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REVISION NOTES 0 N . Sea daisies (Concentricycloidea), disk shaped with no arms, mouth or anus. PHYLUM CHAETOGNATHA Animals in which the mouth originates from an .Arrow worms, possess bristles around their opening in the embryo other than the blastopore. mou,ths and enables these planktonic animals to Characterized by radial and determinate cleavage prey on other organisms. Their relationships during embryological development. Includes the to other deuterostomes is unclear. following four phyla: Echinodermata, Chaetognatha, Hemichordata and Chordata. . Possess transparent, elongated bodies with Lateral and caudal fins. PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA Two simple eyes and a nervous system consisting Spiny skinned animals with internal skeletons . . of a ventral ganglia in the trunk and a dorsal of calcareous ossicles typified by the ganglia in the head region. starfish. ALL forms are marine and penta- syrrmetrical (sometimes synmnetry is in multiples Hermaphroditic, with ovaries in trunk and of five). Most forms have an upper aboral . testes near the caudal fin. surface with the anal opening and a Lower oral surface with a central mouth. ALL echinoderms PHYLUM HEMICHORDATA are characterized by a water vascular system and tube feet which functions for Locomotion, Two groups, the acorn worms such as obtaining food, respiration and excretion. . Balanoglossus (class Enteropneusta) and the others belong to the class Pterobranchia which .A water vascular system is a division of the may include the fossil animals called coelom to form a hollow interconnected tube graptolites which were numerous in the system filled with water. The water vascular Period. system comnunicates to the outside via a madreporite and terminates in tube feet which Similar to since they possess have suckers. . pharyngeal gill slits and a dorsal tubular nerve cord. . There is no brain; the nervous system consists of a circun oral nerve ring and radial nerves Dissimilar to Chordates since there is no in each arm. Simple eyes are found at the tip . . The buccal diverticulwn was once of the starfish's arms. thought to be a notochord.

. Sexes are separate, fertilization external, and v Acorn worms have bodies divided into an there is a free-living bilaterally symnetrical anterior proboscis, a collar and a slimy trunk Larvae call the bipinnaria which develops into characterized by a genital fold. They are the branchiolaria followed by metamorphosis colonial or solitary, and either Live in U- into the pentasyrrmetrical adults. shaped burrows, or burrow through marine sediment. They extract detritus using cilia on .Starfish (Asteroidea) is characterized by five their proboscis. Food particles are bound on to arms or multiples of. They use tube feet to mucous strings which are then swallowed. collect small food particles and take them by ambulacral grooves to the mouth. They are also Pterobranchia: tiny degenerate carnivorous on bivalves, which they open with . that Live in colonies, the individuals have their tube feet, invert their stomachs, release tentacles that project out of their tubes. digestive juices which dissolves them. PHYLUM CHORDATA v Brittle stars (Ophiuroidea) are similar to starfish except their arms are much thinner. DEFINITION: the phylum Chordata relates to a They have no anus (= incomplete digestive diverse grqup of deuterostomes, classified system). They are not carnivorous. together since they share the following structures: a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve . Sea urchins (Echinoidea) have a rigid test of chord, pharyngeal slits, a postanal tail, and calcareous plates. Pentasymnetry is only body segmentation. These structures have became obvious when examining the test. They graze on variously modified and even lost in the various algae and have "jawedH mouthparts called an taxa, but all possessed these aristotlels Lantern. characteristics in the early stages of their development (embryology). . Sea cucumbers (Holothuroidea). Have an elongated form with Little evidence of Three subphylun exist; the Cephalochordata pentasyrrmetry except by examining the pattern . which includes amphioxus (), the of tube feet. They have specialized tube feet Urochordata which includes marine filter- around the mouth (called tentacles) and mucous feeding , or sea squirts (e.g. Pyura) secretions entraps detritus on the tentacles and the Vertebrata. from where it is passed onto the mouth. SUBPHYLUM CEPHALOCHORDATA . Sea Lilies and feather stars (Crinoidea) are sessile and free-living respectively. Their is an amphioxus or Lancelet pentasymnetry is complicated by Lateral . () which are small -like branching of the arms. These are highly filter-feeding marine animals. They possess a calcareous animals, which filter feed detritus dorsal, caudal and ventral fin strengthened from the water. with dense connective tissue. The begirmings of a head region can be seen. ORIGIN OF THE . Have protruding mouth (no jaws) surrounded by Original theory was that the vertebrates arose an oral hood form which project oral tentacles. during the early period from filter- feeding cephalochordate- 1i ke ancestors (Pikaia). They filter-feed, using 180 pairs of gill slits It is now considered more likely that the to sieve the food from the water. A ventral vertebrates arose from an ancestor resembling a ciliated groove, the endostyle secretes mucous. Larva (which in turn was derived either Cilia conveys the mucous with entrapped from an ancestor to the hemichordates or detritus to the stomach. echinoderms or a comnon ancestor to all three forms). It is postulated that this Larva became A notochord and dorsal tubular nerve cord are sexually mature before metamorphosis, a distinct, as is the muscle segmentation. phenomenon called paedogenesis.

SUBPHYLUM UROCHORDATA CHARACTERISTICS .There are three classes, Larvace, Thaliacea and .Vertebrate development is characterized by an Ascidiacea. increasing degree of (development of increasingly specialized brains capable of ,The class Ascidiacea is referred to as the processing increasingly extensive sensory tunicates (possessing a tunic or coating), an inputs). example is seasquirt Pyura (red bait). .Most vertebrates possess a colunn of vertebrae .Ascidians have very different Larval and adult that enclose the nerve cord. The skull and the stages. The larval stage has a full complement vertebral colunn are part of a carti laginous or of chordate features whereas the adult has lost bony endoskeleton. some chordate characteristics. .The vertebrate heart punps blood containing Adult ascidians such as the Pyura are sessile, haemoglobin through a closed system to gills, filter-feeding animals, which are designed to skin or Lungs where it is oxygenated. Wastes circulate water through their pharynx. These in the blood are removed by kidneys. animals are covered in a thick protective test, there are two dorsal teat-like structures, one .Reproduction is almost always sexual, with is an inhalant syphon in which water is drawn separate sexes. Fertilization is either in, the other is the exhalant siphon (atrial external or internal. pore) in which the water passes out. The pharynx acts as a sieve which collects .Of the seven classes of vertebrates with Living suspended food items. representatives, three are ; members of the other four classes generally have two pairs . The adult tunicate has degenerated from the of limbs and are called tetrapods. Larval stage and is without a notochord, the dorsal tubular nerve cord is reduced to a CLASS (Fishes without jaws) ganglia. .The oldest vertebrate fossils are jawless . The free-swimning ascidian Larvae possesses agnathans, a group with round or slit-like both a notochord and dorsal tubular nerve mouths, which include the extinct armoured chord. ostracoderms (bone-skinned) which first appeared in the Ordovician Period. The class ORIGIN OF THE CHORDATES Agnatha is now represented by only lampreys (Order Petromyzontida) and (Order Annelids, arthropods and arachnids have been Myxinida). proposed. This theory assumes the animal's dorsal and ventral surfaces are turned around, w Lampreys and hagfish have Long, slender changing the ventral nerve into a dorsal nerve. cylindrical bodies with median dorsal and Problems with this theory are the positioning of caudal fins supported by cartilaginous fin- the mouth (in the chordates it would mean that a rays. Both forms are extremely slimy. dorsal mouth would have to be closed and a new ventral mouth formed, a change in the nerve cord . Lampreys have suctorial mouths held open by from being solid to being hollow and finally a cartilage by which they adhere to host fish. change in development from spiral cleavage and a They use a horny tongue to rasp the flesh of determinate embryotogy to radial cleavage and the host. The hagfish has a biting mouth, with indeterminate embryology. Other theories include which it scavenges on dead and dying animals. a comnon ancestry with phyla echinodermata and hemichordata. Both embryological and biochemical .Olfactory organs are paired but there is a similarities between these groups and the single dorsal nostril. They have paired lateral chordates exists. eyes as well as a pineal eye on the dorsal surface. The brain is differentiated with 10 cranial nerves, and each "ear" consists of two SUMMARY OF THE VERTEBRATES and one semicircular canals for Lampreys and hagfish respectively.

DEFINITION: vertebrata are backboned animals, and Skull and visceral arches are cartilaginous, a are a subphylum of the phylum chordata and notochord persists, vertebrae are represented includes jawless and jawed fishes, amphibians, by small incomplete neural arches. reptiles, birds and mamnals. .The gonads are single Large and without ducts; CLASS fertilization is external; developnent is direct for hagfish whereas lampreys have a .Osteichthyes is the most species-rich filter-feeding larval stage (= amcoete). vertebrate class. The bony fish have skeletons of calcim phosphate and a mucous-covered, Low friction skin generally covered by flattened CLASS I (Armour-skinned fish) bony scales. .Placoderms, now extinct, first appeared in the Their evolutionary background is not totally Period. These armoured fish were agreed upon, although an increasing amount of abundant in the , had paired fins, evidence suggests that they have close bitting jaws that evolved from skeletal support ancestral relationships with the acanthodians. of the gills. An ancestral form may have lost They certainly did not evolve from the their bony armour and given rise to the cartilaginous fish. The earliest bony fish may cartilaginous fish, it is unlikely that they have occurred in the Silurian, although the were ancestral to the bony fish. fist full bodied fossils are only found in the Devonian Period. The ancestral bony fish was probably freshwater and an early division into CLASS (Cartilaginous fish) the lobe-finned () and fin-rayed fish (actinopterygi i) occurred. . Sharks and rays are the most widespread members of the Class Chondrichthyes, and have paired .Bony fish have similar senses to sharks, fins, cartilaginous skeletons, and bitting jaws excepting that their eyes are equipped with and are currently restricted to marine cones and provides for colour vision. environments. .Different types of scales occur, with the lobe- .Sharks may have evolved from a jawed fish that finned fish have cosmoid scales, the primitive probably replace a bony skeleton with a fin-rayed fish having ganoid scales and more cartilage one in order to lighten itself. advanced forms having cycloid and ctenoid scales. .Primarily carnivorous, the streamline sharks have keen senses of vision, olfaction, hearing . Bony fish have two-chambered hearts which punps and electroreception. A specialized lateral deoxygenated blood to the aortic arches of the line system of microscopic organs sensitive to gi lls where the blood is oxygenated. Red blood changes in water pressure enables sharks to cells are nucleated and oval. Unlike sharks perceive minor vibrations. which must move to breath, bony fish can breath while stationary by moving a flap-like . Sharks have minute placoid scales, and their operculum that helps draw water through the teeth are evolutionarily derived from them. mouth and into the gill chamber. . Sharks have two-chambered hearts which pumps .Bony fish can adjust their density and thus deoxygenated blood to the aortic arches of the control their buoyancy by means of a unique gills where the blood is oxygenated. Red blood swim bladder. A fusiform body shape and cells are nucleated and oval. Respiration is flexible fins are further adaptations for an by five to seven pairs of gills, each in a aquatic Life. separate gill cleft which is exposed. .Although external fertilization and ovipary are r Sharks possess a spiral valve in the comnon bony fish exhibit great reproductive intestines, which increases the surface area variation. and prolongs the passage of food down the unusually short intestine. . The most familiar fish to us are the ray-fins. Supported by long flexible rays, their fins are . Sharks have internal fertilization, and modified for various functions include becoming development can be oviparous or ovoviviparous. limb Like in themodernmudskippers. Bony fish The eggs/young exit the females body through can be divided into the most primitive forms the cloaca, an opening cmnto the excretory, (Chondrostei) represented by the sturgeon, digestive and reproductive tracts. paddlefish and bichir (the latter being so primitive that it has Lungs, and paired fins Rays are flattened, generally bottom dwelling that are lobe-like), the intermediate forms forms with enlarged pectoral fins and whip-like (Holostei) represented by the gar pike and the tails. Unlike sharks they take in water via more advanced bowfin and the most advanced spiracles above their eyes the water then forms the teleosts which includes all of the passes over the gills and out through the gill rest of the finned-rayed fish. slits. .The Lobe-fined fish (Sarcopterygii) are . Chimeras (ratfish) have dorsal spines, crushing represented by the freshwater Lungfish (Order mouth parts and gi 11 slits covered by a flap of Dipnoi) which use Lungs as an aid to their skin. gills in breathing, and the Coelacanth (Latimeria) the only living representative of CLASS ACANTHODII (Spiny sharks) the Crossopterygian fish. One group of the Crossopterygian included the rhipidistrians w First appeared in the Silurian Period. These which gave rise to the amphibians. small but jawed fish had paired Lateral fins, separate covers for each gill slit, Large eyes, bony scales, possibly lungs and are now thought to be ancestral to the bony fish. CLASS AMPHIBIA CLASS REPTILIA .Ancient Lobe-finned fishes (Rhipidistia) with .Reptiles are a diverse group represented by Lungs were equipped to survive the cycles of Lizards, snakes, tortoises, turtles and drought and rain during the Devonian Period. crocodiles. They have nunerous terrestrial The skeletal structure of their fins allowed adaptations not present in amphibians. mobility on Land and so the first Amphibian Reptiles are particularly suited to life under evolved (Ichthyostegalia). arid conditions since they have dry water-tight skins covered with scales and hard-shell .As the first terrestrial tetrapods, amphibians amniotic eggs both of which resist desiccation. radiated during the Period. They Later declined and the survivors at the Dawn of The reptile origins goes back to the the Mesozoic era largely resembled modern Carboniferous cotylosaurs (I1stem repti lesal) forms, although frog-like forms were first examples of which were the captorhinomorphs found in the Period. (lizard-Like, insect eating animals) and had evolved from the Devonian amphibians. The F The life styles and life cycles of modern animal Semuria had a dry skin and is the Link Amphibians clearly show their aquatic between the amphibians and the reptiles. backgrounds. A mist skin and large extendable throats (buccopharynx) complements the Lungs .The reptiles radiated into three lineages. The for gaseous exchange required in respiration. first Lineage produced the Anapsids represented Purely aquatic and Larval forms may use either today by turtles and tortoises (Order external or internal gills (may even change Chelonia), the second Lineage produced the from external to internal gills during diapsids which are today represented by Lizards development). Oviparous frogs usually have and snakes (Order Squamata) and Crocodiles external fertilization and lay their unshelled (Order Crocodilia), and the third Lineage eggs in wet environments, though ovoviparous produced the synapsids which ultimately evolved forms also exist. Many amphibians undergo into mamnals. metamorphosis, with most frogs having an aquatic larval stage (tadpoles) and a .The synapsids radiated during the and terrestrial adulthood. were a group of terrestrial predators that gave rise to the mamnal-like therapsids. .Amphibians have two pairs of Limbs for walking junping or swimning, toes are four to five or .The diapsids radiated into the Living forms fewer, with some forms having a tendency to (Orders Squamata and Spheodontida represented Lose their hind Limbs and even to become by the Tuatara) the extinct euryapsids limbless. (represented by the aquatic ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs) and the theccdonts. The .The amphibian heart is three chambered, two thecodonts survived the mass Permian extinction atria and one ventricle, and has incomplete to become the stock for the evolution of the separation of the arterial and venous systems. crocodiles, pterosaurs (flying forms) and the One pair of aortic arches exist in most adult dinosaurs. Birds evolved from the dinosaur forms (although three occur in Larval forms). stock. The dinosaurs became the largest The red blood cells are nucleated and oval. terrestrial animals that have ever Lived and diversified during the Mesozoic Period. .The salamanders and newts make up the tailed Caudata Order (= Urcdele) and consist of both .Controversy exists about whether dinosaurs were aquatic and terrestrial forms. Aquatic forms endothermic, although it is now generally often retain external gills, and some have Lost accepted that some forms were, especially with their hind Limbs. The group generally has evidence of dinosaurs 1iving at high southern internal fertilization via packed sperm Latitudes were the winters are subject to (spermatophores) left by the males. several months of darkness and ambient Development is usually direct without temperatures are only slightly above freezing. metamrphosis, although paedogenesis (= paedomorphosis) occurs in some forms (Axotols). .The extinction of the dinosaurs at the end of the is much debated. Climatic .The tailless, hopping forms (Order Anura) catch change induced by a meteorite hitting the earth their prey with sticky tongues. The skin is is the most popular viewpoint. specialized for camouflage or production of distasteful mcous or poison help them avoid .All living reptiles are ectothermic, regulating predators. Fertilization is usually external their body temperature through behavioural and metamorphosis comnon. Many elaborate modif ications that either increase or decrease reproductive mechanisms reduce the risk of absorption of external heat. predation of eggs/larvae and the reliance on water for reproduction, or even survival in .Living reptiles have an imperfectly four- arid areas. chambered heart, two atria and a partly divided ventricle (ventricle separate in crocodilians); .The caecilians (Order Gyrmophiona) sometime one pair of aortic arches, and red blood referred to as Apoda, are Limbless forms, corpuscles that are nucleated, biconvex and virtually blind, have tiny scales under their ova 1. skin and are either aquatic or more comnonly burrowing animals that are restricted to the .Order Squamata comprises the Lizards and the tropics. snakes. Lizards include the mst nunerous and diverse reptiles today. Ancestral krrrowing species gave rise to the snakes. Snakes are Limbless with no trace of pelvic and pectoral girdles (exception is the vestigial Limbs of pythons and boas), they are all carnivorous .Great variation in bill structure occurs and with Loosely articulated jaws. They detect closely reflects their diet, hence we have Long prey through olfaction or heat detection bi11s for probing nectar from flowers, short, (infra-red). Poisonous snakes inject toxins thick bills for cracking seeds, Less thick through modified hollow teeth. bills for taking insects etc. .Chelonians are generally hard-shelled, + Birds have no teeth, they use stones in the represented by terrestrial tortoises and gizzard to help digest food. aquatic turtles (which still need to Lay their eggs on Land). These animals have changed . Great variation in structure of feet. Birds of little since their evolution from stem prey have talons for feeding, ducks have webbed repti les. feet for swimning, herons have spread-out feet for wading, kingfishers have grasping feet for .Crocodilians, the crocodiles and alligators, fishing, pigeons have perching feet and are the closest Living reptile relative of the woodpeckers have climbing feet. dinosaurs. Crocodilians are restricted to the warm regions of the world. .The ratites include the flightless species, such as the ostrich and kiwi, which Lack a keeled breastbone. CLASS AVES (Birds) .The amniotic eggs and scaled legs of birds are CLASS MAMMALIA features inherited from reptiles; birds are a direct descendant of the dinosaurs and have .Hair and rnamnary glands are the two diagnostic even been referred to as living dinosaurs. characteristics of mamnals. Like feathers, Archaeopteryx is the earliest known bird from hair (made of keratin) insulates the body. the Jurassic Period, but is really little more than a feathered dinosaur with wings that .Small insect-eating mamnals arose from the evolved from the entire forelimb. therapsids during the Jurassic Period and coexisted with the dinosaurs during the .Almost every part of the avian anatomy enhances Mesozoic era. Extinction of the dinosaurs at flight. the end of the Cretaceous Period permitted the mamnals to radiate and occupy the ecological .A body of Low density is the result of niches vacated by the great dinosaurs. This honeycombed bones and a Lack certain bilateral resulted in mamnal radiations during the organs (uonly a Left ovary and oviduct). Cenozoic Era which permitted them to conquer land, air and aquatic enviromnts. + Only birds have feathers, which shape wings into airfoils that provide both propulsion and An active endothermic metabolism is supported lift. Pectoral muscles anchored to a by a four chambered heart and a respiratory specialized keel on the sternum power the system ventilated by a mrscular diaphragm. wings. + Fertilization is internal, and most mamnals .Feathers evolved from reptilian scales and give birth to young after development in the likely first functioned as insulation during uterus. the development of endothermy. + Of all vertebrates, mamnals are endowed with + Flight requires fine co-ordination and acute the Largest brains and capabilities for senses. Vision has reached its peak learning. Relatively Long periods of parental development in birds. Birds have relatively care provide the opportunities for parental larger brains than reptiles but smaller than teaching. mamnals and display corrplex behaviour patterns, especially when breeding. Mamnals are characterized by highly differentiated teeth which are adapted to + Birds have a heart that conrpletely separates chewing many kinds of foods. oxygen poor from oxygen rich blood and a highly efficient Lung and air sac system makes .The monotremes are egg-laying mamnals, possible the active endothermic metabolism represented by the platypus and the echidna and required for flight. are found in Australia and New Guinea. After birth the young such milk that is excreted onto w On inspiration of air, the air passes through the mother's fur since there are no nipples. the Lungs and into the posterior air sacs. On The skeleton and reproduction of these animals expiration of this first air it flows into the is similar to that of reptiles, but for most Lungs. Upon the next inspiration of air the other features they are true mamnals. posterior air sacs are filled, the first air passes from the Lungs into the anterior air .The marsupi a 1s include opossuns, kangaroos and sacs. With the next expiration the first air the koalas, animals whose young complete their is expelled from the anterior airsacs out embryonic development inside a maternal pouch, through the mouth and the second air passes the marsupium, attached to a teat from which from the posterior air sacs to the Lungs. In they get their nourishment. Marsupials this way a continuous one-way flow of air isolated inAustralia show convergent evolution through the lung is maintained. with the placentals elsewhere in the world. Birds have internal fertilization, and the eggs . The most widespread and diverse modern mamnals are laid and kept warm by brooding until are the placentals, a group whose young hatching. Considerable parental care is complete their embryonic development attached invested in affsorina. to a nlaeenta inside the mntherta utarua. Placental mamnals include TIPS ON ANSWERING QUESTIONS . Order Insectivora: insect-eating forms. .Order Dermoptera: flying Lemurs. .Order Macroscelidia: elephant shrews. .Read the ENTIRE question, then re-read the .Order Scandentia: tree shrews (Tupaia). question and underline key words/phrases. .Order Chiroptera: bats Check for the following words:- .Order Pholidota: pangolins or scaly anteaters. . Order Tubulidentata: aardvarks. - Discuss wi 11 require that your write en essay .Order Edentata: anteaters, sloths and or if you do tabulate information that you then armadillos. write about the trends, reasons for . Order Primates: Lemurs, monkeys, apes and man. differences, or causes of particular Order Rodentia: rats, mice, mole-rats, phenomenon. squirrels, porcupines, prairie dogs. .Order Lagomorpha: rabbits and hares. - Define will require that you give a precise .Order Cetacea: whales, dolphins and porpoises. description, or provide essential .Order Carnivora: cats, dogs, Lions Leopards, characteristics. cheetahs, hyaenas mongooses, bears, pandas, seals, walruses, sealions and elephant seals. - Unique is something that is exclusive to, for .Order Proboscidea: elephants. example feathers are unique features of birds .Order Hyracoidea: hyrax or dassie. .Order Perissodactyla: odd-toed, ungulates, - Compare will involve a discussion of horses, asses, zebras, tapirs (all having a similarities and differences, try and discuss single digit) and rhinoceroses (having three this in your own words rather than simply digits). tabulating information. .Order Artiodactyla: even-toed ungulates, antelope, deer, hippos, giraffes, camels, - Contrast requires only a discussion of Llamas, cattle, sheep, pigs and goats. differences. . Order Sirenia: dugongs and manatees (seacows) - Tabulate means to prepare a table with horizontal and vertical colunns and headings HOW TO USE THESE NOTES for each. . Be precise with your words and terms. For . Read these notes, highlight all the descriptive example amphibians means frogs, toads, words/terms such as I1jawlessu and all of the salamanders and caecilians, whereas anurans names of animals such as llOstracodermsll. means just frogs and toads, otherwise you can misrepresent facts. Consequently I1Amphibians .Make sure that you Learn the facts that are have jumping Legsll is not a true statement relevant to the particular organisms that you because salamanders do not have junping Legs are dealing with. Prepare revision tables with and caecilians have no Legs, however, the headings and associated information. Linking statement I1Anurans have jumping Legs" is true. information is the easiest way to Learn! .When your are asked to describe an animal .Know your animal classifications and geological please make sure that you include unique and/or periods, and then Link information to these diagnostic features. Remember to classify the organizational structures. Think of animal animal (phylum, class, order, a comnon name). classifications and geological periods as a table of contents at the beginning of books. .An essay question will require a logical progression of thoughts, concepts or events. .Make sure that you understand all the Prepare a List of topics needed to answer the information contained within these revision question and arrange them in a Logical notes. DO NOT JUST LEARN THESE NOTES FOR YOUR sequence. Start your answer with an PRACTICAL TEST AND THE FINAL EXAMINATIONS. introduction, overview, or definition of a theory you wish to discuss, then prepare the . If there are words, terms or organisms that are body of information by expanding on the List of unfamiliar to you Look them up in the glossary sequential topics. Use of headings and of your text book. Make a conscious effort to subheadings often makes it easier to organize increase your scientific vocabulary by your answer. Finish your answer with a preparing Lists of these words with key conclusion, or sumnarizing statements. descriptive terms. b REMEMBER THAT ANSWERS ARE MARKED ON HOW MUCH .Analyze your vocabulary Lists and attempt to YOU HAVE UNDERSTOOD OF THE QUESTION AND THE differentiate similar sounding words/terms. TOPIC AND HOW WELL YW HAVE EXPRESSED YOURSELF IN ANSWERING IT. INCORRECT OR IRRELEVANT MU~P~PPY = a amphibian be 1ong ing to INFORMATION TELLS THE EXAMINER THAT YOU EITHER the order caudata DO NOT UNDERSTAND THE TOPIC OR THE QUESTION. Mudskipper = a teleost fish found in MARKS ARE NOT SIMPLY ALLOCATED ON THE NUMBER OF mangroves RIGHT FACTS. Cephalochordata = amphioxus Cephalopoda = octopus, squids &. .Examine how many marks each question is worth and a1 locate a set amount of time. More marks . In your swnarized tables attempt to identify means that you need to provide more new features that have been gained (upaired information. For examples a two mark question Limbs in amphibians), and features previously will require Little more than a couple of gained and then Lost (athe Loss of paired sentences, whereas a 12 mark question will Limbs in the amphibian caecilians). require one and a half to two pages. EVOLUTION

ECHINODERMS -D NUMBER ,

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OBJECTIVES: PHYLUM CHORDATA To understand the principle concepts of deuterostome evolution. a 1 Briefly describe the three characteristics that w TO be able to classify the animal are shared by a1 l menbers of the phylum Chordata. groups To explore the diversity of animal SUBPHYLUM UROCHORDATA groups within various phyla and classes To compare larval and adult forms 8 1 Prepare a classification table of all living Urochordate classes, with a brief description of each (a simple sentence is sufficient). PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA: (spiny-skinned animals) 8 2 Examine the ascidians Pyura and w,make sure 1 Examine the starfish, sea cucunber and sea you are familiar uith their external appearance. urchin. Discuss the changes in penta-symnetry in Examine PWra without its tunicate cover and the these animals by preparing annotated drawings and transversely bisected specimens. brief notes. (Remember to include headings, classifications, and scale of drauing). = 3 Prepare a drauing of the cross section of Pyura, clearly identifying the flow of water through 2 Examine the slide of the bipinnarian Larva. In this sessile animal. what way does it symnetry vary from that of an adult starfish? Prepare a rough drauing to 8 4 Examine the slides of the ascidian Larvae. illustrate your answer. Briefly describe how this free Living larvae changes to a sessile aault. 83 The starfish, sea cuc&r and sea urchin all have different mechanisms for obtaining their SUBPHYLUM CEPHALOCHORDATA food. Briefly describe these mechanisms and relate them to their external morphology. 81 Examine the amphioxus Branchiostoma.

4 Examine the Live displays of the echinoderms and = 2 Prepare a drawing of Sranchiostoma indicating the briefly describe how their water vascular systems oral cirri, the gill slits, the notochord, aid their locomotion. rnyotomes (muscle segments), tail and fins.

5 Prepare a classification table of all living a 3 Briefly describe how this animal obtains its echinoderm classes, uith their comnon name and food . a brief description of each (a simple sentence is sufficient). SUBPHYLUM VERTEBRATA

PHYLUM CHAETOGNATHA (arrow worms) 8 1 Briefly describe various theories for the origin of the vertebrates. 1 Examine the planktonic material. CLASS AGNATHA 8 2 Prepare a drawing of one of these animals. Your drawing should include the oral hood, chaeta, the 8 1 The first agnathans were called Ostracoderms, Lateral fins and caudal fin. You may be able to briefly describe :hese animals. see the seminal vesicle containing a spermatophore and the ovaries through the 2 Examine both the hagfish and the Lamprey. Give transparent wall. the order names, and briefly describe differences between these two animals. PHYLUM HEMICHORDATA 8 3 Both the hagfish and the Lamprey are highly 81 Examine the Balanoqlossus. specialized animals. Briefly describe the adaptation for parasitism in the lamprey a 2 Prepare an annotated drauing of this specimen. (illustrate your answer with a drawing of the mouth regions of this animal). 8 3 Discus how the proboscis aids the animal in feeding. 8 4 The Larva of the lamprey is called an amnocoete. Examine this larva, and briefly compare its *4 Hemichordates were once considered to be a structure uith amphioxus. chordate, they are now, however, classified in their own phylum. Discuss why there has been a = 5 The lamprey lives in both fresh and salt uater, reclassification of these animals. briefly describe its Life history and why it is such a threat to the freshwater fishery industry Describe living classes, with a in North America. brief description of each (a simple sentence is sufficient). DEUTEROSTOME EVOLUTION

OBJECTIVES: t To undertake dissections of the a 6 "Fish are the most nunerous and diverse of the vertebrate animals in classes vertebrate classes11. Discuss this statement by chondrichthyes, osteichthyes and examining the fish examples put out and the anphibia. classifications on the notice board.

t To be able to identify and classify the animals in the classes chondrichthyes, CLASS AMPHIBIA osteichthyes and amphibia.

t To explore the diversity of animal a1 Familiarize yourself with the dissection of the groups within the classes frog. chondrichthyes, osteichthyes and amphibia. 2 Briefly describe the differences between the tadpole larvae and the adult form by examining w To understand the adaptations required the various stages of metamorphosis in the to make a transition from an aquatic preserved materials. existence to a terrestrial existence. a 3 Briefly describe the variations that have occurred in the class arrphibia by examining the CLASS CHONDRICHTHYES (Cart ilaginous fish) classification on the notice board and the preserve specimens. 1 Undertake the dissection of the dogfish see separate dissection guide. Make sure that you 4 Examine the slides of the amphibian gill and are familiar with the general anatomy of the the amphibian lung. animal, its cranial developnent and afferent and efferent branchial systems.

2 Examine the notes on the classification of the cartilaginous fish (on notice board)

3 Prepare a classification of the cartilaginous fish. a 4 Prepare drawings of the dogfish, catfish (note eggs contained in the lluterusu), rays/skates and chimeras.

5 Briefly describe the adaptations for a bottom dwelling existence in the skates.

CLASS ACANTHODII (spiny sharks)

1 Eriefly describe these animals and their evolutionary significance.

CLASS OSTEICHTHYES (bony fish)

1 Familiarize yourself with the dissection of the dogfish. (see separate dissection guide)

2 Examine the live displays of fish and frogs (class amphibia) and briefly describe how these animals differ in their suimning.

3 Examine the live display of mudskippers (Perioohthalmus) and discuss their pre- adaptations to moving around on Land (mudf lats).

4 Examine $1 ides and make drawings of the scales of bony and cartilaginous fish.

5 Examine the slides of the gi 11 filaments and examine the gill filaments that have been exposed by the removal of the operculun. DEUTEROSTOME EVOLUTION

"! REPTILES. BIRDS 1 STU-MBER '"-

OBJECTIVES: To undertake the mamatian dissection.

To be able to identify and classify the animals in the classes, reptilia, aves and mamnalia.

b To explore the diversity of animal groups within the classes reptilia, aves and mamnalia.

To explore some prehistoric Life forms such as the dinosaurs.

To understand the adaptations required to make a transition from moist to dry climates.

To understand the adaptations required for flight in classes reptilia, aves and mamna li a

CLASS REPTILIA

81 Examine the notes on the classification of the reptiles (on notice board)

2 Prepare a classification of the living groups of rept i les.

3 Prepare a four page essay on adaptive radiation in mesozoic reptiles. Divide your essay into adaptive radiation on land (include both carnivores and herbivores), adaptive radiation in the air and adaptive radiation in uater.

CLASS AVES

1 Briefly describe the variations that have occurred in the class amphibia by examining the classification on the notice board and the stuffed specimens.

2 Discuss adaptations for flight.

CLASS MAMMALIA

8 1 Examine the notes on the classification of the mamnals (on notice board).

2 Prepare a classification of the Living groups of mamls (major orders).

3 Undertake the dissection of the rat (see dissection manual)..