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Numerical Modelling of Basin-Scale Impact Crater Formation

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Numerical Modelling of Basin-Scale Impact Crater Formation Numerical modelling of basin-scale impact crater formation Ross William Kerrill Potter Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and Diploma of Imperial College January 2012 For Mum and Dad I, Ross Potter, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. Ross Potter, January 2012 Abstract Understanding of basin-scale crater formation is limited; only a few examples of basin-scale craters exist and these are difficult to access. The approach adopted in this research was to numerically model basin-scale impacts with the aim of understanding the basin-forming process and basin structure. Research was divided into: (1) investigating early stage formation processes (impactor survivability), (2) investigating later stage formation processes (excavation and modification) and basin structure, and (3) constraining an impact scenario for the largest lunar crater, the South Pole-Aitken Basin. Various impact parameters were investigated, quantifying their effect on the basin-forming process. Simulations showed impactor survivability, the fraction of impactor re- maining solid during the impact process, greatly increased if the impactor was prolate in shape (vertical length > horizontal length) rather than spher- ◦ ical. Low (.15 km/s) impact velocities and low impact angles (.30 ) also noticeably increased survivability. Lunar basin-scale simulations removed a significant volume of crustal ma- terial during impact, producing thinner post-impact crustal layers than those suggested by gravity-derived basin data. Most simulations formed large, pre- dominantly mantle, melt pools; inclusion of a steep target thermal gradient and high internal temperatures greatly influenced melt volume production. Differences in crustal thickness between simulations and gravity-derived data could be accounted for by differentiation of the voluminous impact-generated melt pools, predicted by the simulations, into new crustal layers. Assuming differentiation occurs, simulation results were used to predict features such as transient crater size for a suite of lunar basins and tentatively suggest lunar thermal conditions during the basin-forming epoch. Additional simulations concerned the formation of the South Pole-Aitken Basin. By constraining simulation results to geochemical and gravity-derived basin data, a best-fit impact scenario for the South Pole-Aitken Basin was found. Acknowledgments Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor, Gareth Collins, for taking me on as his student and providing help and advice throughout my three years. I also thank David Kring, who gave me the opportunity to work at the Lunar and Planetary Institute in summer 2009 and had me back the following summer for the lunar exploration internship (Gareth also deserves thanks for letting me spend those summers abroad!); I failed on spending a hat- trick of summers in Houston though. I wish to thank all the LPI staff for making my time there so enjoyable and Walter Kiefer & Pat McGovern for their informative discussions over the two summers. Dr. Kring also deserves thanks for selecting me for his inaugural student field trip to Meteor Crater. It was an excellent experience to see what I had been studying for the past (at that point) two years. Back at Imperial, I thank Phil Bland for always being around for a chat, Jo Morgan for the many references she wrote and my former ‘batcave’ office-mate Tom, a fellow lover of impact craters. On a more social note, I thank the many LPI interns I spent my summers (and subsequent LPSCs) with. Notable mentions from my first summer must go to Josh & Daniel for evening frisbee-ing and their dinner-making expertises, as well as the undergrad interns, especially Emily, for letting me tag along on their various adventures. From my second summer: my fellow ‘lunies’ for all those nights spent at Sherlocks, especially Pat, who was always up for doing something, and the post-docs (mostly Katie and Amanda) for occasionally staying out past their bed time to socialise with us young’uns. Back in London, a big thanks has to go to all current and former members of 102. I can’t believe we have lived there for six years; Blaze has certainly taken quite a bit of our money! Special thanks has to go to John and the Tom’s who have been great friends to me from our very first day as Imperial undergraduates. Finally, I would like to thank my parents who have always been encouraging, supportive and interested in my studies throughout my education. This thesis is dedicated to them. Contents 1 Introduction1 2 Background: Impact cratering4 2.1 Evidence of impact structures..................4 2.2 Crater morphology........................4 2.2.1 Simple craters.......................6 2.2.2 Complex craters: Central-peak and peak-ring.....8 2.2.3 Multi-ring basins.....................8 2.3 Crater formation......................... 10 2.3.1 Contact and compression................ 10 2.3.2 Excavation........................ 12 2.3.3 Modification....................... 14 2.4 Scaling laws............................ 16 2.5 Shock wave physics........................ 19 3 Numerical methods 26 3.1 The numerical approach to impact modelling......... 26 3.2 iSALE............................... 27 3.2.1 Equations of state.................... 32 3.2.2 Constitutive model.................... 35 3.2.3 Artificial viscosity.................... 42 3.2.4 "-α compaction model.................. 43 3.2.5 Limitations of iSALE and the material models.... 44 4 Asteroid survivability: Numerical modelling 46 4.1 Aim................................ 46 4.2 Background............................ 46 4.2.1 The survival and recovery of asteroidal material.... 46 4.2.2 Morokweng Crater.................... 48 v CONTENTS vi 4.2.3 Previous experimental and numerical work on asteroid survivability........................ 50 4.2.4 Asteroid porosity..................... 52 4.2.5 Asteroid shape...................... 52 4.3 Methods.............................. 54 4.3.1 Parameter study..................... 54 4.3.2 Material model...................... 55 4.3.3 Quantifying impactor survivability........... 55 4.3.4 Grid resolution...................... 56 4.4 Results and discussion...................... 57 4.5 Limitations and future work................... 72 4.6 Summary............................. 78 5 Lunar basins: Numerical modelling 82 5.1 Aim................................ 82 5.2 Background............................ 82 5.2.1 Multi-ring basins..................... 82 5.2.2 Multi-ring basin formation................ 86 5.2.3 The lunar cratering rate................. 94 5.3 Methods.............................. 97 5.3.1 Material model...................... 97 5.3.2 Parameter study..................... 98 5.3.3 Target thermal profiles.................. 103 5.3.4 Grid resolution...................... 105 5.3.5 Effective mantle viscosity................ 108 5.3.6 Acoustic fluidisation................... 109 5.3.7 Calculating impact-generated melt volume....... 110 5.4 Results............................... 112 5.4.1 The basin-forming process................ 112 5.4.2 Transient crater size and maximum excavation depth. 114 5.4.3 Impact-generated total melt volume.......... 120 5.4.4 Final basin structure................... 122 5.5 Discussion............................. 130 5.5.1 LOLA/Kaguya-derived crustal profiles......... 130 5.5.2 Melt pool differentiation................. 131 5.5.3 Lunar basins: Predicting their features......... 136 CONTENTS vii 5.5.4 General basin structure................. 153 5.5.5 Basin evolution...................... 156 5.5.6 Suitability of thermal profiles.............. 157 5.5.7 Limitations........................ 159 5.6 Summary............................. 161 6 SPA Basin: Numerical modelling 167 6.1 Aim................................ 167 6.2 Background............................ 167 6.3 Methods.............................. 171 6.3.1 Parameter study and the material model........ 172 6.3.2 Target thermal profiles.................. 173 6.3.3 Calculating impact-generated melt volume....... 174 6.4 Results............................... 176 6.4.1 The basin-forming process................ 176 6.4.2 Transient crater size and maximum depth of excavation 178 6.4.3 Impact-generated mantle melt volume......... 181 6.4.4 Final basin structure................... 186 6.5 Discussion............................. 187 6.5.1 Crustal thickness and topography............ 187 6.5.2 SPA geochemical anomaly................ 192 6.5.3 Best-fit impact simulation................ 193 6.5.4 Consequences of an oblique impact........... 196 6.5.5 Limitations........................ 198 6.6 Summary............................. 199 7 Conclusions 201 7.1 Thesis motivation and aims................... 201 7.2 Summary of results........................ 202 7.3 Limitations and future work................... 206 Bibliography 208 A Effective viscosity 224 B Lunar basin profiles: Topography and Moho 230 C Geological timescale 236 List of Figures 2.1 Distribution of lunar impact craters >20 km in diameter...5 2.2 Distribution of verified terrestrial impact craters.......5 2.3 Crater size progression on the Moon..............6 2.4 Cross-section through a simple crater..............7 2.5 Simple to complex transition diameter.............7 2.6 Cross-section through a central-peak complex crater.....9 2.7 A cross-section through a multi-ring basin..........
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