Appendix 1. Acronyms

AAPC All-African People's Conference AAPSO Afro-Asian Peoples' Solidarity Organization ACPGroup African, Caribbean, and Pacific Group AEF Afrique Equatoriale Fran~aise (French Equatorial Africa) AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ANC African National Congress AOF Afrique Occidentale Fran~aise (French West Africa) AZAPO Azanian Peoples' Organization AZASO Azanian Students' Organization

BCM Black Consciousness Movement BOSS Bureau of State Security

CCM Chama Cha Mapinduzi CEAO Economic Community of West Africa CPA African Financial Community CIA Central Intelligence Agency CIAS Conference of Independent African States COSAS Congress of South African Students COSATU Congress of South African Trade Unions CPP Convention People's party CUSA Council of Unions of South Africa

DAC Development Assistance Committee

ECA Economic Commission for Africa ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States BEC European Economic Community ELF Eritrean Liberation Front

FLN National Liberation Front FNLA National Front for the Liberation of Angola FOSATU Federation of South African Trade Unions FRELIMO Front for the Liberation of Mozambique Frolinat Front pour la Liberation Nationale du Tchad

GRAB Angolan Revolutionary Government in Exile GUNT Transitional National Union Government

IMP International Monetary Fund lSI import -substituting industrialization

KANU Kenya African National Union

LDCs less-developed countries

MPLA Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola

NAM Nonaligned Movement NANS National Association of Nigerian Students

451 452 Appendix 1

Appendix 1. Continued

NF National Forum NICs newly industrializing countries NIEO New International Economic Order NP National Party NUGS National Union of Ghanaian Students NUM National Union of Mineworkers

OAU Organization of African Unity OCAM Afro-Malagasy Common Organization OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development OMVS Organization pour la Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Senegal (Organization for the Development of the Senegal River) ONUC United Nations Operation in the Congo OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

PA Program of Action PAC Pan-African Congress PDG Parti Democratique de Guinee PFP Progressive Federal party PLO Palestine Liberation Organization PMAC Provisional Military Administrative Council PNDC Provisional National Defense Council Polisario Front Frente Popular para la Liberacion de Saguia el Hamra y Rio de Oro PTA Preferential Trade Area

RCC Revolutionary Command Council RENAMO Mozambique National Resistance Movement

SACC South African Council of Churches SADCC South African Development Coordination Conference SADR Saharan Arab Democratic Republic SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty SASO South African Students' Organization SONATRACH Societe Nationale de Transports et de Commercialisation des Hydrocarbur STABEX Stabilization of Export Earnings Scheme SWAPO South West African People's Organization

TANU Tanzanian African National Union TNCs transnational corporations

UAM Union of African States and Madagascar UDAO Customs Union of West Africa UDEAO Customs Union of West African States UDF United Democratic Frnnt UDI Unilateral Declaration of Independence UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization UNITA National Union for the Total Independence of Angola UPA Union of Angolan Peoples

WPE Workers' Party of Ethiopia WSLF Western Somali Liberation Front

ZANU Zimbabwe African National Union ZAPU Zimbabwe African People's Union ZNP Zanzibar Nationalist Party Appendix 2. ~ Basic Political Data Country and Date Major of Independence Capital City Rulers Since Independence Political Parties

Algeria Algiers 1. Ahmed Ben Bella, N alional Liberation 3 July 1962 president, 1962-June 1965 Front(FLN) 2. Col. Houari Boumedienne, Islamic Salvation president, June 1965- Front (FIS) December 1978 Algerian Renewal 3. Col. Benjedid Chadli, Party (PRA) president, February 1979- Movement for Democracy in Algeria (MDA) Socialist Forces Front (FFS)

Angola Luanda I. Antonio Agostinho Neto, Popular Movement for 11 November 1975 founding president, the Liberation of 1975-10 September 1979 Angola (MPLA) 2. Jose Eduardo dos Santos, president, 20 September 1979-

Benin Porto Novo I. Hubert Maga, president, Benin People's Revolu- I August 1960 31 December 1960- tionary party (PRPB) (fannerly Republic 28 October 1963 Union for the Triumph of Dahomey 1960- 2. Col. (later Gen.) Christophe of Democratic Renewal 1975) Soglo, president, 28 October (UTR) includes: UDFP, 1963-January 1964 MOPS,ULD 3. Sourou Migan Apithy, Our Common Cause (NCC) president, January 1964- National Assembly for 29 November 1965 Democracy (RND) 4. Tahirou Congacou, president 29 November 1965- 22 December 1965 5. Gen. Christophe Soglo, president, 22 December 1965- 16 December 1967 6. Lt. Col. Alphonse Alley, president, 16 December 1967- July 1968 7. Emile-Derlin Zinsou (civilian), president, July 1968- 10 December 1969 8. Lt. Col. Paul Emile de Souza, president, 10 December 1969- May 1970 9. Hubert Maga, president, May 1970-May 1972 10. Justin Ahomadegbe, president, May 1972-26 October 1972 II. Col. Mathieu Kerekou, president, October 1972- 12. Nicephore Soglo, February 1991-

Botswana Gaborone 1. Sir Seretse Khama, Botswana Democratic 30 September 1966 30 September 1966- party 13 July 1980 Botswana People's party 2. Quett Masire, president Botswana Independence 18 July 1980- party Botswana National Front Botswana Progressive Union (BPU)

453 454 Appendix 2

Appendix 2. Continued

Country and Date Major of Independence Capital City Rulers Since Independence Political Parties

Burkina Faso Ouagadougou 1. Maurice Yameogo, Popular Front Movement 5 August 1960 president, April 1959- for Tolerance & Progress (fonnerly Upper January 1966 (MTP) Volta; renamed 2. Lt. Col. Sangouie Larnizana, The Union for Democracy Burkina Faso, president, January 1966- & Social Progress (UDPS) August 1984) 1980 Ecological Party for 3. Col. SayeZerbo, 1980-1982 Progress (PEP) 4. NCO coup, Otober 1982 The Party of Convergence, 5. Maj. Jean Baptiste Ouedraogo, Freedoms & Integration president, January 1983- (PCLI) August 1983 Organization for Popular 6. Capt. Thomas Sankara, Democracy-Labor Party president, National ODP-(MT) Revolutionary Council (CNR),1983-1987 7. Capt. Blaise Compaore, president, National Revolutionary Council, 1987-

Burundi Bujumbura I. (King) Mwami Mwambutsa II, Union pour Ie Progres 1 July 1962 1915-1966. Prime ministers: National Andre Muhirwa, 1962-1963; (UPRONA) Pierre Ngendandumwe, 1963; Albin Nyamoya, 1964-1965; Pierre Ngendandumwe, 1965; (assassinated, January 1965); Joseph Bamina, 1965; Leopold Biha. 1965; 2. Mwami Ntare V (deposed father, M wambutsa II, as king). Capt. (later Col.) Michel Micombero, prime minister, 8 July 1966- 29 November 1966 3. Micombero declares Burundi a republic, with himself as president, 29 November 1966- I November 1976 4. Col. Jean-Baptiste Bagaza, president, November 1976- 3 September 1987 5. Maj. Pierre Buyoya, chainnan Military Committee for National Salvation, 1987-

Cameroon Yaounde I. Ahmadou Ahidjo, president, National Cameroonian 1 January 1960 5 May 1960-November 1982 Union; renamed in March (1960-1961: 2. Paul Biya, president, 1982- 1985; Rassemblement Republic of East Democratique du Peuple Cameroon; October Camerounais (RDPC) 1961-1972: Federal Integral Democracy in Republic of Cameroon (DIC) Cameroon, com- Union of the Populations of posed of the East- Cameroon (UPC) fonner French trust Social Democratic Move- territory-and ment of Cameroon (ASDC) West-part offor- Party of Cameroon Demo- mer British trust crats (PDC) territory; 1972-: Pan-African Congress of United Cameroon Cameroon (CPC) Republic) Appendix 2 455

Appendix 2. Continued

Country and Date Major of Independence Capital City Rulers Since Independence Political Parties

Cape Verde Praia I. Aristides Pereira, Partido Africano da July 1975 president, 1975-February Independencia de Cabo (in federation with 1991 Verde (PAICV) Guinea-Bissau, 2. Antonio Mascarenbas Movement for Democracy 1975-January 1981) Monteiro, February 1991- (MPD) Union Capverdienne Independante et oemocratique (UCID) Union du Peuple pour I'Independance du Cap- Vert (UPICV)

Central African Bangui I. David Dacko (formerly prime Central African Democratic Republic minister), president, Assembly (RDCA) 13 August 1960 17 November 1960- Alliance for Democracy (197&-1979: 31 December 1965 and Progress (ADP) Central African 2. Coup led by Field Marshal Movement for the Empire) Jean-Bedel Bokassa, Liberation of the Central 31 December 1965 African People (MLPC) 3. Bokassa proclaimed Movement for Social "President for Life," Evolution in Black Africa 2 March 1972 (MESAN) 4. Bokassa crowned emperor, 4 December 1977 5. Bokassa deposed in coup. David Dacko, president, 10 September 1979 6. Gen. Andre Kolingba established military regime, September 1981- (chairman of Military Com- mittee for National Recovery

Chad Ndjamena l. Ngarta (formerly Fran~ois) Mouvement Populaire du II August 1960 Tombalbaye, prime minister; Salut (MPS) head of state on independ- ence; president, 22 April 1962-13 April 1975 (killed in military coup) 2. Gen. Felix Malloum, president, April 1975-1979 3. Hissene Habre, appointed prime minister, August 1978 4. Malloum and Habre resign, 23 March 1979; Transitional Government of National Unity 5. Goukouni Oueddei, president 1979-1982 6. Hissene Habre, president, 1982-December 1990 7. Idriss Deby, December 1990- 456 Appendix 2

Appendix 2. Continued

Country and Date Major of Independence Capital City Rulers Since Independence Political Parties

Comoros Moroni 1. Ahmed Abdallah, president, National United Front July 1975 July 1975-August 1975 National Council of the 2. Coup led by Ali Soilih, Institutions August, 1975; president, National Union for 1976-1978 Democracy in Comoros 3. Ahmed Abdallah, president, (UNDC) reinstated in coup by Rassemblement pour Ie mercenaries under Bob changement et la Denard, 1978-27 November Democratie (Rachade) 1989 (murdered) 4. Bob Denard, 27 November 1989-15 December 1989 5. Said Djohar, 16 December 1989-

Congo Brazzaville 1. Foulbert Y oulou elected Congolese Workers' 15 August 1960 president under preindepend- party (PCT) ence constitution, Union for Social Progress & 21 November 1959 Democracy (UPSD) 2. Military coup August 1963; The People's Party for Alphonse Massamba-Debat, Social Democracy and president, 19 December 1963- Defence of the Republic 3. Governing National Revolutionary Council, formed 5 September 1968, chaired by Capt. Marien Ngouabi. Maj. Alfred Raoul, prime minister and temporary head ofstate, 5 September 1968- head of 31 December 1968 4. Capt. Marien Ngouabi, president, December 1968- March 1977 5. N gouabi assassinated, March 1977. Col. (later Brig. Gen.) Joachim Yhombi-Opango, president, March 1977-5 February 1979 6. Col. Denis Sassou Nguesso, president, 5 February 1979-

Cote d'Ivoire Abidjan 1. Felix Houphouet-Boigny, Democratic Party of the 7 August 1960 prime minister, 1 May 1959; Ivory Coast (PDCI) president, 27 November Ivorian Popular Front (FPI) 1960-- Ivorian Workers party (PIT) Social-Democrat Union (USD) Republic party (PR)

Djibouti Dijbouti 1. Hassan Gouled, president, Rassemblement Populaire 27 June 1977 24 June 1977- pour Ie Progres (RPP) Appendix 2 457

Appendix 2. Continued

Country and Date Major of Independence Capital City Rulers Since Independence Political Parties

Arab Republic of Cairo 1. King Farouk to 1952 Liberal Socialist party Egypt 2. Coup led by Col. Gamal National Democratic party 28 February 1922 Abdel Nasser and Abdul-al National Progressive Hakim. Maj. Gen. Neguib, Unionist party president,lune 1953- New Wafd party November 1954 Socialist Labour party 3. Nasser, head of state, 1954- Ummahparty 1970 (president from 1956) 4. Col. Anwar Sadat, president, 1970--0ctober 1981 5. Lt. Gen. Hosni Mubarak, president, 1981-

Equatorial Guinea Malabo 1. Francisco Macias Nguema, Democratic Party of 12 October 1968 president, 29 September Equatorial Guinea (PDGE) 1968-3 August 1979 (September 1987) 2. Military coup led by Lt. Col. Teodoro Obiango Nguema Mbasogo, 3 August 1979 3. Lt. Col. Teodoro Obiango Nguema Mbasogo, president, 12 October 1980-

Ethiopia Addis Ababa 1. Succession of emperors Workers' Party of 2. Emperor Haile Selassie, Ethiopia (WPE) 1930-12 September 1974 3. Lt. Gen. Aman Andom, chairman PMAC (Provisional Military Administrative Council) until November 1974 4. Brig. Gen. Teferi Banti, chairman, PMAC. Power actually held by vice chairman Maj. (later Lt. Col.) Mengistu Haile Mariam and Lt. Col. Atnafu Abate. Banti killed, 3 February 1977 5. Mengistu Haile Mariam, chairman of PMAC, head of state, 1977-21 May 1991 6. Meles Zenawi, president, May 1991-

Gabon Libreville 1. Leon M'Ba, president, 1961- Gabonese Democratic 17 August 1960 28 November 1967 Party (PDG) 2. Omar (formerly Albert- Morena-Bucherons Bernard) Bongo, president, Gabonese Progressive 28 November 1967- Party (PGP) Morena-Original Union for Gabonese Socialism (UPSG) Gabonese Socialist Union (USG) Circle for Renewal & Progress (CRP) 458 Appendix 2

Appendix 2. Continued

Country and Date Major of Independence Capital City Rulers Since Independence Political Parties Gambia Banjul 1. Constitutional monarchy National Liberation party 18 February 1965 with Dawda Jawara. prime National Convention minister. 1965-1970 party 2. Gambia becomes a republic. People's Progressive party April 1970. Dawda Jawara United party becomes first president. Gambia People's party 24 April 1970-

Ghana Accra 1. Constitutional monarchy. None 6 March 1957 1957-1960; Kwame Nkrumah. prime minister. Becomes republic. 1960; Nkrumah. president. 24 February 1966 2. Lt. Gen. Joseph Ankrah. chairman of National Libera- tion Council. February 1966- 1969. Replaced. 1969. by Brig. Gen. Akwasi Afrifa 3. Competitive electoral politics: Kofi Busia. prime minister. September 1969-January 1972 4. Lt. Col. (later Gen.) Ignatius Kutu Acheampong. chairman of National Redemption Council. replaced by Supreme Military Council. 13 January 1972-5 July 1978 5. Lt. Gen. Frederick Akuffo. chairman of Supreme Military Council. 5 July 1978- 4 June 1979 6. Flight Lt. Jerry Rawlings. chairman of Armed Forces Revolutionary Council. 4 June 1979-September 1979 7. Dr. Hilla Limann. president. September 1979-December 1981 8. Flight Lt. Jerry Rawlings. chairman of the Provisional National Defence Council. December 1981- Guinea Conakry 1. Ahmed Sekou TOUl·e. Parti oemocratique de 2 October 1958 president. 1958-April 1984 Guinee (PDG) 2. Col. Lansana Conte. president. head of Comite Militaire de Redressement National. 1984-

Guinea-Bissau Bissau 1. Luiz De Almeida Cabral. African Party for the 10 September 1974 president. 1974-1980 Independence of Guinea 2. Gen. Joao Bernardo Vieira. and Cape Verde Islands president of the Council of (PAIGC) State. head of government. The Social Democratic 1980- Front (FDS) Appendix 2 459

Appendix 2. Continued

Country and Date Major of Independence Capital City Rulers Since Independence Political Parties

Kenya Nairobi I. Constitutional monarchy, Kenya African National 12 December 1963 1963-1964; Jomo Kenyatta, Union (KANU) prime minister 2. Kenyatta, president, 1964- II August 1978 3. Succeeded by Daniel arap Moi, president, 1978-

Lesotho Maseru I. Constitutional monarchy Popular Front for 4 October 1966 under King Motlotlehi Democracy (PFD) Moshoeshoe II 2. Chief Leabua Jonathan seizes power in civilian coup, January 1970-January 1986 3. Maj. Gen. Justin Lekhanya, chairman, Military Council, 1986-30 April 1991 (military coup) 4. Col. Elias Ramaema, chairman, Military Council, 30 April 1991-

Liberia Monrovia I. Until 1944, eighteen National Democratic party 26 July 1847 presidents (NDP) 2. William V. S. Tubman, Liberian Action party (LAP) president, 1944-1971 Liberian Unification party 3. William R. Tolbert, 1971- (LUP) 12 April 1980 Unity party (UP) 4. M. Sgt. Samuel K. Doe, National Democratic Party president, People's Redemp· of Liberia (NDPL) tion Council, 1980- 10 November 1990 (murdered) 5. Amos Sawyer, 1990-

Libya Tripoli I. King Idris, 1951-1969 None 24 December 1951 2. Col. Muammar Mohammed (from March 1977, Qaddafi, Leader of the named Socialist Revolution, 1969- People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya)

Democratic Republic Antananarivo I. Philibert Tsiranana, Front National pour la of Madagascar president, 1960-May 1972 Defense de la Revolution 26 June 1960 2. Gen. Gabriel Ramanantsoa, Socialiste Malgache president, 1972-February (FNDR) 1975 Social Democratic party 3. Col. Ratsimandrava, (PSD) February 1975 (assassinated) AMFM·3FM 4. Gen. Gilles Andria Mahazo, Christian Democratic party National Military Directorate, (MDC) February 1975 5. Lt. Comdr. Didier Ratsiraka, president, March 1975- 460 Appendix 2

Appendix 2. Continued

Country and Date Major of Independence Capital City Rulers Since Independence Political Parties ------Malawi Lilongwe I. Constitutional monarchy, Malawi Congress party 6 July 1964 Ngwasi Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda, prime minister, 1964-1966 2. Banda, president, 1966 3. Ngwasi Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda, "President for Life," July 1971-

Mali Bamako 1. Modibo Keita, president of Union Democratique du 22 September 1960 Mali Federation; president of Peuple Malien (UDPM) (20 June 1960: Soudan government, 15 April Rally for Democracy & independence of 1959; president of Mali, Progress Mali Federation) 1960-1968 Union Sudanaise-Section (4 April 1959- 2. Lt. (later Brig. Gen.) Moussa duRDA 20 August 1960: Traore, chairman of Military Alliance pour la Mali Federation, Committee of National Libera- Democratie au Mali with Senegal) tion, November 1968- 36 new parties June 1979 3. Gen. Moussa Traore, president, 19 June 1979-25 March 1991 4. Lieut. Col. Amadou Toumany Toure, Acting Head of State, 31 March 1991-5 April 1991 5. Soumana Sacko, Prime Minister, 5 April 1991-

Islamic Republic Nouakchott I. Mokhtar Quid Daddah, presi- Mauritanian People's of Mauritania dent, 1961-10 July 1978 Party (PPM) 28 November 1960 2. Lt. Col. Mustapha Quid Rally for Democracy and Mohammed Salek, president National Unity (ROUN) of Comite Militaire de Democratic and Social Redressement National party (PROS) (CMRN), 10 July 1978- Mauritania Party for 6 April 1979 Renewal (PMR) 3. Lt. Col. Ahmed Quid Bouceif, prime minister, 6 April 1979- 27 May 1979 (assassinated) 4. Lt. Col. Mohammed Khouna Haidalla, prime minister appointed by Salek, 31 May 1979 5. CMSN (formerly CMRN) forces Salek to resign, June 1979. Lt. Col. Mohammed Mahmoud Quid Louly, presi- dent, June 1979-January 1980 6. Haidalla ousts Louly, 4 January 1980. Becomes president, head of state, and chairman of CMSN,1980-1984 7. Col. Maawiya Quid Sid'Ahmed Taya, president of the Republic, chairman of the Military Com- mittee for National Salvation, 1984- Appendix 2 461

Appendix 2. Continued

Country and Date Major of Independence Capital City Rulers Since Independence Political Parties

Mauritius Port Louis 1. Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, Comite d'Action 12 March 1968 prime minister, 1968-1982 MusuIman (CAM) 2. Aneerood lugnauth, prime Independent Forward Bloc minister, 1982- (lFB) Mauritian Labour party (MLP) Mauritius People's Progressive party Mouvement Militant Mauricien (MMM) Mouvement Socialiste Mauricien (MSM)

Morocco Rabat 1. King Mohammed V, to 1961 Istiqlal 2 March 1956 2. King Hassan 11,1961- Mouvement Populaire (MP) Mouvement Populaire Constitutionnel et Democratique (MPCD) Organisation de l'Action Democratique et Populaire Parti de l'Action Parti du Centre Social Parti Democratique pour I'Independence Parti National Democrate (PND) Parti Liberal Progressiste (PLP) Parti National pour I'Unite et la Solidarite Parti du Progres et du Socialisme (PPS) Rassemblement National des Indtpendents (RNI) Union Constiutionnelle (UC) Union Nationale des Forces Populaires (UNFP) Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires (USFP)

Mozambique Maputo 1. Samora Moises Machel, Front for the Liberation 25 June 1975 president, 1975-1986 of Mozambique (FRELIMO) 2. Joaquim Alberto Chissano, Liberal & Democratic Party president, 198~ (Palmo) The Mozambique National Union (Unamo) The Independent Congress of Mozambique (Coime)

Namibia Windhoek 1. Sam Nujoma, president SWAPO 21 March 1990 Hage Geingob, prime minister, DTA 21 March 1990- National Patriotic Front (NPF) National Independence party (NIP) United Democratic Front 462 Appendix 2

Appendix 2. Continued

Country and Date Major of Independence Capital City Rulers Since Independence Political Parties

Niger Niamey 1. Hamani Diori, president, National Movernent for a 8 August 1960 1960-15 Apri11974 Developing Society 2. Maj. Gen. Seyni Kountche, (MNSD) head of state, president of Nigerian Party for Supreme Military Council, Democracy and Socialism 1974-1987 (PNDS) 3. Col. Ali Seibou, president Umma Islamic Front (FOn of Supreme Military Council, head of State, 1987-

Nigeria Lagos 1. Alhaji Abubakar Tafawa National Republican 1 October 1960 Belewa, prime minister, Convention (NRC) 1960-1966; Nnamdi Azikiwe, Social Democratic party president, 1963-1966 (SDP) 2. Gen. Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, head of FederaJ Military Government, January 1966- July 1966 3. Lt. Col. Yakubu Gowon, head of Federal Military Govern- ment, July 1966-29 July 1975 4. Brig. Gen. MurtaJa Mohammed, chief of Supreme Military Council, 29 July 1975- 13 February 1976 5. Lt. Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo, 13 February 1976-October 1979 6. Alhaji Shehu Shagari, presi- dent, October 1979- December 1983 7. Maj. Gen. Mohammed Buhari, December 1983-August 1985 8. Maj. Gen. Ibrahim Babangida, president, August 1985-

Rwanda Kigali 1. Gregoire Kayibanda, presi- Mouvement Revolutionnaire 1 July 1962 dent, 1961-5 July 1973 National pour Ie 2. Maj. Gen. Juvenal Developpement (MRND) Habyarimana, president, Union du Peuple Rwandais 5 July 1973- (UPR) National Republican Movement for Democracy and Development (MRND) Republican Democratic Movement (MDR)

Saharan Arab Not 1. Mohammed Abdelaziz, Frente Popular para la Democratic Republic applicable president, 1982- Liberaci6n de Saguia el (SADR) (Western Hamra y Rio de Or<>- Sahara) Frent Polisario February 1982 (Polisario Front) (admitted as 51st member of OAU) Appendix 2 463

Appendix 2. Continued

Country and Date Major of Independence Capital City Rulers Since Independence Political Parties

Sao Tome and Sao Tom6 L Dr. Manuel Pinto da Costa, Movement for the Principe president, 1975-March 1991 Liberation of Sao Tome 12 July 1975 2. Miguel Trovoada, president, and Principe 3 March 1991-{elections) Parti de la Convergence D6mocratique Groupe de Reflexion (PCDGR) Front D6mocrate Chretien (FDC) Coalition D6mocratique de l'Opposition (CODO) Senegal Dakar 1. Uopo1d S6dar Senghor, Senegal Democratic party 20 August 1960 president, 1960--January 1981 (PDS) (14 Apri11959- 2. Abdou Diouf, president, Senegalese National 20 August 1960: January 1981- Democratic Assembly Mali Federation) (RND) Parti Socialiste S6n6galais (PS)

Seychelles Port Victoria 1. James Mancham, president, Seychelles People's 29 June 1976 June 1976-June 1977 Progressive Front 2. Albert Ren6, president (SPPF) June 1977-

Sierra Leone Freetown 1. Sir Milton Margai, prime All People's Congress 27 Apri11961 minister, 1961-1964 (APC) 2. Sir Albert Margai, prime minister, 1964--1967 3. Lt. Col. Andrew Juxon-Smith, chairman of National Reformation Council, March 1967-Apri11968 4. Siaka Probyn Stevens, prime minister, April 1968 5. Stevens becomes president of Republic, April 1971- October 1985 6. Maj. Gen. Dr. Joseph Saidu Momoh, president, 1985-

Somalia Mogadishu 1. Aden Abdulla Osman, presi- Somali Revolutionary 1 July 1960 dent, 196~1967; Abdirashid Socialist party (SRSP) Ali Shirmarke, prime minister, United Somali Congress 1960--1964; Abdirazak (USC) Hussein, prime minister, New president's party 1964--1967 2. Abdirashid Ali Shirmarke, president, 1967-1969; Mohammed Ibrahim Egal, prime minister, 1967-1969 3. Maj. Gen. Mohammed Siad Barre, president, 1969- 27 January 1991 4. Ali Mahdi Mohammed, president, 29 January 1991- 464 Appendix 2

Appendix 2. Continued

Country and Date Major of Independence Capital City Rulers Since Independence Political Parties

South Africa Pretoria 1. Dr. Hendrik Verwoerd, prime Afrikaanse Weerstands· 31 May 1961 minister, 1958-1966 beweging (AWB) 2. B. J. Vorster, president and Azanian People's Organi· prime minister, 1966-1978 zation (AZAPO) 3. Pieter W. Botha, prime Conservative Party of minister, then president, South Africa (CPSA) 1978-1989 Democratic Workers' party 4. Chris Heunis, acting president, (DWP) J anuary-September 1989 Freedom party 5. Frederik de Klerk, president, Herstigte Nasionale party 14 September 1989- (HNP) Labour Party of South Africa National party (NP) National People's party New Freedom Party of Southern Africa New Republic party People's Congress party Progressive Federal party (PFP) Progressive Independent party Reformed Freedom party Solidarity party South African Black Alliance Sudan Khartoum 1. Ismail al·Azhari, prime Principal parties: 1 January 1956 minister, 1956 Baath party 2. Abdulla Khalil, prime Communist party minister, 1956-1958 Democratic Unionist party 3. Lt. Gen. Ibrahim Abboud, Muslim Brotherhood prime minister, 1958-1964 National Alliance for 4. Sir el·Khatim el·Khalifah, Salvation (NAS) prime minister, 1964-1965 National Congress party 5. Muhammed Ahmad Mahgoub, National Islamic Front prime minister, 1965-1966 Nationalist Unionist party 6. Sayed Sadiq el·Mahdi, Southern Sudanese prime minister, 1966-1967 Political Association 7. Muhammed Ahmad Mahgoub, Sudan African National prime minister, 1967-1969 Union (SANU) 8. Abubakr Awada1lah, prime Sudanese National party minister, 1969 Ummaparty 9. Field Marshal Gaafar National Alliance for Mohammed Nimeiri, presi· Salvation dent, May 1969-April 1985 10. Coup, 6 April 1985. Lt. Gen. Abdel Rahman Swar al Dahab, chairman, Transitional Military Council 11. Ahmed Ali el.Mirghani, president, Supreme Council 1986-30 June 1989 (military coup) 12. Omar Hassan Ahmed al·Bashir, prime minister, 30 June 1989- Appendix 2 465

Appendix 2. Continued

Country and Date Major of Independence Capital City Rulers Since Independence Political Parties

Swaziland Mbabane 1. King Sobhuza II, 1922- Imbokoovo National 6 September 1968 September 1982; Queen Movement (INM) Mother Dzeliwe, regent, September 1982. Deposed August 1983. Prince Makosetive named as future king, King Mswati III, 1986-

Tanzania Dodoma 1. Julius Nyerere, prime Chama Cha Mapinduzi 9 December 1961 minister, December 1961- (CCM) (of Tanganyika) January 1962 10 December 1963 2. Rashidi M. Kawawa, prime (of Zanzibar) minister, January 1962- (Tanganyika joined December 1962 with Zanzibar to 3. Tanzania becomes a republic, form United Republic December 1962; Julius of Tanzania in April Nyerere, president, December 1964) 1962-November 1985 4. Ali Hassan Mwinyi, president, 1985-

Togo Lome 1. Sylvanus Olympio, president Rassemblement du Peuple 12 April 1960 1960-13 January 1963 Togolais (RPT) 2. Military coup, January 1963, Togolese Alliance for led by Sgt. (later Gen.) Democracy (AID) Etienne Eyadema. Nicholas Togolese Union for Grunitzky, president, 1963- Democracy (UTD) January 1967 Togolese Movement for 3. Col. Kleber Dadjo, chairman Democracy (MTD) of Comite de Reconciliation Democratic Convention of Nationale (CRN), January- African Peoples (CDPA) April 1967 (bloodless coup) Democratic Party for Unity 4. Gen. GnassingM Eyadema, (PDU) president, Apri11967- Togolese Progress party (PPT) Togolese Communist party (PCT) Togolese Social Democratic party (PSDT) People's Movement for Democracy & Development (MPDD)

Tunisia Tunis 1. Habib Bourguiba, prime Mouvement de I'Unite 20 March 1956 minister, 1956-July 1957 Populaire (MUP) 2. July 1957, becomes a Mouvement des Democrates republic. Habib Bourguiba, Socialistes (MDS) president, 1957-1987 Parti Communiste Tunisien 3. November 1987, Zine el (PCT) Abidine Ben Ali accedes Parti Socialiste Destourien to the presidency, 1987- (PSD) Rassemblement Socialiste Tunisien (RST) Rassemblement Constitutionnel Democratique (RCD) 466 Appendix 2

Appendix 2. Continued

Country and Date Major of Independence Capital City Rulers Since Independence Political Parties

Uganda Kampala I. Apollo Milton Obote, 1962- Political parties were 9 October 1962 1971 (prime minister until ordered to suspend active 1966; then president) operations following 2. Maj. Gen. Idi Amin, accession to power of the president, 1971-April 1979 National Resistance Move- 3. Yusuf Lule, president, Pro- ment (NRM). The NRM visional Government, government includes April-June 1979 representatives of: 4. Godfrey Binaisa, chairman of Conservative party (CP) Military Commission of Democratic party (DP) Uganda National Liberation National Resistance Move- Front (UNLF) and president, ment (NRM) (the military June 1979-May 1980 wing of this is the NRA) 5. Paulo Mwanga, chairman, National Liberal party UNLF, May-December 1980 Uganda Freedom Movement 6. Obote, president, December Uganda Patriotic Movement 1980--July 1985 Uganda People's Congress 7. Coup led by Lt. Gen. Tito Okello of Uganda National Liberation Army; president, July 1985-January 1986 8. Yoweri Museveni of National Resistance Army (NRA), president, January 1986-

Zaire Kinshasa I. Patrice Lumumba, prime The Popular Movement of 30 June 1960 minister, June-September the Revolution (MPR) (formerly Congo- 1960; Joseph Kasavubu. The Union for Democracy Kinshasa; named president, 1960--1965 & Social Progress (UDPS) Zaire in October 2. Col. Joseph Mobutu suspends The Social-Christian & 1971) constitution, September 1960. Democratic Party (PDSC) College of Commissioners The Federal Union of rules until February 1961 Independent Republicans 3. Joseph Ileo, prime minister, (UFERI) February-August 1961 The Congolese National 4. Cyrille Adoula, prime minister, Movement (MNC) August 1961-July 1964 The Republican Democratic 5. Moise Tshombe, prime Rally (RDR) minister, July 1964-0ctober The Federalist Christian 1965 Democratic party (DCF) 6. Evariste Kimba, prime The Islamic Democratic minister, October-November party (POI) 1965 African Socialist party 7. Military coup led by Gen. The Forum of Democrats Mobutu Sese Seko Ngendu for Renewal (FOR) Wa Zabanda, president, 1965- The Liberal Democrats for Renewal (RDL) The National Front for Renewal (FNR)

Zambia Lusaka I. Kenneth Kaunda, president, United National Independ- 24 October 1964 1964-31 October 1991 ence party (UNIP) 2. Frederik Chiluba, 31 October Movement for Mulitparty 1991- (elections) Democracy (MMD) Appendix 2 467

Appendix 2. Continued

Country and Date Major of Independence Capital City Rulers Since Independence Political Parties

Zimbabwe Harare 1. Canaan Banana, president, Conservative Alliance of 18 April 1980 head of state, 1980-1987; Zimbabwe (CAZ) Robert Mugabe, prime Independent Zimbabwe minister, 1980-1987 Group 2. Robert Mugabe, president, National Democratic Union 1987- Patriotic Front-Zimbabwe African People's Union (PF-ZAPU) United African National Council (UANC) United National Federal party (UNFP) Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF) Zimbabwe African National Union-Sithole (ZANU-S) Zimbabwe Democratic party Zimbabwe National Front

Sources: Africa South o/the Sahara, 1990 (London: Europa Publications, Ltd., 1989); Africa Research Bulletin: Political Series (Exeter: Africa Research Limited, January-September 1991); Keesing Record o/World Events (London: Longman, January-December 1990 and January-April 1991); Sub-Saharan Africa, Daily Report (Washington, DC: Governement Printing Office, April I-November 27 1991). Index

Abernethy, David, 51 education, 238; oflslam, 95; ofiegal Accelerated Development in Sub-Salwran system, 60; of names, 157,288; political, Africa (World Bank), 307 14, 60; in religion, 96 Acheampong,l. K., 1I5, 148, 158, 165, 181, African National Congress (ANC), 367, 369, 196,217,218,288,291 393,398,419,424-425,449; Campaign for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome the Defiance of Unjust Laws, 426; Freedom (AIOS),24,244,248,249-250 Charter, 426; lifting of ban, 438; radicaliza- Adamishin, Anatoly, 408 tion, 425-426; women's section, 92 Adedeji, Adebayo, 333 Africa's Adjustment and Growth in the 1980s Adjustment Lending: An Evaluation ofTen (World Bank), 312 Years of Experience (World Bank), 312 Africa Watch, 94 Administration: colonial, 28, 42, 236; Afrifa, A. A., 157 expansion, 51-52, 54, 65; foreign, 27; in Afrikaner Broederbond, 424 single-party systems, 50. See also Afrikaner Resistance Movement, 434, 438 Bureaucracy Afrique Equatoriale Francaise (AEFIFrench Administrative-competitive regimes, 140 Equatorial Africa), 42 Administrative-hegemonic regimes, 136, Afrique Occidentale Francaise (AOFIFrench 137-140,165,193; centralization in, 140; WestAfrica),42,339 civil service in, 169, 179; class cleavages, Afro-Asian Peoples' Solidarity Organization, 177; conflict in, 140; ethnic groups in, 336,390 138-139; institutions in, 137-138; Afro-Malagasy Common Organization partriarchalleadership, 163; patronage in, (OCAM),326, 339,351,355 179; social control in, 172-174; social Afro-Marxism, 12, 18,20,38,63,144-147, groups in, 140 158, 159, 169; educational policy, 240, 241; Adoula, CyriIIe, 400 ethnicity in, 116; leadership patterns, Africa and the Victorians 167-168; social control under, 175-176 (Robinson/Gallagher), 377 Afwerki, Isaias, 146 "Africa for the Africans," 389 Agriculture, 16,24; cash cropping, 27, 75, 88, Africa Must Unite (Nkrumah), 337 122,258;coIIective, 147,262,445; African, Caribbean, and Pacific Group (APC), constraints, 23; decline, 6; environmental 303,304,305 constraints, 266-267; exports, 301; kinship African Common Market, 281-284 ties in, 78; mechanized state, 261; African Financial Community (CFA), 284 organizations, 75; plantation, 262-263; Africanization: of civil service, 43, 50, 54, 55; policies, 258-266; production, 248; reform,

469 470 Index

307; research, 25; sharecropping, 89; slash- Associations. See Organizations and-burn, 230; subsistence, 5, 27,122,250, Aswan Dam, 390 268,445-446 Authoritarianism, 12,38,42,43,61,67,136, AJlldjo, AJunadou, 49, 138, 157, 164, 172,355 155, 168; colonial, 28; in new states, 46; in AJunaddiyah, 92 patriarchal leadership, 164 AIDS. See Acquired Immune Deficiency Azanian Students' Organization (AZASO), Syndrome 429 Air Afrique, 287 Azikiwe, Nnamdi, 75 Ake, Claude, 120 Albright, David, 392 Babangida, Ibrahim, 163 Algeria: agriculture, 317n35; anticolonialism, Bakongo, 361 29; centralized decisionmaking, 46; debt Balance-of-payments, 256, 283, 290 service, 310; diplomatic activity, 326; Balewa, Tafawa, 156, 157, 165, 173,333 foreign policy objectives, 327-330; inter- Banda, Hastings, 44, 54,156,157,162,163, African relations, 364; oil production, 299, 165,172,173,193,213 329; parastatals, 56; party-mobilizing Bantustans, 419, 422, 430, 431fig regime, 142-144, 155; political opposition, Baran, Paul, 228 48; relations with France, 384; Soviet Barayi, Elijah, 428 relations, 390, 397; succession, 445; U.S. Barotse state, 26 relations, 406 Barre, Mohammed Siad, 108,347,348,394 All African Peoples Conference (AAPC), 337 Bates, Robert, 117, 260 Amin, ldi, 58, 61,122,147-148,157,166, Bayart, Jean-Fran~ois, 385 167,174,217,280,292,354,358 Belgian Congo, 235; colonial education, 28. Amin, Samir, 233 See also Zaire Amnesty International, 94, 186n44 Ben Bella, AJuned, 155, 156, 162, 163, Andrade, Mario de, 362 328-329,362,390,391 Anglo-Boer War, 435 Benin, 26; Afro-Marxism, 158; de- Angola: Afro-Marxism, 12,38,63, 158,391; industrialization, 256; democratic concepts, anticolonialism, 29; decolonization, 6; 159; elections in, 214; food production, democratic concepts, 159; economic 260; military, 59tab. 217; party-centralist performance, 305; elections in, 214; ethnic regime, 144-147; political conflict, 191; conflict, 7; foreign policy, 365; inter- relations with France, 384 African relations, 361-366; military, 58, Benjedid, Chadli, 330 59tab; oil production, 299; party-centralist Berg Report, 307 regime, 144-147; political conflict, 49,191; Biafra secession, 57,198, 199,201,302,326, relations with France, 384; revolution in, 333,355,358,384,391 203; in SADCC, 285; social control, 175; Bienen, Henry, 125 Soviet relations, 391; U.S. relations, 401 Biko, Steve, 429 Angolan Revolutionary Government in Exile Biya, Paul, 138, 165 (GRAE),362 Black Consciousness Movement (BCM), 429 Ankrah, J. A., 163 Boers, 421 Anticolonialism, 45, 75,161,359; Boesak, Allan, 428, 432, 434 articulation, 44; professional organizations Bokassa, Jean-Bedel, 61,147-148,157,166, in, 83-84; religion in, 95-96; violent, 29 167,174,181,217,354,381,382 Anti-Zionism, 331 Bongo,Omar, 165,381,382 Apartheid, 367, 403, 419-440; Group Areas Bophuthatswana, 422 Act, 422, 439; legislative implementation, Border disputes: Burkina FasolMali, 7; 422; political economy, 434-437; Chad/Libya, 7; Ghana/Nigeria, 283; Population Registration Act, 422, 439 Tanzania/Kenya, 280; Zaire/Angola, 7 Arab-African Technical Assistance Fund, 411 Botha, Louis, 422 Arab Bank for Economic Development in Botha, P. W., 126, 358,422,423,432,434, Africa, 411 437 Arab League, 411 Botha, R. F., 369 Arab Maghreb Union (UMA), 370 Botswana: decisionmaking, 169; economic Arms expenditures, 58, 391, 397-398 performance, 248, 305; elections in, 213; Arusha Declaration, 241, 294 institutional constraints, 168; inter-African Asante, 26, 79; Kotoko Society, 80 relations, 364; military, 59tab, 60; Association of Recognized Professional multiparty system, 12; pluralist regime, Bodies, 84 140-142; political participation, 171, 178; Index 471

political structure, 12; population growth, Central African Republic: democratic 248; in SADCC, 285 concepts, 165; food production, 260; inter- Boumedienne, Houari, 142, 162,213,397 African relations, 364; military, 59tab; Bourgeoisie: auxiliary, 119; bureaucratic, 55; personal-coercive regime, 147-148; managerial, 86; petty, 89, 119, 120; private, relations with France, 380, 381; repression 119; state, 119 in, 61-62,174; student demonstrations, 353 Bourguiba, Habib, 44,157,163,340,384 Centralization, 48, 50, 53; administrative, 157; Bouzidi, Mohammed, 340 in administrative-hegemonic regimes, 140; Brezhnev, Leonid, 392 colonial, 28; political, 163 Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 399 Chad: civil war, 201, 326, 344, 346, 356; Buganda,79 decisionmaking, 169; economic Buhari,Mohammed, 217 performance, 305; ethnic conflict, 7; ethnic Bureaucracy, 38; colonial, 42; expansion, groups, 107; inter-African relations, 364; 47,54,57,65; processes, 16; reduction of literacy in, 239; military, 59tab, 217; economic activity, 66 political conflict, 198; regime breakdown, Burkina Faso: agricultural production, 264; 150, 153; relations with France, 380, in CEAO, 284; decisionmaking, 169; 381,383 economic performance, 173, 305; elections Charismatic leadership, 162-163 in, 214; inter-African relations, 364; literacy Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of in, 239; military, 59tab, 159; populist States, 298 regime, 66,148-149,176,288 Chiefs, role of, 84-85, 172 Burundi: economic growth, 248; ethnic China, 391, 410 groups, 107, 125, 179; literacy in, 239; Chirac, Jacques, 380 military, 59tab; political conflict, 198; Chissano, Joaquim, 167 popUlation growth, 248; relations with Chou En-lai, 391 France, 384 Ciskei,422 Bush, George, 409, 410, 439 Civil Liberties Organization, 94 Busia, Kofi, 56, 61, 115 Civil service, 28, 139; in administrative- Buthelezi, Gatsha, 430, 438 hegemonic regimes, 169; Africanization, Byrd Amendment, 402 43, 50, 54, 55; colonial, 42; corruption, 57; exclusion from, 236; growth, 55; party Calorie supply, 1O-11tab, 249 members in, 51; personal advancement in, Cameroon: administrative-hegemonic regime, 55; professional organizations in, 84 137, 139, 156; administrative increases, 51; Clapham, Christopher, 346 agriculture, 264, 355; democratic concepts, Clark, Akporode, 413 165; economic performance, 248, 305; Clark Amendment, 409 elections in, 214; ethnic groups, 125; ethnic Class: cleavage, 116-124; conflict, 15; intermediaries in, 113; food production, consciousness, 203; differentiation, 51; 260; institutional constraints, 168; inter- formation, 39; identity, 119; middle, 47, African relations, 355-357, 364; Islam in, 203; ruling, 39; significance, 73; 160; manufacturing, 257; military, 59tab; stratification, 118 oil production, 299, 355; parastatals, 56; Clientelism, 110, 164, 178-182; corruption in, political conflict, 49, 194; population 180--181; ethnic, 179; inefficiency, 181; growth, 248; relations with France, 379; political, 110, 111; religious, 179. See also social control, 172; succession, 445 Patronage Camp David Agreement, 404 Coalition construction, 170--177 Canada, 410 Cohen, Abner, 110 Cape Colony, 421 Cohen, Herman, 146,408 Cape Verde, 168; decolonization, 6; elections Cohen, Michael, 123 in, 214; inter-African relations, 364; Collaboration, regional, 13,277-287,370 relations with France, 384 Colonialism, 2, 6, 26-27, 42-46, 327; and Capitalism, 17, 156; African, 292; crony, 309; class cleavage, 116-117; ethnic integration international, 143; national, 119; nurture, in, 107; health care in, 245; impact on 85; state, 39, 157; uneven penetration, 121 economy, 232-237; replaced by Carrington, Lord, 386 neocolonialism, 289 Carter, Jimmy, 386, 399,400,402,403,405, Committee of Wisemen, 342, 343 406,409 Comoro Islands, 364 Castro, Fidel, 368-371, 392, 394 Competition: constriction, 172; foreign, 254; Central African Federation, 277 industrial protection, 252; intraelite, 47; for 472 Index

investment, 281; political, 46, 48, 66, 159; Crocker, Chester, 369,402,403,408,409 for resources, 180; social, 47; superpower, Cuban intervention in Africa, 363, 364, 365, 388-389 368,392,394,403,408 Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act, 437, 439 Curry, Robert, 296 Conference of Independent African States, Curtin, Philip, 230 327,337,346 Curtis, Michael, 410-411 Conflict: armed, 57; class, 15; communal, Customs Union of West Africa (UDAO), 284 198-202; elite, 190-193; ethnic, 7, 59, 198-202; factional, 193-197; interregional, Dacko, David, 165 59; management, Ill, 196,323,444; mass, Daddah, Mokhtar Ould, 342 202-204; political, 7, 44; popular, 204-208; Dadzie, Kenneth, 413 religious, 7, 48; social, 81, 116-124 Dahomey, 26. See also Benin Congo: Afro-Marxism, 158; crisis, 328-329, Danquah, J. B., 192 377, 378; economic performance, 248, 305; de Beers, 146 elections in, 214; military, 59tab, 157,217; Debt, 8-9tab; crisis, 21, 266, 301, 310-311; oil production, 299; party-centralist regime, external, 350; foreign, 6-7, 13,294; 144-147; political conflict, 191; population rescheduling, 306, 310, 311, 315 growth, 248; relations with France, 384 Decentralization, 66 Congo, People's Republic, 354-355 Decision-enforcement, 170 Congress of Berlin, 26 Decisionmaking, 39, 154-170, 185n31; Congress of South African Students access to, 194; centralized, 137, 164, 166; (COSAS),429 consultative, 76; decentralized, 212; ethnic Congress of South African Trade Unions intermediaries in, 114-115; indirect, 164; (COSATU), 428 leadership style in, 162-168; patterns, Conseil de l'Entente, 338-339 168-170; personalization, 53; in pluralist Constitutions: amendment procedures, 49; regimes, 141; in single-party systems, 62 commitment to, 47; rewriting, 49-50 Declaration on Nonalignment and Economic Contraception, 10011tab, 249 Progress, 413 Convention People's Party (CPP), 49 Declaration on the Establishment of a New Cooper, Frederick, 297 International Economic Order, 298 Copper: export, 276, 294; nationalization, 294, Decolonization, 6, 27, 38, 43, 45, 163,413; 295; production, 251,298,300 foreign influence remaining, 27 Corruption: civil service, 57; internal, 350; in Deforestation, 266 parastataIs, 56-57; in patronage, 180-181; de Gaulle, Charles, 327, 379, 383, 397 worker groups and, 87 de Klerk, F. W., 358, 369, 420, 430, 437, Cot, Jean-Pierre, 382, 384, 385 438,439 Clite d'Ivoire: : administrative-hegemonic Democracy: British Westminster model, 45, regime, 137, 139, 156; administrative 47; centralist model, 45, 47; liberal, 159; in increases, 51; agricultural production, new states, 47; parliamentary, 45 264; in CEAO, 284; civil service, 139; Dependence: economic, 407; on foreign democratic concepts, 159; diplomatic powers, 13,27,56,236,253,350,373; activity, 326; economic performance, 305; theories, 14-15, 17-20,30, 161; on EEC relations, 257; elections, 44, 214; transnational companies, 253, 290, 293 ethnic intermediaries in, 113; food Development: assistance, 305-306; potential, production, 260; foreign policy objectives, 26; relation to health care, 244-245; slow 338-339; institutional constraints, 168; rates, 65; uneven, 117; Western model, inter-African relations, 364; manufacturing, 17,156 257; military, 59tab, 60; nationalization in, Dikko, Omaro, 181 292; Office for the Promotion of Ivorian Diori, Hamani, 330 Enterprise, 291; parastataIs, 56; plantation Diouf, Abdou, 156, 165, 169 agriculture, 262, 263; political conflict, 49, Diplomatic activity, 324-326 190,191,192; population growth, 248; Diseases, 24, 230, 244; agricultural, 24 relations with France, 380, 381, 383; social Djibouti, 380; relations with France, 381 control, 172; Soviet relations, 391 Doe, Samuel, 147-148, 158, 166, 168, 174, Coulson, Andrew, 246, 256 216,217,335,370 Council of Unions of South Africa Dulles, John Foster, 390 (CUSA),428 Court, David, 241 East African Common Services Cowen, Michael, 234 Organization, 278 Index 473

East African Community, 278-282, 283, 302 regimes, 149; preservation, 140; East African Currency Board, 280 reassessment of systems, 68; urban, 190; East African Development Bank, 280 Western-educated, 27 East African High Commission, 277, 278 Entrepreneurs, 147,291; indigenous, 253; Economic: characteristics of states, 8-9tab; organizations of, 85; in slave trading, 231 decline, 305-315; dependence, 407; growth, Environmental, 122; constraints, 23-24, 259; 6, 17,248; independence, 156; policymaking, 266-267 infrastructure, 252-253; liberalization, 288; Equatorial Guinea: inter-African relations, organizations, 75, 82-83; performance, 173; 364; personal-coercive regime, 147-148; planning bureaus, 50; potential, 229; self- repression in, 62 reliance, 276-289; surplus, 228, 230; Eritrea, 200, 345-349,412 survival strategies, 267-268 Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), 346 Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), 281, Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF), 282,285,312 146,409 Economic Community of Central Africa, 282 Ethiopia: Afro-Marxism, 12,63, 158; Economic Community of West Africa diplomatic activity, 326; elections in, 214; (CEAO), 284, 339 ethnic conflict, 7; human rights, 62; inter- Economic Community of West African African relations, 345-349; literacy in, 240; States (ECOWAS), 13, 282-285, 333, 370, military, 58, 59tab, 60, 217; nationalization 371,372 in, 292; party-centralist regime, 144-147; Economy: cash, 27, 237; colonial, 232-237; political conflict, 198; regime breakdown, complementarity, 233-234, 250; informal, 153; relations with France, 384; repression, 267-268; political, 2, 227-270; precolonial, 207; revolution in, 203; social control, 175; 229-232; restructuring, 251; vulnerability Soviet relations, 391; U.S. relations, 400 to world markets, 235; world, 30, 227, 257, Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic 275-316,434-437 Front (EPRDF), 146 ECOWAS. See Economic Community of Ethnic: autonomy, 199; c1ientelism, 179; West African States groups, 7,106-109; identity, 107, 108, 126, Education, 16; access to, 238, 239, 240, 243; 229,430; intermediary, 110-116; advances, 7, 444; budget cuts, 314; organizations, 106, 108; resentments, 174; colonial, 28, 43,83, 162, 163,238; self-defmition, 107 discrimination in, 429; fee-paying, 118, Ethnicity, 106-109; conflict in, 7; enforced, 129n35, 239; foreign assistance, 271n26; 107; heterogeneous, 5; homogeneous, 5; as inequalities based on, 78; missionary, 236; political phenomenon, 110; political role in, policies, 237-244; primary, 1O--11tab, 238, 106--107; significance, 19,73; state 239; private, 242; rural, 117, 118; response to, 110; in urban populism, 87 secondary, 1O--11tab, 240, 241; university, Eurafrica, 385-388 5, 10011tab, 54, 236, 238, 244; Western, European Development Fund (EDF), 302 27,28 European Eco:1omic Community (EEC): Education/or Self-Reliance (Nyerere), 241 access to, 257, 282; cooperative agreements Egbe Omo Oduduwa, 80 with, 318n35; relations with, 302-305, Egypt: diplomatic activity, 326; economic 377,387 growth, 248; foreign policy objectives, 336; Export: earnings, 276, 310; limited inter-African relations, 364; nationalism, commodities, 276; price decline, 306; trade, 377; party-mobilizing regime, 155; 237; uncompetitive, 308; volume, 309, 313 population growth, 248; repression in, Eyadema, Gnassingbe, 157, 167 163; Soviet relations, 389-390, 395, 397; U.S. relations, 404, 405 Facilitation, 47 Eisenhower, Dwight, 399 Family: extended, 77, 238; nuclear, 78; Elections: democratic, 165; maximalist, 213; planning, 10-11 tab minimalist, 213; in multiparty systems, 168; Federation of South African Trade Unions in pluralist regimes, 213; in single-party (FOSATU),427 systems, 62, 63, 213; symbolic, 213, 218 Fiat, 146 Elite, 7; access to education, 241; access to Foccart, Jacques, 380 resources, 124; cohesion, 139, 145; Food: aid, 259; crisis, 21; production, 249, conflicts, 190-193; creation, 27, 28; culture, 259,265; shortages, 265; subsidies, 309 86; dismantling, 160; and ethnic Foreign: administration, 27; aid, 311; intermediaries, 115; perception of state, 47; competition, 254; debt, 294, 310-311; in pluralist regimes, 141; in populist exchange, 254,265,266,287,296; 474 Index

financial sources, 236; investment, 139, U.S. relations, 398 156,228,254,275,279,355,434, Giscard d'Estaing, Valery, 380, 381, 382, 387, 436--437; participation, 56; policy, 325; 388,415115 service, 50; technology, 253, 255,436; Gold Coast, 235. See also Ghana; civil trade, 253, 305 service, 43 Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), 297 Gold Coast Youth Conference, 93 France: colonialism, 6; relations with Africa, Gorbachev, Mikhail, 222n3, 369, 395, 379-385 407408,409 Frank, Andre Gunder, 228 Gorman, Robert, 347-348 Frankel, Philip, 423 Gowon, Yakubu, 157, 163, 165,334 Freedom Charter, 426 Great Trek, 421 Free French, 379 Green, Reginald, 262, 292 French West Africa, 28, 42, 339 Groundnuts Scheme, 261 Frente Popular para la Liberaci6n de Saguia Group Areas Act, 422, 439 el-Hamra y Rio de Oro, 326 Group of Seven (G7), 310 Front for the Liberation of Mozambique Group of 77, 297, 301, 378, 412, 413 (FRELIMO), 175, 359 Guinea: human rights, 62; inter-African Front Line States, 365, 366, 393, 413 relations, 364; military, 59tab; party- Front pour la Liberation Nationale du Tchad mobilizing regime, 142-144, 155; (Frolinat), 330, 331, 332 personalization of decisionmaking, 53; political opposition, 48, 49; political Gabon: administrative-hegemonic regime, structure, 12; relations with France, 380, 156; centralized decisionmaking, 46; 384; repression in, 163; single party system, elections in, 214; human rights, 62; inter- 172; socialism, 12, 155; Soviet relations, African relations, 364; Islam in, 160; 390; traditional politics, 80 military, 59tab; mineral resources, 26; oil Guinea-Bissau: Afro-Marxism, 63,158,391; production, 299; parastatals, 56; per capita anticolonialism, 29; decolonization, 6; income, 26; political conflict, 191; relations inter-African relations, 364; military, 59tab; with France, 380, 381, 382 party-centralist regime, 144--147; relations Gallagher, John, 377 with France, 384 Gambia: elections in, 213; inter-African Gulf Oil, 146 relations, 364; military, 59tab; mUltiparty system, 12; pluralist regime, 140--142; Habre, Hissene, 332, 344, 345 political participation, 171; political Haile Selassie, 158,347,378,394,400 structure, 12 Hamilton, Alexander, 250, 251 Gender: division of labor, 90, 92; in literacy, Hammarskjold, Dag, 338 91, 239-240; in social groups, 90, 92; in Hassan, King, 340, 341, 342, 352, 370, 382, trading, 75, 87 405,406 Germany, West, 386-387 Health care: advances, 7, 25, 444; budget Ghana: civil service, 43; debt service, 310; cuts, 314; policymaking, 244--250; rural, decisionmaking, 169,212; decolonization, 117,118 6; de-industrialization, 256; democratic Hertzog, 1. B. M., 422 concepts, 159; diplomatic activity, 326; Houphouet-Boigny, Felix, 49, 54, 59, 75,113, economic performance, 305; electoral 114, 156, 157, 163, 164, 165, 169, 172, 173, participation, 44, 214; foreign policy 192,213,278,338-339,379 objectives, 336-338; Industrial Holding Human rights, 62; organizations, 94; Corporation, 55; institutional constraints, violations, 167, 347 168; inter-African relations, 364; legal Huntington, Samuel, 32nJO system, 61; literacy, 28; manufacturing, Hutu, 107, 125, 126 257,296-297; military, 59tab, 60, 66, 159, 172,217,333; parastatals, 56; party- Ibo State Union, 75 mobilizing regime, 142-144, 155; Identity: class, 119; ethnic, 107, 108, 126, personalization of decisionmaking, 53; 229,430; political, 15; processes, 125; plantation agriculture, 262-263; political regional, 81; tribal, 110 conflict, 48,49, 191, 192, 194, 195, 196; Ideologies: military-nationalist, 157; political, political structure, 12; population growth, 154-161 249; populist regime, 66,148-149, 176, Idris, King, 396 288; repression in, 163; single-party system, Igbo, 79, 107 172; social control, 172; socialism, 12, 155; IMF. See International Monetary Fund Index 475

Impedance, 47,50 Keita, Modibo, 142, 155, 156, 162, 163, Impart: dependence, 256-257; substituting 390,391 indusUies,251-252,255,290,293,297; Kennedy, John F., 400, 401, 403, 415n9 volume,309 Kenya: administrative-hegemonic regime, Income: per capita, 25; private sector, 117; 137, 138, 139; administrative increases, 51; public sector, 117 agriculture, 89, 264; anticolonialism, 29; Indigenization, 291, 292, 293; of industry, 85 centralized decisionmaking, 46; civil IndusUial and Commercial Workers Union, service, 43, 139; democratic concepts, 159, 425 165; EEC relations, 257, 302; elections in, IndusUialization, 425; effect of transnational 213,214; ethnic groups, 107, 108, 126; companies, 253-254; effect on economic ethnic intermediaries in, 113; foreign growth, 251; forced, 445; import- policy, 355; human rights, 62; inter-African substituting, 251-252, 255; rapid, 15; state relations, 355-357, 364; manufacturing, sponsored, 253 257;military,57,58,59tab;personalization Industry: local, 254; policymaking, 250-258 of decisionmaking, 53; political conflict, Inflation,308 48,49,191,195,196; population growth, In~tructure,economic,252-253 248; relations with England, 385; relations Inkatha, 430, 438, 449-450 with France, 384; social control, 172 International Cocoa Agreement, 299 Kenya African National Union (KANU), International Court of Justice, 374n27 52,114 International Labour Organization, 272n46 Kenyatta, Jomo, 48, 113, 114, 138, 139, 157, International Monetary Fund (IMF), 13, 143, 163,164,165,172,173, 184n4, 192,213 212,300,306,307,310,311,448; Kerekou, Mathieu, 193 structural adjustment policies, 65, 182 Khama, Seretse, 213 International organizations: economic, 13; Khrushchev, Nikita, 390, 395, 397 financial, 212, 227, 305-315, 310. See also KikUYU, 79, 107, 138, 139 International Monetary Fund; World Bank Killick, Tony, 261 Investment: domestic, 313; foreign, 139, 156, Kinship, 77-78, 78, 82 228,254,275,355,434,436-437 Kissinger, Henry, 401, 402, 404 Investment Policy Decree, 292 Kitching, Gavin, 234 honsi, Johnson Aguiyi, 199 Kodjo, Edem, 343 Islam, 96, 98, 206, 378, 411; Africanization, Kongo empire, 26 95; courts of appeal, 160 Kotoka, E. K., 216 Islamic Conference, 411 Kwa Zulu, 430 Islamic Development Bank, 411 Israel, 300, 331, 353, 410, 411 Labor: cost, 257; exploitation, 252; forced, Italy, 387 27,258; gender division, 90, 92; global division, 378; international division, 257; Jackson, Henry, 399 legislation, 427; migrant, 79, 89; organized, Jackson, Robert H., 138-139 86,87; shortage, 263; skilled, 121,253; Japan, 410 surplus, 251; unions, 428; wage, 86, 87,90 Jeffiies,Richard,121 LagosP1an, 281,287,372 Johnson,Lyndon,401,403 Lake, Anthony, 402 Joseph,Richard,l09 Lancaster House Conference, 386 Journiac,Rene,380 Langdon, Steve, 257 Leadership styles, 161-168; autocratic, 136; Kadalie, Clements, 425 charismatic, 162-163; coercive, 136; Kamarck, Andrew, 24 conciliatory, 136; ideologic, 136; Kampala Agreement, 280 mobilizing, 136; patriarchal, 163-165; Karanga, 108 populist prophetic, 165-166; technocratic, Kariuki,J.M.,I92 165; tyrannical, 166-168 ~avubu,Joseph,351,399 League of Black Africa, 354 ~fir, Nelson, 124 League of Nations, 346 Katanga secession, 198,200,201,328,329, Legal systems, 60-62; political favoritism, 61; 351,386,399,400 in populist regimes, 149; restrictions, 175; Kaunda, Kenneth, 44, 59, 113, 118, 142, 162, violations, 62 163,165,193,194,294,337,359,360,364, Legg, Keith, 110 413 Lemarchand,Rene, 110, Ill, 126 Kayibanda,Chegoire,126 Lesotho: economic performance, 248, 305; 476 Index

inter-African relations, 364; population Malnutrition,244-245,249,266,267,314 growth, 248; in SADCC, 285 Management: conflict, 111, 196,323,444; Liberia: civil war, 370; decisionmaking, expatriate, 253 168; de-industrialization, 256; economic Mandela, Nelson, 369, 427, 428, 438 performance, 305; elections in, 214; human Manufacturing, 250; development, 230; for rights, 62; inter-African relations, 364; export, 235; growth rate, 256; import military, 59tab, 60; patrimonial- dependence in, 257; local, 252, 256; administrative regime, 140; personal- nationalization in, 292; percentage of coercive regime, 147-148; political economy, 235; petty, 27; transportation in, conflict, 194; regime breakdown, 153; 117; unequal-exchange, 250-251; relations with France, 384; repression, 174; withdrawal of foreign capital, 297 Soviet relations, 391 Markets: abuse, 246-247; common, 252, 281; Libya: diplomatic activity, 326; foreign policy cooperative, 89; domestic, 254, 277; local, objectives, 330-333; inter-African relations, 27,87-88; privatizing, 260; regional, 279; 364; Islam in, 160; oil production, 299; world, 235, 257-258 populist regime, 148-149; relations with Mauritania: in CEAO, 284; elections in, 214; France, 384; Soviet relations, 395, 396, inter-African relations, 364; Islam in, 160; 397; U.S. relations, 404, 405 literacy in, 239; military, 59tab; pogroms, Life expectancy, 7, IO-lltab, 248 7; relations with France, 380 Limann, Hilla, 59, 115, 165 Mauritius: economic performance, 305; Lipton, Michael, 264 elections in, 213; food production, 260; List, Friedrich, 250, 251 inter-African relations, 364; manufacturing, Literacy, 5, 28, 236, 239; gender differences, 257; military, 59tab; mUltiparty system, 12; 91. See also Education pluralist regime, 140-142; political Lofchie, Michael, 126 participation, 171, 178; political structure, Lome Conventions, 257, 282, 303, 304, 305, 12; relations with France, 384 387,388 M'Ba, Leon, 381 Lonsdale, John, 237 Mbeki, Govan, 427 Lozi state, 26 Menelik, Emperor, 346 LUhya,107 Mengistu Haile Mariam, 63, 145, 166, 192, Lumumba, Patrice, 328, 329, 336, 338, 351, 348,349,394,395,400,409 386,390,399 Migration: agricultural, 263; in common Luthuli, Albert, 426 markets, 283; expulsion policies, 268, 283, 374n27; ties to place of origin, 79; urban, Machel, Samora, 146, 167, 193,213,270, 80-81,263 365,393 Military: colonial, 42; control, 40; coups, 12, Madagascar: Afro-Marxism, 158; debt service, 63,66,215-219; expenditures, 58, 59tab, 310; de-industrialization, 256; military, 309; growth of, 57, 59; lawlessness, 60; 59tab, 217; relations with France, 384 mutinies, 58, 216; nationalism, 157, 158, Madrid Tripartite Agreement, 342 161; as political force, 58; reliance on, Maigari, Bello Bouga, 138 50-51; restrictions on, 175 Malawi: administrative-hegemonic regime, Military regimes, 5, 12, 135; ethnic 137, 139, 156; civil service, 139; economic intermediaries in, 125; termination, 159, performance, 305; human rights, 62; inter- 197,212; withdrawal, 66 African relations, 364; military, 60; planta- Mill, James, 233 tion agriculture, 262, 263, 315; repression Minerals, 5 in, 163; in SADCC, 285; social control, 172 Mining, 250; nationalization in, 292; Mali: administrative increases, 51; agricultural transnational companies in, 294; withdrawal production, 264; in CEAO, 284; centralized of foreign capital, 297 decisionmaking, 46; democratic concepts, Mitterrand, Fran~ois, 382, 415n5 159; elections in, 214; health care, 246; Mobuto Sese Seko, 38, 147-148, 157, 167, Import-Export Organization, 55; inter- 174,181,217,288,294,351,352,353,381, African relations, 364; literacy in, 239; 399,400,415n5 military, 59tab, 212, 217; party-mobilizing Modernization: role in competition, 117; regime, 142-144, 155; relations with theories, 14, 15-17,30,116 France, 380; single-party system, 172; Mohammed, Murtala, 216, 334 socialism, 12, 155; Soviet relations, 390 Moi, Daniel arap, 114, 139, 156, 165, 192, Mali Federation, 278 343,356 Malloum, Felix, 332 Mondale, Walter, 402 Index 477

Morocco: administrative-hegemonic regime. Native Administration Act, 425 137.156; agriculture. 317n35; diplomatic Neocolonialism. 160.289,302,381 activity. 326; foreign policy objectives. Neopatrimonial rule. 162 340-341; inter-African relations. 364; Neto. Agostinho, 145, 167,213.351.362. political participation. 171; relations with 363.392 France. 379; U.S. relations. 404. 405. 406 Newbury. Catharine. 126 Mortality: child. 248; female. 91; infant. 7. 25. New International Economic Order (NIEO). 248; maternal. 248 288,298.300.301.305,326 Mozambique: Moo-Marxism, 12. 38.63. 158. Ngala. Ronald. 114 391; anticolonialism. 29; civil conflict. 356; Ngei. Paul. 114, 139 collectivized agriculture. 262; Nguema, Macias, 61-62. 147-148. 166 decisionmaking. 169; decolonization. 6; de- Niger: agriculture. 89; in CEAO. 284; industrialization. 256; democratic concepts. elections in. 214; literacy in. 239; military, 159; economic performance. 305; elections 59tab. 212, 330; political conflict, 196; in. 214; foreign aid. 311; institutional relations with France. 380 constraints. 168; inter-African relations. Niger Basin Authority. 287 364.365-366; literacy in. 240; military. 58. Nigeria: administrative-hegemonic regime, 59tab; nationalization in. 292; parastatals. 137. 139. 156; civil service. 43; 56; party-centralist regime. 144-147; decolonization, 6; democratic concepts. political opposition. 49; revolution in. 203; 159. 165; diplomatic activity. 326; in SADCC. 285; social control. 175; Soviet economic performance, 173; elections in. relations. 393; succession. 445 44.214; ethnic conflict, 7; ethnic groups, Mozambique National Resistance Movement 107. 125; expansion of military, 57; federal (RENAMO). 145.203.393 system. 12.48; foreign policy objectives, Mugabe. Robert. 44. 61, 142. 162.335.366. 333-335; indigenization. 293; institutional 391.41~14 constraints, 168; inter-African relations. Mukandala, Rwekaza, 55 364; legal system. 61; manufacturing. 257. Muliro. Masinde. 139 308; military. 59tab. 60, 66.112.157.159. Multiparty systems, 12.48,63.140; dis- 172, 197.217; oil production, 298. 299, mantling. 48; ethnic intermediaries in, 125 306; parastatals, 56; plantation agriculture, Munslow. Barry, 262 263; political conflict. 191. 194. 195. 196. Museveni. Yoweri. 148-149. 159,218.372 198; political structure. 12; population Mwenoputapa. 26 growth. 249; relations with England. 385; Mwinyi, Ali Hassan, 144.242 relations with France, 384; religious conflict. 7; social control. 172; Soviet Namibia, 367-368, 403; anticolonialism. 29; relations. 391; traditional politics. 80; war elections in, 214; political conflict. 191; with Biafra. 57 SWAPO in, 92; U.S. relations, 402. 403 Nigerian Enterprises Decree. 292 Nasser. Gamal Abdel. 155. 156, 163.213, Nigerian Enterprises Promotion Board. 292 326,330,336,389,390.395,396,404 Nigerian Youth Movement. 93 Natal. 421. 424 Nimeiri, Gaafar, 113, 115, 160.348.349.394 National Association of Nigerian Students Nixon. Richard, 398, 401. 402 (NANS),93 Njonjo. Charles. 139. 192 National Christian Councils. 96 Nkomati Accord. 367. 393 National Forum (NF). 433 Nkomo.Joshua, 360 National Front for the Liberation of Angola Nkrumah. Kwame. 12.44.48.49.52,61.62. ~A).351,352,361-365.401 ~1~1~IUI~I~I~IUl~ Nationalism. 19.20,45.126,200; black. 261-262,289.291.327.333.336-338,347, 424-427; military. 157. 158. 161; 391.398 movements, 4~; socialism in. 155 Nonaligned Movement (NAM). 298. 326, 378. Nationalization: foreign enterprises. 56; of 412-414.445 industry. 147; land, 61; majority Northern Rhodesia. 126 shareholding as. 291; plantation, 288 North-South dialogue. 297-301 National Liberation Front (FLN). 327. 328 Nyerere. Julius. 49. 75. 142. 143. 144. 155, National Union for the Total Independence of 156,162.163,241.288.291.353.358.359. Angola (UNITA). 52.145.202.352.354. 410.413 362-365.401 National Union of Ghanaian Students OAU. See Organization of African Unity (NUGS).93 Obasanjo,Olusegun. 163, 165.335 478 Index

Obote, Milton, 61, 62, 113,279, 292, 358 Patriarchal leadership, 163-165 Odinga, Oginga, 139 Patrimonial-administrative regimes, 140 Office for the Promotion of Ivorian Enterprise, Patrimonialism, 162 291 Patronage, 134, 139, 149, 164, 178-182, 195, Ogaden, 345-349 446; breakdowns, 205; ethnic, 81; Oil: export, 276; price decline, 283, 288, 305; individual, 180; national-local, 179; priceincrease,306,331;production,251 political, 62 Ojukwu, C. Odumegwu, 200 Peace Corps, 398 Olympio, Sylvanus, 157,216 Peasants, 120-123; in agriculture, 260 OPEC. See Organization of Petroleum Penne, Guy, 382,385 Exporting Countries Perestroika, 407 Opposition: to charismatic leaders, 163; Perez de Cuellar, Javier, 370 political, 63; professional organizations in, Personal-coercive regimes, 136, 147-148, 84; religious, 141; rural, 89 157; military role, 147-148; repression, Orange Free State, 421 147-148; social control in, 174-175 Organisation pour la Mise en Valeur du Pluralism, 64; social, 81 Fleuve Senegal (OMUS), 287 Pluralist regimes, 136, 140-142, 165; Organization for Economic Cooperation decisionmaking, 141; separation of and Development (OECD), 289; aid powers, 140 programs, 311 Police, 42; growth, 57; professional Organization for the Development of the organizations in, 84. See also Military Senegal River, 287 Policymaking: agricultural, 258-266; Organization of African Unity (OAU), 13, educational, 237-244; health, 244-250; 265,281,285,287,323,329,335,342,343, industrial, 250-258; in national self- 345,372,412,413 reliance, 288; population, 244-250 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Polisario Front, 341, 342, 343, 353, 370, Countries (OPEC), 298, 299, 300, 306, 326, 384,406 331,333,354,378 Political: assassination, 216; boundaries, Organization of Senegal River States, 339 25-26; centralization, 163; competition, 46, Organizations: agricultural, 75; artisan, 88; 48-49,66,159; conflict, 7, 44; culture, 28; cultural, 80-81; economic, 82-83; ethnic, economy, 2, 227-270; fluidity, 46; identity, 106,108; human rights, 94; occupational, 15; ideologies, 154-161; interaction, 83-90; primary, 73; religious, 94-97; 220-222; interaction approach, 15, 22-23, social, 73, 82-83; socioeconomic, 76; state, 30-31,73; legitimacy, 16; mobilization, 38; trader, 87-88; urban, 93; women's, 7, 121-122,430,432;opposition,49,50, 63; 75,90-93,206; workers', 86, 87; youth, organizations, 48; participation, 15, 16, 28, 92-93 38,171,173,178;parties,29,52; Oromo,82 pragmatism, 156, 164; process, 2, 150-151; Oromo Liberation Front, 146 reform, 212; structure, 12,62-64; theory, Ottaway, Marina, 394 18; traditions, 79-80 Oueddei, Goukouni, 200, 332, 344 Political change, 211-222; forced, 215-219; Ovimbundu, 82, 361 managed,212-215 Owen, David, 386 Politics: class theory in, 158; deep, 189-208; Oyo,26 high, 153-183; inter-African, 368-371; patrimonial, 38; personal advancement in, Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), 360 55; of social relations, 170-182; world, Pan-Africanism, 17, 156,323,327,329,336 377-414 Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC), 426, 438 Pompidou, Georges, 380, 382 Parastatals, 143, 269, 270, 436; achievements, Popular Movement for the Liberation of 56; establishment, 55; expansion, 56, 57; Angola (MPLA), 52, 63, 145, 175,202, political uses, 56; promotion, 254 331,361-365 Parti Democratique de Guinee, 142 Population, 8-9tah; growth, 10011tab, 25, Party-centralist regimes, 38,136,144-147, 248-249,265,267,306,444; impact on 177; military role, 144, 145, 146; social economy, 231-232;policymaking, control in, 175-176; social groups in, 145 244-250; pressures, 25; relocation, 176; Party-mobilizing regimes, 136, 142-144, 155, sparse, 26; to teacher ratios, 118; urban, 190; centralization of power, 142; coercion 10011tah in, 142-143, 144; social control in, 143, 171 Population Registration Act, 422, 439 Pass laws, 423, 44000 Populism, 159; radical, 12; urban, 87 Index 479

Populist prophetic leadership, 165-166 Rhodes, Cecil, 435 Populist regimes, 66, 136, 148-149; patronage Rhodesia: anticolonialism. 29; black in, 149, 179-180; social control in, 176-177 opposition, 6; relations with England, Preferential Trade Area (PTA), 282, 285 385. 386; U.S. relations, 402. See also Production: agriculture, 248; copper, 251; Zimbabwe food, 249, 265; oil, 251; precolonial, Rhodesian Front, 365 229-232; subsistence, 237 Riotous Assemblies Act, 425 Professional groups, 7. See also Organizations Roberto, Holden, 351, 352, 361. 362, 363,401 Programme to Mitigate the Social Costs of Robinson, Ronald. 377 Adjustment, 314 Robson, Peter, 283, 284 Proletariat, 120--121; landless, 446 Rothchild, Donald, 296 Protectionism, 180 Roux, Edward, 424 Protest: methods, 87; popular, 205-208; Rural: deprivation, 117; education, 117, 118; religion in, 96-97; worker, 120; youth health care, 245-246; neglect, 122, 245; groups in, 92-93 opposition, 89 Protocol of Brazzaville, 369 Rusk, Dean, 400 Protocol on the Free Movement of Rwanda: elections in, 214; ethnic groups, 125, Peoples, 283 179; food production, 260; inter-African Provisional National Defense Council relations, 364; military, 59tOO; relations (PN[)C), 148-149, 176 with France, 384

Qaddafi, Muammar, 148-149, 159, 160, Sadat, Anwar. 390, 395, 396, 404 330--332,395,396,405 SADCC. See Southern African Development Coordination Conference Ramaphosa, Cyril, 428 Saharan Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), Rassas, Gasmallah, 112-113 342,343,344,353 Rawlings, Jerry, 12, 115, 148-149, 159, 160, Sankara, Thomas, 12, 148-149, 159, 165, 166, 165,166,176,180,193,217,218,335 216,217 Reagan, Ronald, 368, 396, 398, 403, 405, Santos, Jose Eduardo dos, 145, 146, 167 406,407 Sao Tome and Principe, 168; elections in, 214; Reagan Doctrine, 409 inter-African relations, 364 Recession, global, 256, 299, 305 Sara, 107 Regimes, 137mb; administrative-hegemonic, Saudi Arabia, 411-412 136, 137-140; military, 5, 12,66, 125, 135; Savimbi, Jonas, 145,352,362,363,409 party-centralist. 136. 144-147; party- Sawyer, Amos, 370 mobilizing, 136, 142-144, 155; personal- Scott, James, III coercive, 136, 147-148. 157; pluralist, 136, Secession, 197, 198, 199. See also Biafra; 140--142; populist, 136, 148-149 Katanga Regional: collaboration, 13; common market, Security: colonial, 42; individual, 12; public, 333; consciousness, 345; identity, 81; 12; in single-party systems, 50 industrial planning, 280; integration. Sedition laws, 48 277-287,370 Sekou Toure, Ahmed, 12,44,49,62, 142, Regionalism, 47-48 143, 144, 155, 156, 162, 163, 193,213,337, Relations: global and economic, 18; inter- 389,390,391 African, 323-373; social, 170--182; Third Self-reliance: collective, 276-287; national, World and industrialized world. 17 287-289; and socialism, 288 Religion: Africanization, 96; groups in, 5, 7; Self-sufficiency, 234-235 organizations in, 94-97; revivals, 206; Seme, P. Ka I, 425 social role, 96; traditional African, 95; in Senegal: administrative increases, 51; in urban populism, 87; women's liberation CEAO, 284; centralized decisionmaking, and, 91; youth groups in, 93 46; democratic concepts, 159, 165; Resources: access to, 29, 74; allocation, 15, diplomatic activity, 326; elections in, 44, 196,447,448; distribution, 16,31,76; 213; foreign policy objectives, 339-340; domestic, 68; economic, 26. 27; institutional constraints, 168; inter-African exploitation, 17; human, 236; international, relations, 364; Islam in, 160; military, 68; mechanisms for extraction, 28; scarcity, 59tab, 60; personalization of decision- 65,227; state control, 41; state exploitation, making, 53; pluralist regime, 140--142; 167; urban access, 118 pogroms, 7; political conflict, 49, 191, 195; Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), 330 relations with France, 381; socialism in, 480 Index

155; Soviet relations, 391; traditional Administration Act, 425; pass laws, 423, politics, 80 440n6; political conflict, 198,424-427; Senegal River Development Organization, 339 popular protest, 432-434; Population Senghor, Leopold Sedar, 59,163,164, 165, Registration Act, 422, 439; public policy, 184n4,339, 379,384,387 432-434; relations with England, 386; Seroney, Jean Marie, 139 Riotous Assemblies Act, 425; social groups, Services: access to, 7; dispensing, 76; ethnic 427-430; state and society, 420--424; intermediary role, 11 0--116 urbanization, 425; U.S. relations, 404, Seychelles, 248 408,409 Shaba Province, 352 South Africa Council of Churches Shagari,Shehu, 59, 165, 196,335 (SACC), 428 Shaw, Timothy, 334 South African Defense Force (SADF), Shultz, George, 409 368-371 Sierra Leone: administrative-hegemonic South African Indian Congress, 426 regime, 156; agricultural production, 264; South African Students' Organization centralized decisionmaking, 46; civil (SASO),429 service, 43; democratic concepts, 159; Southall, Aidan, 107 elections in, 214; inter-African relations, Southern African Development Coordination 364; literacy in, 239; military, 59tab; Conference (SADCC), 13,284-287, political conflict, 194; relations with 358,367 France, 384; traditional politics, 80 Southern African Transport and Single-party systems, 48-50, 62, 66,138,159, Communications Commission, 285 163,172; ethnic intermediaries in, 125 Southern Rhodesia, 126 Sklar, Richard, 123 South-West African People's Organization Slave trade, 230, 377; impact on economy, (SWAPO), 367, 398; women's section, 92 231-232 Soviet Union, 388-398 Smith, Ian, 359, 360, 365, 386, 402 Soweto uprising, 429, 432, 434 Smuts, Jan, 422 Spanish Sahara, 326 Social: advancement, 51; change, 16; Stabilization of Export Earnings Scheme characteristics of states, 100011tab; (STABEX),303 cleavage, 55; competition, 47; conflict, 81, State: autonomous, 21; centralization of 116-124; differentiation, 55, 65,170; power, 46-54; configurational view, 40--41; inequalities, 13,30, 173; integration, 16; decisions in, 39; during decolonization, 38; interaction, 76; mobility, 15; networks, ethnoregional relations, 113-114; farm 97-99; organization, 31, 73, 77-82, 79, model, 261; interactive view, 41; 82-83; pluralism, 81; process, 74-77; legitimacy, 64, 65; neopatrimonial, 53; relations, 7, 170--182; services, 46, 65, 83; organic view, 40; organization, 38; personal stratification, 86 advancement in, 51; privatization of Social groups, 23, 73-99; ethnic, 7; organizations, 309; processes, 39-40; formation, 40; political participation, 38; reflection of Western power, 26; relations professional, 7 with political parties, 52; relation to society, Socialism, 12, 17, 143, 155-156; effect on 22; religious, 96; resource control, 41, 124; agriculture, 261-262; scientific, 158; and response to ethnicity, 110; responsibility, self-reliance, 288 21; ruling class in, 39 Somalia: Afro-Marxism, 158; ethnic groups, Statism, 30, 55; centralized, 65; emphasis on, 108; foreign aid, 311; inter-African 53; propensity to, 38; theories, 15, 20--22 relations, 345-349, 355-356, 364; Islarn in, Status: attainment, 47; in birth-ascribed 160; literacy in, 239, 240; military, 59tab, systems, 119; ethnicity and, 108; group 60; regime breakdown, 153 affiliation in, 75; preserving, 84; of Sotho, 424 soldiers, 60 South Africa: ANC in, 92; in Angola, 145; Stevens,Siaka,62,165 black opposition, 2; economic sanctions in, Structural adjustment, 305-315; IMP, 65, 182; 368-371; economy, 421, 434-437; ethnic social costs, 313-315; World Bank, 65,182 groups, 179,430--432; Group Areas Act, Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustain- 422,439; homelands, 419, 422, 430, 431fig; able Development (World Bank), 308 industrialization, 425; inter-African Succession: in charismatic leadership, 163, relations, 363, 364, 365, 366-368; 165; in managed change, 213; in tyrannical manufacturing, 425; military, 59tab, leadership, 167 422-423; mining, 425, 435; Native Sudan: civil war, 198,201; economic Index 481

performance, 305; ethnic conflict, 7; ethnic distance, 229; networks, 88; petty, 87; groups, 179; inter-African relations, 349, relations, 18; slave, 230, 231-232, 377; 364; military, 59tab, 174; political conflict, unions, 86,87,91, 121, 171,425,427-428; 194,198; regime breakdown, 150 women in, 75, 87,90 Suez Canal, 332, 336, 377, 389, 395 Transfer pricing, 290-291 Sukuma, 107 Transitional National Union Government, 332 Swaziland: food production, 260; inter- Transkei, 422 African relations, 364; military, 59tab; in Transnational companies: abuse of power, SAOCC,285 246-247,289-291; bargaining with, Sweden,410 289-297; dependence on, 253; effect on Syndical Agricole Africain, 75 economies, 253-254; reducing power of, 291; withdrawal, 296 Tanlbo,()live~426,427 Transportation, 27, 257; dependency, 277; Tanganyika. See also Tanzania: centralized and manufacturing, 117; precolonial, 230; decisionmaking, 46; civil service, 43; rural,118 electoral participation, 44 Transvaal,421 Tanganyika Teachers' Association, 75 Treaty of Lagos, 282 Tanzania: administrative increases, 51; Treaty of Rome, 302, 318n35 agriculture, 89,264; Chinese relations, 391; Tshombe, ~oise, 200, 329, 400 collectivized agriculture, 262; de- Tuareg, 332 industrialization, 256; elections in, 213; Tubman, William, 213 ethnic groups, 107; foreign policy, 358; Tunisia: agriculture, 317n35; centralized health care, 245-246; human rights, 62; decisionmaking, 46; economic growth, inter-African relations, 358-361, 364; 248; foreign policy objectives, 340; inter- literacy in, 239, 240; military, 57-58, 58, African relations, 364; population growth, 59~;nationalizationin,292,294; 248 parastatals, 56, 143-144; party-mobilizing Tutsi,126 regime, 142-144, 155, 190; personalization Tutu, Desmond, 428 of decisionmaking, 53; political conflict, Tyrannical leadership, 166-168 190; relations with EEC, 302; relations with France, 384; in SAOCC, 285; single-party Uganda: centralized decisionmaking, 46; civil system, 172; socialism, 12, 155; succession, conflict, 356; debt service, 310; 445; war with Uganda, 58 decisionmaking, 169; economic Tanzanian African National Union performance, 305; ethnic groups, 107; (TANU),51 ethnic intermediaries in, 113; institutional Tariff: barriers, 279; reduction, 308; constraints, 168; legal system, 61; military, reform, 313 58,59tab,60,217;nationalizationin,292; Taxation, 27 parastatals, 56; personal-coercive regime, Taylor, Charles, 370, 371 147-148; personalization of Technocratic leadership, 165 decisionmaking, 53; political conflict, 49, Technology: development, 251; export, 253; 198; population growth, 249; populist inappropriate, 255 regime, 148-149; regime breakdown, 150, Texaco,l46 153; relations with EEC, 302; repression, Togo: de-industrialization, 256; democratic 174,207; single-party system, 172; wages, concepts, 159; economic performance, 173; 314; war with Tanzania, 58 elections in, 214; inter-African relations, Uitenhage incident, 433-434 364; military, 58, 59tab, 157,212; UNCTAJ>,298,299 patrimonial-administrative regime, 140; Underdevelopment theory, 17-20, 161,227, political conflict, 191; relations with 228-229 France, 379, 380 UNESC(), 240 Tombalbaye, Fran~ois, 158, 332 UN1~,248,314 Toubou, 332 UNIOO,256, 257 Toumi,~ohsen,34O Unilateral Declaration of Independence, 326, Trade: alliances, 206; balance, 263; barter in, 357 287, 306; declining terms, 309; Union ~niere du Haut Katanga, 200 deterioration, 251; export, 237; foreign, Union of African States and ~adagascar 253,305; firee, 279,280-281,283,302; (U~), 328, 339 gender differences, 75; internal, 282; Union of Angolan Peoples (UPA), 361 international, 233; liberalization, 313; long- Union of South Africa, 421 482 Index

Union of West African States, 338 Youlou, Foulbert, 157 Unions: custom, 252, 281; labor, 428; trade, 7, Young, Andrew, 402 86,87,91,121,171,425,427-428 Young, Crawford, 234 United Democratic Front (UDF), 432-433, 434 Zaire: administrative-hegemonic regime, 137; United Ghana Farmers Council, 89 adrninistrati ve increases, 5 I; de- United Nations, 445; Congo operation, 328; industrialization, 256; economic Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), performance, 305; elections in, 214; ethnic 312,346; Programme of Action for African conflict, 7; foreign policies, 351; human Economic Recovery and Development, 315; rights, 62; inter-African relations, 350-355, sanctions against Rhodesia, 402; Special 364; military, 59tab, 60, 212; Session on Africa's Economic and Social nationalization in, 294; patrimonial- Crisis, 265; Transition Assistance Group, administrative regime, 140; personal- 369; Tripartite Agreement, 369, 408; coercive regime, 147-148; political UNCTAD, 298, 299; UNESCO, 240; conflict, 190, 19 I, 194, 198; relations with UNICEF, 248, 314; UNIDO, 256, 257 France, 381, 384; repression, 174,207; U.S. United States African policy, 398-407 relations, 400; wages, 314 Unkhonto we Sizwe, 427 Zambia: administrative-hegemonic regime, Upper Volta. See Burkina Faso 137; centralized decisionmaking, 46; Urban: access to resources, 118; elite, 190; economic performance, 173,305; elections growth, 446; health care, 245; intelligentsia, in, 214; ethnic groups, 107, 126; ethnic 192; migration, 80-81; organizations, 93 intermediaries in, II3; expansion of Urbanization, 27, 425; crime rates, 94 military, 57; foreign policy, 360; human rights, 62; inter-African relations, 358-361, Valenta, Jiri, 392 364; manufacturing, 257; military, 59tab; Vance, Cyrus, 402 nationalization in, 294; parastatais, 56; Venda, 422 party-mobilizing regime, 142-144; political conflict, 191, 196; relations with England, Wallerstein, Immanuel, 18,329 385; in SADCC, 285; socialism, 12, 155; Welch, Claude, 123 U.S. relations, 402 West African Rice Development Association, Zanzibar, 125 287 Zanzibar Nationalist Party, 126 Western Sahara, 326, 341-344, 353, 356, 370, Zezuru, 108 372,406 Zimbabwe: administrative increases, 51; Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF), agriculture, 88; Chinese relations, 391; 348 elections in, 214; ethnic groups, 108, 126; Williams, G. Mennen, 415n9 legal system, 61; majority rule, 285; Wilson, Harold, 359, 360 manufacturing, 257; military, 58, 59tab; Women: educational access, 91, 239-240; party-mobilizing regime, 142-144; political labor exploitation, 252; marginalization, conflict, 198; population growth, 248; 90-91; organizations of, 7, 75, 205; in relations with France, 384; in SADCC, 285; trading, 75, 87, 90 U.S. relations, 402 Workers' Party of Ethiopia (WPE), 175 Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), World Bank, 13,212,244,246,249,253,255, 360 261,266,269,300,306,307,315,448, Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), 449; structural adjustment policies, 65, 182 360 World Council of Churches, 96 Zulu, 79, 424

Xhosa, 424

Yaounde Conventions, 302, 387 Y oruba, 80, 107 About the Book and the Authors

Africa has undergone significant political, economic, and social change since the first edition of this book was published in early 1988. Now revised and updated throughout, this new edition includes current economic, social, and political data, as well as entirely new sections on:

• Civil society in Africa • Democratization and multiparty politics • Economic reform and structural adjustment programs • Africa and the changing world order • Africa and the Gulf War • The dismantling of apartheid in South Africa • Prospects for African development on the eve of the twenty-first century

The authors provide a basic knowledge of political events and of major prob- lem, processes, and trends. Their effort to relate the various historical, politi- cal, social, economic, and international constraints of the environment to the political choices made in Africa today is a major contribution to our under- standing of the multiple forces at work on the continent.

Naomi Chazan is professor of political science and African studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Robert Mortimer is professor of political science at Haverford College. John Ravenhill is professor of international re- lations at the Australian National University. Donald Rothchild is professor of political science at the University of California, Davis.

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