuals and second she wanted to avoid any apparent support of the ultra right wing group the National Front (FN, led by Jean-Marie Le Pen). This political party had suggested placing HIV positive and AIDS patients in separate locations from the general populations called sidatoriums. This sounds like the tuberculosis sanatoriums of the 1940s to US ears, but to the French it reminded them of the Holocaust and crematoriums used.113 The

111 Eric Farges cited Roger Henrion, “Révision de la loi : entre passion et raison,” in Traitements de substitution : histoire, étude, pratique (Paris: L’hermattan, 2000), 28. in Eric Farges, “Les Etats face aux Drogues,” subsection 2.1.1 De La prevention des risques sanitaire a la prevention de la toxicomanie, 112 Michael Pollak, “AIDS policy in France: biomedical Leadership and Prevention Impotence,” in Action on AIDS, Barbara A. Misztal and David Moss eds. (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990), 82. 113 Richard Berstein, “Fannig French Fears,” October 4, 1987, The New York Times Magazine online archive, https://www.nytimes.com/1987/10/04/magazine/fanning-french-fears.html

70 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

National Front spread the myth HIV contraction through touch or saliva even after they had been ruled out as routes of contamination. Considering HIV was not passed easily, but through the exchange of bodily fluids, the idea that patients and the general population needed to be separated seemed outlandish and based on incorrect ideas about HIV.

In February 1988, Barzach announced the creation of two HIV testing centers in Paris. In

March 1988, the first two centers opened in the 14th and 20th arrondissements, or neighborhoods of Paris.114 By September 1988 Jean-Francois Girard, General Director of Health, announced the state reimbursed and ran around 150,000 tests per month. He also planned opening 113 more regional HIV testing centers, which is an average of 11 testing centers per department.115 At this time Médecins du monde had been doing walk-in testing for HIV on Saturdays since 1987.116

Statistics outside clinic tests indicated that HIV positive populations included gays at 41%, drug addicts at 26%, bisexuals at 19%, and 7% from no known risk group. Based on blood donation around one third a percent (0.3%) of the population in France was HIV positive. This meant that between 150,000 and 250,000 people were HIV positive in France in February 1988.117 One of

Minister of Health Barzach’s cabinet members, Alain Pompidou, son of French President

Georges Pompidou, pushed for a more concerted state effort. According to Le Monde, he believed that the state needed to act with all urgency to create a national AIDS research and education center. Like many other AIDS activists, Pompidou wanted to see the state do more domestically and internationally to stop the spread of the virus. 118

114 Pollak, 1990, 88-89. Lert, 198. 115 “Le dispositif existe déjà en France nous déclare le directeur général de la santé,” September 10, 1988, Le Monde, http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1988/09/10/le-dispositif-existe-deja-en-france-nous-declare-le-directeur- general-de-la-sante_3544766_1819218.html#8BImiCMcLGS2Y4cm.99. La Floch, 179-80. 116 Lert, 198. 117 “Deux centres anonymes et gratuits de dépistage du SIDA ouvriront prochainement à Paris,” February 7, 1988. Le Monde, http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1988/02/07/deux-centres-anonymes-et-gratuits-de-depistage-du- sida-ouvriront-prochainement-a-paris_4062669_1819218.html#Ay7KMvyvSZX0fTHT.99. 118 Ibid.

71 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

AIDS education Campaigns

Michael Pollak described how Barzach followed Rapin Report recommendations within the context of double rhetoric. The goal was to reach all French people without stigmatizing minority groups, that is, people most at risk for HIV contraction. Pollak argued that it was the timid nature of Barzach’s campaigns had not only succeeded at not stigmatizing groups, but also succeeded at not conveying a meaningful message on the prevention of HIV, based on polling.119

The ads were targeted at youth (15-30 year olds) not at drug users, Africans, Haitians, or gay men. The first campaign consisted of a thirty second video with Minitel site listed at the bottom of the screen (played on television and in movie theatres), 24 million leaflets on HIV mailed to homes, 24 million brochures distributed at social service offices, pharmacies, medical offices, universities, and in the armed forces.120

Between April 29 and May 29, 1987 the first national French AIDS educational campaign “AIDS will not pass through me” ran on four television stations across the country and in movie theatres (see fig 3.1). A new Minitel site, “3615+ T Santé,” was created to educate the public on contraction and protection from HIV/AIDS.121 Barzach explained the campaign’s message in terms of personal responsibility, “each person must know their role in preventing the spread of AIDS, especially the youth. One must protect oneself as well as others.”122 Barzach used suggestions of the Rapin Report authors educating the public about HIV/AIDS without

119 Pollak, 1990, 89. 120 Ibid. 121 Bulletin Epidémiologique Hebdomadaire (BEH) May 18, 1987, 75. CRIPS archive, http://mediatheque.lecrips.net/index.php?lvl=notice_display&id=78366. 122 Bulletin Epidémiologique Hebdomadaire (BEH) May 18, 1987, 75. Barzach was not alone in believing that personal responsibility was important in preventing AIDS. This was also expressed by members of the French Catholic Church. On January 9, 1989 the “Conseil permenant” published an article titled “SIDA : solidarité et responsabilité personnelle” or “AIDS solidarity and personal responsibility.” Virginie Linhart, “Le silence de l’Eglise” in Pierre Favre, SIDA et Politique, Les premiers affrontements (1981-1987) (Paris: L’Hermatttan, 1992), 127-136.

72 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 increasing panic or making any group look like the cause of HIV/AIDS. It was important that all

French people knew the facts about HIV contraction and prevention.

The twenty-second black and white video opened with a young white man or woman who stated, “AIDS is not an epidemic (see fig 3.1). It is only an avoidable illness. It is passed through sexual relations and blood. Therefore it is easy to protect oneself and to protect the ones you love. People need information to protect themselves from AIDS. AIDS will not get me.” 123

Before closing the Minitel web page information site number appeared on the screen.124 Below the title “Minister of Health and Family.” This educational spot demonstrated the same sentiment

Barzach expressed in her first monograph, that AIDS was not an epidemic, it was only a disease, each person can avoid AIDS through personal responsibility and education.125 This TV spot also demonstrates the target audience: French youth. This TV spot ran 72 times between April 29 and

May 29, 1987 on four stations. 126 Twenty-four million brochures accompanied the TV spot.

They were sent out to doctors’ offices (one hundred each), places youth congregate, the army, and universities. 127 The brochures used the same young man’s photo, as a government representative to French youth, and the same message “AIDS will not pass through me.” Two similar educational spots had young women as the spokespersons. The message was the same as the spot described above, except a song played in the background. The music sounded like a baby’s lullaby.128 The music created a tone of innocence while gesturing towards the baby that

123 “Une campagne nationale d'information ‘Il court, il court, le SIDA...’" Le Monde, April 19, 1987, http://abonnes.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1987/04/29/une-campagne-national...urt-il-court-le- sida_4056944_1819218.html?xtmc=michele_barzach_sida&xtcr=30. 124 Minitel was an informational resource, much like the internet today. It was created by the French government and available in all post offices. Some people used them in their homes. Information on health, recreation, and businesses made up the bulk of Minitel content. However there were the equivalent of chat rooms and dating sites (heterosexual and homosexual) on Minitel also. 125 “Campagne Sida 1987 - Archive vidéo INA,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PIflI0CcKZ8. 126 “Une campagne nationale d'information ‘Il court, il court, le SIDA...’" Le Monde, April 19, 1987. 127 Bulletin Epidémiologique Hebdomadaire (BEH) May 18, 1987, 75. 128 “Publicité - Lutte contre le sida (version 1) (1987),” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ACkRPtdoSAc.

73 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 might be produced through heterosexual sex. In face of emerging AIDS fears in France, the child would be a risk of HIV. Like the other educational spots, condoms were not explained as a primary method of prevention. No preventative method was advocated in the first campaign, only personal responsibility. Targeting youth has been interpreted from two perspectives. First,

French youth are considered the universal French citizen, a prototype for the future of France. In this perspective, children represent all groups and no group at the same time.129 This enabled

Barzach’s first AIDS campaign to target everyone in France. It also allowed the campaign to deal with AIDS while not upsetting the right or the left. It pleased both sides in the government.

Second, many people considered French youth inherently deviant. Fifteen to twenty-five year olds were considered more sexually active and more willing to engage in risky behavior.130

In October 1987, the second AIDS education campaign, “AIDS will not pass through us” started. The focus of this campaign was on condom usage to prevent the spread of HIV in heterosexual youth (fifteen to thirty years old). In this TV spot, an adult male voice replaced the youth voiceover in black and white, just like the first. Here, a voice of authority was played over a young white heterosexual couple making-out, he had shorthair and she had long blond hair.

Next, a hand reached inside a jeans pocket for a condom. A lullaby played in the background.

This spot ended with the woman facing the camera stating, “AIDS will not get us.” Then the

Minitel address and “Minister of Health and the Family” appeared along the top and bottom of the screen.131 There was an important change in this spot, the announcement that condoms can prevent the spread of HIV. Like the first educational spot, this one emphasized personal responsibility and targeted heterosexual white youth. This campaign played to a smaller audience

129 Lee Edelmen, No Future (Durham NC: Duke University Press, 2004). 130 Cécile Chartrain, “France. Prévention du Sida: la cible « jeunes » (Années 1980-2000),” in Jeunes et la sexualité? : Initiations, interdits, identités (XIXe-XXIe siècle) (Paris: Autrement, 2010), 75-85. 131 Daniel Duigou, “Sida : campagne nationale,” A2 Le Journal 20H, aired October 15, 1987 on Antenne 2, Ina Science online archive, published online July 9, 2012, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=idE08TyH5lE.

74 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 on television and in movie theaters, contained a pamphlet that was mailed out with subscriptions to Tele Magazine. The second campaign took complaints from the first campaign into consideration when formulating content.132

The state, through the Ministry of Health and Family, introduced sex into the public as a means of HIV transmission and condoms recommended as a concrete solution in this second

HIV/AIDS campaign. While the ads were mild in their presentation of these topics, the fact that the state was talking about them at all was unprecedented. This was the first time in French history that condoms were advertised in a public education campaign.133 These campaigns reformulated the risk and threat of HIV/AIDS into protecting heterosexual youth from contraction and spread of the new STD. HIV/AIDS became a national cause, a threat to all

French people, and not focused on populations most effected: gay men, intravenous drug users,

Africans, and hemophiliacs. In addition, us replaced me as the agent responsible for transmission of HIV, a heterosexual couple replaced the single youth. This couple not only presented condoms and sex, but also the heterosexual couple as condoned through their depiction by state entities.

While these firsts are important in the history of gender and sex for France, what is more important to this thesis is the advertisement of condoms in Barzach’s HIV/AIDS campaigns.

Condoms had been advocated by the first French doctors researching AIDS in the first half of the

1980s and were advocated by Rapin Report authors.

Each of the educational campaign met with substantial appreciation and consternation.

Many AIDS patients and activists were relieved that the state was finally intervening in AIDS education.134 Paicheler interviewed a friend of an AIDS patient who asserted the relief at the

132 Paicheler, 2002, 60-61. 133 Ibid. 134 Ibid.

75 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 speed of getting the campaign videos out to the public.135 Others though the campaigns were not enough. MSM and intravenous drug users had been systematically excluded from target audiences.136 Activist and journalist, Frank Arnal railed against the campaigns because they did not target gay men. He felt Barzach demonstrated exclusionary politics that had left gay men out of the full rights of citizenship since the Vichy regime.137 The March 26, 1988 Le Figaro ran a four page interview with Barzach, “AIDS, SEX, MEDICAL “SCANDALS,” Morals: does

Michèle Barzach still have them?”138 The journalist suggested state managed AIDS education had placed too much emphasis on protecting people from fear and should focusing more AIDS education. This would be beneficial in HIV/AIDS prevention. Then the journalist asked about more specifically targeted AIDS prevention campaigns. Barzach defended the first campaigns stating, “homosexuals, they have already changed their behaviors as a result of education and preventative measures. In this group, [HIV] contamination levels will inevitably drop in the coming years.” This is a strange response to the question posed and suggests that Barzach must have already been aware of the controversy caused by the absence of gay men or drug addicts in

HIV/AIDS education campaigns. This response supports the idea that Barzach did not want to admit that she was acting on the previous administration and expert recommendations. Instead she responded as if she had considered the options herself, saw that gay men had taken control of their health, and decided that this type of campaign was appropriate. However, gay men had been listed as the most prominent group to contract HIV/AIDS by the Centers for Disease Control

135 Ibid. 136 Frank Arnal, Résister ou Disparaître ? Les Homosexuels face aux sida La prévention de 1983 à 1992 (Paris : L’Hermattan, 1993), 61-98. Didier Lestrade Act-Up, Une Histoire (Paris : Danoël, 2000), 30. 137 Arnal, 1993, 61-98. 138 J. Rousselet-Blanc, “SIDA, SEXE, « SCANDALES » MEDICAUX, Mœurs : Michèle Barzach a-t-elle toujours raison?” March 26, 1988, Le Figero.

76 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 since 1981. French press had called the mysterious syndrome “ the homosexual syndrome and the gay cancer” with the rest of the western world’s press accounts.

Between 1985 and 1987 there were around 700 new AIDS cases in gay men annually, and less than 200 new cases annually in drug users, heterosexuals, and blood product recipient populations.139 The Minister of Health would have known better than any other state health worker who was contracting HIV and who was dying of AIDS. Barzach defensive response indicates she may have felt a needed to justify her actions that were being questioned and could result in a public reception as incompetent or uncaring. In her 1989 monograph, Le Paravent des egoïsmes, she asserts that her goal was to prevent AIDS in heterosexuals and gays, that she became the health minister to continue her work advancing the needs of women and children.

She considered her role as Minister of Health as helping children, women, and men. Men came last on her list of priorities and gay men fell behind heterosexual men in her priorities. It appears as if Barzach was avoiding stating that she was following guidelines set forth by the Rapin

Report. She appears as if she is making herself look like the creator of the state AIDS response.

Conclusion: The Got Report

In 1988, elections resulted in the left returning to power and end of cohabitation under

President Mitterrand. From 1988 to 1991 Socialist Michel Rocard was Mitterrand’s Prime

Minister. On August 23, 1988, the newly appointed Minister of Solidarity, Health, and Social

Protection, Claude Evin asked Dr. Claude Got “to study [and report] measures to slow the

139 Figure 13, “Évolution du nombre de nouveaux cas de Sida par année de diagnostic selon les principaux groupes de transmission et par sexe. (Données au 30/09/96 redressées pour les délais de déclaration)” in BEH No. 46, 1995. Cited in “L'infection du VIH en France, Tendances et caractéristiques actuelles” (Paris : Réseau National de Santé Publique, December 1, 1995), 15.

77 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 spread” of HIV/AIDS that had been implemented under the previous administrations.140 Le

Monde reported August 28, 1988, that Minister Evin wanted a report quickly so he could “take specific measures” to fight the spread of HIV/AIDS.141 Dr. Claude Got had been selected because he was a “well known” public health specialist, and who had, ironically, helped create the 1978 condom advertisement ban that Barzach had just removed.142

Got was considered a medical expert not affiliated with any political party.143 Research started October 3, 1988 and the results were published in January 16, 1989.144 This report covered the state AIDS response from 1981 to 1988.145 Dr. Got had a reputation for “being uncompromising.” For example, he resigned from the High Commission on Alcoholism because the Secretary of Communication refused to ban television advertisement for beer. Needle

140 Claude Got, Rapport sur le Sida (23 août - 3 octobre 1988) (Paris: Flammerion, 1989), 101. 141 Like Barzach, who had discarded her predecessors work on HIV/AIDS, the STD educational comic book Dernier des tabous and ended its related research, so too did Claude Evin. Even was the new Secretary of Social Affairs (formerly the title was Secretary of Health and Family). He discarded the 3rd AIDS condom campaign that had been created by the Committee for Health Education in France (CFES) and the National Institute of Health Education (INPES) under Barzach’s cabinet team.141 The campaign contained a printed condom advertisement targeting gay men youth and another targeting heterosexual. The campaigns were intended for twelve to seventeen year olds, and young adults up to twenty-five year olds.141 In both versions, same-sex couples were depicted shirtless and making out under the banner: “Condoms protect you from everything, from everything except love.”141 Despite being pulled from state campaigns the ad appeared in the popular gay magazine Gai Pied. By this time there were 20,000 known cases of HIV in France and it was feared HIV would become the biggest health threat by the 21st century.141 Le Monde predicted that with in a few years [of 1988] the disease would costs France tens of billions of francs annually.141 1988 ANRS was created to fix issues in public health visible with the Barzach response to HIV/AIDS.141 The ANRS charged Dr. Alfred Spira (of the STD study during the Barzach admin that was cut short because of the “Dernier des tabous” controversy) to study sexual practices in France.141 “À la demande du gouvernement Le professeur Claude Got est chargé d’un rapport sur le SIDA n France,” Le Monde, August 24, 1988, http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1988/08/24/a-la-demande-du-gouvernement-le- professeur-claude-got-est-charge-d-un-rapport-sur-le-sida-en- france_4084695_1819218.html?xtmc=claude_got&xtcr=22. 142 Alexander Dorozneski, “French AIDS registry,” British Medical Journal, Vol. 297, No. 6655 (Oct. 22, 1988), 1003-1004, http://www.jstor.org/stable/29701229. “À la demande du gouvernement Le professeur Claude Got est chargé d’un rapport sur le SIDA n France,” Le Monde, August 24, 1988, http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1988/08/24/a-la-demande-du-gouvernement-le-professeur-claude-got-est- charge-d-un-rapport-sur-le-sida-en-france_4084695_1819218.html?xtmc=claude_got&xtcr=22. 143 “À la demande du gouvernement Le professeur Claude Got est chargé d’un rapport sur le SIDA n France,” Le Monde, August 24, 1988. 144 “SIDA et santé politique,” January 11, 1989, Le Monde, http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1989/01/11/sida- et-sante-publique_4120346_1819218.html?xtmc=claude_got&xtcr=9. Janine Mossuz-Lavau, “La politique face au sida,” Revue française de science politique, Vol. 43, No. 3 June 1993, Sciences Po University Press , 473. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43119192. 145 Eric Conan,”Coup de sonde: Les ecrit sur le sida,” Esprit, No. 150(5), May 1989, 134-137. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24273036.

78 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 transmission rates appeared to be growing, especially in southeastern France. That is, among drug addiction treatment patients AIDS rates went from 6 to 17% since the AIDS epidemic had started.146 In 1988, Barzach’s AIDS response started to receive criticism because it had not had the desired effect. AIDS rates continued to rise in all risk groups and in the general population.147

In 1989, Dr. Got denounced Barzach’s AIDS response because it “lacked coherence.”148

He supported these findings with lack of burgeoning condom sales through analysis of condom import numbers. Condom sales and sexual practice research did not indicate that the previous campaigns had changed sexual practices. Dr. Got concluded more concrete measures needed to be taken. Specifically, condoms needed to be advertised as part of a safe sex campaign separate from HIV/AIDS campaigns.149 This way when the ads targeted any specific group they would not risk stigmatizing or blaming them for HIV/AIDS.

Got’s recommendations appeared to fall into a middle ground between the STD pilot project (1984-1987) that had aimed at stopping the spread of chlamydia in women and the first

HIV/AIDS education campaigns. Got supported very visual campaigns that upheld sex as a satisfying part of a health life. He wanted to make sexuality less taboo and more valued through its promotion in relationship to condom use.150 Public education needed to be moved into every domain through print, video, and posters. Schools, the military, television, and bus stops needed to be used to spread the message about condom use and HIV/AIDS. By 1992 Le Monde reported that condom use had increased: one half of the 18 to 19 year-olds had used condoms in the last

146 Dorozneski, “French AIDS registry.” 147 Dorozneski, “French AIDS registry.” 148 Alexander Dorozneski, “France Against AIDS,” British Medical Journal, Vol. 298, No. 6669 (Feb. 4, 1989), 276. http://www.jstor.org/stable/29702131. 149 Got, 1989, 105. 150 Got, 1989, 105.

79 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

12 months.151 A year later Le Monde reported that men and women were more openly discussing their sexual practices: oral sex had increased since 1979, from around half the population admitting the practice to around 90% admitting the practice in 1993.152

On January 17, 1989 Evin held a cabinet meeting to plan the state’s HIV/AIDS response based on the Got Report’s recommendations.153 Evin’s new HIV/AIDS initiative resulted in three important changes in the state’s response. First, gay men were targeted in ever increasing explicit

HIV/AIDS condom posters, televised campaigns, and in other print media. Second, three state agencies were created to find solutions for HIV/AIDS: French anti-AIDS Research Center

(AFLS), the National Center for AIDS research (ANRS), and the National AIDS Council (CNS).

Third, the state funded and directed the creation of its first HIV/AIDS education brochure for

MSM, “Safer sex: everything you ever wanted to know about safer sex between men,” (see fig.

4.4 and 4.5) and two campaigns for the heterosexual public. The April 1989 campaign slogans read, “condoms protect you from everything except love” and in July “Condoms say ‘happy vacation.’”154

The French anti-AIDS Research Center worked for the state HIV/AIDS campaigns from

1989 to 1994. After the state dissolved the French anti-AIDS Research Center AIDS campaigns were handled through the Directorate General of Health. In 1989, the French anti-AIDS

Research Center (AFLS) co-authored the first state published brochure on safer sex for MSM,

“Safer sex: everything you ever wanted to know about safer sex between men,” with the

151 “Une enquête sur les comportements sexuels en France L'usage du préservatif est devenu très fréquent chez les jeunes de 18-19 ans,” Le Monde, January 7, 1992, http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1992/07/01/une-enquete- sur-les-comportements-sexuels-en-france-l-usage-du-preservatif-est-devenu-tres-frequent-chez-les-jeunes-de-18-19- ans_3910767_1819218.html#AEzbrXkAIL8CeTDp.99. 152 “Une étude de l'INED sur le comportement des Français Des pratiques sexuelles plus libres,” Le Monde, February 2, 1993. 153 “SIDA et santé politique,” January 11, 1989, Le Monde, http://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1989/01/11/sida- et-sante-publique_4120346_1819218.html?xtmc=claude_got&xtcr=9. 154 G. Paicheler, 2002, 106-110.

80 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 association AIDES and Health and Gay Pleasure. The French anti-AIDS Research Center only listed the c-authors names on the cover of the brochure to help ensure the men who had sex with men would not be turned off or felt moralized by the association with the state (see fig 4.4).155

The AFLS wanted to avoid making the same mistakes as the previous administration. Taking credit for the work was less important than spreading the message of condom use and safe sex.

In late 1989, the French anti-AIDS Research Center, AFLS, coauthored a condom “Safe sex” campaign with Health and Gay Pleasure condom campaign directed at MSM, “in safer sex, there’s first and foremost the word sex,” was released.156 Later, in 1990, the AFLS coauthored another campaign with the same team called “Between men.”157 With the help of the French anti-

AIDS Research Center, and Gai Pied Hebdo, Health and Gay Pleasure was able to MSM in many social classes. Their posters carried the message of safe-sex within a pro-gay community context. The diversity of poster themes, “safer sex for ever (sic), safe combat, safe sex more sex, and generations of safe sex” allowed creators to reach a more diverse population of men who had sex with men.158

155 Christophe Broqua, “La communication publique sur le sida en direction des homosexuelset bisexuels masculins en France (1989-2002)” in Homosexualités au temps du sida, Christophe Broqua, Francec Lert, and Yves Souteyrand eds. (Paris: Agence National de Recherche sur le sida, 2003), 246. 156 The original campaign slogan was “Dans safer sex il y a avant tout le mot sexe,” J. Andrew, M. Crook, D. Holmes, E. Kolinsky eds, Why Europe? Problems of Culture and identity: Volume 2: Media, Film, Gender, Youth and Education, 150-152. https://books.google.com/books?id=UFCEDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA151&lpg=PA151&dq=Les+préservatifs+préservent +de+tout.+De+tout+sauf+de+l’amour&source=bl&ots=LmUfmSINja&sig=84BYlhR6Fbnx35XiTsrzt0Ou4TE&hl= en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjq0Pyfo4DZAhXJzIMKHYkNBHMQ6AEIVTAH#v=onepage&q=Les%20préservatifs% 20préservent%20de%20tout.%20De%20tout%20sauf%20de%20l’amour&f=false. 157 Between men is the author’s translation of the campaign title “Hommes entre eux.” “Dans safer sex il y a avant tout le mot sexe,” in AIDS Education Posters at the archive of the University of Rochester Libraries, 2011, https://aep.lib.rochester.edu/node/42428, and https://aep.lib.rochester.edu/browse?creators=SPG+%28Sante+et+plaisir+Gai%29.+With+AFLS+and+GP. 158 The original titles were “Génération safer sex, Safe plus, sexe plus, Safer sex for ever.” “Generation Safer Sex, Hommes entre eux.” in AIDS Education Posters at the archive of the University of Rochester Libraries, 2011, https://aep.lib.rochester.edu/browse?creators=SPG+%28Sante+et+plaisir+Gai%29.+With+AFLS+and+GP.

81 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Figure 3.1

Television spot still frame from the first Barzach HIV/AIDS campaign launched June 23, 1987.

Le Sida, Il ne passera pas par moi

Translation: “AIDS will not pass through me”

The red line runs across the page diagonally, until at the end of the video the young woman breaks if off, as if to demonstrate with education and personal responsibility she, like you, will stop the spread of AIDS. That is the statistics will stop rising. At the end of the spot the Minitel address appears to allow viewers to access more information on AIDS.

Minitel was the French nationalized dialup service that pre-dated our current Internet.

Source: “23 juin 1987, « sida, de la peur à la solidarité » : la déclaration de l’épiscopat français sur l’accueil des maladies,” La Croix, June 23, 2017, https://www.la-croix.com/Debats/Ce-jour- la/23-juin-1987-sida-peur-solidarite-declaration-lepiscopat-francais-laccueil-malades-2017-06-23- 1200857404.

82 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

CHAPTER 4

MAKING SEX SAFER

In 1987, while Minister of Health, Michèle Barzach was launching the French national response to HIV/AIDS, Gérard Pelé and other AIDES volunteers were crafting a grassroots organization to prevent HIV/AIDS in gay men. The differences between objectives and methods were huge. As we saw in the last chapter, Barzach consciously focused on universalizing the

HIV threat. Contrary to Barzach’s project, Pelé’s newly formed Health and Gay Pleasure attempted to reach men who slept with men (MSM) through group masturbation parties and relatively explicit safer sex brochures. In this chapter I will argue that Health and Gay Pleasure

(Santé et Plaisir Gai, SPG) was the first exclusively HIV/AIDS activist group for gay men in

France. Specifically, SPG was dedicated to HIV/AIDS prevention for all MSM regardless of their self-identification as homosexual, bisexual, or neither. Moreover, their work with the state was central to the creation of the first state HIV/AIDS and safer sex campaigns targeting MSM.

Just as Barzach’s response to HIV/AIDS, historians have not researched Health and Gay

Pleasure’s important role crafting safer sex parties and involvement in the state’s second round of HIV/AIDS campaigns. However, sociologist and social historian, Pierre-Olivier De Busscher has written chapters and articles on the organization.1 This chapter is based on the author’s

1 Pierre-Olivier De Busscher,“Les enjeux entre champ scientifique et mouvement homosexuel en France au temps du sida,” Sociologie et société, Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 1997, 47-60. DOI: 10.7202/001114ar. Pierre-Olivier De Busscher, “L’association Santé et Plaisir Gai et la construction du safer sex en France (1988- 1994)” in Les homosexuels face au sida, Rationalites et gestions des risques (Paris: ANRS, 1996), 35-42. De Busscher coauthored Patrice Pinell’s Une épidémie politique: La lutte contre le sida en France (1981-1996) (2002). Pierre-Olivier De Busscher,“Saisir l’insaississable. Les strategies de preventin du sida aupres des homosexuels et bisexuels masculins ne France (1984-2002)” in Homosexualités au temps du sida, Tensions sociales et identitaires,

83 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 interviews with the co-founder of Health and Gay Pleasure, Gérard Pelé, and is a comprehensive review of the origins and work of this groundbreaking organization.

Because of Act-Up Paris’s high visibility since its creation and the recent release of the

Act-Up based film Beats Per Minute (BPM) it might look like Act-Up Paris was the first queer friendly HIV/AIDS group in France. This chapter will demonstrate that Health and Gay Pleasure was the first and only HIV/AIDS group created exclusively by and for men who have sex with men. Those outside gay and lesbian studies or HIV/AIDS in France research would have little chance of encountering this organization. Outside Liberation almost all writing on SPG was found in the gay press. In addition, participants and some founding members wish to stay out of the spotlight. Some are married with children and others single, but most don’t want to risk their reputations through association with a gay sexual party organization. Unfortunately, like many other histories of HIV/AIDS, this research has also been challenged by the deaths of members.

The third president of SPG, Bruno Charignon, died in 1995 from AIDS complications. This work demonstrates the importance of oral histories and the role of grassroots organizations at a local level for making broader changes. It also counters assertions made by journalist Frédéric Martel in his work The Pink and The Black.2 Journalist Frédéric Martel’s famous history of AIDS in

France, The Pink and the Black, squarely blames the gay community (communitiarism) for the late and weak response to the emergent disease.3 The Pink and The Black argues that because of community level action or inaction gay men and women in France did not adequacy address the growing prevalence of HIV/AIDS in their community. Martel argues that it was both denial of

Michaël Bochow, Pierre-Olivier De Busscher, Brigitte Lhomond, Marie-Ange Schiltz eds. (Paris: Éditions EDK and ANRS, 2003), 257-271.

2 Frédéric Martel, The Pink and the Black, Homosexuals in France Since 1968, Jane Marie Todd trans. [Rose et le noir : les homosexuels en France depuis 1968, Paris: Seuil, 1996] (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000), xvii- xviii, 200, 206-208, 212, 229-229, 347-359. 3 Martel, 2000, xvii-xviii, 200, 206-208, 212, 229-229, 347-359.

84 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

AIDS and fear of homophobia that caused gay men and women to avoid dealing with HIV/AIDS in the first half of the 1980s. He also agues that the resulting gay-AIDS activism resulted in

“defensive communitarianism” and that “[American] neoliberalism proved altogether compatible with communitarianism.” Martel concludes “individuals taking responsibility, the sense of gay identity, and a community based fight against AIDS...gave birth to an offensive communitarianism.” His work takes gay rights history from Homosexual Front for Revolutionary

Action Front and Emergency Committee against Homosexual Oppression to the association

AIDES and Act-Up Paris, but skips the involvement of Health and Gay Pleasure in the creation of the first set of campaigns that targeted MSM and the importance of their jack off parties. Jack off parties were extremely hands on, practical actions in the fight against HIV/AIDS and in gay community building. The parties were also very popular. This chapter demonstrates Health and

Gay Pleasure’s important role in crafting the first state response to HIV/AIDS for the general public and for MSM.

Gérard Pelé

Gérard Pelé was born 1948 in the outskirts of Paris to a hairdresser mother and railroad worker father (that is he worked for SNCF, the French rail system). Pelé made the most of his academic success with completion of preparatory school Lycée du Parc in 1969 and admission in to the prestigious École Supérieure de Commerce de Paris in 1972. While at the Lyon prep school he dropped everything to join the May 1968 riots at the Sorbonne. There he spent time in meetings at the Beaux Arts building discussing the need for sexual liberty as part of the social movement. “I was fascinated by all the talk about liberation. It came up in discussions on many

85 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 topics. Sexual liberation too, especially among gay men. They demanded freedom at meetings.” 4

Pelé was not involved and did not even know about Pederastic Revolutionary Action Committee5 until our Facebook interview this February.6

I don’t remember this committee. I have memories of meetings in the Beaux Arts building where gay men, transvestites, and transgendered demanded not only to “tear down the walls” and openly living ones gender or sexuality without fear or shame. When you say ‘Liberation’... it is often followed by the [gay rights group] FHAR (Front Homosexuel d'Action Révolutionnaire) who was very active after the May 1968 riots.7

Regardless, in the group Pelé spent time with were students who shared his inclusive vision for

France: a country where men could sleep with men without fear of harassment, imprisonment, or job loss. It was in 1960 that homosexuality became an official “social scourge” and in 1968 that

France adopted the World Health Organizations definition of homosexuality as a mental illness.

Indeed, men who slept with men in France faced Vichy era anti-homosexual laws and newly defined laws. Later, Pelé went on to participate in some Homosexual Front for Revolutionary

4 “J'ai été fasciné par la libération de la parole entre les gens sur des tas de sujets. J'ai rencontré également la libération sexuelle, notamment pour les hommes homosexuels, dans des revendications de libération (aux Beaux Arts notamment).” Interview with the author February 20, 2018 via Facebook messenger. 5 CAPR or Pederastic Revolutionary Action Committee was a short-lived sexual liberation group that formed at the Sorbonne during the events of May 1968. They formed for several reasons. First, non-traditional sexuality was not addressed by the major players in May 68. Specifically, homosexuality was generally shunned by most communists and other activists. Michael Sibalis wrote the most extensive work on CAPR, stating the goal was freedom in homosexual expression, freedom from police and work harassment, and freedom from church morality. The first group of posters stating the CAPR manifesto only stayed up hours before being torn down, the second group of posters stayed up a few days. In the end CAPR died with the May 68 revolution. However, Sibalis noted that gay rights author Guy Hocquenghem called the movement a watershed event in gay rights history in France: “It marked a shift from a [reformist]movement...to a revolutionary homosexual struggle.” Michael Sibalis, “And What The about “Our Problem?’- Gay Liberation in the Occupied Sorbonne in May 1968” in May 68, Rethinking France’s Last Revolution, Julian Jackson ed. (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2011), 122-135. 6 This translation of the organizations name is from the chapter “Gay Liberation in the Occupied Sorbonne.” The original name was Comite d'action pédérastique révolutionnaire (CAPR). Michael Sibalis, “And What Then about ‘our’ Problem?’-Gay Liberation in the Occupied Sorbonne in May 1968” (2011), 122-127. 7 “Je ne me souviens pas de ce Comité. J'ai simplement le souvenir de réunions dans les locaux des Beaux Arts où des hommes homosexuels, travestis et transgenres revendiquaient de ne plus "raser les murs" et de vivre ouvertement et en plein jour leur homosexualité sans être honteux. D'où l'emploi du mot "libération"… on se souvient en effet plus de la suite avec le FHAR (Front Homosexuel d'Action Révolutionnaire) qui fut très actif après 1968.” Interview with the author February 20, 2018 via Facebook messenger.

86 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Action Front (FHAR) demonstrations and protests, but was not a central member.8 Some of their actions were too extreme for his tastes. Following the completion of his degree in business communication Pelé got a position with the state in their emergent Minitel electronic communication team.9 From 1973 to 1993 he worked as a member of public communication for the Paris Metropolitan Planning Agency (IAURP).10 His position included an externship from

September 1983 to April 1984 in New York (Regional Planning Association), and Quebec,

Canada (Communauté Urbaine de Montréal) and a travel around the United States (especially in

Ohio and California). It was just before this trip, in the summer of 1983, that he visited a friend in the hospital de la Pitié-Salpétrière in Paris who later became one of the first AIDS deaths in

France. Regarding the hospital visit, Pelé’s said to himself that “something radical must be done or all homosexual men will be wiped off the map.”11 With this realization fresh on his mind Pelé left for his externship. While in New York he was inspired by the Gay Men’s Health Crisis

(GMHC) support groups for “people living with AIDS.” The GMHC used community health initiatives to reach different kinds of gay men: young, older, black, gay from the community through public forums, discussion groups, printed material, and erotic videos.

The Gay Men’s Health Crisis in New York

In 1982 Nathan Fain, Larry Kramer, Larry Mass, Paul Popham, Paul Rapoport, and

Edmund White created the Gay Men’s Health Crisis (GMHC) in response to the growing number of gay men dying of the emergent autoimmune disease.12 This was the first HIV/AIDS group that

8 The original name was Front Homosexuel d'Action Révolutionnaire (FHAR). This translation is from Sibalis, “And What Then about ‘our’ Problem?’-Gay Liberation in the Occupied Sorbonne in May 1968,” 123. 9 For information on Minitel see Juien Mailland and Kevin Driscoll’s Minitel, Welcome to the Internet (Cambridge: MIT Univesity Press, 2017). 10 The title was Chargé de communication sur la politique d'aménagement de la région ile de France. 11 Interview with the author February 20, 2018 via Facebook messenger. 12 “GMHC/HIV/AIDS Timeline,” http://www.gmhc.org/about-us/gmhchivaids-timeline.

87 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 formed in New York City. It is significant because of its “minority-identified, community-based” work to “define and contain” the spread of HIV/AIDS. That is the group was formed to help support gay men who had contracted the illness and to stop its spread. However, the group did not limit their support to gay men, but worked to help people of New York and around the world

(through publications and their newsletter) with HIV/AIDS prevention and support. Motivation for the creation of this groundbreaking organization came from a feeling “that everything was on fire and that we had to do something about it. We could not turn our backs and say ‘I’m not going to do something else.’ It was so compelling...but it was burning us out. And the impact was beyond our awareness.”13 Instead of burning out founders created a way to use their group power to combat the emergent disease and helped those diagnosed with the illness. Larry Kramer hosted the first meeting of concerned men who became the first members of the GMHC. This meeting followed the CDC announcement of the mysterious deadly cancer in the July 3, 1981 issue of the New York Times. Kramer had been in contact with New York University Medical

Center doctors who were concerned about the spread of this new disease even before the CDC report. Like the French doctors (chapter three), they too had been seeing an increase in opportunistic infections in effected populations, especially in gay men. In August 1981, Kramer held a second meeting. This time a much larger group gathered not only to discuss the killer cancer, but also to raise money for research. Eighty men met and ended up donating $11,000 to the Kaposi Sarcoma Fund at New York University Medical Center and in 1982 had donated

$50,000 to doctors, social workers, and hospital research centers working on the new ailment.14

13 GMHC volunteer Alex Carballo-Dieguez interviewed January 4, 2000 in Maizel Chambré, Fighting for our Lives: New York’s AIDS community and the Politics of Disease, (New York: Rutgers University Press, 2006), 13. 14 The $11,000 has been contested. The New York Public Library archive entry for the GMHC Records indicates $6,600 was raised on the August 11, 1981 meeting. http://archives.nypl.org/mss/1126.

88 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

The GMHC engaged in many outreach measures, from caregiving programs to phone-in hotlines. But the initiative that seems to have had the strongest impact on Gérard Pelé were the public forums that the organization held to raise AIDS awareness and give patients a voice in their care. The first public forum was held at New York University on May 12, 1982. Three doctors who had treated patients with the new disease spoke about their research and what was known about the disease. At the November 1982 forum more people came than the auditorium could hold.15 At the November 1983 forum infected patients spoke about the daily challenges of living with the virus. Gérard Pelé described the respect, solidarity, and mobilization their words engendered in him.16 Unlike France, where doctors and patients alike kept their disease status a secret, in New York gay men spoke openly and very publicly about the problems they faced.

Unlike France, gay men in New York had had more rights and established support networks before the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Since 1978, Dr. Sonnabend became known as the “clap doctor” because he had helped many gay men in Greenwich Village with their STDs. 17 The Meridan was a New York gay medical organization that formed in 1980 and screened men for STDs before giving them their membership pin.18 The Mattachine Society of New York worked for gay rights from 1955 to 1987.19 The Gay Activist Alliance in New York worked from 1969 to 1981.20

Existing gay health networks enabled gay men to act more quickly when HIV/AIDS seemed to

15 Chambré, 2006, 16. 16 Gérard Pelé, “L’engagement pour la vie grâce aux malades eux-mêmes : l’apport de l’expérience du sida,” Les nouveaux paradigmes de la médecine personnalisée ou médecine de précision : Enjeux juridiques, médicaux et éthiques, Christian Hervé, Michèle Stanton-Jean, eds (Paris: Dalloz, 2014), 212. 17 Martin Duberman, Hold Tight Gently, Michael Callen, Essex Hemphill, and the Battlefield of AIDS (New York: The New Press, 2014), 9-10. Brier, 2009, 15-19. 18 Brier, 2009, 15-19. 19 “The Mattachine Society, Inc. of New York Records, 1951-1976,” New York Public Library Archives and Manuscripts, http://archives.nypl.org/mss/1911 20 “Gay Activist Aliance Record, 1970-1983,” New York Public Library Archives and Manuscripts, http://archives.nypl.org/mss/1121.

89 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 be taking over. Also fewer taboos on sexuality and disease enabled gay men to feel free to speak with less fear of police harassment, political backlash, or job discrimination.

In contrast to the French group AIDES, the GMHC produced an abundance of literature about AIDS and prevention in the early 1980s.21 Their monthly newsletter “gave practical advice about symptoms, diagnostic tests, treatment” as well as information on the spread of

HIV/AIDS and how to lower risks of contraction.22 In 1983 GMHC published Harvey Milk Gay

Democratic Club’s brochure “Can we Talk,” and Richard Berkowitz and Michael Callen’s now famous booklet “How to Have Sex in an Epidemic.” In 1984, the GMHC published their own brochure “Health sex is Great Sex” (see the cover in interview in appendices).23 From these publications we get insights into the ideas about how to reduce the risk of contraction of new disease: reduction of sexual partners, limiting the exchange or exposure to bodily fluids, and avoiding sex with strangers.24 These publications also give us insights into methods of prevention gay men in GMHC were willing to support in the early years of the epidemic.

Changing lifestyle appeared like a good trade-off for life. Much like the French doctors who recommended limiting the number of partners, so did the doctors who wrote for the GMHC newsletter. This short history of GMHC demonstrates what kind of organization Gérard Pelé encountered on his visit to New York in November 1983: volunteers working the GMHC information hotline, providing access to social services, such as food stamps and Social Security, working to help the sick in the Buddy Program, public forums to educate the public about the

21 AIDES only produced one pamphlet. 22 Chambré, 2006, 16. 23 Edward King, Safety in Numbers, Safer Sex and Gay Men (New York: Routledge, 1994), 47. “GMHC/HIV/AIDS Timeline.” 24 King, 1994, 47-50.

90 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 disease and about the needs of the sick, and a collection of educational brochures directed at gay men as well as the general public.25 In Pelé’s words:

I was very influenced by the publications of the GMHC, in particular by the language of "proximity" with the people to whom one addresses and the taking into account of the lived experience. I supported this view in my discussions, very often violent with AIDES and the evaluation oh the prevention brochures I was creating aimed to provide feedback from readers on this work.26

The Gay Men’s Health Crisis HIV/AIDS prevention measures strongly influenced Pelé and the creation of Health and Gay Pleasure. GMHC did not worry about offending heterosexual readers, but instead focused on prevention of HIV/AIDS in MSM.

American Jacks

Health and Gay Pleasure cofounder (who wishes to remain anonymous) encountered a global social phenomenon during his time in Amsterdam, the “Jack Off Party,” which also influenced his later approach to AIDS prevention (see fig 3.2). Amsterdam Jacks were based off the American organization New York Jacks. This, the first contemporary jack off party, organization formed in 1980.27 New York Jacks was created by and for men who wanted to

25 Chambré, 2006,17-27. (Kindle location 253). 26 Dr. Carole Edwards translation of Je fus très influencé par les publications du GMHC, notamment par le langage de "proximité" avec les personnes à qui on s'adresse et la prise en compte du vécu. J'ai soutenu ce point de vue dans mes débats avec AIDES et l'évaluation visait à faire remonter ce que les lecteurs pensaient de ce travail. Author’s interview with Gérard Pelé on Feb. 21, 2018. 27 This date for the creation of New York Jacks makes it the first American contemporary group masturbation organization. Laqueur states San Francisco Jacks was the first starting in the 1970s. However their website, their first newsletter, and anniversary documents confirm Michael Pollak’s year for SF Jack’s creation as 1983. Thomas W. Laqueur, Solitary Sex: A Cultural History of Masturbation (NY: Zone Books, 2004), 413-414. Paul D. Cain, “In J.O. Heaven: The SF Jacks 20th Year,” http://www.gaytoday.com/people/030303pe.asp.http://www.sfjacks.com/pages/history.html. San Francisco Jacks “The San Francisco Jacks Newsletter #1,” February 1983.http://www.sfjacks.com/media/acrobat/sfjnl/sfjnl1983.pdf. Michael Pollak, “Homosexual Rituals and Safer Sex,” in Gay Studies from the French Cultures, Voices from France, , Brazil, Canada and the , Rommel Mendes-Leite, Pierre-Olivier De Busscher eds. (New York: Harrington Press, 1983), 313.

91 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 masturbate together.28 This group offered a site for safe sex, something that became more salient as AIDS took the lives of more and more MSM, as well offing a site for the erotic pleasures of exhibitionism and voyeurism. Voyeurism and exhibitionism were part of the eroticism for most participants. Party rules included “no fucking, no sucking, no exchange of bodily fluids” and “no lips below the hips.” This became jack off party standard rules and many jack off clubs required signing an agreement before being allowed to join the group or participate at parties. Parties were usually held at bars, nightclubs, and other locations large enough to house up to 200 participants.

After meetings started doors were locked. New York Jacks became the model for other jack off clubs, including Amsterdam Jacks (in the Netherlands) in 1986 and Jacks of Color (for men of color) in 1990. In California, when bathhouses closed in San Francisco underground jack off clubs formed to fill the vacuum of closed sexual parties for MSM. These private parties spread from coast to coast from the 1980s to 1990s, and included the clubs Sojo, Hands On, and Jack

Flash. Income from parties sometimes went to Act-Up or the Gay Men’s Health Crisis.29

Yke Algra, president and founder of Amsterdam Jacks, had lectured on gay issues in

Europe before ever participating in his first jack off party. His first experience with at a jack off party took place at the Gay and Lesbian Health conference in New York in June 1984. The next day conference attendees met AIDS patients face to face. The transition from hands used for intimate pleasure to hands used to support those dying of AIDS struck home. He told the San

Francisco Jacks, “We can do so many things with these same hands to help one another. I was tremendously enriched by this experience, and wanted to bring its impact home to my own

28 While Lidell Jackson, Robin Hardy and David Groff (The crisis of Desire, AIDS and the Fate of Gay Brotherhood (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1999), 118.) cite 1979 as the start date for NY Jacks, I will be using the date from NY Jacks website: “The first JO club to be organized in New York was born on a February night in 1980 in a brand new West Village bar called J's,” New York Jacks Blog, March 18, 2016, http://www.nyjacks.com/index.php/features/28-new-york-jacks-blog. 29 Hardy and Groff, 1999, 118-120.

92 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 country. It took two years of organizing to put on the first party...we had great success.”30 It was in New York that Algra realized the joyful equality of a room of naked men and the liberating effects of group masturbation. He’d shed the shame associated with same-sex desires through this experience. Algra was enlightened by the sense of family this created. Men who had hid in the shadows because of their taboo sexual desires could finally openly desire and experience sex on their own terms. In addition to continuing sexual liberation, masturbation did not risk the spread STDs. While not a perfect solution for all men, for many it was literally a lifesaver. That is, based on research results, men who regularly practiced masturbation had reduced contraction rates of HIV. Algra brought jack off parties to Europe through the creation of Amsterdam Jacks in February 1986.31 Algra hoped to slow the spread of HIV/AIDS while continuing the sexual liberation that had started in the 1970s. By the time he presented at the Fourth Annual conference on AIDS in Stockholm, in June 1988, regular jack off parties had spread to Paris, Cologne,

Marseille, and twelve cities in the United States.32

Harm reduction, first seen in drug addiction theories, proposed sexual practices that reduced the exchange of bodily fluids, such as condoms or masturbation.33 Unlike health officials who encouraged abstinence, monogamy, and condoms, jack off clubs allowed men to experience their sexuality without STD contraction risks or state endorsed morality. Robin Hardy described the role of jack off clubs as “what happens during the fearsome but empowering era of jerk-clubs remains a model for how gay men can regroup to make decisions that can protect

30 J.Z. “Visitor from Amsterdam,” SF Jacks monthly newsletter, October 1986, http://www.sfjacks.com/media/acrobat/sfjnl/sfjnl1986.pdf. 31 Yke Algra, Lecture for the IV Annual International Conference on AIDS, Stockholm, Sweden, June 13, 1988, from the personal archive of G. Pelé. 32 Yke Algra, Lecture for the IV Annual International Conference on AIDS, Stockholm, Sweden, June 13, 1988, from the personal archive of G. Pelé. 33 World Health Organization regional office Europe (May 2005) definition quoted from WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific, Inside Out: HIV Harm Reduction Education for Closed Settings (Geneva: WHO, 2007), 50-53.

93 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 them, empower them, and keep them sexualized.”34 Activist and HIV positive Michael Callen has been credited with the promotion of masturbation as a way to experience group-based sexuality that reminded him of the “pre-AIDS era.”35 Harm reduction and sexuality, they showed, were not incompatible and that sexual liberation had not stopped because of HIV, it had only changed course.

In May 1983, Callen and Berkowitz co-authored the safe sex booklet How to Have Sex in an Epidemic: One Approach.36 At the time the HIV virus had not been isolated and confirmed as the cause of AIDS. However, doctors had accurately speculated that the disease was the result a virus that spread through bodily fluids. Callen and Berkowitz consulted with their physician Dr.

Joseph A. Sonnabend for the forty-page publication. Sonnabend had experience with AIDS in gay men through his New York office.37 This booklet included information on safe sex regarding

“sucking, fucking, kissing, rimming, dildoes, and jerk off clubs” among other topics. Authors did not limit their goals to preventing AIDS, but also the prevention of cytomegalovirus (CMV).

CMV was theorized to trigger or cause AIDS. Authors dedicated four short paragraphs to jerk off clubs, noting the “recent proliferation of jerk-off clubs” following the outbreak of AIDS. Authors suggested asking at bars or friends to find the private groups or forming one’s own club. Above all authors wanted their readers (gay men) to have “gay, life-affirming sex, satisfying our emotional needs, and staying alive!”38

34 Hardy and Groff, 120. 35 Hardy and Groff, 120. 36 Michael Callen has been credited with creating the safer sex movement with this and other publications. This will be discussed below. 37 Richard Berkowitz and Michael Callen, How to Have Sex in an Epidemic: One Approach (NY: News From The Front Publications, May 1983), https://joeclark.org/dossiers/howtohavesexinanepidemic.pdf, downloaded March 3, 2018. Edward King, Safety in Numbers, published on http://michaelcallen.com/mikes-writing/safer-sex/. 38 Berkowitz and Callen, How to Have Sex in an Epidemic, Table of Contents, 4-10, 31.

94 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Health and Gay Pleasure

In the weeks following Pelé’s return to France, on December 4, 1984, his mother died.

The same day the HIV/AIDS association AIDES was launched, and Pelé considered the coincidence in dates prescient and therefore started volunteering for AIDES.39 As outlined in chapter three, the association AIDES was one of the first HIV/AIDS activist groups in France and was founded by gay men, among other members, and had a gay outreach branch. Pelé worked in the gay outreach division and helped create their Minitel content. In 1986 he became the gay communication leader for AIDES. 40

However, by 1986 and 1987, when AIDS numbers seemed to explode in gay men and other effected populations, the work volunteers did at AIDES did not seem like enough for Pelé.

The association AIDES had produced only one brochure on HIV/AIDS with only one small section on prevention. Informed by his travels through North America, Pelé thought there was more to HIV/AIDS work than holding hands with the dying. While supporting AIDS patients was important, Pelé and other likeminded activists wanted more HIV/AIDS resources for gay, bisexual, and MSM. This dissatisfaction helped create a group of volunteers with similar desires: they wanted to reach out to all MSM in France, to educate them on HIV/AIDS prevention, and support those who had already contracted the illness. For Pelé, motivation for more practical

HIV/AIDS response targeting MSM came from his experience of deaths of his friends. It felt like a noose tightening around him. He felt he must act before all his gay friends were died. These

39 “J'ai rejoins AIDES en février 1985, quelques semaines après la mort de ma mère (j'ai noté d'ailleurs plus tard, comme signe du destin, que ma mère était décédée le jour de la création officielle de AIDES, le 4/12/1984).” Interview with Gérard Pelé on Feb. 20, 2018 by Facebook Messenger. 40 Yves Charfe co-founded the organization with Gérard Pelé. Gérard Pelé, “L’engagement pour la vie grâce aux malades eux-mêmes : l’apport de l’expérience du sida,” in Les nouveaux paradigmes de la médicine personnalisée ou médicine de précision, http://www.ethique.sorbonne-paris-cite.fr/sites/default/files/Dalloz%202014%20p211- 220.pdf. Interview of Gérard Pelé with Gabriel Girard on an HIV/AIDS confrence in 2017. Pelé stated “Santé et Plaisir gai que j’ai créée.” Christophe Martet, “Que faut-il attendre du colloque sur la santé des personnes LGBT à Paris?” March 6, 2017, https://hornetapp.com/stories/fr/colloque-sante-personnes--paris/.

95 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 men faced an uphill battle if they wished to stay within AIDES and target gay men. This is because Daniel Defert (sociologist, co-founder of AIDES, and long time partner Michel

Foucault) did not want his HIV/AIDS association to be confused with a gay activist group.41

Others feared that if AIDES appeared to be a gay HIV/AIDS group they would have less support for their work. This caused some members, that is, more than just the founders of SPG, to split from AIDES and form breakaway organizations.42. A former AIDES activist, who wishes to be known only as Michel, described the creation of SPG, as an outgrowth over frustration on the universalized message and measures taken by the state and HIV/AIDS associations. While the epidemic was killing many of Michel’s gay peers, there was no exclusively gay organization for gay men.43

In December 1986 the new Minister of Health and Family Michèle Barzach, finally made

HIV/AIDS a national priority in 1987 by calling AIDS a national cause and implementing the first state HIV/AIDS education campaigns. These campaigns focused on the threat AIDS posed to heterosexual youth. Gay men were sidelined in the attempted to address AIDS without inducing fear or stigmatizing gay men. Pelé had complained in 1986 about the lack of communication between branches of AIDES. At the time there were the telephone support, video, information distribution, and Minitel subgroups within the communication branch of

AIDES.44 Many members of this AIDES splinter group came from the AIDES communication and prevention subgroup.45 Pelé had seen other options while in the United States and hoped to implement some of them in France. Pelé wanted the organization to use the methods he saw at

41 Hirsch, 1991, 87. 42 See Pinell, 2002 for more extensive treatment of AIDES splinter groups. 43 Adam, 2001, 91. 44 Gérard Pelé was also the homosexual communication expert at the AFLS at this time. Jean-Philippe De Oliveira, « La communication publique à l’appui d’une stratégie de repositionnement de l’État dans l’espace public », Questions de communication, 26, 2014, December 31, 2016. http://questionsdecommunication.revues.org/9309, 247. Pinell, 2002, 122-123. 45 Pinell, 2002, 122-123.

96 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

New York’s Gay Men’s Health Crisis in November 1983. One doctor and former AIDES volunteer (who wished to remain anonymous) suggested creating Paris Jacks, like the

Amsterdam Jacks he’d enjoyed while in the Netherlands. In the spring of 1986, AIDES had participated in a conference with other HIV/AIDS organizations in Amsterdam.46 Amsterdam

Jacks had only just been formed in 1986 and was modeled after New York Jacks. In Europe, this gay masturbation group gained quick notoriety for its radical AIDS response. Pelé, two doctors, a prevention expert, and several others AIDES volunteers created Paris Jacks. The group shared a goal: to act concretely in practical ways to stop the spread of AIDS and support gay men who had contracted the virus. These broader objectives explain the name change from Paris Jacks to

Health and Gay Pleasure. The new name, Health and Gay Pleasure, reflected the broader objectives of this new organization.47

Pelé was the second president and a founding member of Health and Gay Pleasure, which officially came into being in 1987 with their registration at the Paris Central Police Office. In their registration paperwork the group described the goals as “the distribution of information on least risky sexual practices between men and the promotion of sexual choices that maintain both sexual pleasure and health,” preventing the spread of HIV, and the promotion of condom use.48

Registration with the police was important so that the SPG would be recognized as a legitimate organization. This is important because of a long tradition of police harassment in public sex acts based on morality and privacy laws that came out of the Vichy era. While the laws had been removed in 1981 and 1982 clarifying with police that the SPG and their associated masturbation

46 Hirsch, 87. 47 Interview with Gérard Pelé on February 20, 2018 by Facebook Messenger. 48 Frank Arnal, Résister ou disparaître? Les homosexuels face au SIDA, La prévention de 1982 à 1992 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1993), 117.

97 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 parties were approved by the state was still important in ensuring their success in HIV/AIDS prevention.

Almost immediately, in February 1987, SPG launched its first jack off parties (see fig.

4.3). Founders saw mutual masturbation parties as a way to meet gay men’s sexual needs without the risk of HIV or other STD contraction.49 Taking the American term SPG advertised them as

“jack off parties,” the intent was to find a balance point between gay eroticism and safe sex while meeting the goal of complete elimination of HIV transmission risk just like their American predecessors.50 Act-Up Paris described the surveillance and enforcement of safe sex rules as strict. SPG followed the New York Jacks model: anal and oral sex were completely forbidden and easily seen in the well-lit and monitored community areas. Access to parties was limited to those who could pay the one-time entry fee or annual fee of 70 francs, agreed to abstain from penetrative sex, nonconsensual acts, and signed a form agreeing to participate according to club rules.51 This type of sexual encounter was vastly different from back room or public sex that had marked the lives of many MSM for over a century in France. The 18th and 19th century history of homosexuality comes primarily from police reports of illicit public sex between men in parks, urinals, alleys, and on riverbanks. MSM were brought into the light metaphorically and literally with jack off parties. Parties were well received by the media and participants: Pelé reported only one incidence of police harassment and no threatening mail. Instead he received only positive inquiries about the group and positive media coverage.52 The first party was held at the

Duplex. The Duplex had already established itself as a center for HIV/AIDS prevention with

49 Gérard Pelé, “L’engagement pour la vie grâce aux malades eux-mêmes : l’apport de l’expérience du sida,” Pinell, 2002, 124. 50 Emmanuelle Cosse, Philippe Mangeot, and Victoire Patouillard, « La préférence sérologique ?” Vacarme, 2007/3 (n° 40), 45. DOI 10.3917/vaca.040.0042. Pinell, 2002, 122-125. 51 Pinell, 2002, 122-125. Act-Up Paris, Le Sida, Combien de divisions ? (Paris: Éditions Dagorno, 1994), 354-355. 52 Arnal, 117.

98 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 support for AIDES and their HIV educational meetings. However, it was not long before SPG jack off parties exceeded the capacity of this bar and had to move into larger locations, such as dance clubs like the Daytona.

In 1989, the monthly parties attracted between fifty and one-hundred participants and the organization held events for different sexual tastes.53 Sub-groups included leather themed parties where the same safe sex rules applied. The term “leather” included jeans, rubber, and military style. Leather jack off parties took place at the club MecZone and was closed to the public once the party started. This party cost 60 francs for non-members and 50 francs for SPG members.

Normal rules against the exchange of bodily fluids applied and additional rules about the disinfection of all toys after use, dildos required condoms, gloves were used for fist fucking, water based lubricants were required, and like all parties only men eighteen years old or older could participate.54

By 1997, at the monthly SPG jack off parties there could be as many as two hundred men

(depending on weather).55 The Parisian parties became a destination activity for foreign travelers, as it was listed in both the 1991-92 edition of Gay Eurocity Guide Paris and in the 1997 Farrari

Gay Paris.56 Men on vacation or business travel wanted erotic satisfaction without the risk of

HIV contraction. Jack off parties were advertised primarily in Gai Pied Hebdo and Liberation. In addition, members were mailed bulletins with the dates and locations of meetings. Yves Charfe, lead editor of Gai Pied Hebdo and owner of gay advertisement company, supported the organization with free advertisement.57 Sociologist Michael Pollak reported on SPG in 1987

53 Authors’ interviews with Gérard Pelé on February 21 and March 1, 2018 by Facebook Messenger. 54 SPG or Paris Jacks, Paris Jacks, Groupe Cuire, Rencontre, Cuir, Caoutchouc, Jeans, Treillis brochure, 1993, from the archive of Gérard Pelé. 55 Gary Kraut, Gay Paris (Phoenix, AZ: Ferrari International Publishing, June 1997), 202-203. 56 Kraut, 202-203. Laurence Philips, 1991-92 Gay Paris Scene (London, GMP Publishers Ltd, 1991), 181. 57 Interview with Gérard Pelé on Feb. 21, 2018 by Facebook Messenger.

99 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 through 1988. At that time most party attendees were from the middle-class and averaged thirty- eight years old. Participants came because they enjoyed watching other men (voyeurism),“the feeling of group belonging,” and learning about sex without the risk of spreading or contracting a disease. HIV negative and positive men participated. For many HIV positive men it was the first sexual activity since diagnosis.58

Along similar lines, SPG also organized Photography Workshops, which included still photography and video services, so members would have material for use at home. That is, members could photograph each other for use at home and not for sale. This was not a pornography branch, but another tool to allow members to masturbate at home with photos or videos they loved.59 It also allowed exhibitionists and voyeurs another avenue to pursue sexual liberty in an age of AIDS and renewed homophobia. What the SPG called “the spreading epidemic of homophobia impacting society” they hoped to counter through pleasure, sexual and nonsexual.60 In the world of SPG masturbation was seen as an ideal means to satisfy one’s sexual needs with or without the group.

Not all of SPG’s outreach efforts were explicitly sexual. For AIDS patients, massage sessions were created. Trained professionals educated each member to reconnect to their bodies, that is relearn how to listen to their own bodies and the bodies of their massage partners. The goal was complete relaxation. This entailed moving beyond the association of one’s own body as a contaminated thing into a new understanding of how to live in and care for their body now that it housed the HIV or experienced the effects of AIDS. This group was not sexual. As Pelé described it, this group recognized bodily health and pleasure as more than a product of genital

58 Micheal Pollak, “AIDES Prevention for men having sex with men, Final Report,” in Assessing AIDS prevention (Lausanne, Switzerland: Institut universitaire de médecine sociale et préventive, 1991), 32. 59 SPG, “Atelier Images brochure,” 1992, from the archive of Gérard Pelé. 60 SPG, Santé & Plaisir Gai brochure, from the archive of Gérard Pelé.

100 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 or other sexual pleasure. Unlike masturbation parties that could reach attendance of up to 150 to

250 people, these gatherings were limited to around fourteen men.61

In 1990, the psychoanalyst Hubert Lisandre began leading Brainstorming and Creativity groups to help participants manage and discuss personal safer sex issues. Organizers realized how difficult it is for men to change their habits even when they wanted to and needed to.

Keeping with the SPG theme of liberating, satisfying, and erotic safer sex the brochure and meeting were themed around Kama Sutra. The brochure was called Safer Sex: the New Kama

Sutra. Meetings were limited to ten participants and held on Sunday nights. Closed-door meetings assumed that all participants would stay to the end so the doors were locked. Because of the taboo on same-sex sexuality these meetings did not require attendees to state their real names or self-identify in any way that would put their reputation at risk. The free meetings were followed by a potluck dinner.62 In 1996, the Jung-Go group was created because members demanded information on improving their intimate relations with their partners in a safe environment.63 Specifically men wanted to have oral sex without condoms, but realized the risk for STD and HIV contraction was high. So the SPG responded with classes for couples on

“modern love practices,” that incorporated safer oral sex practices.

By 1991, the SPG was so successful that it expanded into Marseille and had helped inspire the offshoot organizations, Amigos and Gai Nounours.64 The Marseille branch was called

Rural Health and Gay Pleasure. This branch, much like the Paris SPG, participated in gay pride

Marseille, organized jack off parties, held message clinics, and ran AIDS education campaigns

61 SPG, Groupe Message-Relaxation, Technique Californiennes brochure, from the archive of Gérard Pelé. 62 SPG, Safer Sex: un nouveau kama-sutra brochure, March 1991, from the archive of Gérard Pelé. 63 échanges amoureux 64 In the author’s Facebook messenger interviews with Gérard Pelé, he explained that Amigos was run by another group of men and used Health and Gay Pleasure (SPG) as their model. Amigos, he asserted, was not a branch of SPG as De Busscher had he suggested in Figure 1 in his 1996 chapter, “L’association Sante et Plaisir Gai et la Construction du safer sex en France (1988-1994)” in Les Homosexuels face au sida, Rationalités et gestion des risques (Paris: ANRS, April 1996), 37.

101 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 directed at rural MSM. Also founded by former AIDES volunteers who wanted more gay targeted HIV/AIDS actions, its founders hoped to move past the push for abstinence and condom use. Instead they wanted to meld sexual pleasure with safer sex. Sociologist Bernard Paillard’s book contains a description of this branch’s actions. First, like Paris, the Marseille branch enjoyed jack off parties following the same rules established in New York Jacks and used by

SPG: naked men, excluding shoes, met for consensual masturbation, exhibitionism, voyeurism, caressing, or mutual masturbation. Like New York and Paris, their parties were well lit, drug and alcohol free, and played music. Paillard expands the culture of jack off parties, specifying the lack of excess and intentional courtesy paid to fellow participants. Like the Paris branch, the

Marseille group also received funds from the state, promoted HIV prevention measures for MSM with local businesses, launched a campaign at pick up spots and saunas, and finally, they handed out information cards, “Passports of Pleasure,” attached to condoms.65 At the first Gay Pride

Marseille, June 12-20, 1993, Health and Gay Pleasure Provence organized a safer sex sauna event. During the second Marseille Gay Pride 1994 they hosted a masturbation parties (June 11), and the second evening of celebrations held a Californian Massage training (June 12).66 Regional branches of the SPG were essential to educating MSM and live outside Paris on safer sex practices because they may not have had access or interest in information targeted at heterosexuals and heterosexually targeted materials would not have applied to their sex lives.

65 The information cards were called “Passeport pour le plaisir.” Bernard Paillard, Notes on the Plague Years, Berkeley Frank trans. [L’Épidémie: Carnets d’un sociologue, Paris: Editions Stock, 1994] (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1998), 226-233. 66 Collectif Gai et Lesbien Marseille-Provence, “Dossier de Presse, Gay-Pride 94 A Marseille, 10 au 21 juin 1994,” http://dykiri.free.fr/docs/1994-GayPride-dossier-de-presse.pdf.

102 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

The SPG and the French Alliance Against AIDS

As SPG gained influenced and popularity, it began collaborating with a new state- sponsored organization, the Association Française de la Lutte contre la SIDA (French Alliance against AIDS, or AFLS, see fig 4.1). The AFLS was created in 1989 as a direct consequence of the Got Report and as corrective to the policies of the Barzach administration. Notability the

AFLS was created to tackle targeted AIDS education campaigns. The first campaigns aimed at gay men ran in the fall of 1989, “Condoms protect you from everything, everything except love.”

This campaign ran in the gay press and pictured two men, naked from the waste up, one lying atop the other, kissing in black and white. This safer sex campaign also appeared in the form of posters and brochures presented at gay businesses and sent out with gay publications such as Gai

Pied.67 This was the first in a series of campaigns made up of print condom advertisements in both gay and mainstream press, brochures handed out at gay establishments such as saunas, bars, clubs, mailed out in Gai Pied Hebdo, distributed at SPG parties, and to other gay non- governmental organizations. This campaign was based on the SPG safer sex model, which can be seen in the text of this campaign and other ALFS campaigns that ran from 1989 to 1992.

Condom use for penetrative sex, group or individual masturbation, and erotic massage were all suggested in campaign material.68 In late 1989, new “Safer Sex” campaigns explicitly targeting

MSM appeared in thirteen gay publications, as well as mainstream press Liberation and Nouvel

Observateur.69 The campaign posters featured black and white photographs of naked men, pictured waste up. In one the men embrace both facing the camera, in another, one man appears

67 “Le Préservatif préserve de tout sauf de l’amour, ” Olivier, 90-92. 68 Olivier’s interview with Gérard Pelé for the dissertation. Olivier cited dissertation pages 310-311. Olivier, 91-92. 69 The original campaign slogan was “Dans safer sex il y a avant tout le mot sexe,” J. Andrew, M. Crook, D. Holmes, E. Kolinsky eds, Why Europe? Problems of Culture and identity: Volume 2: Media, Film, Gender, Youth and Education, 150-152. https://books.google.com/books.

103 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 to be masturbating the other with both their hands in the first man’s jeans. Both campaigns included the same messaging and contact information on their posters:70

You have in your hands a source of real pleasure: SAFER SEX or sex with less risk. Use your imagination: masturbation alone, with a friend, or in a group, erotic message... Using condoms with penetration is another way to practice safer sex. But water based lubricants are essential. Don’t use Vaseline, it weakens latex condoms. Saliva should be avoided because it carries STDs.

If you want safer sex, avoid contact with mucus membranes, blood, sperm, and urine. Remember SAFER SEX can be erotic and exciting. Imagine what you can do with your loved one!71

These posters were the result of the AFLS’s cooperation with SPG, AIDES, Gai Pied Hebdo, and Fréquence Gai Radio station. Pelé stated Gai Pied Hebdo editor in chief Yves Charfe donated the relatively explicit photographs. At this point Health and Gay Pleasure moved beyond grassroots activism and into the national sphere. The expertise members gained through volunteering with the association AIDES and the creation of their own practical oriented organization resulted in their participation in AFLS, that is French state HIV/AIDS and safer sex campaigns. This not only helped spread the word about condoms and masturbation, but more significantly, demonstrated the state’s acceptance and authentication of MSM.

70 Jean-Philippe de Oliveira, Volume 2, annexes, “Communication publique et formes de gouvernabilité contemporaines de l’état, Le cas de l’homosexualité dans les campagnes de prévention du sida en France (1987- 2007),” September 27, 2012, Dissertation, University of Grenoble, 15. 71 Vous avez entre les mains une vraie source de plaisir : le SAFER SEX ou sexe plus sûr. Servez-vous de votre imagination : masturbation individuelle, en couple, ou collective, massage, caresse... Utiliser des préservatifs à chaque pénétration, c’est aussi mettre en pratique le Safer Sex. Mais il faut employer des lubrifiants non gras (Hyalomiel, Try, Sensilude, Taïdo, etc.). Pas de vaseline car elle attaque le latex. Et pas de salive non plus utilisée comme lubrifiant.

Si vous vous voulez encore plus de Safer Sex, évitez tous les contacts directs entre les muqueuses et le sang, le sperme, l’urine, les selles. Finalement, le SAFER SEX peut avoir quelque chose de très excitant. Alors, imaginez l’amour !

From Oliveira, 15.

104 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

From 1990 to 1992, the AFLS coauthored a gay condom campaign, “Generation Safer

Sex,” in cooperation with SPG. This campaign initiated the “Between Men” (Entre hommes) campaign. The goal was to reach all MSM without discrimination. This condom campaign used a variety of photographs targeting various groups of men. In one, entitled “Safe Combat,” the men are embracing wearing leather, in another, “Generation Safer Sex,” a group of diverse men are jumping and smiling, reminiscent of the YMCA song. A third, “more sex, more safe,” pictures three men, naked from waist up, kissing and caressing. Finally, “Safer sex, forever” pictures a couple bathing and smiling in profile. This photo and text suggests a long term and stable relationship. The diversity of men shown enabled the campaign to reach many types of men who saw themselves in the campaign. More importantly the diversity of men pictured in the campaigns demonstrated that gay men were not a homogenous group. Most unprecedented was that the state’s participation in gay targeted campaigns showed that for the first time in history the French state considered the men important enough to stop them from dying.

These campaigns for safer sex and condom use were – significantly – the first state- funded and gay-positive AIDS-prevention effort. Indeed, complaints about the campaign ranged from it being an advertisement campaign for gay sexuality and safe sex (conservatives), to not going far enough to reach gay men (Act-Up Paris). Because these campaigns were made in conjunction with AIDES and SPG expert input, scholars have argued that gays and the French state helped create “social norms with social movements.” That is, current French same sex politics and culture were shaped through a history of interactions of gay activists with state actors.72

72 Christophe Broqua and Olivier Fillieule, “The Making of State Homosexuality: How AIDS Funding Shaped Same-Sex Politics in France,” in American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 61, 1623. DOI: 10.1177/000276217744136.

105 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

The participation of Gérard Pelé and his organization SPG were an important step forward in gay participation in their own HIV/AIDS public education campaigns. This type of campaign marked a shift from denial about the impact HIV/AIDS was inflicting on MSM in

France to a calculated response based on the groups’ experiences and values of persons effected by the epidemic. The AFLS reached out to MSM through monthly meetings held with heads of gay organizations. The French Alliance Against AIDS had been meeting with AIDS and gay organizations, including Health and Gay Pleasure, since October 1989. Their goal was to discuss

“ways that the state could reach homosexual men in HIV/AIDS campaigns.” While some other activists, like Didier Lestrade of Act-Up Paris found these meetings somewhat ineffective, others saw value in the work the French Alliance Against AIDS was doing. As Pelé commented at a very heated meeting, “Very well, there are some problems. But let’s not forget our mutual goal here, the French Alliance Against AIDS is doing good work. They are working towards long term political solutions.”73 By this time SPG had already worked on the creation of the Safer Sex campaign with the French Alliance Against AIDS and AIDES. In the same edition of Gai Peid

Hebdo that describes the ALFS meeting two full-page Safer Sex advertisements appear. Each appeared on either side of the French Alliance Against AIDS November meeting article. Clearly, for Pelé, the French Alliance Against AIDS was finally working towards AIDS communication that might stop the spread of the disease to more friends. This was the type of project he had hoped for and lamented its absence in the creation of SPG.

In 1990, through the AFLS, 2,290,000 francs were allocated to gay targeted HIV/AIDS prevention through gay organizations. This money financed the purchase and distribution of condoms, research on the use of condoms, HIV/AIDS education campaigns, advertisement of

73 Ladovic Sellier, “Peut mieux faire!” Gai Pied Hebdo, no 396, December 1, 1989, special Worlds AIDS Day edition, 12.

106 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

HIV hotlines, the production of a monthly radio show on HIV/AIDS prevention, advertisement and housing of rap sessions about safer sex, and research on male prostitution. The funding and cooperation with gay organizations had a historic effect on gay sexuality in France. The state authenticated the existence of gay men not only through money distributed to gay organizations, but also through validation of their existence. The state helped keep gay men alive and enhanced their image through sex positive campaigns. Between Men and Safer Sex campaigns paid for with state funds showed that the state cared for men who had sex with men.74 The state heard and responded to their plea for assistance in the pandemic. The AFLS listened to actors and representatives through monthly planning meetings. This moved beyond the state working with

AIDES. While AIDES had been created by men who had sex with men and self-identified gay men it did not consider itself a gay organization. Closeted and heterosexual volunteers worked to make AIDES a resource for all HIV/AIDS patients and their entourage. The state worked with

AIDES before and after the creation of the AFLS. However, what made the work of the AFLS different was its willingness to associate and support gay men through HIV/AIDS preventions measures.

Despite all of this productive coordination between the AFLS and groups like Health and

Gay Pleasure, the gay population remained suspicious of the state’s good intentions. A poll taken by the prominent gay newspaper, Gai Peid Hebdo, at the time suggested that only 6% of its readers trusted the state in the fight HIV/AIDS.75 Activists like Pelé were well aware of this mistrust and they took measures to work around it. For example, in February 1990, AIDES

74Pierre-Olivier de Busscher, “L’association Sante et Plaisir Gai et la construction du safer sex en France (1988- 1994),” in Les homosexuels face au sida, Rationalités et gestion de risque, (Paris : ANRS, April 1996), 35-43. Pierre-Olivier de Busscher, “Les enjeux entre champs scientifique et mouvement homosexuel en France au temps du sida,” Sociologie et société, No. 29, Spring 1997, 47-60, DOI: 10.7202/001114ar. Dominique Charvet, “Hommes entre eux, Lutte contre le sida, Dossier de l’agence Française de Lutte Contre le Sida,” Le Journal du SIDA, No 27, April 1991, 27-30. From the personal archive of G. Pelé. 75 Catherine Durant, in an interview with Claude Evin Durant cited the poll results, “Claude Evin: ‘Il faut lutter contr l’exclusion’” Gai Pied Hebdo, no 396, December 1, 1989, special Worlds AIDS Day edition, 57

107 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 coordinated with Health and Gay Pleasure in the creation of a safe sex brochure, Everything you wanted to know about sex between men to augment the Safer Sex campaign already in place (see fig 4.4 and 4.5).76 It was modeled on the Canadian AIDS Society brochure “Les lignes directrices sur l’activité sexuelle a risques réduits - décembre 1988.”77 The French document does not contain any reference to the French Alliance Against AIDS on the front panel because authors wanted to avoid alienating MSM. As discussed in chapter two, there was a longstanding animosity between the state, which had only removed legal discrimination of gays in 1981 and

1982. Gay men, it was thought, would not likely read a state document dictating how they should have sex. AIDES and SPG appear at the top and bottom of the font panel. The HIV/AIDS association AIDES was already well established at this time, placing their name in a prominent location helped give the brochure authenticity to readers. SPG wanted its name on the document because, like AIDES, they helped craft its content and lay out, but also because they wanted to spread their own notoriety. This publication was historic. This small publication marked a pivotal point in French history. It was the first sexual health brochure published by the state for gay men.

Everything you wanted to know about sex between men was also used in an HIV/AIDS education research project (see fig 4.4 and 4.5). The brochure was mailed out to 100,000 readers of mainstream gay press. The periodicals included Gai Pied Hebdo, Illico, Ibisa, and Midi Gay

Loisier. Copies were also distributed in gay bars, clubs, bathhouses and gay organizations.

Advertisements for the brochure appeared in the magazines Libération, Nouvel Observateur, and in other newspapers. Sociologist Michel Pollak, Gérard Pelé, and five other researchers managed

76 Original title was “Tout ce que vous avez toujours voulu savoir sur le sexe plus sûr entre hommes...” 77 Its publication date coincides with the first world AIDS day. The Canadian origins of the French brochure are listed on the last panel, below the contact information. That is its origins were, in this order, SPG, AIDES-based on volunteers experiences, and the Canadian Brochure.

108 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 research on the effectiveness of the brochures and condom education campaigns. They sent out surveys with subscriptions of Gai Pied Hebdo asking reader if the brochure had caused them to change their sexual practices, what they thought of the text and photographs, and if they felt fully informed about HIV/AIDS. However, initial results indicated that the explicit informal language of the condom advertisements, linking eroticism to safer sex, was met with negative reactions.

The results were interpreted with skepticism. Pollak, Pelé, and the others wrote “The results of this research must be taken not as the response to the campaign by the target audience, but the reaction of their entourage. That is, the results suggest responses to the survey came from parents, clergy, or from self-censure by respondents.”78 While this research was important and marked a huge step forward in HIV/AIDS education and the place of gay men in the hierarchy of medical patients, the results left more questions than answers.

However, while Pelé was at the AFLS, communication paradigm shifted from a focus on targeting groups to focusing on behavior. This shift is evident in the “Between Men” brochures.

Each brochure focused on a specific behavior, such as oral sex, anal sex, hard sex, and group or bisexual sex. They were part of the French state’s new focus on safer sex in the fight against

HIV/AIDS. Safer sex became a central focus for campaigns on condoms. In addition the state also focused HIV/AIDS advertisements on HIV testing, monogamy, and HIV/AIDS education.

Pelé maintained ties with SPG through research, public HIV/AIDS forums, and succeeded in the publication of brochures and other HIV/AIDS education material with SPG, AIDES, and other

HIV/AIDS organizations even after he left the presidency.

78 Michael Pollak, Gérard Pelé, Yves Charfe, Pierre Boisson, Olivier Bergès, Arnaud Marty-Lavauzelle, and Jean- Michel Manopolous, “Évaluation d’un dépliant Safer Sex (debut 1990),” in Bulletin Epidemiologique Hebdomadaire no 50. December 17, 1990, 215-216, http://opac.invs.sante.fr/doc_num.php?explnum_id=2283, PDF.

109 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Gérard Pelé at the AFLS

In 1990, Pelé, president of Health and Gay Pleasure, to joined the French Alliance

Against AIDS (AFLS) as gay “communication consultant.” The AFLS brought together leaders from HIV/AIDS groups, such as AIDES, as experts to consult for content evaluation and help prioritize state projects in HIV/AIDS prevention, education, and outreach. As an electronic communication professional, leader in gay health, and well-known arbitrator at between groups at public meetings, Pelé was asked to join the committee. When Pelé arrived at AFLS, they were facing an urgent problem: lack of concern between MSM despite threat HIV/AIDS continued posed. Many MSM were still contracting HIV and dying of AIDS. Some MSM were seen as refusing to listen to the AIDS message or refusing to use preventative measures, like safer sex, monogamy, or abstinence. As Vincent Abarca, from the House of Homosexuals (gay community centers in Paris), described the dilemma, “There [was] a double dilemma with the fight against homophobia and the fight against HIV/AIDS. It seem[ed] the only solution [was] gay militantism.”79 In hopes of finding a solution to this problem activists and the state joined forces for two events they hoped would help not only bring attention to the dilemma but also find ways to resolve this issue: Les Damiers, a contest aimed at gay businesses was held to find creative ways to target MSM in HIV/AIDS and safer sex campaigns (see fig 4.1). Also, on June 24 and

25 1992, an important conference, Les Saintes, was held. The AFLS conference, “brought together researchers, actors on the ground, and public authorities, to take stock of actions

79 Original quote Vincent Abarca, from the house of homosexuals (gay community center in Paris), described the dilemma, C’est l’imbrication de la prévention dans un certain militantisme gay qui, seule, pourrait débloquer la situation actuelle, ou beaucoup d’homosexuels, soit adoptent la politique de l’autruche, soit sont fatigues de se battre contre une double destine: homophobie et sida. From Anne Souyris, “Prévenir dans le lieux gais,” Le Journal du SIDA, No. 45, December 1992, 3.

110 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 effecting” MSM and “develop future perspectives.”80 That is the conference goal was to place

HIV/AIDS experts together and find a way to stop the ever-growing number of HIV cases in

MSM.81

Between December 1, 1991 to December 1, 1992 Health and Gay Pleasure secretary

Michel Jean, organized the first annual contest, Les Damiers, for HIV/AIDS prevention projects originating in gay businesses (see fig 4.1). SPG worked with the Gay Business Association

(SNEG), and the AFLS on the project. The project was launched and concluded on World AIDS

Day. Organizers hoped the event would encourage gay business owners and managers to fight

HIV/AIDS despite fears of appearing like activist oriented businesses or losing heterosexual clients. This contest was funded by the French Alliance Against AIDS and clothing designer

Yves Saint Laurent and concluded with a well-publicized awards ceremony handing out five prizes to local businesses with the most creative HIV/AIDS response.82 The awards ceremony took place at the Duplex, the same bar that hosted the first jack off party. Submissions were judged on their playfulness, and their ability to unit MSM in the HIV/AIDS fight. Snakes and

Ladders game from a Montpellier bar, draw me a condom from a Parisian business were among the most creative submissions. The jury was made up of thirty-four gay businesses who looked for the “most imaginative, novel, and pragmatic ideas that encouraged solidarity and could be maintained.” Winners came from restaurant, bar, dance club, saunas. The Special Jury selection.

Winners included the erotic pizza at Chez Alex in Marseille, imaginative games in Montpellier, raffles benefiting the association AIDES at the Duette dance club, and condom distribution at the

80 Christophe Broqua and Olivier Fillieule, “The Making of State Homosexuality: How AIDS Funding Shaped Same-Sex Politics in France,” in American Behavioral Scientist, 2018, Vol. 61, 1630. DOI: 10.1177/000276217744136. 81 Broqua and Fillieule, 2018, 1630. 82 Jean-Christophe Cauchy, Eric Lamien, and Pablo Rouy, “Quatrième Journée mondial de lute contre le sida, Décréter l’état d’urgence!” Gai Pied Hebdo, No. 497, December 5, 1991, 12-13.

111 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

IDM sauna in Paris. The grand prize went to jack off parties at the Thermes de Grammont in

Tours. The winning submission does not seem surprising in light of the current research, however it does attest to the popularity of masturbation parties.

Between June 24 and 25, 1992 the AFLS, held a conference to discussion the prevention and spread of HIV/AIDS in MSM. The idea for the conference was Pelé’s. He wanted the leaders in French public health to see what had been done collectively and what was left to do in

HIV/AIDS prevention for men who had sex with men. SPG coordinated with the AFLS uniting various gay rights and HIV/AIDS groups for the meeting. Discussions built on previous workshops and forums held on HIV/AIDS in gay men over the past 2 years. The AFLS operated under the idea that the best way to reach MSM was through community based actions. The groups discussed methods to reach men at pick up locations (parks, bars, saunas, dance clubs, bathhouses) and other gay establishments. Other methods of mass communication included the use of gay press, mainstream press, radio announcements, and the use of Minitel to reach men across France. Pelé hoped to flush out practical ideas that would reach MSM in rural areas as well as those who find sexual partners in parking lots, public gardens, malls, and other non- traditional locations.83 He also hoped to find ways to engage gay businesses in HIV/AIDS prevention and get local cities involved in prevention. Indeed, Pelé hoped to leave no stone unturned in reaching all MSM in France. The conference attracted 115 attendees and resulted in the publication of their research, more funding for gay oriented HIV/AIDS campaigns and their associations, and validation of gay sexuality through state funding of their organizations and positive images of gay men presented through a state agency.

83 Minitel was an early dial up services that operated much like the internet we know today: chat rooms, business sites, government sites, social pages, and educational pages.

112 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Following this important conference, the AFLS received a budget of ten million francs in

1993 for future HIV/AIDS prevention campaigns targeting MSM based on suggestions and directions from the conference.84 The conference also resulted in the formulation of a two-tiered strategy. First community health efforts were encouraged. This meant contacting men where they meet, live, and socialize. Second, using media to reach all MSM, such as HIV and safer sex campaigns on Minitel, gay publications, classified advertisements, radio, and mainstream press.85

Between 1990 and 1993 Health and Gay Pleasure worked with the AFLS to produce a collection of safer sex brochures called Little books of pleasure, sex, and love. This collection included the series of brochures Between men, for men who practices gay sexual activities; men who had sex with men but would not necessarily identify as gay or bisexual. Titles included

“Nice meeting you” and “Between Men: condom and lubricant, a perfect couple”86 In 1993, the

ALFS published the brochure “Men’s Jump” in the collection “Between Men.” “Men’s Jump” was written with assistance from the Freudian Center for Homosexuality. This publication has an example of a man choosing a strap on dildo to illustrate how sex can be satisfying without spreading any STD, including HIV. The explicit nature of the publication is part of their practical nature. Without real world examples like this the safer sex message would stay theoretical and possibly be perceived as moralistic. The explicit nature of the brochures message surpasses the taboo of talking about sex while providing concrete methods to stop the spread of HIV. Sexuality in this context moves beyond simple orgasmic goals and into bodily health. Men’s Jump authors continue suggesting: “fellatio, cock sucking does not require always having the member in one’s

84 “Hommes entre eux (Saintes, juin 24-25, 1992),” Actes de Colloque, Entre Gens, AFLS, No. 2, May 1993, 1-3. 85 Dr. Francoise Varet, Introduction to conference papers, Actes de Colloques, “Hommes entre eux : première rencontre des acteurs de prévention” in Bulletin de Entre Gens : Champs d'actions, Gens d'actions no. 2, May 1993, 1-3. 86 The original title was Les petits livres du plaisir, du sexe et de l’amour. Titles in the Hommes entre eux (between men) collection included “Heureux de t'avoir rencontré = Nice meeting you” and “Hommes entre eux : capote et gel, le couple inséparable” listed at the Crips archive as brochure created in 1994 by SPG. http://mediatheque.lecrips.net/index.php?lvl=search_result.

113 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 mouth. [You could] linger at the balls, at the base, or along the length of the cock.”87 In the third edition (1993) of Safer Sex, from the same Between Men collection, authors state “don’t stress about oral sex, as long as you never get sperm in your mouth.” They support this claim that oral sex can continue, even in the epidemic, because research suggests a very low risk of contamination through oral sex. Further, authors point to the risks oral cuts pose to contraction.

Therefore lubrication and condoms were strongly urged for oral sex.88 The themes and content are reminiscent of the GMHC booklet “How to Have Sex in an Epidemic” and shows that with state funding same-sex sex was authenticated, validated, and seen as important enough to protect for the continuance of the lives of those practicing it. The lives of MSM were seen as important to the state and the brochures were made possible with the help of Health and Gay Pleasure.

Conclusion

This chapter has demonstrated the power of grassroots activism on the community level in France. Health and Gay Pleasure emerged, not only creating practical solutions to erotic sexuality with in the AIDS crisis, but it also had a much broader effects: Health and Gay

Pleasure gave a voice in the content and form of state HIV/AIDS campaigns targeting MSM.

This research opens up the dialogue in French gay history by asking if it is true that communitiarism was part of the social lives of MSM since the Second World War if communitiarism really explains why HIV/AIDS spread after the 1980s, and if not for a group of

87 This description and quote comes from Pierre-Olivier De Buscher, “L’association Santé et Plaisir Gai et la construction de safer sex en France (1988-1994)” in Les homosexuels face au sida, Rationalités et gestion des risques, Marcel Calvez, Marie-Ange Schiltz, and Yves Souteyrand eds. (Paris: Agence National de Recherche sur le Sida, 1996), 39. 88 Santé et Plaisir Gai Provence, AIDES, and Agence Français de Lutte Contre le Sida, AFLS, “Hommes entre eux : safer sex” (Paris: ALFS, 1993), NP. Digital copy sent to the author from the personal archives of Gérard Pelé.

114 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 men who have sex with men could have targeted HIV/AIDS campaigns taken longer to appear or have been less effective? Martel’s popular history of AIDS in France, The Pink and the Black, squarely blames the gay community (communitiarism) for the late and weak response to the emergent disease.89 He wrote that “to survive homosexuals had to take a path of defensive communitarianism...Ten years after the epidemic began...gave birth, in due course, to an offensive communitarianism.”90 This research shows, first, the history of HIV/AIDS in France is more complicated than Martel’s portrayal of it. Secondly, this work demonstrates how gay men proactively worked to prevent the spread of the disease in France through community-based efforts. The history of HIV/AIDS in general is only emerging. This chapter opens doors of research for French historians, gay and lesbian scholars, and HIV/AIDS researchers.

89Martel, 2000, xvii-xviii, 200, 206-208, 212, 229-229, 347-359. 90 Ibid, 351-352.

115 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Figure 4.1

Text translation “Françoise Varet, AFLS assistant director, with Gérard Pelé (SPG) at the Duplex bar for the opening of the gay business HIV/AIDS prevention contest, Les Damiers. Launched by Health and Gay Pleasure. Patrick Matet, the new director of the AFLS attended the event.”

Source Gai Pied Hebdo, World AIDS day edition, December 5, 1991, No. 497, 10.

From the author’s personal archive.

116 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Figure 4.2

Cover of one of the first Health and Gay Pleasure Brochures, 1990.

“All you ever wanted to know about Jack-Off Parties...But were afraid to ask”

From the CRIPS archive in Paris.

This brochure links Amsterdam Jacks to Paris Jacks and Health and Gay Pleasure through the use of the same cover art as Amsterdam Jack’s brochure

117 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Figure 4.3

Gay Health and Pleasure brochure

“Jack-off parties...how to guide” cover.

Art by Gilles Loiseau

Reprinted with the permission of Gérard Pelé from his personal archive.

118 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Figure 4.4

Cover of the first French state sponsored brochure on safer sex targeting men who have sex with men. Published and coauthored by the AFLS, AIDES, Health and Gay Pleasure (SPG) and other experts. February 1990.

“Safer Sex, All you ever wanted to know about safer sex between men”

From the archive of Gérard Pelé and reprinted with his permission.

119 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Figure 4.5

2nd and 3rd panels of the first French state sponsored brochure on safer sex targeting men who have sex with men. Published and coauthored by the AFLS, AIDES, Health and Gay Pleasure (SPG) and other experts. February 1990.

“Safer Sex, All you ever wanted to know about safer sex between men”

From the archive of Gérard Pelé and reprinted with his permission.

Translation below.

A great sex life is possible between men! What is safer sex exactly? ☐It is using a condom correctly Sex between men since 1990, it’s safer sex and it When penetrating one’s partner or being penetrated.... must be synonymous with pleasure... ☐It’s also erotic and varied: (the complete list is too large to list here, use your imagination to Safer sex stops the spread of HIV (the virus that fulfill your desires): causes AIDS). Semen and blood carry the virus and nnnTouch, hold, caress, take a shower together, or in a group, have can spread the virus through contact with wounds a group message; or mucus membranes (that is lips, mouth, eyes, nnnLick each other all over the body, except the anus or head of anus, or vagina). the penis, there are many erogenous zones that can be exciting to ********************* discover and not only the butt... Safer sex prevents accidental contamination. (skin must not be broken nor ulcerated); nnn Stimulate the nipples with the mouth or fingers. Some sexual practices are not risky, or carry nnn Try fingering the anus while wearing a latex glove or condom. minimal risks, while others are extremely risky. nnn Give blowjobs while using condoms. nnn Rub each other with hot body lubricants. Its up to you to choose, this pamphlet presents nnn Masturbate alone or in groups (without using spit or semen as sexual practices that are erotic and satisfying while a lubricant...). reducing the risk of contamination. ☐Masturbation has never hurt anybody... Equally important is the use of your imagination: ....not looking at videos or porno films, reading erotica, porn, phone invent new erotic acts, adapt to your desires, and sex or Minitel sex (just watch out for a high bill). respond to the moment. *************************** 120 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION

This thesis has shown that the history of HIV/AIDS is more than a simple history of disease progression and state or medical response. The state did not operate in a vacuum of politics and policy making. Rather, it was influenced by how the disease was perceived in mainstream media, in gay periodicals, and from gay AIDS volunteers. The first state HIV/AIDS response, in 1987, was the result of a complex mix of fear from those who feared encouraging same-sex sexuality through targeted campaigns and fear from gay men who did not want to be blamed for the disease or return to old association with contagion. Following years of lobbying and public demonstrations during presidential campaigns gay rights activists managed to get, then candidate, Francois Mitterrand to promise the removal of anti-gay laws. While the role of a cohabitation government played a part in shaping the first HIV/AIDS response, through its

Minister of Health and Family Michèle Barzach, the decisions were not hers alone. As demonstrated in chapter three, Barzach’s decisions were founded on group expertise from medical doctors, health policy experts, and HIV/AIDS volunteers who had been working on

HIV/AIDS since the first cases emerged. Some of these experts were known sexual deviants, such as AIDES volunteers and founder Daniel Defert. Based on their advice Barzach oversaw the creation of anonymous testing centers, allowing over the counter needle sales, and released the first HIV/AIDS state prevention campaigns. The campaigns explicitly did not target gay men because gay men did not wanted to be target in them. Having just won rights prohibited to them since the Second World War and the removal of homosexuality from the official list of social scourges and as a mental illness gay men did not wanted to be blamed for AIDS.

121 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

This project demonstrated a marked changed in perceptions of gay sexuality since the first gay rights movements, that is, from the early 1970s to the mid 1980s. Over this time, gay businesses and periodicals emerged in Paris and other urban centers. This not only allowed increased visibility for queer peoples, but also served as a refuge for French men and women seeking social networks when they came to Paris or Marseille from rural France. By the time the first state prevention campaigns ran HIV/AIDS was reaching truly alarming numbers, and it hit gay urban men especially hard. Despite persistent intolerance and backlash to removal of anti- homosexual laws, gays had earned enough visibility to merit inclusion in the second HIV/AIDS campaigns that took place in Mitterrand’s second presidency. As demonstrated in chapter three, gay men had a place at the table in policy decisions resulting in the creation of targeted campaigns. This was unprecedented in French history. Not only were gay men working along side and consulting with state officials, but the state financed HIV/AIDS projects designed to keep gay men from contracting a killer disease. These actions authenticated gay sexuality at the state level only a decade after gay rights were only starting to be restored.

Much work remains in the history of AIDS and gay sexuality in France. This history is at risk of loss to the sands of time because many HIV/AIDS volunteers have died or are reluctant to record their histories because of the stigma gay men and women still face in France today. In

2013 gay marriage was legalized, but this was against a backdrop of vocal pro-family protestors.

Getting beyond the narrative that gay men brought HIV/AIDS to France from New York and spread it to their community will be a long road. The cross section of intravenous drug users who were also MSM remains an understudied area. This intersection of at risk groups might explain the spread of HIV/AIDS into heterosexual circles more clearly.

122 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Following decades of marginalization gay men in France faced increased stigma when

HIV/AIDS hit, relative to other western nations. Institutionalized and popular ideas about the threat MSM posed made responding to HIV/AIDS complicated. The stated did not want to appear homophobic nor did state associated doctors want the emergent epidemic to spread. This double rhetoric complicated the state response. The same stigma against gays deterred the

HIV/AIDS association AIDES from more direct and aggressive interventions in gay circles. In turn, dissatisfied volunteers created their own HIV/AIDS and safer sex organization Health and

Gay Pleasure for gay men. Unlike other HIV/AIDS groups these men blatantly spoke to and about and to MSM spreading educational material and sexual liberation through their masturbation parties. Their work with the state was unprecedented and important. Because of the intersection of epidemic history with French gay and lesbian history this research advances the field into a very understudied area: gay masturbation and gay masturbation parties. In addition,

HIV/AIDS history in France has yet to emerge. Currently sociologists are the primary researchers in the area. This work helps advance the history of HIV/AIDS in France from a political and gay history perspective.

123 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

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AUTHOR’S INTERVIEW WITH GÉRARD PELÉ

Interview Day 1, Tuesday, February 20, 2018

Gérard Je suis en ligne.

E.J. bonsoir Merci pour tous les articles. celui du Gabriel Girard est deja arrrivee

Gérard Bonsoir Janice. This photograph, above, E.J. Est-ce tout vas bien? appeared with Facebook Messenger every entry Pelé Gérard Great ! made, it has been removed because it was superfluous E.J. to the interview. parfait. d' abord il faut commencer avec un prélude official: Today is feb 20, 2018. I am Ellen Janice O'Connor in Lubbock Texas. This is an interview for my masters thesis on the history of AIDS in France, from 1980-2000. This interview may be used for chapter four on Gay Health and Pleasure and its origins in AIDES. My interview is with Gérard Pelé-Dedieu. Gérard, s’il vous plais, vous êtes a quel endroit maintenant?

Gérard Je suis chez moi , dans mon appartement de Paris.

E.J. merci et....Est-ce que vous êtes toujours d’accord pour cette conversation sur l’histoire du sida, Sante et Plaisir Gai, et des autres évènements autour ce période ?

Gérard oui, avec plaisir.

E.J. merci et une autre....etes-vous toujours d’accord pour utiliser cet entretien dans le thèse de maîtrise (masters thesis) ?

Gérard c'est ce que j'ai signé dans le consentement, non ?

E.J. C'est vrai. La directeur du program a demande de vous répéter ces questions. Excuzer moi de les répétées... Avez-vous des questions avant de commencer?

Gérard

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Une simple précision : pour mon nom, ne laisser que Pelé car Pelé-Dedieu est un nom d'usage que je n'utilise pas vraiment. J'avis souhaité mettre celui de ma mère pour "l'égalité" des origines... Une question : pourquoi cette thèse dans le champ d l'histoire ?.

E.J. Ja [this was an incomplete statement sent in error]

Gérard On présente plus souvent "Santé et plaisir gai" dans le champ de la santé publique (Public Health)

E.J. J'ai vécu en France et tout le temps le bas je n'ai jamais compris les française. pas a cause des idées reçu mais parce que je ne connaissais pas l'histoire. Pour étudier le France aujourd'hui j'ai choisi le sida, et en étudiant les réponses de l'état les rapports avec des groups comme SPG ne sont pas bien étudier. Il y des choses écrit sur Act-Up, et ce genre de organization, mails SPG est très peu étudier. Aussi j'adore les choses si pratiques. En histoire les champs d'etude sont en train de se mélanger. Ca aide les recherches d'en profiter d'expertise des autres domains.

Gérard I agree ! Act-UP davit un positionnement très politique, activiste et de nombreux militants et soutiens. Par ailleurs, leur communication était très forte et habilement préparée.

Gérard SPG avait de plus modeste ambitions : apporter des réponses concrètes et pratiques à un "tsunami" qui emportait les hommes ayant des rapports homosexuels. Donc, on a essayé de proposer toute une série d'activités très diverses afin d'aider ces hommes à survivre à cette 'épidémie dévastatrice.

E.J. "tsunami" c'est un bon mot pour cet tragédie. Avant de parler de SPG est-ce nous pouvons parler un peu de votre enfance? pour le biographie

Gérard Je vois que vous n'oubliez pas votre formation en psychologie ...

E.J. merci c'est un parti normal pour "oral history" pas pour vous analyser.

Gérard je plaisantais !

E.J.

quell année êtes vous ne?

Gérard Décembre 1948

147 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

E.J. Merci. En Lyon?

Gérard Non, en banlieue de Paris

E.J. Oh Bon.... J'ai lu que votre lycée été a Lyon.

Gérard J'ai fait une classe préparatoire à une École de Commerce à Lyon puis suis venu sur Paris en 1969.

E.J. Oh... avant de parler des années 70...quelles métiers ont fait vos parents?

Gérard Ma mère était coiffeuse et mon père travaillait dans la Société nationale des chemin de fer (SNCF)

E.J. J'imagine ils avaient des souvenirs du guerre...

Gérard Oui comme toutes les personnes qui ont vécu cette période

E.J. De que vous vous souvenez-vous de mai ou l'année 1968?

Gérard Oui car j'y ai participé en venant voir à Paris ce qui se passait.

E.J. Comment est-ce ces événements ont inspirés ou changes votre vie?

Gérard J'ai été fasciné par la libération de la parole entre les gens sur des tas de sujets. J'ai rencontré également la libération sexuelle, notamment pour les hommes homosexuels, dans des revendications de libération (aux Beaux Arts notamment).

E.J. C'est interessant. M Sibaliis a écrit un chapitre sur CAPR et leurs tantines dans le champs des doits . Vous parlez de ces tantives et les affiches qui étés arrachés?

Gérard Je ne vois pas ce que vous évoquez.

E.J. Peut-Être j'ai pas compris de ce vous parler en disant "J'ai rencontré également la libération sexuelle, notamment pour les hommes homosexuels, dans des revendications de libération"...Ce n'est pas le Comite d'action pederastique révolutionnaire?

Gérard Je ne me souviens pas de ce Comité. J'ai simplement le souvenir de réunions dans les locaux des

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Beaux Arts où des hommes homosexuels, travestis et transgenres revendiquaient de ne plus "raser les murs" et de vivre ouvertement et en plein jour leur homosexualité sans être honteux. D'où l'emploi du mot "libération"

E.J. C'est souvent oublie dans les histoires des homosexuals en mai 1968, et je pense que j'ai lu tous sur ce sujet. Il n'y a pas beaucoup écrit sur les homosexual en may 1968.

Gérard on se souvient en effet plus de la suite avec le FHAR (Front Homosexuel d'Action Révolutionnaire) qui fut très actif après 1968.

E.J. Oui, c'est vrai.

Gérard Mais je pense que tout était en germe dès 1968.

E.J. Il etiat un événement très important chez les Baby boomers ( la generation j-3)....

Gérard Vous attendez une réponse ?

E.J. Quel sorts des plaintes, désires et espoirs avez- vous et les autres élevés secondaire ont discuté sur des enjeux sociales ?

Gérard Nous étions tous, je pense, très mécontents de la façon dont la société présentait les personnes homosexuelles : toujours des clichés et des caricatures, tant pour les femmes que pour les hommes. ET bien sûr, les hétérosexuels se pressaient dans les cabarets avec des travestis pour avoir des frissons. Ceci n'était pas ce que nous vivions dans nos têtes, nos désirs d'amour, de vie partagée avec une personne aimée. sans oublier la peur d eta discrimination au travail.

E.J. est-ce vous avez participer au action ou reunions de FHAR dans les années 70?

Gérard Oui quelquefois puis lors des manifestations publiques dans la rue ou lors de certains défiles politiques ou syndicaux (le 1er Mai, jour de la Fête du Travail où nous étions souvent violemment conspués ou attachés par les militants communistes ou du syndicat CGT).

E.J. Donc la creation de SPG n'etiat pas les primiers pasdans le militarism pour vous?

Gérard Non en effet, mais mon investissement était modeste et je n'étais pas au coeur de ces structures militantes et parfois trop trop excentriques et radicales à mon goût.

E.J. LOL....Oops c'est MDR Comme Cadre de service de Communication . travaillez-vous avec Minitel?

149 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Gérard Oui : j'ai monté un service télématique professionnel dans la structure où je travaillais avant de rentrer dans la santé publique. J'avis eu d'ailleurs l'occasion d'évoquer ces projet à l'Université de Standford en janvier 1984 lors de mon séjour en stage à New-York et Montréal à cette époque (septembre 1983 - Avril 1984).

E.J. Les articles et chapitres citent les groups (comme New York Jacks) comme votre inspiration pour SPG....Parlons des groups qui étaient l'example de SPG...

Gérard En effet, ils ont été des exemples qui ont donné à l'un des fondateurs de SPG (un médecin) l'idée de créer ce groupes en France car, connaissant le mode de contamination du HIV (contact intime avec le sperme et le sang), on savait que la masturbation était sans danger et que même beaucoup d'hommes aimaient ça comme pratique érotique ! C'est en participant d'ailleurs à une rencontre des "Amsterdam jacks" que nous avons annoncé que nous allions lancer aussi des "Paris Jacks"... Pour ma part, je fus plus inspiré par l'expérience du GMHC de New York que j'ai fréquenté en 83/84 et qui m'a ouvert l'esprit à de nombreuses actions de prévention et de "santé communautaire" : groupes de paroles, documents écrits de prévention adaptés aux différents types de personnes homosexuelles, vidéos érotiques de prévention , etc. D'où le nom "SPG" qui englobait de nombreuses activités très diverses.

E.J. Les auteurs ont mal-présenter les faits. Je vais rectifier votre histoire. La réalité est toujours plus intéressent que les petits histoires. Il semble que vous-aves des amies qui sont morts du Sida tôt dans les primiers années d'épidémique.

Gérard Oui, comme beaucoup d'autres hommes homosexuels hélas.

E.J. Je regrette vos pertes.

Gérard Je vivais à cette époque avec mon ami, médecin généraliste à Paris et j'ai pu voir progresser l'épidémie, gagner au fur et à mesure des cercles de plus en plus proches parmi mes connaissances?. C'était comme un étau inexorable qui de refermait ...

E.J. Quel misere personnel et des amies Je regrette vos pertes [this phrase was repeated because Facebook messenger did not show that G .Pele had seen it the first time.] Est-ce Dominik Le Fers etait avec vous aux actions de FHAR?

Gérard Je me souviens du jour, avant mon départ aux USA, sans doute à l'été 1983 où allant visiter l'un des premiers malades du sida à l'hôpital de la Pitié Salpétrière, un très bon copain (mais non partenaire sexuel), je me suis dit que si nous ne faisions pas quelque chose de puissant, tous les hommes homosexuels seraient rayés de la carte. Donc, il fallait inventer des actions de santé communautaire et mon séjour ensuite à New York fut décisif.

150 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Gérard Je n'ai connu Domink que lorsque j'étais à AIDES. J'ai rejoins AIDES en février 1985, quelques semaines après la mort de ma mère (j'ai noté d'ailleurs plus tard, comme signe du destin, que ma mère était décédée le jour de la création officielle de AIDES, le 4/12/1984).

E.J. vous lisez mes penses...Il semble que vous avez vécu les pires années du sida au moment de vie ou vous pouvez rediriger pour agir a votre propre avenir.

Gérard Et surtout AGIR CONCRETEMENT alors qu'autour de soi, on ne voit rien de sérieux se faire, ni parmi les groupes homosexuels militants, plus intéressés à la libération sexuelle ni du côté des autorités publiques, totalement désarmées devant l'irruption de cette maladie et la soudaine visibilité de l'homosexualité avec ses divers composantes parmi les personnes touchées.

E.J. Vous-avez dit que c'était un group des amis qui ont connues le SPG. Est-ce que Yves Charfe été dans ce group? et qui étaient les autres? desole....autocorrect...

Gérard Non, Yves n'était pas parmi les fondateurs de SPG. Mais il a beaucoup soutenu dès le départ nos actions, a ouvert son journal à nos projets et réalisé avec nous les premiers visuels de prévention qui ont été repris ensuite par l'Agence française de lutte contre le sida dans la série "Hommes entre eux".

Gérard Pour les autres fondateurs, je dois leur demander s'ils sont d'accord pour apparaître. Il y avait deux médecins (dont l'un est encore en activité et marié à une femme) et l'autre à la retraite. Un quatrième membre a été parmi les fondateurs, surtout adepte du palier dans la prévention, de l'exhibitionnisme et du voyeurisme.

E.J. vous-êtes un petit group ou debut....Quels étaient les premiers démarches après avoir quitte AIDES? Quell année avez-vous commences?

Gérard On créé SPG en 1987 pour pouvoir mieux développer notre projet. Daniel Defert préférait que ceci se fasse en dehors de AIDES (ce que je comprend tout à fait). Le plus spectaculaire au départ fut la réalisation de Jack Off Parties mensuelles, avec les mêmes règles que les groupes identiques à l'étranger (règles de comportement signées, ambiance avec lumière chaude, bonne musique, sexe sans risque : pas de fellation ni de pénétration). On a ensuite mis en place des Groupes de paroles pour les hommes ayant des difficultés de prévention et qui souhaitent en parler (groupe animé par un pschothépaeieute analytique)

Gérard Puis Le groupe "Cuir" est apparu (rencontres sexuelles hard et fétiche) toujours régulées pour

151 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 une ambiance sans risque de contamination avec utilisation de gants pour le fisc-fucking) et diffusion d'informations de prévention à la sortie de nos rencontres.

E.J. C’est déjà 2 heurs, est—ce vous voulez recommencer demain au même heur?

Gérard Un groupe "Massage" s'est mis en place sous la responsabilité d'un professionnel. Le but était d'apprendre à masser et pas seulement se faire masser. Chacun devait tourner pour ne pas rester avec le même partenaire. Ce fut un groupe magnifique car il nous obligeait à prendre conscience de notre corps, de l'attirance et de ta répulsion pour l'autre. Pour beaucoup hommes contaminés par le virus, ce fut un vrai retour à la vie.

Gérard OK pour demain. Je commence en effet à être fatigué.

Interview Day 2, February 21, 2018, 11:01AM [Lubbock time]

Gérard Bonjour le Texas !

E.J. Bonsoir Paris ! est-ce vous êtes prêt?

Gérard Tout à fait.

E.J. Est-ce vous voulez continuez avec les sous-groups de SPG?

Gérard OUI. Nous avions évoqué le Groupe "Massage". Le dernier groupe était le Groupe "Images" pour le palis de se prendre en photo réciproquement et réaliser des photos qui pourraient être intégrées dans des campagnes de prévention. lire "pour le plaisir de se prendre en photo"

E.J. Quand est-ce ses sous-groups ont cree?

Gérard Pendant les 2 années qui ont suivi la création de SPG. Mais je n'ai pas en ma possession la chronologie exacte.

E.J. Est-ce il y avait un groups "amigos or gai nounours" aussi?

Gérard En fait, c'était une initiative indépendante de SPG que nous avons aidé à se structurer et à se développer. Nous en avons fait la promotion.

E.J. comment été amigos/gai nounours different des autres sous-groups?

152 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Gérard L'initiative n'était pas venue des fondateurs de SPG mais d'une personne extérieure qui souhaitait développer ce thème en s'inspirant de notre philosophie. Il souhaitait aussi garder une grande indépendance dans la conduite de ce groupe.

E.J. Par 1989 Il y avait combien de adhérents en SPG? membres je veux dire

Gérard Je n'ai pas de chiffres en tête. Il faudrait replonger dans les archives... Il y avait, en plus des adhérents "annuels" de l'association, des membres "temporaires" lors de la participation aux Jack Off Parties par exemple.

E.J. j'imagine il a fallu un centiane ou cinquante pour créer des sous-groupes.

Gérard Janice, j'ai une suggestion : à la fin de nos entretiens, il faudrait lister une série de points à valider avec des chiffres et dates précises ou documents intéressants à vous communiquer et j'essaierai d trouver les réponses documentées.

E.J. d'accord.

Gérard Non pas un tel nombre. Seules les Jack Off parties amenaient un très grande nombre d participants (de 50 à parfois plus de 100). mais les groupes de paroles étaient volontairement limités (8 maximum) ainsi que le massage (8 à 10 également).

E.J. le Gay Paris guide de Ferrari (écrit par Gary kraut) dit que par 1997 il y avait des parties avec 100 a 200 participants.

Gérard Selon les moments et la météo, il pouvait y avoir en effet plus ou moins de monde présent...

E.J. comment avez-vous fait le publiciste pour le groupe? advertisement

Gérard Principalement via des annonces dans Gai Pied et les Petites annonces de Libération. De plus les membres adhérents de l'association recevaient le bulletin avec les dates des prochaines réunions des groupes.

E.J. vouz-avez écrit heir que le journal de Charge été utiliser pour le pblicite .... quelle journal été celui? Charfe je veur dire (autocorrect)

Gérard Yves Charfe était le Radoteur en chef de Gai Pied

153 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

E.J.

Gérard Rédacteur en chef

E.J. oh bon.j'ai trouve cet exemplaire-c'est un bon example?

Gérard Oui c'est un exemple de publicité faite, notamment après la publication du premier dépliant sur le safer sex entre homme (coécrit AIDES / SPG) dont je fus le principal rédacteur "Tout ce que vous avec voulu savoir sur le saper sex entre hommes sans oser le demander"et qui a été le relais de la premièrecampagne de prévention en France faite par l'Agence française de lutte contre le sida (AFLS) en direction des hommes ayant des rapports homosexuels.

E.J.

avez vous suivie l'example de GMHC avec leur brochure? avez vous suivie l'example de GMHC avec leur brochure? C'est "health sex is great sex"

Gérard Ce dépliant a été évalué par un questionnaire auto-administré et c'est Michael Pollak qui a fait l'analyse des réponses et ceci a donné lieu à une publication scientifique dans le Bulletin Epidémiologique Hebdomadaire.

E.J. j'ai lu une analysis en BEH avec votre nom sur un etude des education publique sur les capotes et les dépliants sur le sida. Est-ce il y avait des protestations contre le SPG?

Gérard Comme je le disais hier, je fus très influencé par les publications du GMHC, notamment par le langage de "proximité" avec les personnes à qui on s'adresse et la prise en compte du vécu. J'ai soutenu ce point d vue dans mes débats avec AIDES et l'évaluation visait à faire remonter ce que les lecteurs pensaient

154 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 de ce travail.

Gérard Je peux vous envoyer l'évaluation du dépliant et peut-être le dépliant lui même.

E.J. c'est très gentile, j'aimerais bien.

Gérard Pa s de protestations fortes, plutôt des interrogations et des questionnements. Beaucoup de curiosité par contre dans les médias (presse et télévision) !

E.J. interessant. Le Gai Pied de 30 Novembre 1989 avait un article sur le ALFS et leur reunion de 15 associations. C'es présente avec des désaccords sur les project de AFLS. Le plupart des participants se méfient de AFLS a cause des non-homosexuels qui le dirige. Est-ce c'ete diffuse a travailler avec eux dans cet atmosphere?

E.J difficile

Gérard Je fus en effet l'un des rares, avec Yves Charfe, à soutenir et amener mes contributions à l'Agence gouvernementale de lutte contre le sida. Je travaillais dans le secteur public à l'époque et j'étais président de SPG. Donc j'étais l'homme de l'interface. De fait, je fus nommé Président du groupe d'experts pour la communication en direction des homosexuels après ces réunions difficiles. J'ai exercé cette fonction jusqu'à la dissolution de l'Agence par le Gouvernement de M. Balladur puis je suis passé à la Direction générale de la santé au Ministère chargé de la santé.

Gérard Janice Comment envoyer un fichier "pdf" dans Messenger ?

E.J. Peut-Être après Le Bitoux c'est vous comme role model. Est-ce qu'il a fallu partir de SPG quand vous- avez commencer travailler avec le ALFS? J'ai un Mac, J'ai ouvert the "folder" et dragged the Doc into the Messanger screen.

Gérard Oui bien sûr, j'ai démissionné de SPG quelque temps après ma nomination comme expert auprès de l'Agence..

E.J. êtes-vous dans le petit fenêtre de message ou le grande?.

Gérard J'ai un mac : je vais essayer de déplacer les fichiers dans notre conversation. Evaluation dépliant safer sex SPG_AIDES in BEH_50_1990 - copie.pdf Ca marche !

E.J. Tres bien fait! c'est marche ici comme internet link. j'ai le PDF maintenaient

155 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Qui a pris le charge du SPG après votre demission?

Gérard C'est Bruno Charignon qui est décédé du sida ensuite

E.J. C'est trop triste.

Gérard SPG _ Actions 1987 à 1994.pdf Je joins un document qui récapitule elles actions de SPG de 1987 à 1994.

E.J. Les authors ont dit que Dominik le Fers été un inspiration de la creation du SPG Merci . je vais le lire.

Gérard Je n'ai pas ce souvenir du rôle de Dominik dans la création ni la stratégie de SPG.

E.J. encore l'histoire de SPG été mal présente. Peut-Être un autre cofondateur avait dit ca. Merci pour le document sur les événements de SPG. Le photo en haut s'agit du concours Les Damiers....n'est pas?

Gérard En effet, il s'agit de la remise des prix du concours "Les Damiers" pour valoriser et récompenser des initiatives exemplaires des établissements recevant une clientèle homosexuelle. Remise des prix dans el bar "Le Duplex" qui fut le premier bar où ne venions, nous les militants de AIDES, parler du sida et de sa prévention les dimanches après-midi à partir de 1985

E.J. Les parties été a Duplex et après des autres bars, J'ai lu qu'il se déroule aux leix prive aussi. C'est vrais? private homes par example?

Gérard Les "parties sexe" n'étaient pas au Duplex, sauf peut-être une fois. Nous avions besoin de lieux grands, plutôt comme night club ou dancing. Ensuite en effet, comme aux USA, on voit se développer des initiatives privées qui mettent en place des actions similaires, ce qui est très bien !

E.J. Comment est-ce que le SPG a change après votre démissionnent? ou après Bruno Charignon est parti?

156 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Gérard SPG est revenu dans ce qui a fait son succès et sa notoriété : les Jack Off Parties ! Ai retrouvé mon discours lors de la remise des prix des Damiers.

DISCOURS GP REMISE PRIX DES DAMIERS.pdf

E.J. J'ai lu qu'il y avait le SPG de provence. A Marseille ... est-c'il y avait des autres centre de SPG dans les provinces? Merci, je le lis maintenant

Gérard Il n'y a eu que SPG à Marseille, association créée également par des militants de AIDES déçus des actions faites en direction des hommes homosexuels.

E.J. Est-c'il exist aujourd'hui sous un autre forme? je pense que vous avez écrit que le SPG n'exist plus?

Gérard Je n'ai plus vu en effet depuis un bon moment d'activités menées par SPG. Beaucoup de bars font depuis quelques années des soirées et après-midi "naturistes" . Une association "Parlons cul!" souhaite remettre le plaisir, le safer sex et la prévention dans ses activités.

E.J. Il ya toujours New York Jacks et Jacks of Color (depuis 1990), pourquoi il n'y pas autant d'intérêt chez les parisiens que les hommes de New york?

Gérard Je pense qu'il y a aux USA (comme en Grande Bretagne) une vraie dynamique dans les clubs et les associations pour porter des projets qui intéressent les membres, ce qui n'est pas la culture française, très individualiste et peu organisée de façon efficace pour les activités collectives.

Gérard Je pense aussi que la diffusion massive des applications de rencontres via les Smartphones font aussi dépérir les lieux collectifs de rencontre entre hommes.

E.J. peut-être avec les pacs, le mariage gai, et plus des réseaux social ce n'est pas nécessaire? Il y avait le minitel rose dans les années 80

Gérard Les applications actuelles sont plus performantes !

Par ailleurs, je ne pense pas que l'institution du PACS ou du mariage change beaucoup la dynamique érotique des hommes homosexuels et de leurs fantasmes !!

E.J. Ceux qui je trouve interessant c'est le fait qu'il est un fétiche[fetish] avant tout. Donc c'est

157 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 pas quel que chose de Sida specificement. Mais je pense l'idée de vie prive est très logique. Vouz-vouliez parler du travaille aux AFLS et DGS après votre demission au SPG. ...

Gérard Oui c'est un sujet important car j'y ai joué un rôle. On pourrait voir cela une autre fois. Qu'en pensez vous ? Il se fait tard sur Paris et le dîner doit se préparer maintenant ...

Third Interview with Gérard Pelé, February 23, 2018, FRI 11:30AM in Lubbock,Texas

E.J. Bonsoir!

Gérard Hello ! I'aback home. Gerard

E.J. How'd the day go?

Gérard Tired because I was very busy. But come back from our daily walk in the nice park : Buttes Chaumont

E.J. Est-ce vous voulez toujours parler ce soir?

Gérard OUI Bien sûr ! J'ai retrouvé un document complet avec le dépliant de prévention SPG/AIDES pour les hommes homosexuels qui a servi de première campagne à l'AFLS en 1990 + son évaluation envoyée hier.

E.J. c'est super! Je le veux bien! :O)

Gérard DEPLIANT SAFER SEX MARS 1990 ET EVALUATION BEH 3,4 Mo.pdf

E.J. je l'adore! c'est très bien présente : les visuels, mot en BOLD, et les repeignent sur sida et la safer sex.

Gérard Vous pourrez donc voir l'approche, les textes, les visuels et le questionnaire d'évaluation que j'ai imposé car nous avions des divergences entre SPG et AIDES sur la façon d'aborder les choses (exemple : tutoiement, pratiques sexuelles hard à évoquer ou pas, etc..)

Gérard C'est Daniel Defert qui m'avait demandé de rédiger ce document au départ en tant que président de SPG afin que l'on puisse hiérarchiser les risques par rapport aux pratiques sexuelles. Pour des raisons stratégiques et "politiques" j'ai voulu faire co-signer ce document par AIDES pour lui donner une plus grande crédibilité car SPG était tout jeune !

158 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

E.J. j'y imagine il avait des difference d'opinion sur la presentation. En fait, l'importance c'est qu'il soit fait et disponible. Si les hommes veux savoir, ils vont le lire. Mais, specificiquement je trouve la presentation très bien fait. Mais je ne suis pas expert ni homme. Gérard

E.J. Ooui pour le crédibilité et credit! c'est un travail important! Je chercher pour ce dépliante pendant des mois.

Les image de charfe sont beau Le autocorrect n'aime pas le nom Charfe . il faut faire attention soit q'il change le mot pour moi. Et c'est le premier publication par l'état et les deux organizations créer pour les homosexuels. eh ... dans cadre de AFLS, j'ai vue hier soir 120BPM. Act-Up n'était pas content de travail . Je veux dire les campaigns de AFLS pour tous les groupes minoritaires.

Gérard Il y avait eu un tout premier document fait par AIDES dès sa création pour sensibiliser les hommes homosexuels sur la prévention (je pourrai vous l'envoyer) mais le document de 1990 est le vrai premier document d'information explicite et complet sur la prévention du sida entre hommes.

E.J. Comment avez-vous marcher avec l'animosité atour des démarches par l'état et les associations? travailler je veux dire. Oui, je veut bein tous document que voua-voulez m'envoyer.

Gérard En effet, Act-Up a toujours trouvé les campagnes de l'AFLS trop timides. Ce n'est pas mon opinion. Sans doute il y avait un enjeu de pouvoir sur le leadership de la prévention, Act-Up et d'autres associations activistes auraient voulu être maître à bord et recevoir les fonds pour faire ces campagnes. Mais ce n'est pas la philosophie française où , de fait, l'Etat est très présent dans la santé publique.

E.J. L'histoire des lois et harcèlement policier et le tabous de sex en general explique bien le necciste des démarches fait par ALFS

Gérard Je me suis toujours appuyé dans ma mission à l'AFLS sur le groupe d'experts pour la communication en direction des homosexuels dont j'étais le Président car on avait des représentants de divers milieux (patrons d'établissements gais, chercheurs en science sociale, Aides, Jean Le Bijoux, etc) et non pas une seule approche très activiste comme Act-Up.

159 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

E.J. J'ai lue que cette groupe eu des réunions mensuel, c'est vrai?

Gérard Oui, nous avions des réunions très régulières, une fois par mois. Voici une production faite par l'AFLS à partir des recommandations de ce groupe d'experts : la collection "Les petits livres du plaisir, du sexe et de l'amour"

Et, bien entendu, leur évaluation... C'est ce que j'ai présenté à la Conférence internationale de la lute contre le sida à Yokohama (Japon) en août 1994 lors d'une communication orale.

CINQ BROCHURES ET EVALUATION 897 Ko.pdf

E.J. Est-ce c'est possible de voir l'autre cote d'un des dépliants ?

Gérard Je pourrai vous faire un document pdf complet si vous le souhaitez, le premier par exemple.

E.J. Oui j'aimerais bien. Il sera un example des contenus des brochures. Ces résultats (dans l'evaluation) - c'est le preuve que les hommes veulent les reseignements. Est-ce ils ont envoyer dans les éditions Gai Paid ? Gérard je le ferai. pour Gai Pied, il avait joint le dépliant de SPG/AIDES pour ses abonnés. Pour les petits livres, je ne pense pas (voir l'évaluation qui explique la diffusion).

Janice. J'ai un souci informatique (je ne peux plus ouvrir mes fichiers) et je dois me déconnecter qq minutes...

E.J. d'accord. je serais chez moi jusqu'aux 1h20 lubbock time/ 8h20pm paris time. et nous pouvons parler dans le semain prochaine si vous voulez.

Gérard

160 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Suis revenu !

E.J. c'est vite Cette group des brochures étaient crees avec des autres, patrons d'établissements gais, chercheurs en science sociale, Aides, Jean Le Bijoux, ?

Gérard Ces Petits livres ont été diffusés :dans les établissements gais, dans des présentoirs spécialement créés pour diffuser de l'information santé et prévention, par les associations lGBT et en relais de demandes faites au Comité français d'éducation pour al santé (CFES)

E.J. D'accord, et l'autre était distribuée dans les presses gai (celles de BEH recherche) ? J'reviens dans un moment.

Gérard Le principe avait été décidé par le groupe d'experts. Ensuite, je me suis appuyé sur des rédacteurs de SPG et AIDES et une agence de communication (LM communiquer) pour la conception éditoriale et les illustrations. Ensuite, tout cela a été relu par différentes associations et acteurs de la lutte contre le sida (Professeur Willy Rosenbaum, le découvreur du virus du sida par exemple)

Gérard La diffusion était faite par l'AFLS et le CFES pour les demandes émanant d toute structure ayant des interventions à faire pour la prévention en direction des hommes homosexuels.

E.J. C'est un process longue mais il semble que les brochures étaient vites faits. C'est un bon distribution, ils etiaient disponibles aux plusieurs groupes?

Gérard Tous les acteurs concernés (associations principalement)

E.J. Apres le safer sex campagne il y avait les campagnes de "hommes entre eux" Comment est- ce que les campagnes ont changes?

Gérard "Hommes entre eux" était un concept "ombrelle" (umbrella) pour porter différentes actions pour toucher les hommes ayant des rapports homosxeules

E.J. C'était pour éduquer les hommes qui parfois avait des relations avec hommes, des cuirs, et des autres hommes qui pratiquent les actes de sex hors 'tradition"?

Gérard Par exemple, en juin 1992, l'AFLS organise une rencontre des acteurs de prévention "Hommes entre eux" sur plusieurs jours à Saintes pour faire se rencontrer tous les intervenants (associations, médecins d santé publique, chercheurs en sciences sociales, etc)

161 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

J'ai toujours porté clairement un discours de non censure sur les pratiques sexuelles. Pour moi, le rôle des acteurs de prévention était de donner des réponses adaptées aux comportements des personnes, sans porter de jugement.

E.J. Et dans le reunion les acteurs de prevention peuvent acquirer des dépliants sur safer sex? celle des "hommes entre eux" ?

Gérard Oui bien sûr. Tous ces documents étaient à disposition libre et gratuite.

E.J. Est-ce que le president de GPS etait present? Est-ce qu’ils ont distribueee cet brochure aux reunions de SPG?

Gérard Mais l'évocation et la reconnaissance de certaines pratiques sexuelles créent parfois des difficultés, partout, même au sein de SPG ! Certains ne supportaient pas les hommes fétichistes du cuir. Idem dans d'autres associations et dans les pouvoirs publics. Ainsi le petit livre "Hard Sex" n'a pas pu continuer d'être diffusé par les pouvoirs publics car mettant en scène des rôle de domination et de soumission qui pouvaient poser des problèmes juridiques pour le respect des personnes.

Gérard Oui les brochures étaient remises à la sortie des rencontres de SPG, avec un préservatif et du gel (j'ai un exemple d'un tel packaging et je peux vous faire la photo demain et l'envoyer).

E.J. Oui in photos du packet serai parfait! Les dépliants et brochures qui étés censure. Est-ce qu'il été des autres brochures ou dépliants censurées.?

Gérard Il y a eu, à l'été 1995, quand la prévention sida a été intégrée au sein du Ministère de la santé en 1994, des difficultés avec la campagne tout public où nous présentions des situations où un couple homosexuel était mis en scène. Il y avait un cha,ngement politique en France quelques semaines avant le lancement deta campagne d'été préparée sous l'autorité de Simone Veil (avec Edouard Balladur comme Premier ministre) mais qui n'a pas plu au nouveau gouvernement dirigé par Alain Juppé... Mais on est arrivé malgré tout, après beaucoup de discussions et concessions, à sortir l'intégralité des 13 t-situations à risques identifiées. Je vous la joins. Tout ceci est passé dans la presse grand public, quotidienne et hebdomadaire. Ce fut la première grande campagne où l'homosexualité des personnages était clairement représentée.

Gérard 0_Campagne prévention Ete 1995 en presse tout public.pdf

E.J. Celui été nome par des recherches du side l'apex des campagnes du sida ciblant des homosexuals (si je me souviens bien dans la collection "homosexualités dans le temps du sida")..... est-ce qu'il des autres campagnes après été 1995 qui sont bien cibles aux hommes

162 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 homosexuels?

Gérard Pour le 1er décembre 1995, en solidarité avec les personnes malades, un partenariat a été fait avec la télévision française (France 2) où un couple homosexuel a été mis en scène . Tous les personnages de ces petits clips étaient réels - certains sont morts après le tournage. Nous avons eu des soucis au montage pour le couple homosexuel. le pouvoirs publics ne voulaient pas que la proximité s-de ce couple soit montrée (se toucher par exemple). Mais le film est malgré passé à 20h30 sur la chaine publique à une heure de très grande écoute

Gérard 1_Partenariat France 2 VIVRE Nov Dec 1995.pdf

Il y a eu une autre campagne pour l'été 1996 où on voyait également des hommes homosexuels mais toujours sans se toucher...Mais un seul visuel était publié. Je vais tâcher de le retrouver.

E.J. merci, je le veux bien! C'est très gentile.

Gérard Pouvons arrêter pour ce soir ?

E.J. bein sur

Gérard J'ai noté beaucoup de "pdf" à vous préparer. Je vais demander à mon conjoint (nous nous sommes mariés le 1er septembre dernier) , Jean-Marc, de vous préparer tout cela.

March 1, 2018, THU 11:53AM

E.J. Bonsoir. les document sont arrives au courier maintenant.

Gérard Bonjour le Texas !

E.J. Bonsoir et merci pour tous les documents, est-ce vous êtes pris? ready?

Gérard Non, je suis à ta disposition pendant une bonne heure

E.J. Merci. je pense que je t que je t'ai trouve dans le gay pride de 2008 ou 2009

Gérard Vraiment ? Il serait intéressant de chercher dans les années 80...

163 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

E.J. il y a un homme qui te ressemble au documentaire de Jean Le Bitoux . le gai tapant

Gérard Non ce n'est pas moi... jamais de collier en public (ni en privé d'ailleurs !)

E.J. ah bon, c'est moins intéressant comme ca

Gérard Mais je reconnais en effet une certaine ressemblance...

E.J. si je vous vois en person probablement je ne voterais pas le ressemblance. le camera change les personnes C'est vous qui a écrit Amouriner, n'est pas?

Gérard Mournier ? Qui c'est ?

E.J. C'est bien. je suis en train de le lire, mais vite. Il vas falloir relire après le masters thesis. est-ce que' c'est bien reçu? Amourinier

Gérard Non, je ne connais pas

E.J. https://www.amazon.fr/Amouriner-Pel-G- Rard/dp/2752101384/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1519927613&sr=1- 1&dpID=41KjJerl7-L&preST=_SY291_BO1,204,203,200_QL40_&dpSrc=srch

Il y a des autres hommse avec le même nome peut-être

Gérard Oui, j'ai un homonyme, universitaire et professeur dans la musique

E.J. c'est supaire, votre double

Gérard Ce livre n'est pas de moi. On me demande beaucoup de publier et écrire, mais je n'ai pas encore franchi le pas...

E.J. C'est dommage. vois avec beaucoup d'expérience dans la vie. Peut-Être un autobiographie

Gérard J'ai eues effet un parcours original. Mon pschychanaliste me pousse à écrire.

E.J. Tout ce temps je pensais tous les livres de l'autre homme c'était vous. Je ne fait pas de bonne recherches.

164 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Aujourd’hui, est-ce vous voulez revenir au travail pendant votre commission au AFLS et DGS? Ou pass a autre choses?

Gérard oui, of course

E.J. Donc, vous avez m'envoyer par email/courriel le dossier de AFLS sur le campagne Hommes Entre eux. qu'est-ce c'est l'importance de cet document?

Gérard C'est un document qui fait le point sur la philosophie de cette Agence publique pour la prévention en direction des homes homosexuels après 2/3 ans de fonctionnement.

E.J. C'est le philosophe de toucher tout genre des hommes qui fait l'amour ou act sexuel avec des autres hommes ?

Gérard Un autre moment important de l'action de l'AFLS a lieu en juin 1992 avec la rencontre "Hommes entre eux" à saintes avec les acteurs de terrain pour la prévention vers les hommes ayant des rapports homosexuels. Je te prépare le pdf de la couverture

E.J. Merci, je l'aimerais bien. dans le Page 28, c'est écrit que the SPG a fait des reunions de créativité sur safer sex-avez vous participe dans ces reunions?

Gérard Oui, tout à fait : prendre en compte toute situation, sans porter de jugement.

E.J. Quelles sortes des idées est venu de ces réunions?

Gérard Page 28 de quel document ?

165 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

E.J. de l AFLS "dossier de AFLS" sur Hommes entre eux, nous pouvons parler des autre choses si vous voullez? Gérard J'étais en train de faire de pdf pour les journées de Saintes (juin 1992)

E.J. merci, j'aurais du savoir.

Gérard AFLS_Journées Hommes entre eux de Saintes (juin 1992).pdf

Les groupes de créativité étaient intégrés aux groupes de paroles sur le safer sex et visaient à faire que les participants mettent en place, pour eux-mêmes, des stratégies de prévention adaptées à leur vie personnelle.

E.J. encore des bonnes idées de GSP et AFLS. Est-ce que le rapport Got est redu le travail de AFLS encore plus difficile? ou est- ce c'est un autre relation a cause du creation de AFLS après le rapport?

Gérard La rencontre de Saintes fut mon idée. Et j'aimerais bien que la nouvelle Agence "Santé publique France" fasse de même pour voir : ce que nous avons fait collectivement et tout ce qui nous reste à faire... Pour les groupes saper sex de SPG : la créativité restait au sein du groupe constitué, groupe animé par un psychothérapeute analytique, M. Hubert LISANDRE.

Gérard Le rapport GOT a été le rapport fondateur des deux agences : l'AFLS et l'ANRS. Seule l'ANRS est restée, centrée sur la recherche sur le sida puis ensuite aux hépatites. L'AFLS

166 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 a été sacrifiée pour des raisons politiques (pression des associations pour que l'État soit en première ligne de la prévention du sida en France).

E.J. J'ai lu que AFLS manque du vrai pouvoir..... Qu'est-ce vous penser de ca?

Gérard Non, pas du tout. Elle avait les moyens financiers, l'expertise et les agents compétents. mais l'articulation avec la Direction générale d eta santé, Direction au sein du Ministère chargé d eta santé, n'était pas toujours bonne et des "couacs" sont apparus régulièrement dans le phasage des actions des deux structures.

E.J. qu'est-ce vous pensez de rapport Got, a par rapport le manque des homosexuels dans le recherché ?

Gérard Mais il faut reconnaître que pour la communication pour la prévention et la solidarité en direction des personnes vivant avec le VIH, la reprise des actions sous la responsabilité de l'Etat, a mobilisé des moyens importants avec un impact fort.

Le rapport Got a donné une magnifique impulsion à la recherche biomédicale et à la recherche dans les sciences sociales vis à vis du VIH l'ANRS est un modèle reconnu partout dans le monde entier.

E.J. C'est vrai, Il y avait des homosexuels qui n’ont pas aimé le rapport Got. L'ANRS a produit beaucoup de recherche et il a publie tellement des livres sur le sida et l'homosexualité ....Et le Rapport du Rappin/Rapin? Comment trouvez-vous celui?

Gérard Je ne connais pas

E.J. C'est utilisé par M Barzach comme model pour ses actions contre sida. Aide était liée avec les suggestions le dedans. Comment trouve-sous les actions du Barzach? C'été le même année que SPG a été crée?

Gérard J'étais à AIDES quand Mme Barzach a donné la première subvention à l'association... Je pense que son approche était pertinente sur l'accès aux préservatifs et surtout aux seringues stériles, point majeur de la bataille gagnée sur le sida parmi les usagers de drogues.

E.J. Comment trouvez- vous la distribution des seringues par AIDE (avant Barzach)?

Gérard Je ne me souviens plus de la date exacte de cette première subvention (modeste d'ailleurs) mais c'est dans la même période que la création de SPG car elle fut ministre de 1986 à 1988 (je viens de vérifier sur Wikipédia) La distribution de seringues est pour moi l'acte le plus fort qu'elle ait pris.

167 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

E.J. Je pense le même, et puis SPG était aussi fort que cette action. Est-ce qu’ils étés distribuée aux lieux gais?

Gérard AIDES a souvent anticipé des actions de prévention ou de traitement avant que les règlements ne les légalisent. C'est une approche que peut faire une association vs les pouvoirs publics. Donc je n'ai pas d'état d'âme sur ce que faisait AIDES avant Mme Barzach ! Les seringues n'était pas distribuées dans les lieux gais mais dans les centres de traitement de toxicomanes et sur certains lieux de vie des usagers de drogues et lors des actions faites par les acteurs de terrain.

E.J. Mais, il y a des gais qui ont pris les drogues par seringue, aujourd’hui même. C’est comme le temps ancien ici. Il faut un prescription pour acheter les seringues. C’est un heur déjà. Pouvons nous faire un réunion dans une semaine? Ou après j'écrit quel que chose?

Gérard En effet, je connais la situation aux USA ! Aujourd'hui, la diffusion des drogues parmi les hommes homosexuels lors de leurs ébats sexuels (spam par exemple) est plus importante que dans les années 80 où nous étions plutôt concernés par la cocaïne, le cannabis et le poppers. Janice, je propose de faire un point quand une première rédaction sera faite. Qu'en penses tu ?

E.J. Je suis ouvert

Gérard Je vais t'envoyer des documents faits par SPG sur ses activités diverses.

E.J. quelle idée magnifique! Merci

Gérard Merci toi. Bon appétit et à très bientôt. Gérard

E.J. Merci et a vous aussi!

168 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Post-interview follow up, March 4 to April 4, 2018

MARCH 4, 2018 E.J. Gerard, avez-vous le dépliant: Les lignes directrices sur l’activité sexuelle a risques réduits-décembre 1988 de Canadian AIDS Society?

Gérard Non Janice, je ne l'ai pas avec moi sur Paris. Je ne suis pas sûr de l'avoir conservé d'ailleurs ...

E.J. Merci, er j'espère de ne pas avoir revailler (woke you up?) si non je suis vraiment déçu. dessolee

Gérard

Non mais maintenant, je vais éteindre la lumière et dormir !

E.J. Bon nuit!

MARCH 12, 2018 E.J. good afternoon Gerard! J'ai trouve une question sur les fete de SPG. entre 1987 et 1990, a la fin du fete, quelle dépliante avez vous distribuées? Le dépliants "safer sex,tous ce que vous avez toujours voulu savoir sur le sex entre hommes" été creee en 1990.

MARCH 16, 2018 E.J. Bon jour Gerard. Je travail toujours sur le chapitre sur votre group. Il ya 17 page maintenant. Mais ce n'est pas encore fini. Je suis désolée d'avoir dit une semaine parce ce n'est plus correct.

Gérard Janice bonjour. Pas de souci pour le délai ! J’ai été moi-même très occupé. Pour les distributions à la sortie des Jack Off entre 87 et 90, on donnait des préservatifs et du gel. A partir de 1990, nous donnions tous les documents édités par l’AFLD sous le label « Hommes entre eux » . Geo

E.J. merci. c'est formidable!

Gérard Je ne t’oublie pas pour des envois de documents concernant la vie et les activités de SPG ...

E.J. Merci, ils seront très utiles le chapitre est très bien. Je suis très heureuse de cette recherche. C'est a cause de vous. Merci mille fois!

Gérard

169 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

Je ferai ces images et « pdf » la semaine prochaine en Bourgogne où j’ai ma maison familiale et ou je stocke mes archives ...

E.J. c'est parfait. j'ai des ancêtres de Franche Comte. Ils ont partis pour les états Unis en 1853.

MARCH 21, 2018 E.J. salut Gerard. J'ai une question: est-ce qu'il ya une grand difference enter Safer sex : un nouveau Kama-Sutra et le primaire safer sex brochure?

Gérard Bonjour Janice. Il me semble que la notion de Kama Sutra était liée plutôt aux groupes de paroles. Il va falloir que je vérifie...

E.J. et Il y a un persone de SPG dans le livre de Paicheler sur les campaigns pour des homosexuel. est-ce c'est vous-meme? C"est écrit fonctionnaire de AFLS page 123

Gérard Oui c'est bien moi. Geneviève Paicheler travaillait sur tous les aspects de communication sur la lutte contre le Sida. Elle fut d'ailleurs membre du groupe de pilotage de la communication publique sur le VIH comme représentante de la recherche (ANRS) dès que le ministère de la santé a repris la main avec le CFES après la dissolution de l'AFLS

E.J. Qui a les initials SID a le meme page?

Gérard SIG : c'est le service d'information du Gouvernement, responsable de toutes les communications des ministères, placé sous l'autorité du Premier ministre.

E.J. peut-être il y a un faute de frappe, c'est "SID" après une citation.

Gérard Sans doute

E.J. j'ai traduit un peu de votre citation comme suivant: In an interview on his work there he stated that “he never had access to meetings on strategies to reach homosexuals through mainstream press. Never. ” est-ce c'est correct?

Gérard Non. Au contraire, le comité en charge de la politique de communication publique contre le Sida, présidé par le Professeur Jean-François GIRARD, Délégué interministériel à la lutte contre le Sida et Directeur général de la santé et auteur je participais régulièrement à pris position et validé

170 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 les orientations stratégiques des campagnes en presse tout public en direction des hommes ayant des rapports homosexuels.

E.J. merci.

Gérard Janice. Depuis le début de notre travail en commun, je m'interroge sur les motivations qui vous ont amené à vous investir sur un tel sujet... Est-ce indiscret de vous demander ces motivations ?

Avez vous été concernée très directement dans votre entourage par la perte d'amis homosexuels en France ?

E.J. bonne question. comment répondre. c'est parce que je déteste le discrimination et le haine a l'autre. Je suis retourne de la france et tout un coup j'etee populaire. c'était bête parce que j'étais toujours moi meme. donc le sujet des homosexuels dans le sida me touche comme quel que chose d'important. D'abord c'est ma directrice de Masters . Elle a dit d'écrire le primaire chapitre sur l'histoire des homosexuals en france. en suite les 2 autre chapitre s'agit de le meme chose. Mais je suis sincèrement intéressé aux doits des homosexuals. et fait aux toutes personnes. D'abord je voulais fair un histoire medical. Mais, il n'y a pas d'expert sur l'histoire medical aux TTU. Et l'histoire de genre et sex est très important maintenant. Ma Directrices avait deja 2 autres étudiantes qui ont écrit leur masters thesis en genre et sexuality avant moi.

E.J. En plus j'ai eu un amie qui s'est suicidé en 1996. on savait qu'il été homosexual mais non pas si le fait a joue un role dans sa mort. c'est compliquee

Gérard Merci Janice d'avoir partagé avec moi vos choix et interrogations sur les enjeux de la bien en société...

De la "vie en société "

E.J. j'espere de ne pas avoir dire quelle que chose de mauvaise.

Gérard Pas du tout ! Cela vient du cœur et c'est le plus important

E.J. bon! : o )

MARCH 23, 2018

Gérard Hello Janice. Je ramène de mes archives des documents complémentaires sur SPG, notamment sur relations complexes avec la police ... + circulaire des ministres santé et intérieur pour faciliter

171 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 la diffusion des documents de prévention, trop osés pour certains groupes de droite ou religieux.

E.J. C'est merveilleux/. J'ai des questions aussi quand il y aura le temps. Une été sur les relations avec la police. Arnal a écrit sur sa dans resister et disparaitre.

J'aimerais bien voire tous les documents

Gérard Je ferai des “pdf” à mon retour sur Paris car mon imprimante fonctionne mal ici en Bourgogne

E.J. ca marche. Est-ce les jeux gai ont bien passées?

Gérard Les Gay Games (Les Mondiaux de la Diversité) auront lieu du 4 au 8 août... Sorry : du 4 au 12 /08/2018

E.J. j'ai mal compris les posts du games a Face book.

April 1, 2018

Gérard Janice. Comme promis, j'ai fait des fichiers sur certains focus de SPG.

1/ Presentation de SPG

Dépliant présentation SPG.pdf SPG ? English .pdf

2/ Les Jack Off Parties : mode d'emploi

Jack-off parties - Mode d'emploi.pdf

3/ Collaboration SPG / Journal Gai Pied Hebdo en août 1990 : premier campagne "Génération safer sex"

Génération safer sex (SPG & Gai Pied Hebdo) - Août 1990.pdf

4/ Présentation de l'impact des Jack Off Parties dans le changement des comportements sexuels : poster à la conférence internationale sur le sida de Stockholm en 1988

Envoi du poster %22Safer sex groups%22 AIDS Conference Stockholm.pdf

Safer Sex Groups_AIDS Conference_Stochholm 1988.pdf

172 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018

5/ Evaluation Jack Off Parties de Paris et Amsterdam à la Conférence internationale sur le sida de Montreal en 1989

Jack Off Parties Paris & Amsterdam_AIDS Conference-Montreal_1989.pdf

April 2, 2018 E.J. Ils sont formidables. Merci beaucoup. je vais utiliser les reseingments dans le recherche.

Gérard Janice. Je vais transmettre différents documents sur les différents groupes de SPG

1/ SPG Groupe Images : présentation et exemple de thèmes de travail

SPG_Presentation du Groupe Images.pdf

SPG_Groupe Images_Exemple de thèmes travail.pdf

2/ SPG Groupe massage - relaxation

SPG_Presentation du Groupe Massage-Relaxation.pdf

3/ SPG Groupe Cuir : rencontre et règles du jeu

SPG_ Rencontre Groupe Cuir & Regles du jeu.pdf

4/ SPG Groupée paroles et de créativité sur le saper sex : présentation et types d'annonces passées dans la presse

SPG_Presentation des Groupes de paroles et de créativité de 1991.pdf

SPG_Annonces presse et flyer pour Groupes de paroles et de créativité de 1991.pdf

Gérard SPG a aussi contribué à des dons pour aider les malades VIH dans les services hospitaliers

SPG_Dons aux hôpitaux pour améliorer vie des malades sida.pdf

Gérard Ma dernière contribution du jour : les relations avec la police qui furent parfois difficiles Je joins une lettre d l'Agence française de lutte contre le sida à la police judiaicia-re pour montrer l'intérêt des Jack -ff parties pour la prévention (nous avions eu une "descente" de police lors d'une JOP suite sans doute à la médiatisation de ces évènements). Puis il y a eu une circulaire interministérielle de l'Etat (santé et police) pour permettre la diffusion des actions de prévention du sida auprès des homosexuels , notamment dans les établissements gays et que cela ne devait

173 Texas Tech University, E. Janice O’Connor, August 2018 pas relever du "trouble à l'ordre public".

Gérard 1992 02 13_Lettre AFLS à Police Judiciaire sur les Jack Off Parties.pdf

1992 03 18_Circulaire interministérielle (Police & Santé) pour prevention sida.pdf

E.J. Merci encore. ils vont contribuer au chapitre pour démontrer histoire plus complète. Vous

êtes le meilleur! merci merci....

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