LIBYA* A GEOPOLITICAL STUDY Di s a© rt at i on Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University By ABDUL AMIR MA.JEED, A-B-, M-A- The Ohio State University 1952 Approved by: / Adviser A G K N OVVT jBD GEMEHT S This study could not; have been carried out without the assistance of a number of individuals. The patient, time-consuming, and thorough criticism and assistance of my adviser, Professor John R. Randall, during the progress of this study is gratefully acknowledged. The writer is greatly indebted also to Professor Guy-Herald Smith, Chairman of the Department of Geography, The Ohio State University, for his many helpful suggestions and criticisms through out the course of the work. The aid of Professor Sydney M« Fisher of the Department of History, The Ohio State University, is appreciatedo Thanks are due Miss Genevieve Clark who has done the cartographic work. I must express my gratitude to the staffs of Ohio State University Library and the Library of Congress both of whom gave invaluable aid* TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I NTRODUCTION.................................................. 1 PART I HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT I. LIBYA IN HISTORY ............................................ 5 Early Records ..................... 5 Greek Settlements ................... 7 TRe Roman Period ................... 12 The Arab Invasion 14 Period of* Turkish Rule ................ 17 Conclusion ...... ................ 19 II. THE ITALIAN ACQUISITION OF L I B Y A ......................... 22 Italy and Modem Imperialism ............. 22 The Diplomatic Struggle Over Tripoli and Cyrenaica • • 29 Italian-Turkish Relations and The Tripoli War ..... 35 Italian Colonial Policy in Libya ...... ..... 45 III* LIBYA IN WORLD POLITICS ............................ 56 Libyan Nationalist Movement 56 The Period of* The Accords (1917—23) 58 Unity in the Libyan National Movement 65 International Bargaining ....... ........ 69 Ill CHAPTER PAGE The Role of the United Nati ons • •....•••••• 80 Bevin-Sforza P l a n ........... 82 The Final Solution 87 PART II GEOGRAPHICAL FOUNDATIONS IV. PHYSICAL FOUNDATIONS ...................................... 94 Geographical Location ................ 94 Size 97 Shape 97 Climate ........ ......... 100 Tripolitania (Climate) ........... .......... 101 Cyrenaica (Climate) ................. 108 Relief ■ • a . • • ........ .......... 115 Boundaries ...................... 125 Sea Boundaries 132 V. HUMAN FOUNDATIONS .......................................... 134 Population 134 Ethnographic Structure of the Population ••••.•• 140 The Arabs . » .................... 141 The Berbers ..................... 143 The Italians ............................................ 145 The Jews ............ ...... 147 The Negro •• ............. ............. 149 The Cologhlis .................... 150 iv CHAPTER PAGE Social Struoture ...... ........ 150 Inhabitants of the Coastal Towns and Oases ...... 154 Inhabitants of the Desert Oases ........... 155 Nomads of the Sahara ................. 156 VI. ECONOMIC FOUNDATIONS ....................................... 161 Agriculture ..................... 161 Sedentary Farming .................. 168 Grazing ...... ................. 169 Industry ...... .. ............ ....... 181 Forei gn Trade .................... 184 Transportation 187 Potentiality es and Possibilities••••..••.•• 191 PART III SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS VII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...................................... 201 The Minority Problem ................ 202 The Economic Problem ................. 207 Political Problems • »..•••••••••••••• 210 Consequence of Libyan Independence 221 EIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................. 226 APPENDIX ....................................................... 234 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1. Phoenician and Greek Colonies in Libya ......... 9 2. Federal State of Libya - Location Map ......... 70 3 • The Shape of Libya ........... 99 4. Climatic Graph for Tripoli ............... 103 5. Rainfall Distribution in Tripolitania ......... 106 6. Climatic Graph for Bengazi ...... ........ Ill 7. Rainfall Distribution for Cyrenaica .......... 112 8. The Relief of Libya .................. 117 9. Boundary Changes 129 10* Distribution of Population 137 11. Population Graph . ........ 138 12. Italian Settlements in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica .... 180 13. Transportation in Libya ................ 189 v INTRODUCTION In the last; week of December, 1951, a new and disturbing factor was introduced into the already unsettled political situation in North Africa* Libya, one of the poorest and most backward countries in the world, the least likely candidate for independence along the whole of the North African coast, beoame a sovereign power under the name of the United Kingdom, of Libya* Libya is not even a «geographical expression•* It oonsists of two widely separated coastal strips, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, and a huge desert hinterland in which there are scattered oases* Throughout its history, the area of Libya has only on rare occasions constituted.a united political entity* Its history is rather the history of two distinct territories — Tripolitania and Cyrenaica* The historical individuality of these two territories can be traced back to the days of antiquity, when colonies representing two dissimilar cultures were established In Tripolitania and Cyrenaica by Phoenicia and Greece respectively* Roman rule and Arab conquest, Turkish domination and finally Italian occupation have never been able to change this duality of character* Down through long years of history, Libya, because of its geographical conditions, has never been able to develop a genuine unity and national state of her own* In the history of international relations since the end of World War II, the question of the disposition of the former Italian colonies In Africa in general and of Libya in particular has assumed a role which 1 2 far transcends the inherent importance of* the subject* The creation of the United Kingdom of Libya is the sole instance in which the General Assembly of the United Nations has acted as a supreme legislative authorityNot only did Annex XI of the Italian peace treaty provide that the question be referred to the Assembly for a recommendation in the event of inability on the part of the Big Four to reach agreement, but it also stated that ”the Four Powers agree to accept the recommendation and to take appropriate measures for giving effect to it *n The issues Involved extend far beyond the frontiers of Libya itself* The issues* tensions and conflicts that characterize the turbulent state of world politics today have inevitably shaped the course of the negotiations* It is not surprising* therefore* that the problem has proved to be one of extraordinary complexity* characterized by strong external pressures and considerations* The present study of Libya is of particular interest* both because of the unique role assigned to the General Assembly and because of that body1 s efforts to find a solution which recognizes politioal realities and strategic oonsiderations and* at the same time* upholds the promises of the Charter concerning the paramount interest of the Inhabitants of non-seIf-governing territories* ■^Article 10 of the U* N* Charter empowers the General Assembly to discuss and make recommendations on any questions or any matters within the scope of the Charter* The Assembly’s recommendations under this article* however* have no obligatory character; thus the Assembly's authority with regard to the Italian colonies is in narked contrast to the normal practice* The objectives of this study are fourfold; 1* To show the economic potential and the cultural status of Libya upon -which her political future depends* 2* To discover the practicability and possibility of the Libyan experiment being employed and applied to problems of other colonies under the auspices of the United Nations 3* To examine the effect of this United Nations* solution of the Libyan problem upon Arab French North Africa* 4* To disclose the effect of the Libyan problem on international policy in the Mediterranean Area and consequently the relations of the big powers to the new independent country* Unfortunately field work could not be undertaken for many reasons* However, intensive library research has been carried on* Critical studies and analyses of geographical, historical, oultural, military and other conditions important in shaping the destiny of this area have been carefully examined* This study is by no means complete in all respeots; however, it gives the reader a fairly clear ides of the nature, the development and, finally, the geographical, historical, political and strategic factors which have had an important bearing on the eventual solution of the Libyan problem* PART I HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER I LIBYA1 IN HISTORY Early Records Our earliest knowledge of the Libyans and their land cornea from. Egyptian sou roes • From the time of the Early Empire, Egypt suffered from constant disturbances among her western neighbors, the *The word Libya is derived from the name of one of the early peoples of Cyrenaica* Information concerning the name and the people comes, not from any direot source, but rather from the testimony of other people (Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks, Carthaginians) who knew them or oame into contact with them* In Egyptian documents of the end of the 3rd millenium B*C* and especially in those of the 2nd millenium, appears the