Western Sahara: Conflict Without End?

George Joffé

Just over thirty three years ago, as Spain was undergoing OHVVO\GHOD\HGE\GLVSXWHVRYHUZKRVKRXOGSDUWLFLSDWH DGLI¿FXOWWUDQVLWLRQIURPWKHGLFWDWRUVKLSRI*HQHUDOLV- $OJHULDWRRKDVUHVWUDLQHGWKH3ROLVDULR)URQWIURPWDN- VLPR)UDQFRWRZDUGVDGHPRFUDF\0RURFFRLQWKHZDNH LQJXSWKHPLOLWDU\RSWLRQRQFHDJDLQ,QUHDOLW\KRZHYHU RIFRQVLGHUDEOHGRPHVWLFWXUEXOHQFHLQWKHSUHYLRXVIRXU QRQHRIWKRVHLQYROYHGDUHZLOOLQJWRIXQGDPHQWDOO\PRG- \HDUVDQQH[HGWKHIRUPHU6SDQLVKFRORQ\RIWKH:HVWHUQ HUDWHWKHLUSRVLWLRQV0RURFFRVWLOOLQVLVWVXSRQLWVVRYHU- Sahara. HLJQFODLPDQGWKH3ROLVDULR)URQWZLOOQRWFRPSURPLVH RQLWVGHPDQGIRUDUHIHUHQGXPRQVHOIGHWHUPLQDWLRQ $OWKRXJKLWVDFWLRQVÀRXWHGUHVROXWLRQVLQIDYRXURI VHOIGHWHUPLQDWLRQE\ERWKWKH8QLWHG1DWLRQVDQGWKH The essence of the dispute 2UJDQLVDWLRQRI$IULFDQ8QLW\ WRGD\WKH$IULFDQ8QLRQ  7KHUHDVRQIRUWKHHQGXULQJQDWXUHRIWKHGLVSXWHLV 0RURFFRFODLPHGWKDWLWZDVPHUHO\UHVWRULQJLWVWHUULWRUL- VLPSOHERWKVLGHVFODLPWKHVRYHUHLJQULJKWWRFRQWUROWKH DOLQWHJULW\GLVUXSWHGE\)UHQFKDQG6SDQLVKFRORQLDOLVP WHUULWRU\DQGWKLVULJKWE\LWVYHU\QDWXUHFDQQRWEHFRP- SURPLVHG6RYHUHLJQW\DIWHUDOOLVFODVVLFDOO\DVWDWHPHQW 2EVHUYHUVQRWHGKRZHYHUWKDW.LQJ+DVVDQKDGGXULQJ DERXWWKHDUWLFXODWLRQRIH[FOXVLYHDQGLQGLYLVLEOHSRZHU WKHSUHYLRXVWZR\HDUVDOVRPDQLSXODWHGWKHNLQJGRP¶V DQGFDQQRWEHIUDJPHQWHG(YHQWKRXJKLQUHFHQW\HDUV ORQJVWDQGLQJFODLPWRWKHUHJLRQWRPD[LPLVHWKHPRQDU- WKDWEDOGGH¿QLWLRQKDVEHHQPRGL¿HGE\DUJXPHQWVDERXW FK\¶VGRPHVWLFVXSSRUW WKHQDWXUHRIWKHOHJLWLPDF\RIWKHH[SUHVVLRQRIVRYHU- HLJQSRZHUE\VWDWHVLWUHPDLQVHVVHQWLDOO\XQFKDOOHQJHG 1975: decision of the International Court LQLQWHUQDWLRQDOODZ7KH:HVWHUQ6DKDUDGLVSXWHGRHV ,WZDVDFODLPFKDOOHQJHGE\6DKUDZLQDWLRQDOLVWVLQWKH UDLVHFKDOOHQJHVWRWKLVWUDGLWLRQDOSRVLWLRQKRZHYHUDQG 3ROLVDULR)URQWEDFNHGE\$OJHULDZKRERWKUHOLHGXSRQ LWLVWKHVHSRWHQWLDOFKDOOHQJHVWKDWVXJJHVWWKDWDVROXWLRQ WKHGHFLVLRQVRIWKHLQWHUQDWLRQDODQGUHJLRQDORUJDQLVD- WRWKHGLVSXWHPLJKWHYHQWXDOO\HPHUJH WLRQVFLWHGDERYHDQGRQWKHDGYLVRU\GHFLVLRQRIWKH ,QWHUQDWLRQDO&RXUWRI-XVWLFHLVVXHGLQ2FWREHU 7KLVLVEHFDXVHWKHGLVSXWHKDVEURXJKWWRJHWKHUWZRTXLWH $WWKHUHTXHVWRIWKH8QLWHG1DWLRQV*HQHUDO$VVHPEO\D GLIIHUHQWDSSURDFKHVWRVRYHUHLJQW\7KH0RURFFDQSRVL- \HDUEHIRUHWKH&RXUWKDGFRQVLGHUHGVXEPLVVLRQVIURP WLRQLVEDVHGRQWKHFODVVLFDOH[SUHVVLRQRIVRYHUHLJQW\DV 0RURFFR$OJHULDDQG0DXULWDQLDRQWKHLVVXHUHDFKLQJ the inherent right of a state to express sovereign power WKHFRQFOXVLRQWKDWDOWKRXJK:HVWHUQ6DKDUDQWULEHVKDG RYHULWVWHUULWRU\ZKHUHDVWKH3ROLVDULR)URQWLQVLVWVWKDW Noref Guest Article KDGOLHQVRIIHDOW\ZLWKWKH0RURFFDQVXOWDQDWHLQSUHFR- VRYHUHLJQW\LVOHJLWLPLVHGRQO\ZKHQLWUHÀHFWVWKHULJKW ORQLDOWLPHVWKHVHGLGQRWDPRXQWWROHJLWLPDWHFODLPVRI RIDQDWLRQLQKDELWLQJDWHUULWRU\WRFODLPVRYHUHLJQW\ WHUULWRULDOVRYHUHLJQW\DV0RURFFRFODLPHG7KLVMXGJH- RYHULW±WKHHVVHQFHRIVHOIGHWHUPLQDWLRQLQVKRUW7KH PHQWZDVH[SORLWHGE\ERWKVLGHV0RURFFRFODLPHGWKDW SUREOHPIRUWKH8QLWHG1DWLRQVDQGE\H[WHQVLRQIRU WKH¿UVWSDUWMXVWL¿HGLWVFODLPVZKLOHWKH3ROLVDULR)URQW WKH$IULFDQ8QLRQLVWKDWQHLWKHUKDVHYHUUHVROYHGWKH LQVLVWHGWKDWWKHVHFRQGSDUWLPSOLFLWO\UHTXLUHGDSURFHVV FRQWUDGLFWLRQEHWZHHQVWDWHDQGQDWLRQVLQFHWKH\KDYH RIVHOIGHWHUPLQDWLRQ VLPSO\DVVXPHGWKHWZRWREHFRWHUPLQRXV,QWHUQDWLRQDO ODZKRZHYHUIDYRXUVWKHIRUPHUGH¿QLWLRQDOWKRXJK 1975–2009: positions have not changed WKHUHKDVEHHQLQFUHDVLQJSUHVVXUHIRUWKHODWWHUWREH ,QHVVHQFHWKHVHSRVLWLRQVKDYHQRWFKDQJHGRYHUWKH DGRSWHGLQVWHDGHYHUVLQFHWKHHQGRIWKH&ROG:DU ODVWWKUHHGHFDGHVUDLVLQJWKHTXHVWLRQJLYHQWKHHQGXU- LQJLQWUDQVLJHQFHRIWKHLPPHGLDWHSDUWLHVWRWKHGLVSXWH ,WLVQRWWKDWLQWHUQDWLRQDORUJDQLVDWLRQVKDYHEHHQXQ- ZKHWKHUDQ\UHVROXWLRQFDQUHDVRQDEO\EHH[SHFWHGLQWKH DZDUHRIWKHFRQWUDGLFWLRQVWKH\KDYHVLPSO\QHYHUFRQ- IRUHVHHDEOHIXWXUH7KHUHKDYHRIFRXUVHEHHQWDFWLFDO IURQWHGWKHP7KH8QLWHG1DWLRQVDIWHUDOOKDVDOZD\V FKDQJHV±0DXULWDQLDZDVIRUFHGWRDEDQGRQLWVFODLP DVVXPHGWKDWWKHGRPHVWLFDIIDLUVRIVWDWHV±WKHDUHQDRI LQE\WKHPLOLWDU\DFWLRQVRIWKH3ROLVDULR)URQW VRYHUHLJQDXWKRULW\±DUHQRWQRUPDOO\LWVFRQFHUQ\HWLW ,Q6HSWHPEHUWKH8QLWHG1DWLRQVVXFFHHGHGLQ KDVORQJSURPRWHGWKHULJKWRI³SHRSOHV´WRVHOIGHWHUPL- LPSRVLQJDFHDVH¿UHPRQLWRUHGE\DVSHFLDOPLVVLRQ QDWLRQWKURXJK*HQHUDO$VVHPEO\5HVROXWLRQ 0,185627KHPLVVLRQKDVEHHQGHSOR\HGIRUWKHODVW ¿IWHHQ\HDUVDJDLQVWWKHSURPLVHRIDUHIHUHQGXPHQG- March 2009 Western Sahara: Conflict Without End?

 LIRQO\LQWKHGHYHORSLQJZRUOG20RUHUHFHQWO\ UHSXWDWLRQRQLWVUHYROXWLRQDU\OHJLWLPDF\VWHPPLQJIURP LQWKHFRQWHPSRUDU\ZRUOGRISUHHPSWLYHLQWHUYHQWLRQ WKHZDURILQGHSHQGHQFHIURP)UDQFHEHWZHHQDQG IDYRXUHGE\PDMRUVWDWHV±SDUWLFXODUO\WKH8QLWHG6WDWHV DQGLWVOHDGLQJUROHZLWKLQWKH1RQ$OLJQHG0RYH- DQG%ULWDLQZLWKRWKHU(XURSHDQVWDWHVWHHWHULQJRQWKH PHQWLQWKHV6HOIGHWHUPLQDWLRQKDVDOZD\VEHHQ EULQNRIDFFHSWDQFH±WKH8QLWHG1DWLRQVKDVDGRSWHG WKHSDWKWROHJLWLPDWHLQGHSHQGHQWVWDWHKRRGIRU$OJHULD WKHSULQFLSOHRI³5HVSRQVLELOLW\WR3URWHFW´WKHULJKWRI DQGLWKDVORQJFRQWHVWHG0RURFFR¶VFODLPVWRUHJLRQDO LQWHUYHQWLRQLIDVWDWHFDQQRWRULVXQZLOOLQJWRSURWHFWLWV OHDGHUVKLSKHQFHWKH³:DURIWKH6DQGV´EHWZHHQWKH SRSXODWLRQMorocco has recourse to paragraph 6 of EHQH¿WHGIURP$PHULFDQDQG(XURSHDQVXSSRUW7KH the resolution, which denies self-determination if it disrupts the pre- :HVWHUQ6DKDUDLVVXHGLGLWLVWUXHFUHDWHVRPHHPEDU- colonial integrity of a state, to justify its claim to the Western Sahara. In fact, the exception was only intended to apply to small enclaves UDVVPHQWEXWDSDUWIURPLQLWLDOUHWLFHQFHRQWKHSDUWRI separated by colonialist practice, such as Cabinda in Angola. WKH&DUWHUDGPLQLVWUDWLRQLQWKHVDQGLQQHZO\ GHPRFUDWLF6SDLQRWKHU(XURSHDQVWDWHVKDYHWHQGHGWR 2 The so-called “Blue Water Convention” This assumes that VHHNFRPSURPLVHRYHUWKHLVVXHDQGKDYHLQFUHDVLQJO\ Europe’s and the United States sovereignty has already been reified in OHDQHGWRZDUGV0RURFFDQSUHIHUHQFHV7KLVKDVFDXVHG stable states, so that issues of self-determination only arise amongst VRPHHPEDUUDVVPHQWRYHU(XURSHDQ¿VKLQJSROLF\DQG former colonies and in the developing world. March 2009 Western Sahara: Conflict Without End?

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 The Republic was proclaimed in February 1976, as Spain  See Human Rights Watch (2008), Human rights in the West- handed over its administrative powers to Morocco and Mauritania. It ern Sahara and in the Tindouf refugee camps, New York (December claims to be a state-in-exile – a concept unknown under international 2008) law although it has been used in political studies since the 1970s. It is used of refugee groups with strong and effective political leadership, The Moroccan situation is a very good example of what is either in exile, as with the Western Saharans or under alien occupa-  known to international relations theorists as the “sunk cost effect”. So tion, as with the Palestinians in the Occupied Territories before 1993, much capital – moral and diplomatic as well as financial – has been when the PLO acted as a clandestine state-in-exile. See Keynon-Lis- invested in the Western Sahara that the conviction must be that only cher S. (2006), Dangerous sanctuaries: refugee camps, civil war and further investment can bring success the dilemmas of humanitarian aid, Cornell University Press (New York); 19

March 2009