Notes and References

Introduction: the Republican Idea

1. I coined the term ‘corporate socialist’ as a parallel to the term ‘corporate liberal’ adopted by radical historians to describe a version of the trend in the – see Martin J. Sklar, The Reconstruction of American 1890–1916 ( University Press, 1988), pp. 34–40. 2. As categorized by Keith Middlemas, Politics in Industrial Society (Andre Deutsch, 1979), chapter 13. 3. See J.G.A. Pocock, ‘The History of Political Thought: a Methodological Inquiry’, in Peter Laslett and W.G. Runciman, Philosophy, Politics and Society (second series, Basil Blackwell, 1967), pp. 194–5; Michael Freeden, in Ideologies and Political Theory: a Conceptual Approach (Clarendon Press, 1996). 4. See J.G.A. Pocock, ‘The Machiavellian Moment Revisited’, Journal of Modern History, 53:1 (March 1981), 51–2 – his interest in time has led him to write a series of nar- ratives in the history of political thought which have concentrated on the transmission and transformation of conceptual vocabularies over different his- torical periods; much thinking on this has been shaped by the use of para- digms, or controlling concepts and theories, by Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (University of Press, 1962), chapter V. 5. J.H. Hexter, On Historians (Collins, 1979), p. 293. 6. See Gordon Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (Random House, 1991) for a recent restatement of the republican thesis. 7. John Adams, Works, Vol. X, p. 378, quoted in Correa Maylan Walsh, The Political Science of John Adams (G.D. Putnam and Sons, NY, 1915). Walsh points to the confusion in Adams’s terminology on the subject, p. 31. 8. Daniel T. Rodgers, ‘Republicanism: the Career of a Concept’, Journal of American History, 79:1, 38. 9. Bernard Crick, ‘Republicanism, Liberalism and Capitalism: a Defence of Parliamentarianism’, in Graeme Duncan (ed.), Democracy and the Capitalist State (Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 63. 10. See Steven Watts, The Republic Reborn: War and the Making of Liberal America 1790–1820 ( Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), Ch. V, VI; Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America 1815–46 (Oxford University Press, 1991) Ch. 3, 4. 11. Jefferson to Samuel Kercheval, 12 July 1816; Jefferson to John Taylor, 28 May 1816, in Merrill Peterson (ed.), Thomas Jefferson: Writings (Library of America, 1984), pp. 1396, 1392–3; Merrill D. Peterson, The Jefferson Image in the American Mind (Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation and University Press of Virginia, 1998), pp. 40–4; Joyce Appleby, ‘What Is Still American in the Political Philosophy of Thomas Jefferson?’, William and Mary Quarterly, 39 (1982), 287–309.

191 192 Notes and References

12. See John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Oxford University Press, 1972), p. 5 for the distinction between a concept and conceptions. 13. See Michael Freeden, Ideologies and Political Theory, pp. 69–75. 14. See Quentin Skinner, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, Volume One, The Renaissance (Cambridge University Press, 1978), pp. 35–41, 49ff. 15. See Z.S. Fink, The Classical Republicans (Northwestern University Press, Illinois, 1945). 16. Caroline Robbins, Two English Republican Tracts (Cambridge University Press, 1969), p. 49. 17. Philip Pettit, Republicanism: a Theory of Freedom and Government (Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 8, 27–30, 109; Michael Sandel, Democracy’s Discontents (Belknap Press, 1996), p. 26. 18. The phrase is that of G.D.H. Cole, in The World of Labour: a Discussion of the Present and Future of Trade Unionism (G. Bell and Sons, 1913), p. 17. 19. Algernon Sidney, Discourses on Government (, 1698 edn), p. 65; Thomas Jefferson, letter ‘on the republic of the wards’, Joseph C. Cabell, to February 2nd, 1816, Writings p. 1380. 20. Algernon Sidney, Discourses Concerning Government, p. 147. 21. See Quentin Skinner, Foundations of Modern Political Thought, Volume One, pp. 84, 149–50, 164–7. 22. Ibid., p. 166. 23. See Jean Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, ed. Maurice Cranston (Penguin, 1968), pp. 63–4, 131–4; Judith Shklar, Men and Citizens: a Study of Rousseau’s Social Theory (Cambridge University Press, 1985 edn), pp. 100, 156. 24. Hannah Arendt, On Revolution (Penguin, 1973 edn), pp. 135–46. 25. J.H. Hexter, On Historians, p. 294. 26. For a modern elaboration of this opposition to the liberal conception, see Michael Sandel (ed.), Liberalism and Its Critics (Basil Blackwell, 1984), Introduction; also Michael Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (Cambridge University Press, 1982). 27. Quentin Skinner, Liberty Before Liberalism (Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 36–57. 28. See J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment, (Princeton University Press, 1975), pp. 78, 80, 124–5, 190, 392. 29. See J.G.A. Pocock, Ibid. pp. 383–400 and passim for a compelling argument of the central importance of Harrington to the Anglo-American republican tradition, marking a turn froms arms to property ownership as a mark of political independence. 30. Thomas Jefferson, Writings, p. 290. 31. See Gordon Wood, Creation of the American Republic (University of North Carolina Press, 1969), pp. 25, 227–8; Bernard Bailyn, Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Belknap Press, 1967), pp. 296–7. 32. See J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment, p. 334, 423. 33. Sheldon Wolin, Tocqueville between Two Worlds (Princeton University Press, 2001), p. 71; Bailyn, Ideological Origins of the American Revolution, p. 285. 34. Tom Paine, The Rights of Man (1791), in Philip S. Foner (ed.), The Life and Major Writings of Thomas Paine (The Citadel Press, 1974 edn) pp. 369–70; Isaac Kramnick (ed.) The Federalist Papers (Penguin, 1987), p. 4; Gordon Wood, Creation of the American Republic Ch. XIII for ‘the Repudiation of 1776’. Notes and References 193

35. Gregory Claeys, Citizens and Saints: Politics and Anti-Politics in early British (Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 325; this is an excellent account of the changes taking place in radical thinking, especially the decline of republican thinking; also see Gareth Stedman Jones, ‘Rethinking Chartism’, in Languages of Class: Studies in English Working Class History 1832–1982 (Cambridge University Press, 1983); for the earlier British repub- licanism and its close relationship to the American Revolution, see J.R. Pole, Political Representation in England and the Origins of the American Republic (Macmillan, 1966), Part Four.

1 Socialist Humanism and Republican Theory

1. Eric Hobsbawm, ‘The British Communist Party’, in Political Studies, XXV:1(1954) 30. 2. George Thompson, ‘Our Cultural Work in the Light of Our Party Programme’, Communist Review (September, 1951), 272; Maurice Dobb, Political Economy and Capitalism (Routledge, 1944); also see Stephen Wren, ‘State Monopoly Capitalism Part One’, in Communist Review, (April 1951), 125 and Sam Aaronovitch, Monopoly: a Study of British Monopoly Capitalism (Lawrence and Wishart, 1955), p. 75. 3. Bill Schwarz, ‘ “The People” in History: the Communist Party Historians Group’, in Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, Making Histories: Studies in History-Writing and Politics (Hutchinson, 1982), p. 54. 4. The best source for the origins of the group is Eric Hobsbawm, ‘The Historians Group in the Communist Party’, in Maurice Cornforth (ed.), Rebels and Their Causes (Lawrence and Wishart, 1978); Bill Schwarz, ‘ “The People” in History’ is a particularly useful account of the evolution of the group. 5. Eric Hobsbawm, ‘The Historians Group in the Communist Party’, p. 34. 6. A.L. Morton, ‘Socialist Humanism’, Communist Review (October, 1953), p. 300. 7. Christopher Hill, ‘The Norman Yoke’, in (ed.), Democracy and the Labour Movement (Lawrence and Wishart, 1954), pp. 11, 24. 8. Dona Torr, and His Times Volume One 1856–1890 (Lawrence & Wishart, 1956), pp. 120, 123. 9. Dona Torr, ‘National and International’, Communist Review (March, 1948), 72; A.L. Morton, ‘Socialist Humanism’, p. 300; Eric Hobsbawm, ‘Who is for Democracy?’, review of J.L. Talmon’s book, The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy (1952), in Modern Quarterly, 8:2, 103. 10. Eric Hobsbawm, ‘The Historians Group in the Communist Party’, p. 26. 11. Dona Torr, ‘Productive Forces; Social Relations’, Communist Review (May, 1946), 16. 12. Christopher Hill, ‘ and History’, Modern Quarterly, 8:2, 52. 13. Ibid., p. 53. 14. Christopher Hill, ‘England’s First Democratic Army’, Communist Review (June,1947), 178. 15. Christopher Hill, ‘The Norman Yoke’, p. 28. 16. Dona Torr, Tom Mann, p. 110. 17. John Lewis, in writing of the moral strength of the Soviet people, argued that ‘they owe much in this finely human attitude to Stalin, whose deep wisdom 194 Notes and References

and broad humanity has long inspired the Party’, ‘The Moral Complexion of our People’, in Modern Quarterly, 6:1 (Winter 1950–51), 65; also see R. Palme Dutt, ‘Stalin and the Future’, in Labour Monthly (April, 1953), 145. 18. Reuben Falber, ‘Democratic Centralism’, Communist Review, (January, 1951), 19. 19. Edward Thompson, ‘Winter Wheat in Omsk’, World News (30 June 1956), 408; also see John Saville, ‘Problems of the Communist Party’, World News (19 May 1956), 314. 20. Editorial, The Reasoner, 1, (July, 1956), 4. 21. Steve Parsons, ‘1956 and the Communist Party’, Society for the Study of Labour History (Bulletin 47, Autumn, 1983), 9. 22. Editorial, The Reasoner, 1. 23. Interview with Eric Hobsbawm, Marxism Today (November, 1986), 21; Rodney Hilton, ‘Socialism and the Intellectuals Four’, Universities and Left Review (ULR), 2 (Summer, 1957), 20. 24. See Tribune, 22 March 1957, 3. 25. Lin Chun, The British (Edinburgh University Press, 1993); and Michael Kenny, The First New Left (Lawrence and Wishart, 1995) present a history of the New Left, though the obscurities of its break-up remain obscure. 26. See Tribune, 9 November 1956, 6–7 for an account of this demonstration, particularly for the active role played by Oxford students. 27. See the advertisement in the inside cover, ULR, 3 (Winter, 1958). 28. See Lelio Basso, ‘The Italian Left’, ULR, 2 (Summer, 1957), 23–6; see Claude Bourdet, ‘The French Left: Long Run Trends’, ULR, 1 (Spring, 1957), 16; see ‘Letter to our Readers’, New Reasoner, 10 (Autumn, 1959) for the US connection. 29. Editorial, New Reasoner, 1 (Summer, 1957), 2. 30. ULR, 2 (Summer, 1957), 80. 31. Editorial, ULR, 5 (Autumn, 1958), 3. 32. Editorial, ULR, 4 (Summer, 1958), 3. 33. Editorial, ULR, 4. 34. Christopher Hill, ‘Republicanism after the Restoration’, New Left Review, 3 (May–June, 1960), 51. 35. See Nigel Young, An Infantile Disorder? The Crisis and Decline of the New Left (Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977), Chapters Three and Four. 36. See Alasdair Maclntyre, ‘What Morality Is Not’, Philosophy, 32:123 (October, 1957), 335 for Sartre’s influence. 37. E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (Penguin, 1968 edn), p. 513; pp. 24–6. 38. E.P. Thompson, ‘Socialist Humanism: an Epistle to the Philistines’, in New Reasoner, 1 (Summer, 1957), 109. 39. E.P. Thompson, ‘Outside the Whale’, p. 115. 40. Ibid., p. 124. 41. E.P. Thompson, ‘Socialist Humanism’, New Reasoner (Summer, 1957), 125. 42. E.P. Thompson, ‘Socialism and the Intellectuals’, ULR, 1 (Spring, 1957), 33. 43. E.P. Thompson, ‘Socialist Humanism’, pp. 115–16. 44. Ibid., p. 116. 45. E.P. Thompson, ‘Agency and Choice’, New Reasoner, 5 (Summer, 1958), 91. 46. A large number of books and articles on Thompson have appeared, espe- cially since his death in 1993; see John Rule and Robert Malcolmson, Protest and Survival: the Historical Experience (Merlin, 1993); also see the interesting Notes and References 195

essays in Harvey J. Kaye and Keith McClelland, E.P. Thompson: Critical Persepectives (Polity Press, 1990). 47. E.P. Thompson, ‘Socialist Humanism’, New Reasoner, 1 (Summer,1957), 125. 48. See the expression of debt to Cole on his death in ULR, 6, p. 72; Stuart Hall has singled out Cole as being a major influence on the Oxford Socialist Group (personal information). 49. Quentin Skinner, Foundations of Modern Political Thought, Volume One, espe- cially pp. 164–8. 50. For example, Vance Packard, The Hidden Persuaders (David McKay Co., 1957). 51. Stuart Hall, ‘The Supply of Demand’, in E.P. Thompson (ed.), Out of Apathy (Stevens, 1960), pp. 95–6. 52. E.P. Thompson, ‘The New Left’, New Reasoner, 9 (Summer, 1959), 3. 53. See Quentin Skinner, Foundations of Modern Political Thought, Volume One, pp. 42–3,76, 81,170–5; J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment, pp. 135, 136. 54. E.P. Thompson, ‘Outside the Whale’, in Out of Apathy, p. 181. 55. Charles Taylor, ‘Alienation and Community’, ULR, 5 (Autumn,1958), 12. 56. Ibid., p. 16. 57. Ibid., p. 13 58. See Steven Lukes, ‘Alienation and Anomie’, in Peter Laslett and W.G. Runciman (eds) Philosophy. Politics and Society (Third Series, Basil Blackwell, 1967) for a discussion of the two concepts. 59. , ‘Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts’, in Early Writings, ed. Lucio Colletti (Penguin, 1975), p. 329. 60. , Culture and Society: 1780–1850 (Chatto and Windus, 1958), p. 303. 61. Raymond Williams, ‘Working Class Culture’, ULR, 2 (Summer, 1957), 30. 62. Dennis Potter, the playwright who was then an Oxford graduate, drew out the images of domination painted by Williams in his The Glittering Coffin (Victor Gollancz, 1959). 63. E.P. Thompson, ‘The New Left’, New Reasoner, 9 (Summer, 1959), 11. 64. Raphael Samuel, ‘Bastard Capitalism’, in Out of Apathy, p. 55. 65. Charles Taylor, Stuart Hall, Raphael Samuel and Peter Sedgwick, ‘The Insiders’, ULR, 3 (Winter, 1958), 30. 66. Ibid., p. 32. 67. A notable exception was Richard Crossman, Socialism and the New Despotism (Fabian Tract 298, 1956), an attempt to break away from traditional Bevanite notions of public ownership. 68. ‘The Insiders’, p. 61. 69. Ibid., p. 25. 70. See C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (Oxford University Press, 1956); also Ralph Miliband, ‘C. Wright Mills’, New Left Review, 15 (May–June, 1962). 71. See Richard H. Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age (Wesleyan University Press, 1989 edn), pp. 249–61, 390–91; the republican nature of this politics is brought out in James Miller, Democracy Is In The Streets (Harvard University Press, 1994 edn). 72. Ralph Miliband, ‘The Politics of Contemporary Capitalism’, New Reasoner, 5 (Summer, 1958), 39. 73. Ralph Miliband, ‘The Transition to the Transition’, New Reasoner, 6 (Autumn, 1958), 38. 196 Notes and References

74. Ibid., p. 43. 75. Ibid., p. 42. 76. Ralph Miliband, ‘The Politics of Contemporary Capitalism’, New Reasoner, 5 (Summer, 1958), 45. 77. Ibid., p. 46. 78. See Frank Parkin, Marxism and Class Theory: a Bourgeois Critique (Tavistock, 1979), p. 25; for Marx’s definition of class, as distinct from the Weberian, see Karl Marx, Capital, Volume 1, (Lawrence and Wishart, 1970), pp. 20–1. 79. See Pauline Gregg, The Welfare State (Harrap, 1967), pp. 221–5. 80. Peter Willmott and Michael Young, Family and Kinship in East London (Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1957), p. 155; see also Peter Townsend, The Family Life of Old People: an Inquiry in East London (Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1957). 81. Charles Taylor, ‘Alienation and Community’, ULR, 5 (Autumn, 1958), 12. 82. Ibid., p. 17. 83. Ibid. 84. Editorial, ULR, 5 (Autumn, 1958), 4. 85. Stuart Hall, ‘A Sense of Classlessness’ (URL 5, Autumn 1958), p. 26; see John Westergaard and Henrietta Resler, Class in a Capitalist Society: a Study of Contemporary Britain (Heinemann, 1975), p. 293 for the changing occupa- tional structure which was gathering pace by 1961. 86. Stuart Hall, ‘A Sense of Classlessness’, p. 28. 87. Ibid., p. 29. 88. Ibid., p. 31. 89. E.P. Thompson, ‘Commitment in Politics’, ULR, 6 (Spring, 1959), 51. 90. Stuart Hall, ‘The Big Swipe’, ULR, 7 (Autumn, 1959), 50. 91. E.P. Thompson, ‘Revolution’, New Left Review, 3 (May–June,1960), 7. 92. E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (Penguin, 1968 edn), p. 9. 93. Ibid., p. 9. 94. Ibid., p. 10. 95. Ibid., p. 782. 96. See particularly the ‘Communist Manifesto’, in Karl Marx, Political Writings Volume 1 (Penguin, 1973), p. 67 n.12; Karl Marx, Capital, Volume 1 (Lawrence and Wishart, 1970), pp. 20–1. 97. Karl Marx, The Poverty of Philosophy (Progress Publishers, Moscow,1973), p. 150. 98. E.P. Thompson, ‘Revolution Again’, New Left Review, 6 (November–December, 1960), 27. 99. See, for example, Karl Marx, Capital, Volume 1, pp. 76–87; Capital, Volume 3 (Lawrence and Wishart, 1972), p. 817. 100. Also see G.A. Cohen, Karl Marx’s Philosophy of History: a Defence (Oxford University Press, 1978), pp. 73–7. 101. Charles Taylor, ‘Marxism and Humanism’, New Reasoner, 2 (Autumn, 1957), 98. 102. EP. Thompson, ‘Socialist Humanism’, New Reasoner, 1 (Summer, 1957), 127. 103. Charles Taylor, ‘Socialism and Intellectuals’, ULR, 2 (Summer, 1957), 19. 104. Charles Taylor, ‘Marxism and Humanism’, p. 97. 105. E.P. Thompson, ‘Agency and Choice’, New Reasoner, 5 (Summer, 1958), 93. 106. See Karl Marx, ‘The Civil War in France’, in The First International and After (Penguin, 1974), p. 209. Notes and References 197

107. Karl Marx, ‘The Civil War in France’, pp. 206, 208. 108. See Mikhail Bakunin, Letter to the Editorial Board of la Liberte, 5 October 1872, quoted in Bakunin’s The Paris Commune and the Idea of the State (Centre International de Recherche sur l’Anarchisme,1971), p. 8 – as an anarchist, Bakunin had a good appreciation of this point; also Karl Marx, ‘Conspectus of Bakunin’s State and Anarchy’ in Karl Marx, The First International and After, pp. 335–8. 109. Karl Marx, ‘The Civil War in France’, p. 211. 110. Ibid., p. 211. 111. Karl Marx, Capital, Volume I, p. 588; also see pp. 585–9, 714–15, and ‘The Communist Manifesto’ in Karl Marx, Political Writings Volume One, pp. 69,79, 86. 112. Charles Taylor, ‘Alienation and Community’, p. 17. 113. Sheldon Wolin, Politics and Vision (Princeton University Press, 2004 edn), pp. 440–50; Stephen Lukes, Marxism and Morality (Oxford University Press, 1985) points to Marx’s concern with communist emancipation from labour rather than political rights, but see pp. 92–3 for his failure to follow this through to understanding why Marx was so careless about the actual oper- ation of direct democracy. 114. Karl Marx, First Draft of ‘The Civil War in France’, in The First International and After, p. 249 (Marx’s stress). 115. Ibid., p. 207. 116. Hannah Arendt, On Revolution, p. 261. 117. See Karl Marx, ‘Critique of the Gotha Programme’, p. 347, and Grundrisse (Penguin, 1973), pp. 156–60, 712; Alfred Schmidt, The Concept of Nature in Marx (New Left Books, 1971), Chapter 4; Steven Lukes, in Marxism and Morality (1985), points to Marx’s commitment to emancipation at the expense of any theory of rights; I agree – Marx was a communist, not a republican.

2 The Transposition of Republican Thought

1. Alasdair MacIntyre, ‘Notes from the Moral Wilderness II’, New Reasoner, 8 (Spring, 1959), 98. 2. See G.E.M. Anscombe, ‘Modern Moral Philosophy’, Philosophy, 33:124 (January, 1958). 3. Alasdair MacIntyre, ‘Notes from the Moral Wilderness II’, p. 90. 4. See Alasdair MacIntyre, A Short History of Ethics (Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966). 5. David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature, ed. L.A. Selby-Bigge (Oxford University Press, 1978), p. 469. 6. Alasdair MacIntyre, ‘Notes from the Moral Wilderness I’, New Reasoner, 7 (Winter, 1958–59), 91. 7. See Alasdair MacIntyre, Is Patriotism a Virtue? (University of Kansas, 1984). 8. Alasdair MacIntyre, ‘Notes from the Moral Wilderness I’, p. 92. 9. Alasdair MacIntyre, ‘Notes from the Moral Wilderness II’, p. 96. 10. E.P. Thompson, ‘Revolution’, in Out of Apathy, p. 308. 11. E.P. Thompson, ‘Socialism and the Intellectuals: a Reply’, p. 21. 198 Notes and References

12. E.P. Thompson, ‘The Peculiarities of the English’, in Ralph Miliband and John Saville, The Socialist Register, 1965 (Merlin, 1966), p. 357. 13. Richard Hoggart, The Uses of Literacy (Chatto and Windus, London, 1957), p. 37. 14. Raymond Williams, ‘Working Class Culture’, ULR, 2 (Summer,1957), 32. 15. Stuart Hall, ‘A Sense of Classlessness’, p. 27. 16. See Robert McKenzie and Alan Silver, Angels in Marble: Working Class Conservatives in Urban England (Heinemann, 1968); for ‘secular’ Labour sup- port, see John Goldthorpe et al., The Affluent Worker: Political Attitudes and Behaviour (Cambridge University Press, 1968). 17. See, for example, Brian Elliott, ‘Social Change in the City: Structure and Process’, in Philip Abrams (ed.), Work. Urbanism and Inequality (Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1978). 18. Peggy Duff, Left. Left, Left. A Personal Account of Six Protest Campaigns: 1945–65 (Allison and Busby, 1971), p. 128. 19. ‘Editorial – Will Mr Gaitskell Miss the Boat?’ in ULR, 6 (Spring, 1959), 1. 20. , 18 September 1961, p. 10. 21. April Carter, Direct Action (Housmans/Peace News, 1962), p. 22. 22. A.J. Groom, British Thinking About Nuclear Weapons (Francis Pinter, 1974), p. 413. 23. ‘Editorial – and EOKA’, New Reasoner, 7 (Winter,1958–59), 11. 24. ‘Editorial’, ULR, 2 (Summer, 1957), 4. 25. See the Labour Party, Disengagement in Europe (1958). 26. ‘Editorial – Can We Have a Neutral Britain?’, New Reasoner, 4 (Spring, 1958), 3. 27. Ibid., p. 9. 28. Both approaches were rejected in the last issue of the ULR in a penetrating analysis by Peter Sedgwick which equated NATO and the Warsaw Pact as aggressive power-structures – see Peter Sedgwick – ‘NATO, the Bomb and Socialism’, ULR, 7 (Autumn, 1959). 29. Michael Kenny’s admiration of the New Left prevents him from charting the tensions within the New Left’s political economy, or between its economic and political ideas, which leaves him with the statement that they had created a position which was neither traditional Labour Left nor Stalinist; – Michael Kenny, The First New Left, p. 120. 30. See the essays in Istvan Hont and Michael Ignatiev, Wealth and Virtue: the Shaping of Political Economy in the Scottish Enlightenment (Cambridge University Press, 1983); Joyce Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order: the Republican Vision of the 1790s (New York University Press, 1984), pp. 95–101; Joyce Appleby, Liberalism and Republicanism in the Historical Imagination (Harvard University Press, 1992) Ch. 2; J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment, Chs XIII–XIV. 31. ‘To determine the laws which regulate this distribution [of wealth] Is the principal problem in political economy’, David Ricardo, On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (Cambridge University Press, 1986 edn), p. 5; see Maurice Dobb, Theories of Value and Distribution since Adam Smith (Cambridge University Press, 1973). 32. ‘The Insiders’, p. 59. 33. Ibid., p. 63. 34. Michael Barratt Brown, ‘Workers Control in a Planned Economy’, New Left Review, 5 (March–April, 1960), 31. Notes and References 199

35. Michael Barratt Brown, ‘Workers Control in a Planned Economy’, p. 64. 36. Ibid., p. 34. 37. See George Thayer, The British Political Fringe (Anthony Blond, London, 1965), p. 133. 38. Stuart Hall, ‘A Sense of Classlessness’, p. 31. 39. Michael Barratt Brown, After Imperialism (Heinemann, 1963). 40. Michael Barratt Brown, ‘British Economic Policy Since the War’, ULR, 4 (Summer, 1958), 40. 41. See Andrew Shonfield, British Economic Policy Since the War (Penguin, 1958). 42. Michael Barratt Brown, ‘A New Foreign Economic Policy’, New Reasoner, 4 (Spring, 1958), 44. 43. Michael Barratt Brown, ‘British Economic Policy Since the War’, ULR, 4 (Summer, 1958), 42. 44. Ibid. 45. Michael Barratt Brown, ‘Imperialism, Yesterday and Today’, New Left Review, 5 (September–October, 1960), 46. 46. Charles Taylor, Stuart Hall, Raphael Samuel and Peter Sedgwick, ‘The Insiders’, ULR, 3 (Winter, 1958), 37. 47. Michael Barratt Brown, ‘Imperialism, Yesterday and Today’, New Left Review, 5 (September–October, 1960), 48. 48. Michael Barratt Brown, ‘A New Foreign Economic Foreign Policy’ p. 52. 49. See, for example, Stuart Hall, ‘A Sense of Classlessness’, p. 28. 50. Ken Alexander and John Hughes, A Socialist Wages Plan: the Politics of the Pay Packet (ULR/New Reasoner pamphlet, 1959) 6. 51. Ibid., p. 15. 52. Ibid., p. 45. 53. Ibid., pp. 43–4. 54. This was pointed out by Michael Kidron, ‘The Limits of Reform’, New Reasoner, 10 (Autumn, 1959). 55. E.P. Thompson, ‘Outside the Whale’, in Out of Apathy, p. 181. 56. Bernard Crick, ‘Socialist Literature in the 1950’s’, Political Quarterly, 31:3 (July–September, 1960), 372. 57. See Ralph Miliband, ‘John Saville: a Presentation’, in David Martin and David Rubinstein, Ideology and the Labour Movement: Essays Presented to John Saville (Croom Helm, 1980), p. 27. 58. Stuart Hall, ‘The “First” New Left: Life and Times’, in Oxford Socialist Discussion Group, Out of Apathy: Voices from the New Left Thirty Years On (Verso, 1989). 59. See Raymond Williams, Politics and Letters: Interviews with New Left Review, (Verso, 1979), p. 365; also E.P. Thompson interview in David Holden, ‘The First New Left in Britain 1956–62’, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin at Madison, 1976. 60. See ‘Notes for Readers’, New Left Review, 11 ((September–October,1961), 72; also successive Letters to Readers and reports on Left Club activities in issues of the NLR during the next two years; see Caroline Bamford – ‘The Politics of Commitment: the Early New Left in Britain 1956–62’, unpub- lished Ph.D thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1983 for documented accounts of the political and organizational activities of the New Left in this period. 200 Notes and References

61. ‘Letter to Readers’, New Left Review, 2 (March–April, 1960), 69. 62. ‘Notes for Readers’, New Left Review, 12 (November–December, 1961), inside covers. 63. ‘Notes for Readers’, New Left Review, 12. 64. See Caroline Bamford, ‘The Politics of Commitment’; Perry Anderson, Arguments Within English Marxism (Verso, 1980), p. 135. 65. Michael Kenny, while noting the confusion surrounding the change in New Left, blurred the theoretical differences between the two New Lefts by deny- ing anything more than personal acrimony, The First New Left, pp. 3–4. 66. Perry Anderson, ‘Socialism and Pseudo-Empiricism’, p. 23, p. 30; also see Nicos Poulantzas, ‘Marxist Political Theory in Great Britain’, New Left Review, 43 (May–June, 1967), 60. 67. Perry Anderson, ‘Sweden, Mr Crosland’s Dreamland’, New Left Review, 9 (May–June, 1961), 36. 68. Perry Anderson, ‘Socialism and Pseudo-Empiricism’, p. 22. 69. See Perry Anderson, ‘Components of the National Culture’, New Left Review, 50 (July–August, 1968), 15. 70. For the original critiques of the first New Left, see Tom Nairn, ‘The English Working Class’, New Left Review, 24 (March–April,1964); Perry Anderson, ‘Origins of the Present Crisis’, New Left Review, 23 (January–February, 1964), 27; see E.P. Thompson, ‘The Peculiarities of the English’, in Ralph Miliband and John Saville (eds), Socialist Register.1965, for the onslaught on the NLR editors; Perry Anderson, ‘Socialism and Pseudo-Empiricism’, New Left Review, January–February,1966) and Perry Anderson, Arguments within English Marxism (Verso, 1980), p. 140. 71. E.P. Thompson, ‘The Peculiarities of the English’, p. 337. 72. Ibid., p. 323. 73. Ibid., p. 330. 74. Perry Anderson, ‘Socialism and Pseudo-Empiricism’, p. 32. 75. Ibid., p. 34. 76. Perry Anderson., ‘The Origins of the Present Crisis’, p. 28. 77. Ibid., p. 39. 78. See, for example, Joseph Fernia, Gramsci’s Political Thought: Hegemony, Consciousness and the Revolutionary Process (Oxford University Press, 1981), pp. 35–50, 257n.1. 79. Perry Anderson, ‘Origins of the Present Crisis’, p. 41. 80. Ibid., p. 33. 81. Tom Nairn, ‘The English Working Class’, p. 52. 82. See, for example, Tom Nairn, ‘The Nature of the Labour Party’, New Left Review, 27 (September–October,1964) and 28 (November–December, 1964); Tom Nairn, ‘Labour Imperialism’, New Left Review, 32 (July–August,1965). 83. See Paul Blackledge, Perry Anderson, Marxism and the New Left (Merlin Press, 2004) for the latest intellectual biography. Many of the other figures associated with the first New Left similarly failed to bring out the repub- lican implications of industrial democracy. John Hughes, the New Left co-author of A Socialist Wages Plan (1959), continued to be interested in industrial democracy but he defined this in terms of increasing trade Notes and References 201

union influence in the decision-making of government, even seeing the ultra-corporatist Prices and Incomes Board and the 1965 Monopolies Act as the beginning of such a role. Ralph Miliband, another writer for the early New Left who, with John Saville, co-edited The Socialist Register, after 1964, appeared more concerned with the failure of the Labour Government to pursue nationalization measures than with the lack of industrial democracy.

3 The Radical Republicans

1. T.H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class, and other essays (Cambridge University Press, 1950), pp. 8, 10–11 for the three definitions of citizenship; Norman Dennis and A.H. Halsey, in English Ethical Socialism: Thomas More to R.H. Tawney (Clarendon Press 1988) pp. 125–6, points to the innovative nature of Marshall’s work on citizenship. 2. See Stephen Taylor, ‘Democratic Socialism: a Restatement’, Research Department 356, May 1950; C.A.R. Crosland, The Future of Socialism (Jonathan Cape, 1956). 3. See , Full Employment in a Free Society: a Report (George Allen and Unwin, 1944) para. 44, p. 36; Jose Harris sees Beveridge’s belief in citizen entitlement as a republican vision – William Beveridge: a Biography (Clarendon Press, 1997 edn), p. 484. 4. See Caroline Bamford, ‘The Politics of Commitment’. 5. Isaiah Berlin, Two Concepts of Liberty (Oxford University Press, 1958), pp. 7, 19. 6. See Robert Dahl, Preface to Democratic Theory ( Press, 1956); this and other contemporary theories of democracy are critically dis- cussed in Carole Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory (Cambridge University Press, 1970), Chapter 1. 7. W.H. Morris Jones, ‘In Defence of Apathy: Some Doubts on the Duty to Vote’, Political Studies, II (1954); see also John Plamenatz, ‘Election Studies and Democratic Theory’, Political Studies, VI:1 (1958), – ‘we have learnt that the people’s part in government is essentially negative’, p. 4; A.H. Birch, who argued that discretion among office-holders depended on preventing people from knowing too much of public affairs, on the exclusion of the people from the res publica, believed that ‘the British people still like being gov- erned’, Representative and Responsible Government: an Essay on the British Constitution (George Allen and Unwin, 1964), p. 245. 8. See pp. 3–4 in this volume. 9. Bernard Crick, In Defence of Politics (Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1962), p. 156. 10. Bernard Crick, The Reform of Parliament (Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1968 edition), p. 43; also see Bernard Crick, Reform of the Commons (Fabian Tract #319, 1959). 11. To , schooled in the eighteenth-century Country Party repub- licanism of writers such as Swift, democracy was threatened, but not from the exclusion of the people from a direct say in power. It was the exclusion of the people’s representatives from power by the party – see Michael Foot, Parliament in Danger (Pall Mall Press, 1959). 202 Notes and References

12. Graeme Duncan and Steven Lukes, ‘The New Democracy’, Political Studies, IX:2 (1963), 158. 13. Isaiah Berlin corrected them on the accuracy of their comments, writ- ing to them that he was in sympathy with their view (private information). 14. See Steven Lukes, Power: a Radical View (Macmillan, 1974), pp. 42–4; also see Anthony Arblaster and Steven Lukes, The Good Society: a Book of Readings (Methuen, 1971), Introduction, and Anthony Arblaster, ‘Participation: Context and Conflict’, in Geraint Parry (ed.), Participation in Politics (Manchester University Press, 1972) p. 55. 15. Geraint Parry, ‘The Idea of Political Participation’, in Parry (ed.), Participation in Politics, elaborated this dual approach of instrumental and develop- mental; it may well have had an influence on David Held’s models of protective and developmental republicanism, in Models of Democracy (Polity Press, 1996 edn) Chapter 2. 16. Carole Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory, p. 27. 17. G.A. Almond and S. Verba, The Civic Culture (Little Brown and Co., Boston,1965). 18. See Michael Freeman, ‘Social Science and Democratic Theory’, Political Studies, XXI:1 (1973). 19. Carole Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory, pp. 102, 106. 20. Michael Freeman, ‘Social Science and Democratic Theory’, pp. 72–3. 21. Dennis F. Thomson, The Democratic Citizen (Cambridge University Press, 1970), p. 27. 22. Ibid., p. 13. 23. Ibid., pp. 117, 147. 24. Michael Freeman, ‘Social Science and Democratic Theory’, pp. 72–3. 25. See T.H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class, p. 78. 26. W.W. Robson, The Governors and the Governed (George Allen and Unwin, 1964), pal. 34; also see his classic, The Development of Local Government (George Allen and Unwin, 1948 edn) pp. 30–1; T.H. Marshall also saw this centralization as a sad inevitablity, Citizenship and Social Class, p. 78. 27. John P. Mackintosh, The Devolution of Power: Local Democracy, Regionalism and Nationalism (Chatto and Windus, 1968), p. 46; Ioan Bowen Rees, who worked for Pembrokeshire County Council, argued (in the Classical Republican tradition) that local government could only be made articu- late by concentrating power at the parish or ward rather than the county level; his pessimism about the possibility of this made him look to Wales – ‘that collection of localities’ – where the mountains and mining valleys had preserved a sense of family and community, as the last refuge of gen- uine local democracy – Government by Community (Charles Knight and Co., 1971), p. 230. 28. See William Hampton, ‘Review of Carole Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory and Dennis Thompson, The Democratic Citizen’, Political Quarterly, 42:2 (1971), 208–10. 29. William Hampton, Democracy and Community: a Study of Politics in Sheffield (Oxford University Press, 1970), pp. 6, 7. 30. Ibid., p. 22. 31. Ibid., p. 302. Notes and References 203

32. G.D.H. Cole, History of Socialist Thought, Volume III, Part 1, p. 247; also Volume IV, Part 1, p. 454. 33. G.D.H. Cole, ‘Workers’ Control in Industry’, Tribune, 27 January 1956, 3. 34. G.D.H. Cole, ‘Apathy in the Unions’, Tribune, 6 January 1956, 5. 35. G.D.H. Cole, Foreword to Branko Pribi´cevi´c, The Shop Stewards Movement and Workers Control 1910–1922 (Basil Blackwell, 1959), p. vii. 36. Ibid., p. viii. 37. See Royden Harrison, ‘The Retreat from Industrial Democracy’, New Left Review, 4 (July–August, 1960), 34; also Denis Butt, ‘Workers’ Control’, New Left Review, 10 (July–August, 1961). 38. MacIntyre was editor from No. 3 (Winter, 1960–61) to No. 8 (Spring, 1962), before being succeeded by Michael Kidron. 39. Editorial, ‘Socialists, Labourites and Clause 4’, International Socialism, 1 (Spring, 1960), 3. 40. Peter Sedgwick, ‘Review of Christopher Hill’s The Century of Revolution’, International Socialism, 7 (Winter, 1961–62), 29. 41. Peter Sedgwick, ‘The Fight for Workers’ Control’, International Socialism, 3, 2. 42. E.P. Thompson, ‘Revolution Again’, New Left Review, 6 (November–December, 1960), 22. 43. Michael Kidron, ‘Review of Out of Apathy’, International Socialism, 2 (Autumn, 1960), 33. 44. It should be noted that , the official historian of the group, later claimed that the IS leadership, if not most of the members, was Leninist from its inception – ‘History of the International Socialists Part 1’, International Socialism, 76 (new series, March, 1985), 17, 20. 45. The fullest account of the IWC in its earliest phase is given by Tony Topham, ‘Introduction’, Report of the 5th National Conference on Workers’ Control and Industrial Democracy (IWC, 1967); also see Ken Coates and Wyn Williams (eds), How and Why Industry must be Democratised (IWC, 1969). 46. See John Callaghan, The Far Left in British Politics (Basil Blackwell, 1987), pp. 120–1. 47. Tony Topham and Fred Singleton, ‘Workers’ Control: the Latest Phase’, New Left Review, 18 (January–February, 1963), 73. 48. See Carole Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory, Chapter V for an account of industrial democracy in Yugoslavia. 49. Tony Topham and Fred Singleton, ‘Workers’ Control’, p. 84 (Topham’s stress). 50. Tony Topham, ‘A Strategy for Workers’ Control’, Tribune, 3 July 1964, 6. 51. Ken Coates, ‘Democracy and Workers’ Control’, in Perry Anderson (ed.), Towards Socialism (Collins edn, 1966), p. 296. 52. Ken Coates and Tony Topham, Industrial Democracy in Great Britain: a Book of Readings and Witnesses for Workers Control (MacGibbon and Kee, 1968), Introduction, p. xvii. 53. Ken Coates and Tony Topham, ‘Participation or Control’, in Ken Coates (ed.) Can the Workers Run Industry? (Spherre Books, 1968) p. 233. 54. Ken Coates and Tony Topham, ‘Participation or Control’, p. 408. 55. Ken Coates and Tony Topham (eds) Industrial Democracy in Great Britain, p. xxxvi. 56. Hugh Scanlon, ‘Interview’, New Left Review (November–December, 1967), p. 4. 204 Notes and References

57. A.I. Marsh and E.E. Coker, ‘Shop Steward Organisation in the Engineering Industry’, British Journal of Industrial Relations, 1:2 (1963), quoted in Ken Coates and Tony Topham (eds), Industrial Democracy in Great Britain, pp. 202–3; for an official view of the shop stewards movement, see W.E.J. McCarthy, The Role of Shop Stewards in British Industrial Relations (The Royal Commission on Trade Unions and Employers’ Associations, Research Papers 1, 1966). 58. Report of the 5th National Conference on Workers’ Control, p. 48. 59. Tony Topham, ‘Shop Stewards and Workers’ Control’, New Left Review, 25 (May–June, 1964), 6; also see Hugh Scanlon, ‘Interview’, New Left Review, 46, p. 5. 60. Tony Topham, ‘Shop Stewards and Workers’ Control’, New Left Review, 25, p. 13. 61. See, for example, Ken Coates, ‘Incomes Policy – a Strategy for the Unions’, in Ralph Miliband and John Saville (eds) Socialist Register1965; Tony Topham, ‘New Types of Bargaining’, in Robin Blackburn and Alexander Cockburn, The Incompatibles. 62. Ken Coates, ‘Incomes Policy and Class Power’, International Socialism, 26 (Autumn, 1966), 20; also see Ken Coates,’Incomes Policy – A Strategy for the Unions’, p. 177; see A.J. Topham, ‘Incomes Policy – The Background to the Argument’, in The Socialist Register 1965, p. 167 for his differences with the early New Left’s Socialist Wages Plan. 63. Richard Crossman regarded the Soviet Union as economically superior to capitalism – Richard Crossman, Labour in the Affluent Society, p. 9; for Tribune’s agreement see, for example, ‘Russia – an Increase of 90 per cent in Production and Freedom’, Tribune, 22 January 1960, 5. 64. See especially Editorial, ‘The Rebels with a Cause’, Tribune, 3 April 1959, p. 1; Norman Birnbaum, in ‘Counter-Attack in the Universities’, Tribune, 27 March 1959, p. 10, noting the influence of the ULR on radical students, pointed out to Tribune readers that nuclear weapons and colonial liberation rather than wage struggles were the main areas of interest for the new middle class radicals; for A Socialist Wages Plan, see Ian Mikardo, ‘The Facts About Inflation’, Tribune, 20 February 1959, p. 3; Ian Mikardo, ‘Wages and the Labour Party’, Tribune, 6 March 1959, p. 5; A great debate was promised by Tribune on the idea of a socialist incomes policy, with leading trade unionists expressing their opinions, but it did not materialize – Tribune, 13 February 1959, p. 5. 65. Editorial, ‘Let Them Answer This If They Can’, Tribune, 23 October 1959, p. 6; also see Editorial, ‘What are we going to do?’, Tribune, 16 October 1959, pp. 1, 6. 66. Vic Allen, who was much later revealed to be passing information to the Soviet Union, said that Cole was not the direct source of his ideas on indus- trial democracy; the ideas were ‘in the air’ – personal information. 67. V.L. Allen, ‘Democracy in Industry’, Tribune, 6 November 1959, p. 5. 68. V.L. Allen, ‘Control Has Moved Back to the Top’, Tribune, 13 November 1959, p. 7. 69. Announcement, Tribune, 30 October 1959, p. 6. 70. Victory for Socialism, ‘The Age for Socialism’, Tribune, 13 November 1959, p. 5. 71. Personal information; Vic Allen affirmed the lack of reader response, though he added that it was difficult to remember the exact events of so long ago. Notes and References 205

72. Editorial, ‘Clause 4 and the Commanding Heights’, Tribune, 25 March 1960, p. 5. 73. J.K. Galbraith, American Capitalism: the Concept of Countervailing Power (Houghton Miflin, 1952), p. 91. 74. Charles Taylor, ‘What’s Wrong with Capitalism?’, New Left Review, 2 (March–April, 1960), 9 sought to incorporate Galbraith’s ideas about public squalor and private affluence within a communitarian perspective. 75. Michael Foot, ‘Can We Save the Government?’, Tribune, 29 March 1968, p. 12. 76. Patrick Seyd, The Rise and Fall of the Labour Left (Macmillan, 1987), pp. 77ff. 77. , ‘What’s Wrong with Labour’s Left?’, Tribune, 6 May 1966, p. 7. 78. Ibid., p. 7. 79. Jack Jones, ‘A Plan for a Breakthrough in Production’, Tribune, 11 February 1966, p. 1; see also, Jack Jones, ‘Labour and the Trade Unions’, Tribune, 15 April 1966, p. 7. 80. Jack Jones, ‘The Unions in 1967’, Tribune, 23 December 1966, p. 7. 81. Ian Mikardo, ‘My Reply to Barbara Castle’, Tribune, 24 May 1968, p. 5. 82. See Tribune, 15 July 1966, p. 1. 83. The Tribune Group, ‘A New Economic Stategy for Labour’, Tribune, 12 January 1968, p. 12. 84. Editorial, ‘France: Things Will Never Be the Same Again’, Tribune, 24 May 1968, p. 1; John Gretton, in Students and Workers: an Analytical Account of Dissent in France May–June 1968 (Macdonald, 1969, is an excellent account of the operation of this direct democracy). 85. Anthony Wedgwood Benn, The Regeneration of Britain (Victor Gollancz, 1965), p. 92. 86. Ibid., p. 28. 87. The Times, 27 May 1968, p. 2; ‘Benn Starts the Debate’, Tribune, 31 May 1968, p. 1; also see , Parliament, People and Power (Verso, 1982), p. 10. 88. ‘The Socialist Charter’, Tribune, 6 June 1968, p. 1.

4 and the Unservile State

1. The Observer, 11 October, 1959, p. 1. 2. See William Wallace, ‘Survival and Revival’, pp. 43–73, and Andrew Gamble, ‘Liberals and the Economy’, p. 202, both in Vernon Bogdanor (ed.) Liberal Party Politics (Clarendon Press, 1983). 3. Michael Freeden, The New Liberalism (Clarendon Press, 1978), p. 257. 4. William H. Beveridge, Full Employment in a Free Society: a Report (George Allen and Unwin, 1944), para. 44, p. 36; it is this commitment to a central state which has led me to disagree with Jose Harris’s argument in William Beveridge: a Biography (p. 484) that Beveridge lies in the republican tradition. 5. See pp. 70–1. 6. J.M. Keynes, ‘A Drastic Remedy for Unemployment – A Reply to Critics’, The Nation, xxxv:4 (7 June, 1924), 312. 7. Peter Pulzer, Political Representation and Elections in Britain (Allen and Unwin, 1972 edn, p. 102. 8. Contemporary accounts of this middle-class revolt are numerous, but an interesting sociological account from a longer-term historical perspective 206 Notes and References

is given by Harold Perkins, The Rise of Professional Society (Routledge, 1989). 9. Jo Grimond, ‘’The Principles of Liberalism’, Political Quarterly, 24 (1953), 237. 10. Jo Grimond, The New Liberal Democracy (Liberal Publication Department, 1958), p. 19. 11. Ibid., p. 92. 12. George Watson, ‘The Challenge of Liberalism’, in G. Watson, The Unservile State: Essays on Liberty and Welfare (George Allen and Unwin), p. 311. 13. Elliot Dodds, ‘Liberty and Welfare’, in G. Watson, The Unservile State, pp. 15, 25. 14. Ibid., p. 23. 15. George Allen, ‘The Geography of Liberty’, in G. Watson, The Unservile State, pp. 134, 132. 16. Ibid., p. 144. 17. Peter Wiles, ‘Property and Equality’, in G. Watson, The Unservile State, p. 109. 18. Ibid., p. 90. 19. Jo Grimond, The Liberal Future (Faber and Faber, 1959), p. 13. 20. Ibid., p. 21. 21. Ibid., p. 23. 22. Ibid., p. 17. 23. Ibid., p. 36. 24. Ibid., p. 48. 25. Ibid., p. 52. 26. Ibid., p. 44; see also Jo Grimond, A Personal Manifesto (Martin Robertson, 1983), p. 62 on the need for citizens to check government, an indication that they are not direct participants. 27. Jo Grimond, ‘The Reform of Parliament’, in G. Watson, The Unservile State, p. 52. 28. Istvan Hont and Michael Ignatieff, ‘Needs and Justice in the Wealth of Nations’, in Istvan Hont and Michael Ignatieff (eds), Wealth and Virtue: the Shaping of Political Economy in the Scottish Enlightenment (Cambridge University Press, 1983) underline the growing intellectual acceptance that Adam Smith is best understood in his intellectual context. 29. Istvan Hont and Michael Ignatieff, ‘Needs and Justice in the Wealth of Nations’, pp. 6–7, for an account of the differences between the jurispruden- tial and civic humanist discourses in economics. 30. Jo Grimond, The Liberal Future, pp. 59–60. 31. For his opposition to statutory wages policies, see Jo Grimond, The Liberal Future, p. 48; also Jo Grimond, A Personal Manifesto, p. 75 for a republican formulation of the question. 32. See Jo Grimond, The Liberal Future, p. 65 for his critique of pricing policy by nationalized industries. 33. Ibid., p. 56. 34. Jo Grimond, People Count (Liberal Publications Department, n.d. 1961?), p. 2. 35. Nancy Seear, ‘Relations in Industry’, The Unservile State, p. 188. 36. Donald Wade, Towards a Nation of Owners (Liberal Publications Department, n.d. 1959?), p. 7. 37. Donald Wade, Our Aims and Purposes (Liberal Publications Department, 1961), p. 6; also see Liberal Party Ownership for All Committee, Ownership for All (Liberal Publications Department, 1959), pp. 5–6. 38. Donald Wade, Towards a Nation of Owners, p. 40. Notes and References 207

39. See Jo Grimond, The Liberal Future, p. 60. 40. Jo Grimond, Industry, Profits and People (Industrial Co-Partnership Association, 1960), p. 5. 41. Grimond, The Liberal Future, p. 85. 42. Jo Grimond, Memoirs (Heinemann, 1979), p. 152. 43. Ibid., p. 79. 44. Ibid., p. 67. 45. Ibid., p. 76; see also Donald Wade, Towards a Nation of Owners, p. 39, and , The Liberal Case (Penguin, 1959, p. 54. 46. Jo Grimond, Memoirs, p. 132, where he writes at length of this paradox. 47. Ibid., p. 211. 48. Alan Peacock, The Welfare Society (Unservile State papers, 1960), p. 7. 49. Ibid., p. 12. 50. Ibid., pp. 9, 12. 51. Alan Peacock, ‘Welfare in the Liberal State’, in G. Watson, The Unservile State, p. 130. 52. Ibid., p. 129. 53. Jo Grimond, The Liberal Future, pp. 102, 106. 54. See Michael Freeden, Ideologies and Political Theory, pp. 276–7, 296–7 for a clear distinction between the libertarianism of Hayek and Liberalism. 55. See his Introduction to Heinrich von Stackelberg, The Theory of the Market Economy (William Hodge and Co., 1952), p. xvi. 56. Alan Peacock and Jack Wiseman, The Growth of Public Expenditure in the (Princeton University Press, 1961), p. 4. 57. Ibid., p. 24. 58. Ibid., p. 26. 59. Ibid., p. 28. 60. Alan Peacock, ‘Economic Analysis and Government Expenditure’, Journal of Scottish Political Economy, X:1 (February 1963), 4. 61. Ibid., p. 16. 62. Alan Peacock, The Welfare Society, p. 12. 63. See Friedrich von Hayek, The Constitution of Liberty (Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1960), pp. 262, 304, for a libertarian critique of the Unservile State Group. 64. Alan Peacock, ‘Welfare in the Liberal State’, p. 130. 65. Mark Bonham-Carter did write of the needs for regional government using the republican language that ‘if an affluent democracy is to be civilized, it must be totally self-governing’, Mark Bonham-Carter, ‘Liberals and the Political Future’, in George Watson (ed.) Radical Alternatives – Studies in Liberalism by the Oxford Liberal Group (Eyre and Spotiswoode, 1962), p. 38. 66. Peter Wiles, ‘The Economy and the Cold War’, in George Watson (ed.) Radical Alternatives, p. 51. 67. Ibid., p. 66. 68. Desmond Banks, Liberals and Economic Planning (Unservile State papers, No. 8, 1963), pp. 3, 15; see also Bryan Keith-Lucas, The Mayor, Aldermen and Councillors (Unservile State papers, No. 7, 1961); Christopher Layton, Europe After The Wreck (Unservile State papers, No. 7, 1963); Heather Harvey, The Wealth of the Nation (Unservile Paper No. 10, 1965). 69. Jo Grimond, Growth, Not Grandeur (Liberal Publications Department, 1961), p. 6. 208 Notes and References

70. See Jo Grimond, Industry, Profits and People (Industrial Co-Partnership Association, 1960) for evidence of the continuing importance of this. 71. Ibid., p. 11. 72. Ibid., p. 6. 73. Jo Grimond, The Liberal Challenge (Hollis and Carter, 1963), p. 26. 74. Ibid., pp. 58, 70. 75. Ibid., p. 62. 76. Ibid., p. 70. 77. See Jo Grimond, Europe: Britain must Join (New Directions, nd), pp. 5–6 for his commitment to the political unity of a European federation. 78. Ibid., p. 125. 79. Ibid., pp. 127–8, 132. 80. Quoted in Chris Cooke, A Short History of the Liberal Party 1900–1984 (Macmillan, 1984), p. 146. 81. See Michael McManus, Jo Grimond: Towards the Sound of Gunfire (Birlinn, 2001), pp. 261, 303–08. 82. Jo Grimond, The Nature of Politics (Friends of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1967), pp. 2–3. 83. Ibid., p. 3.

5 A Republicanism of the Right

1. See Philip Pettit, Republicanism, pp. 134–5. 2. , ‘Rationalism in Politics’ (1947), in Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays (Methuen, 1962), p. 31. 3. Viscount Hailsham, The Conservative Case (Penguin, 1959 rev.edn), p. 12. 4. W.H. Greenleaf, in R. Benewick, R.N. Berki and B. Parekh, Knowledge and Belief in Politics (Allen and Unwin, 1973), p. 173; W.H. Greenleaf, The British Political Tradition, Volume Two, The Ideological Heritage (Routledge, 1988 edn), pp. 189–92; R.J. Bennet, ‘The Conservative Tradition in Thought’, in Neil Nugent and Roger King (eds), The British Right (Saxon House, 1977), p. 23. 5. Philip Norton and Arthur Aughey, Conservatives and (Temple Smith, London, 1981), p. 119; see also Noel O’Sullivan, Conservatism (J.M. Dent, 1976), p. 12; Michael Freeden, Ideologies and Political Theory, Ch. 8. 6. Jefferson to Francis Eppes, 19 January 1821, in Thomas Jefferson, Writings (Library of America, 1984), p. 1451; the radical Burdett in 1819 saw himself as the heir to the Toryism of Queen Anne’s reign – see J. Dinwiddy, ‘Sir Francis Burdett and Burdettite Radicalism’, History, 65 (1980) 17–31. 7. For Bolingbroke, see Isaac Kramnick, Bolingbroke and his Circle: the Politics of Nostalgia in the Age of Walpole (Harvard University Press, 1968); J.C.D. Clark, ‘The Politics of the Excluded: Tories Jacobites and Whig Patriots 1715–1760’, Parliamentary History, 2 (1983), 209–22 points to the similarity of language of both ‘Left’ and ‘Right’ in that time; for an alternative view, see Quentin Skinner, ‘The Principles and Practice of Opposition: the case of Bolingbroke versus Walpole’, in N. McKendrick, Historical Perspectives: Essays in Honour of J.H. Plumb (Europa Publications, 1974) pp. 93–128. 8. Shirley Robin Letwin, Anatomy of (Fontana, 1992), pp. 38–9; Michael Freeden, Ideologies and Political Theory, pp. 411ff; neither Letwin Notes and References 209

nor Freeden identified the stress on the independence of the citizen as republican, but it bears all the hallmarks of the republican tradition. 9. Richard Cockett has presented an excellent account of the liberal influence of Hayek in Thinking the Unthinkable: Think-Tanks and the Economic Counter- Revolution 1931–1983 (Fontana Press edn, 1994); also see E.H.H. Green for the best conventional account of Conservative ideas in the ‘Thatcherism: an Historical Perspective’, in Transactions of the Royal Historical Society (Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 17–42. 10. , What’s Wrong With Politics? (Conservative Political Centre, 1968), p. 9. 11. See Shirley Robin Letwin, Anatomy of Thatcherism, p. 32 on this paradox. 12. See Andrew Gamble, The Free Economy and the Strong State: the Politics of Thatcherism (Macmillan, 1994 edn); for other interpretations, see Stuart Hall and Martin Jacques (eds), The Politics of Thatcherism (Lawrence and Wishart, 1983) and Bob Jessop et al., Thatcherism (Polity Press, 1988). 13. See Shirley Robin Letwin, The Anatomy of Thatcherism, Chapter 2, esp. pp. 33, 37, 44. 14. Ibid., pp. 107, 113. 15. Noel Skelton, Constructive Conservatism, p. 17. 16. See Robert Rhodes James, Anthony Eden (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1986), pp. 326–8; John Ramsden, The Age of Churchill and Eden 1940–1957 (Longman, 1995), p. 141; Harold Macmillan Winds of Change 1914–1939 (1966 edn), p. 178, pays a tribute to Skelton’s importance to Conservative thought. 17. E.H.H. Green, Ideologies of Conservatism (Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 238, though Green sees Thatcherism as more than the product of a mere battle of ideas. 18. To Martin Francis, ‘the ideology of the Conservative Party has long been a blend of paternalist and libertarian traditions’, ‘Set the People Free? Conservatives and the State 1920–1960’, in Martin Francis and Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska, The Conservatives and British Society 1880–1990 (University of Wales Press, 1996) p. 58; Nigel Harris has noted the deep con- flict between étatistes and libertarians throughout this period in his excellent Competition and the Corporate Society: British Conservatives, the State and Industry, 1945–1964 (Methuen and Co. Ltd, 1972), Part One and pp. 141–5. 19. R.A. Butler, The Art of the Possible, p. 145; Harold Macmillan, Tides of Fortune 1945–1955 (Macmillan, 1969), p. 302. 20. The One Nation Group’s ambiguity was in keeping with the group’s mem- bership, The Age of Churchill and Eden 1940–1957, pp. 221–2; also see Simon Heffer, Like the Roman: the Life of (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1998, pp. 154–7). 21. and Angus Maude (eds), One Nation (Conservative Political Centre, 1950), p. 20. 22. Angus Maude and Enoch Powell, Change Is Our Ally (Conservative Political Centre, 1954), pp. 7, 97. 23. Anthony Eden, speech to Conservative Annual conference, Blackpool, 3 October 1946, quoted in The New Conservatism: an Anthology of Post War Thought (Conservative Political Centre, 1955), p. 76. 24. Michael Fraser, ‘The Ownership of Property’, in The Good Society (Conservative Political Centre, 1952), p. 51. 210 Notes and References

25. Anthony Eden, speech at Hull, 7 March 1946, quoted in The New Conservatism, pp. 72–3. 26. See Richard Cockett, Thinking the Unthinkable, Chapters 2–3; Nigel Harris, Competition and the Corporate Society, points to the libertarian language domi- nant within the Conservative party in the ten years after the war; see F.A. Hayek, ‘Why I Am Not A Conservative’, in The Constitution of Liberty (Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1960) pp. 397–411 for his account of the sharp differences between his own market-driven approach and the organicist approach of conservatism; also see Michael Freeden, Ideologies and Political Theory, pp. 373–6. 27. See Anthony Quinton, The Politics of Imperfection (Faber and Faber, London, 1978). 28. Richard Law, Return to Freedom (Faber and Faber, 1950), p. 93. 29. G. Kitson Clark, The Kingdom of Free Men (Cambridge University Press, 1957), p. 201, a more liberal argument within the British Christian political tradition. 30. Richard Law, Return to Freedom, p. 28. 31. Shirley Letwin, incomplete typescript, papers of Michael Joseph Oakeshott, 1901–1990, British Library of Political and Economic Science, 15/9/1. 32. W.H. Greenleaf argues that if Oakeshott was a conservative, he was a very odd one, Oakeshott’s Philosophical Politics (Longman, 1966), p. 82; Paul Franco argues that Oakeshott is a liberal in The Political Philosophy of Michael Oakeshott (Yale University Press, 1990) pp. 158–60, disagreeing with Charles Covell’s belief, expressed in The Redefinition of Conservatism (Macmillan, 1986), Chapter 4, that Oakeshott was restating a coherent conservative doc- trine; also see , ‘Michael Joseph Oakeshott’, in Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford University Press, 2004 online edn). 33. Both Andrew Gamble, in The Free Economy and the Strong State pp. 158–61, and E.H.H. Green, in Ideologies of Conservatism, pp. 281–5, restrict their discussion to Oakeshott’s attack on Rationalist ideologies, with the former author in particular engaged in an over-sinuous discussion on Thatcher’s Rationalism. Since the manuscript went to press, I have found out that David Bouchier is exploring the relationship of Oakeshott to the republican tradition, taking a very different route – see ‘Oakeshott, Freedom and Republicanism’, The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 7:1 (February 2005), pp. 81–96. 34. This may have been an intentional reluctance to betray his approach to ideas through a distorting systematization – Michael Oakeshott, On Human Conduct (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1975), p. 4; it should be borne in mind, perhaps, that the philosophical distinction he later drew between citizenship and property probably did not exist for the readers of his earlier writings. 35. Bernard Crick, ‘The Ambiguity of Michael Oakeshott’, Cambridge Review, 112:2314 (October, 1991), 123. 36. Michael Oakeshott, On Human Conduct, p. 148. 37. Ibid., pp. 181, 243; also see Oakeshott, Hobbes on Civil Association (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1975), p. 41. 38. Ibid., p. 314. 39. Ibid., p. 248. 40. Ibid., pp. 244–5. 41. Ibid., p. 119ff, esp. p. 128, where he stresses that citizens are not enterepreneurs but related purely through their common recognition of lex; I don’t believe there to be an inconsistency, but if there was it was not unique – see Notes and References 211

Oakeshott’s comments on the US Constitution as an expression of the disas- ters of rationalism in Rationalism in Politics (Methuen, 1962), p. 26, while he sees that same Constitution and its defenders as a desirable expression of lex in On Human Conduct, pp. 244–5. 42. Oakeshott, On Human Conduct, pp. 166–8. 43. Michael Oakeshott, ‘Contemporary British Politics’, Cambridge Journal, 1 (1948), 486. 44. Oakeshott, ‘The Political Economy of Freedom’, Rationalism in Politics, p. 45. 45. Oakeshott, On Human Conduct, pp. 199–206, 206–16 gives an exhaustive dis- cussion of these categories. 46. Oakeshott, ‘The Political Economy of Freedom’, Rationalism in Politics, pp. 50–4. 47. Ibid., p. 45. 48. Ibid., p. 46. 49. Ibid., p. 47. 50. Ibid., pp. 56–8. 51. Oakeshott, On Human Conduct, p. 321; also see p. 277, 304n.3. 52. Charles Covell, The Redefinition of Conservatism, p. 119; Paul Franco, The Political Philosophy of Michael Oakeshott, pp. 221, 230ff; W.H. Greenleaf, Oakeshott’s Philosophical Politics, pp. 67, 82–3 points to the similarity of Oakeshott’s views with those of Hayek. 53. Oakeshott, Rationalism in Politics, p. 31, On Human Conduct, pp. 57, 62, 70, 75–7, 99. 54. Maurice Cowling’s worry on this was expressed in Religion and Public Practice (Cambridge University Press, 1980) pp. 279–82. 55. Oakeshott, ‘The Tower of Babel’, in Rationalism in Politics, pp. 65–6. 56. Paul Franco, The Political Philosophy of Michael Oakeshott, pp. 230ff locates Oakeshott’s communitarianism with that of Charles Taylor and Michael Sandel; W.H. Greenleaf, Oakeshott’s Philosophical Politics, p. 59, compares Oakeshott’s conception of the individual with the pluralism of G.D.H. Cole, one of the mentors of the New Left. 57. Oakeshott, ‘The Tower of Babel’, in Rationalism in Politics, p. 74. 58. Ibid., p. 26; On Human Conduct, pp. 247–9. 59. Oakeshott, On Human Conduct, pp. 128, 144. 60. See Frank Parkin, Middle Class Radicalism: the Social Bases of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (Manchester University Press, 1968). 61. See John Ramsden, The Age of Churchill and Eden 1940–1957 (Longman, 1995), pp. 297–301; John Ramsden, The Winds of Change 1957–75 (Longman, 1996), p. 45; Alistair Horne, Macmillan 1957–1986 (Macmillan, 1989), p. 62. 62. Angus Maude and Roy Lewis, The Middle Classes (Cedric Chivers Ltd., 1973 edn), p. 105. 63. T.E. Utley, ‘Liberty or Equality’, in Liberty in the Modern State (Conservative Political Centre, number 166, 1957), p. 81. 64. Peter Goldman, ‘Foreword’, Liberty in the Modern State, p. 9. 65. Diana Spearman, ‘Democracy and Liberty’, Liberty in the Modern State, p. 34. 66. Lord Hailsham, The Conservative Case, p. 99. 67. See Macmillan’s speech to the CPC in March 1958, quoted in Harold Macmillan, The Middle Way (Macmillan, 1966 edn), p. xxii; Hailsham’s associa- tion with the dirigiste policies of state intervention in the local and regional economy in the early 1960s belied any rhetoric on the dangers of centralization. 212 Notes and References

68. Richard Cockett, Thinking the Unthinkable, p. 164, mistakenly identifies her anti-statism with the libertarian tradition; also see pp. 98–9, Simon Heffer, Like the Roman: the Life of Enoch Powell, p. 212, underlines her importance as an intellectual conduit of Oakeshott’s ideas; also see the obituary by Enoch Powell (section 1, file 5, 1/5 of the Papers of Dr Richard Cockett, British Library of Political and Economic Science). 69. Diana Spearman, Democracy in England (Rockliffe, 1957), p. 29. 70. Ibid., p. 40. 71. Ibid., p. 234.n.4. 72. Ibid., p. 131. 73. Ibid., p. 136. 74. Ibid., p. 160. 75. Ibid., p. 161. 76. Ibid., p. 162. 77. Ibid., p. 165. 78. A.J.P. Taylor, , 1 June 1957, p. 714. 79. Michael Oakeshott, ‘The Masses in Representative Democracy’, in Arnold Huneld (ed.) Freedom and Serfdom: an Anthology of Western Thought (D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland, 1961), p. 160. 80. W.H. Greenleaf astutely saw the similarity in Oakeshott’s Philosophical Politics, p. 59. 81. Michael Oakeshott, ‘The Masses in Representative Democracy, pp. 166–7. 82. Maurice Cowling, The Nature and Limits of Political Science (Cambridge University Press, 1963), p. 16; Cowling was later to drop this compliment, describing Brogan as an Asquithean Liberal full of cant – Religion and Public Doctrine in Modern England (Cambridge University Press, 1980), pp. 194–5. But by then (1980) Cowling’s passion for Oakeshott’s ideas had gone. 83. D.W. Brogan, Citizenship Today (University of North Carolina Press, 1960), p. 4. 84. Ibid., p. 9. 85. Ibid., p. 14. 86. Ibid., p. 14. 87. Ibid., p. 19. 88. Ibid., p. 27. 89. Ibid., p. 28. 90. Ibid., p. 38.

6 The Importance of Enoch

1. Harold Perkin presents an interesting analysis of this in The Rise of Professional Society: England Since 1880. 2. Spectator, 10 May 1963. 3. For a classic statement of this by Heath, see his speech at Carshalton, The Times, 10 July 1967, p. 3. 4. Timothy Raison, Conflict and Compromise (Conservative Political Centre, 1965); Pressure for Economic and Social Toryism, Will the Tories Lose? (PEST, n.d) attacked the high proportion of peers and ‘Old Boys’ from the public schools. 5. Maurice Cowling, The Nature and Limits of Political Science (Cambridge University Press, 1963), p. 15. Notes and References 213

6. Ibid., p. 9. 7. Diana Spearman, Manifesto for Freedom, section 1, file 5, 1/5 of the Papers of Dr Richard Cockett, British Library of Political and Economic Science, p. 2; also see Richard Cockett, Thinking the Unthinkable, p. 165. 8. Diana Spearman, Manifesto for Freedom p. 3. 9. Ibid., p. 4. 10. Ibid., p. 7. 11. Ibid., p. 8. 12. Ibid., p. 9. 13. See Simon Heffer – Like the Roman: the Life of Enoch Powell, p. 442. 14. Enoch Powell, Reflections of a Statesman (Bellew Publishing, 1990), p. 57. 15. John Ramsden, The Winds of Change, pp. 276–8; Simon Heffer, Like the Roman, pp. 346–59. 16. T.E. Utley, Enoch Powell, The Man and His Thinking (William Kimber, 1968) p. 169. 17. Enoch Powell, ‘Superwhig’, Spectator (1 March 1980); also see Maurice Cowling, ‘Intellectuals and the Tory Party’, Spectator, 8 March 1968, pp. 292–3. 18. Quoted in Simon Heffer, Like the Roman, p. 348. 19. Iain Macleod, ‘Enoch Powell’, Spectator (16 July 1965), p. 71. 20. Despite an appearance of Anglo-Catholicism, his critical approach to the Gospels marked him out as a man who refused to subordinate his own crit- ical intelligence to any Church doctrine; once, when asked if he was a Christian, he replied carefully he was an Anglican (see John Mortimer, In Character, Penguin, 1983), p. 48. 21. Speech at Birmingham Town Hall, 12 September 1870; also his speech at St Paul’s ward, Birmingham, 6 December 1872, quoted in J.L. Garvin, The Life of , Volume 1 (Macmillan, 1932), pp. 152, 153. 22. Robert Shepherd, Enoch Powell (Hutchinson, 1996) p. 383. 23. J. Enoch Powell, Freedom and Reality, ed. John Wood (Batsford, 1965), p. 256. 24. 8 January 1965, quoted in Simon Heffer, Like the Roman, pp. 367–8; Richard Cockett regrets that Powell’s economic liberalism was ‘besmirched’ by his views on immigration, as though the two were unconnected, Thinking the Unthinkable, p. 167. 25. William Rees-Mogg, ‘Powellism is not enough’, The Sunday Times, 18 July 1965. 26. In Democracy in England, Diana Spearman acknowledged having benefited from having read Powell’s history of the , then in manuscript form, with Powell’s permission (p. 234 n.4); also see Powell’s obituary of her. 27. Simon Heffer, Like the Roman, p. 212. 28. See Enoch Powell, ‘Nationalism’, in World Perspectives (Conservative Political Centre, 1955), p. 39. 29. Enoch Powell, ‘The Empire of England’, in Tradition and Change (Conservative Political Centre, 1954), p. 51; To Andrew Roth, the decision to evacuate the Suez Canal in 1954 was the turning point in his approach to Empire, Enoch Powell: Tory Tribune (Macdonald, London, 1970), pp. 115–17. 30. J. Enoch Powell, Freedom and Reality, p. 255. 31. Speech at Bromley 24 October 1963, quoted in John Wood (ed.), A Nation Not Afraid: the Thinking of Enoch Powell (Batsford, 1965), p. 3. 32. Speech at Bromsgrove, 6 July 1963, quoted in A Nation Not Afraid, p. 25. 33. Speech at Bromley 24 October 1963, quoted in A Nation Not Afraid, pp. 4–5. 214 Notes and References

34. Speech at Trinity College, Dublin, 13 November 1964, quoted in Freedom and Reality, p. 245. 35. See Istvan Hont and Michael Ignatieff (eds), Wealth and Virtue. 36. Speech at Aylesbury, February 1965, in John Wood (ed.), Freedom and Reality, p. 16. 37. Speech to East Renfrewshire Unionist Association, The Times, 4 April 1964, p. 6. 38. Enoch Powell, ‘In Pursuit of a Mirage II’, The Times, 18 December 1964, p. 16. 39. The Times, 29 January 1964 p. 6; see also Enoch Powell, ‘The Irresistible Market’, New Society, 6 February 1964, in which he attacked the corporatist attitude to profits and incomes taken by employers. 40. ‘Capitalist Spokesmen and Socialist Government’, The Director, Feb. 1965, quoted in Freedom and Reality, p. 45. 41. Speech to the City of London Young Conservatives, The Times, 30 July 1964, p. 5. 42. ‘Capitalist Spokesmen and Socialist Government’, Director, Feb. 1965, quoted in Freedom and Reality, p. 49. 43. A Conservative, ‘A Party in Search of a Pattern 2’, The Times, 2 April 1964, p. 13. 44. A Conservative, ‘A Party in Search of a Pattern 3’, The Times, 3 April 1964, p. 13. 45. Ibid. 46. For final confirmation that these articles by ‘A Conservative’ were written by Powell, see Simon Heffer, Like the Roman, p. 351. 47. A Conservative, ‘A Party in Search of a Pattern 1’, The Times, 1 April 1964, p. 11. 48. A Conservative, ‘A Party in Search of a Pattern 2’, The Times, 2 April 1964, p. 13. 49. Angus Maude, ‘Seek not to Smother It’, Spectator, 19 November, 1965, p. 652. 50. Angus Maude, ‘Attitudes and Slogans’, Spectator, 22 March 1963, pp. 349–51. 51. Angus Maude, ‘Seek Not to Smother It’, Spectator, 19 November, 1965, p. 652. 52. Angus Maude, The Common Problem (Constable, 1969), pp. 34, 38n. 53. Angus Maude, ‘Winter of Tory Discontent’, Spectator, 14 January, 1966, p. 652; to the description of Maude as a member of the shadow cabinet was scribbled ‘not for long’ in the margins of the LSE copy, one can only idly speculate by whom, though it appealed to my sense of humour. 54. Mark Garnett, ‘Angus Maude’, in Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford University Press, 2004 online edn). 55. Angus Maude, The Common Problem (Constable, 1969) p. 291. 56. Ibid., p. 290. 57. Ibid., p. 36. 58. Ibid., p. 39. 59. Ibid., p. 40. 60. Ibid., pp. 54–5. 61. Ibid., p. 56. 62. Ibid., p. 45. 63. Ibid., p. 62. 64. Ibid., p. 89. 65. Ibid., p. 100. 66. Ibid., p. 101. 67. Ibid., pp. 197–201, 290. 68. Quoted in Andrew Gamble, The Conservative Nation (Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1974) p. 113; the sentiments are similar to Jefferson’s attacks on the Notes and References 215

mobs of great cities as degenerate and dependent, compared with the inde- pendence of those who labour on the earth, in his Notes on the State of Virginia. 69. Diana Spearman, A Time You Remember 1969–70 (Merlin, 1989), p. 23; also see her article, ‘Romantics to Revolutionaries, The Times, 17 April 1971, p. 14. 70. Russell Lewis, Principles to Conserve (Conservative Political Centre, 1968) p. 13. 71. Tibor Szamuely, Unique Conservative (CPC/Bow Group, 1973 – a reprint of the original article) p. 26; also see Maurice Cowling, ‘Intellectuals and the Tory Party’, Spectator, 8 March 1968, pp. 292–3. 72. A Conservative, ‘A Party in Search of a Pattern 2’, The Times, 2 April 1964, p. 13. 73. For selections from this correspondence see Simon Heffer – Like the Roman, pp. 445–6. 74. G.K. Chesterton, ‘The Silent People’. 75. Rex Collings (ed.) Reflections of a Statesman: the Writings and Speeches of Enoch Powell (Bellew Publishing, London, 1991), pp. 377, 374. 76. Speech to the Annual Conference of the Rotary Club of London at Eastbourne, The Times, 18 November 1968, p. 3; also see The Times, 12 November 1969, p. 6 on the need for the Commons to be responsive to the voice of the people. 77. Speech at Birmingham 13 June 1970, quoted in Rex Collings Reflections of a Statesman, pp. 246–7; Heffer, Like the Roman, pp. 559–63. 78. Diana Spearman, ‘A Dangerous Attitude’, The Times, 14 June 1968, p. 9. 79. Angus Maude, ‘The End of Consensus Politics’, Spectator, 10 May 1968, p. 627. 80. Maurice Cowling, ‘Mr Powell, Mr Heath and the Future’, in John Wood (ed.) Powell and the 1970 Election (Elliot Right Way Books, 1970), p. 13. 81. Maurice Cowling, ‘The Right Position’, in Cowling, Conservative Essays (Cassell, 1978), p. 19. 82. Daily Telegraph, 28 January, 1967, quoted in Charles Moore and Simon Heffer – A Tory Seer (Hamish Hamilton, London, 1989), p. 22. 83. Sunday Telegraph, 8 and 15 September 1968, quoted in Charles Moore and Simon Heffer – A Tory Seer, pp. 33, 44. 84. Speech at Market Bosworth, The Times, 2 September 1968, p. 3. 85. Angus Maude, ‘The End of Consensus Politics’, , 10 May 1968, p. 628.

7 The Republic of the Suburbs

1. Richard Heffernan, and Thatcherism: Political Change in Britain (Macmillan, 2001), p. 26. 2. See The Times, 10 October 1974, p. 1 for an alarmist analysis which yet con- tained the germ of possibility. 3. Labour Party, Programme for Britain, 1973, p. 7. 4. Personal information. 5. Carole Pateman, The Sexual Contract (Polity Press, 1988) discusses the diffi- culties feminism faced with the ideas of social contract. 6. See Noel Thompson, Political Economy and the Labour Party (UCL Press, 1996), Ch. 16. 7. Stuart Holland, Strategy for Socialism (Spokesman Books, 1975), p. 70. 216 Notes and References

8. Stuart Holland, The Socialist Challenge (Quartet Books, 1975), pp. 294–5. 9. Ibid., p. 29; also see Stuart Holland, The State as Entrepreneur (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1972), for his concern that the allocation of resources was the crucial concern of a modern economy. 10. Stuart Holland, The Socialist Challenge, p. 282. 11. See Peter Hain and Simon Hebditch, Radicals and Socialism (Institute for Workers Control, 1978). 12. Peter Hain, ‘The Future of Community Politics’, in Peter Hain (ed.), Community Politics (John Calder, 1976), p. 25; also see Peter Hain, Radical Liberalism and Youth Politics (Liberal Publications Department, 1973). 13. See Simon Hebditch, ‘The Ideology of Grass Roots Activism’, and Bernard Greaves, ‘Communities and Power’, in Hain (ed.), Community Politics; also see Young Liberals, Industry and the Community: a Young Liberal Approach (Economics and Industry Commission, National League of Young Liberals, 1976). 14. Peter Hain, Radical Regeneration (Quartet Books, 1975), p. 166. 15. Jo Grimond, A Personal Manifesto (Martin Robertson, 1983), pp. 26–7. 16. Jo Grimond, Memoirs (Heinemann, 1979), p. 257; also see Jo Grimond, A Personal Manifesto, pp. 24, 27. 17. Jo Grimond, Memoirs, p. 186. 18. Ibid., p. 211. 19. For Grimond’s continuing appreciation of Peacock, see The Common Welfare (Temple Smith, 1978), p. 239; Memoirs, p. 209–11. 20. Jo Grimond, Memoirs, p. 257. 21. Jo Grimond, A Personal Manifesto, pp. 19, 75. 22. Jo Grimond, Memoirs, p. 152. 23. Jo Grimond, The Common Welfare, p. 31. 24. Jo Grimond, A Personal Manifesto, pp. 37, 62, 92. 25. See Jo Grimond, The Common Welfare, p. 33. 26. See Simon Heffer, Like the Roman, pp. 782–83, 889–90; also see Alfred Sherman, ‘The Thatcher Era in Perspective’, Currents of Modern Thought, (April 1989), 611. 27. See Gillian Peele, ‘British Conservatism: Ideological Change and Electoral Uncertainty’, in Brian Girvan (ed.) The Transformation of Contemporary Conservatism (Sage, 1988). 28. Sir , Reversing the Trend: a Critical Reappraisal of Conservative Economic and Social Policies (Barry Rose, 1975), p. 4. 29. Sir Keith Joseph, Angus Maude and Ian Percival, Freedom and Order (Conservative Political Centre, 1975), p. 32, italics in the original. 30. Maurice Cowling, ‘The Present Position’, in M. Cowling, Conservative Essays (Cassell, 1978), p. 16. 31. See Richard Cockett, Thinking the Unthinkable, pp. 219–20. 32. Roger Scruton, A Dictionary of Political Thought (Pan, 1983 edn), p. 402. 33. Roger Scruton, The Politics of Culture (Carcanet Press, 1981), p. 204. 34. Roger Scruton, The Meaning of Conservatism (Macmillan, 1984 edn), p. 100. 35. Ibid., p. 56. 36. Ibid., p. 142. 37. Ibid., p. 163. 38. Maurice Cowling, ‘The Present Position’, in M. Cowling, Conservative Essays, p. 7. Notes and References 217

39. Shirley Robin Letwin, incomplete typescript, 15/9/1, Papers of Michael Oakeshott, British Library of Political and Economic Science. 40. Shirley Robin Letwin, ‘The Fall of Mrs Thatcher’, typescript #1, p. 15, 15/9/3, papers of Michael Oakeshott, BLPES. 41. Shirley Robin Letwin, ‘The Fall of Mrs Thatcher’, p. 16; Andrew Gamble, Free Economy and the Strong State, p. 161. 42. Shirley and William Letwin, Every Adult a Shareholder: the Case for Universal Share Ownership (Centre for Policy Studies, 1986), p. 22. 43. Shirley Robin Letwin and William Letwin, Every Adult a Shareholder, p. 6; also see Norman Tebbitt, Britain’s Future: a Conservative Vision (Conservative Political Centre, 1985), pp. 12–14, and Norman Tebbitt, Upwardly Mobile (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988), p. 267. 44. The Times, 15 October 1983, p. 2. 45. See Richard Heffernan and Mike Marqusee, Defeat from the Jaws of Victory (Verso, 1992), p. 68. 46. See Tony Benn, Common Sense: a New Constitution for Britain (co-written with Andrew Hood, Hutchinson, 1993); Hilary Wainwright, Arguments for a New Left: Answering the Free Market Right (Blackwell, 1994). 47. Richard Heffernan and Mike Marqusee, Defeat from the Jaws of Victory, p. 68. 48. Patrick Seyd, ‘Bennism without Benn: Realignment on the Labour Left’, New Socialist, 27 (May, 1985); Heffernan and Marqusee, in Defeat from the Jaws of Victory, pp. 65–6 note that Seyd’s name was used without his permission by Stuart Weir, the editor of New Socialist, but the phenomenon was occurring regardless of the author’s identity. 49. Gavin Kitching, Rethinking Socialism: a Theory for a Better Practice (Methuen, 1984), p. 45; also see Nicholas Ellison, Egalitarian Thought and Labour Politics (Routledge, 1994), p. 155. 50. David Marquand, The Unprincipled Society: New Demands and Old Politics (Jonathan Cape, 1985), p. 11. 51. David Marquand, The Unprincipled Society, p. 11. 52. Andrew Marr, Ruling Britannia (Michael Joseph, 1995), pp. 302–15, 349. 53. , Modern Conservatism (Penguin, 1992), p. 108. 54. See , Southern Discomfort (Fabian pamphlet 555, 1992). 55. Philip Gould, The Unfinished Revolution (Little, Brown and Company, 1998), p. 3. 56. Anthony Quinton, ‘Citizens, to the Bureaucades’, The Times, 8 October 1988; also see ‘Editorial, Citizen Hurd’, New Statesman, 15 April 1988. 57. Ferdinand Mount, The Practice of Liberty (Conservative Political Centre, 1986); also see Lord Hailsham, Elective Dictatorship (British Broadcasting Corporation, 1976) and The Dilemma of Democracy (Collins, 1978). 58. Ferdinand Mount, The British Constitution Now: Recovery or Decline? (Heinemann, 1992), p. 86. 59. Ibid., p. 257. 60. David Willetts, Modern Conservatism (Penguin, 1992), p. 67; the reference to Oakeshott’s political economy of freedom is on p. 166. 61. John Gray and David Willetts, Is Conservatism Dead? (Profile Books, 1997), p. 172. 62. Andrew Vincent and Raymond Plant, Philosophy, Politics and Citizenship (Blackwell, 1984), p. 165. 218 Notes and References

63. Raymond Plant, Citizenship, Rights and Socialism (Fabian Tract 531, October, 1988), p. 19. 64. David Blunkett and Bernard Crick, The Labour Party’s Aims and Values: an Unofficial Statement (Spokesman pamphlet #87, 1988), p. 12. 65. See Peter Hain, Ayes to the Left: a Future for Socialism (Lawrence and Wishart, 1995). 66. Tony Wright, Citizens and Subject: an Essay on British Politics (Routledge, 1994), p. 127. 67. Peter Jay, The Times, 1975 passim; David Miller and Saul Estrin, ‘Market Socialism: a Policy for Socialists’, in Ian Forbes (ed.), Market Socialism: Whose Choice? (Fabian Tract 516, November, 1986); David Miller, Market, State and Community: Theoretical Foundations of Socialism (Clarendon Press, 1990). 68. Will Hutton, The Revolution That Never Was: an Assessment of (Longman, 1986), p. 188. 69. Will Hutton, The State We’re In, (Jonathan Cape, 1995), p. 168. 70. Ibid., p. 256. 71. For an attempt to relate the idea of stakeholding in corporate life to the guild socialist tradition of Cole, see Paul Hirst Associative Democracy: New Forms of Economic and Social Governance (Polity Press, 1994), Chapters 4, 5. 72. See Stephen Tindale and David Miliband, Beyond Economics: European Government after Maastricht ( discussion paper, 1991). 73. See J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment, pp. 423–6. 74. Bernard Crick, ‘Still Missing: a Public Philosophy’, Political Quarterly, 68:4 (1997), 344–52. 75. See Stuart Hall, ‘The Great Moving Nowhere Show’, in Marxism Today (November–December, 1998); Steven Lukes, ‘More than Words?’, in Stephen Pollard et al. (eds) The Third Way (Social Market Foundation, 1999), pp. 17–20. 76. Raphael Samuel (ed.) Patriotism, 3 volumes (Routledge 1989). 77. See Raphael Samuel, Theatres of Memory: Past and Present in Contemporary Culture, Volume I (Verso, 1994). 78. David Selbourne, The Principle of Order: an Essay on the Foundations of Civic Order (Sinclair-Stevenson, 1994), pp. 23, 39, 277; also see David Selbourne, The Spirit of the Age (Sinclair-Stevenson, 1993), p. 345. 79. David Selbourne, The Principle of Order, pp. 47, 276. 80. Ibid., pp. 105–08. 81. Ibid., p. 108. 82. See Michael Ignatieff, The Needs of Strangers (The Hogarth Press, 1984), p. 53; Iseult Honohan, Civic Republicanism (Routledge, 2002), Chapter VIII, takes a more optimistic view than I do of the potentialities of the republican tradition towards the excluded. 83. Sheldon Wolin, Politics and Vision (Princeton University Press, second edn, 2004), pp. 601–06. Index

The descriptions of people generally refer to their role during the period covered by the text.

Adams, John, 18th century US Blackburn, Robin, NLR writer, 59, 76 Federalist, 3–4, 10, 122, 123, 164 Blair, Tony, Labour leader (1994–), Addison, Sir Richard, 18th century 163, 179 editor of The Spectator, 99 Blake, William, 18th century Alexander, Ken, New Left writer, 56–8 Romantic poet, 25, 26 Alienation, confused as apathy, 27, Blunkett, David, left-wing, then New 28–9, 32 Labour politician, 178, 181, 185 Allaun, Frank, left-wing Labour MP, 76 Bolingbroke, Lord, 18th century Allen, George, Unservile State Liberal, Country Tory: 94–5 and Powell, 144, 149 Allen, Vic, left-wing activist, 81–2 and republicanism of the Right, Almond, G.A., American sociologist, 68 115, 131, 132, 135, 136, 138, Anderson, Perry, editor of NLR: 139 active participation, 59–60 Bonham-Carter, Mark, Liberal politi- Thompson debate, 60–3 cian, 207n65 Anscombe, Elizabeth, philosopher, 43–4 Bourdet, Claude, French New Left Antigone, Greek heroine, 188 intellectual, 21 Arendt, Hannah, republican intellec- Bow Group, 140 tual, 6–7, 85, 154 Brogan, D.W., academic writer, 136–8, 144 Baldwin, Stanley, Conservative leader Burke, Edmund, 18th century (1923–37), 160 intellectual: Ball, John, medieval religious and Grimond, 95–6, radical, 17 in Tory pantheon, 115, 123, 130 Banks, Desmond, Liberal, 109 Butler, R.A., Conservative politician, Barratt Brown, Michael, New Left 118 writer, 53, 54–6 Basso, Lelio, Italian New Left intellec- Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament tual, 20 (CND), 48, 60 Benn, Tony, left-wing Labour politician: Carter, April, New Left activist, and New Left, 85, 165, 168, 177, 178 48–9, 60 and Powell, 157 Cato’s Letters (1720–3), 115, 136, 139 Berlin, Isaiah, philosopher, 64–5, 66, Chamberlain, Joseph, 19th century 202n13 republican politician, 11, 144 Bevanites and Labour Left, 32, 53, Charter 88, 179–80 54, 75 Chesterton, G.K. poet, and ‘the and New Left, 80–1 people of England’, 158n74 Beveridge, Sir William, Liberal writer on Citizenship Today (D.W. Brogan, 1960), the welfare state, 90–1, 103, 105 136–8 Beyond the Fringe, 139 Clements, Richard, Tribune editor, 82

219 220 Index

Cliff, Tony, IS founder, Trotskyist, 75 Democratic Citizen, The (Dennis Clinton, Bill, US President Thompson, 1970), 67, 69–70 (1993–2001) politician, 179 Direct Action Committee, 48 Coates, Ken, IWC founder: Disraeli, Benjamin, 19th century Tory and IS, 75 Democrat, 130, 159 and IWC, 76–80, 167 Dobb, Maurice, Communist intellec- Cobbett, William, 19th century Tory tual, 16 radical, 61 Dodds, Elliott, Liberal Vice-President, Cole, G.D.H., 20th century republican 94, socialist writer, Duff, Peggy, left-wing Labour activist, and New Left, 27, 68, 166, 182 48, and Oakeshott, 124, 127, 135–6 Duncan, Graeme, radical political republicanism, 27, 41: ‘bare ballot- theorist, 66 box democracy’, 97, 132; indus- trial democracy, 73–4, 76, 78, Eden, Sir Anthony, Conservative 166–7 leader (1955–7): Communist Historians Group, 16–18, and property-owners’ democracy, 24, 45, 60, 61 119–20, 126, 147, 160, 176 Communist Party, 15–20, 53–4, 60 Eliot, T.S., Anglican poet, 144 Conservative Party, 114, 118, European Economic Community 139–40, 145 (EEC) Conservative Political Centre (CPC), and Liberals, 110, 111–12, 151, 130–1 160–1, 184 Corporate Socialism, 1, 2, 80, 191n1 and New Left, 54, 55 and Liberals, 91, 93, 97 and New Left, 81–3 Fletcher, Andrew, of Saltoun, 18th Cowling, Maurice, right-wing academic: century political economist, 51 and Brogan, 136 Foot, Michael, left-wing Labour politi- and corruption, 140–1 cian, later Labour leader (1980–3), and Oakeshott, 140 201n11 and Powell, 143, 159, 173 corporate socialism, 81, 83, 165 and Thatcher, 175 France, the May Days, 84–5 Crick, Bernard, radical political scien- Fraser, Michael, Conservative writer, tist, 3–4, 58 and property-owners’ democracy, and executive dominance, 65–6 119–20 and Oakeshott, 122 Freeden, Michael, Oxford historian of and participation, 181, 185 ideas, 4, 90, 116 Crosland, C.A.R., Labour politician Freeman, Michael, academic, 69 and intellectual, 118, 119 Friedman, Milton, American market Crossman, Richard, Labour politician, economist, 164 195n66, 204n64 Gaitskell, Hugh, Labour leader Daly, Lawrence, New Left Miners (1955–63), 82 Union official, 76 Galbraith, John Kenneth, American Defoe, Daniel, 18th century writer, 51 Democrat intellectual, 82–3 Democracy and Community (William Gamble, Andrew, political scientist, 176 Hampton, 1970), 71–3, Goldman, Peter, CPC Director, 131 Democracy in England (Diana Gordon, Thomas, 18th century British Spearman, 1957), 132–5 commonwealthman, 115 Index 221

Gould, Philip, New Labour adviser, and Conservatism, 127 and suburban civic culture, 179 and Powell, 145, 146, 148 Gramsci, Antonio, Italian Marxist and Unservile State Group, 108, 171 intellectual, 59, 61 Heath, Edward, Conservative leader Greaves, Bernard, Young Liberal (1965–75), 140, 145 activist, 168–9 and Maude, 152 Green, E.H.H., Oxford historian, 118 and Powell, 157, 159 Green, T.H., 19th century Liberal Heffer, Eric, left-wing Labour MP, 83 intellectual, 90 Heffernan, Richard, political scientist, Grimond, Jo, Liberal Leader 164 (1956–67), 90: Henry V, King, 149 and corporatism, 110, 170 Hill, Christopher, Communist histo- and New Left, 89, 96–7, 172 rian, 16–18, 20, 75, 186 republicanism as active citizenship, Hilton, Rodney, Communist, then 91–2, 96–8, 110–12, 171–2: New Left historian, 16 through decentralization, 111, Hobbes, Thomas, 17th century polit- 112–13, 171–2; and political ical philosopher, 122, 124, 127, economy of unservile state, 153 99–100, 102–03, 170–2 Hobsbawm, Eric, Communist histo- and Thatcher, 169–70, 171, 172, rian, 15, 20 176, 188 and Communist Historians Group, and Young Liberals, 112, 169, 172 16, 17 Groom, A.J., writer on defence, 49 Hogg, Quintin, see Hailsham, Lord Guicciardini, Francesco, Renaissance Hoggart, Richard, Leeds sociologist, aristocratic republican historian, 46–7 175 Holland Stuart, Bennite intellectual, 166–7 Hailsham, Lord (Quintin Hogg), Holt, Arthur, Liberal politician, 104 Conservative politican, 115, Home, Earl of, Conservative leader 118, 131 (1963–5),139, 143, 145, 151 Hain, Peter, Young Liberal activist, Hughes, John, New Left economist, 168–9, 181 56–8, 76, 200n84 Hall, Stuart, New Left sociologist, Hurd, Douglas, Conservative politi- 20–1, 29, 59, 164, 195n47: cian, and active citizens, 179 and apathy, 27 Hutton, Will, republican political and capitalism, 54 economist, 183–5 and class, 36–7, 47 and defence, 48, 50 Ignatieff, Michael, radical academic, and New Labour, 185 188 Hampden, John, 17th century English Industrial Charter, The (1947), 118 Parliamentarian, 131 Industrial democracy: Hampton, William, writer on local as independence/liberty in Cole, government, 71–3 73–4: and IS 74–5; and IWC Harrington, James, 17th century 76–80; and Liberals, 89, republican: 100–01, 102–03; and New Left, and property-owners’ democracy, 52–3; and Pateman, 68–9; and 8–9, 102, 177, 192n29 Tribune 73, 81–3, 85–6 Harris, Ralph, IEA intellectual, 158 Insiders, The (1958), 31–2, 56 Hayek, F.A., free market libertarian, 163 and Unservile State Group, 95, 95 222 Index

Institute of Community Studies, 35, 47 Labour’s Programme, 1973, 165 Institute of Economic Affairs, 116 Law, Richard, Conservative intellectual: and Powell, 145, 158 and consensus, 164 Institute for Workers’ Control (IWC), and Humanism, 120 75, 76–80, 84, 166 and Diana Spearman, 131 International Socialism (IS), 74–6, 203n45 Lessing, Doris, New Left writer, 20 Ireton, Major-General Henry, New Letwin, Shirley Robin, Conservative Model Army general, 123 intellectual: and Oakeshott, 122 James I, King, 123 property owners’ democracy, 176–7 Jay, Peter, market socialist, 167, 182 and Thatcher, 173, 175–6 Jefferson, Thomas, 18th century US and transmutation of debate within republican politician and intellec- Right, 116–18, 160 tual, 4, 6, 9, 164 Letwin, William, Conservative aca- and Bolingbroke, 115, 135 demic, 176 and property owners’ democracy, Lewis, Roy, Conservative writer, 130 102, 156, 176, 177, 214n68 Lewis, Russell, CPC Director, 156 Jenkins, Clive, left-wing trade union Liberal Future, The ( Jo Grimond, leader, 52 1959), 95–8 Jewkes, John, free market economist, Liberal Party, 89–90, 93, 108–09, 110, 171 112, 168 Jones, Jack, left-wing IWC and trade Liberty in the Modern State (CPC, 1957), union leader, 76, 83–4 130–1 Joseph, Sir Keith, Conservative politi- Lippman, Walter, US liberal, 92 cian, free market libertarian, 172–3 Locke, John, 17th century liberal Junius, 18th century radical writer, 131 philosopher, 123, 153, 176 Longbow, 141–3, 159 Kant, Immanuel, 18th century Lukàcs, George, 20th century German philosopher, 44 Hungarian Marxist, 59, 75 Keynes, John Maynard, and Lukes, Steven, radical sociologist, 41, 182 Keynesianism, see political and New Labour, 185–6 economy and participation, 66–7, 70 Khruschev, Nikita, Soviet Communist Luxemburg, Rosa, 20th century leader, 19 German libertarian Marxist, 75, 83, Kidron, Michael, IS Trotskyist, 75, 76 Lyttelton, Oliver, 20th century Kitching, Gavin, republican critic, 178 Conservative politican, 131 Kinnock, Neil, Labour leader (1983–92), 177, 179 Machiavelli, Niccolo, Renaissance Kirk, Russell, US conservative political democratic republican philoso- theorist, 154 pher, 3, 6, 8, 122, 134, 175 Kitson Clark, G.B., Christian aca- MacIntyre, Alasdair, New Left philoso- demic, 120 pher, 22, 48, 50 Kolakowski, Leszek, Polish and IS, 75 dissident, 25 ‘Notes from the Moral Wilderness’, Kramnick, Isaac, US historian, 10 43–5, 141, 184 and Oakeshott, 128, 154 Labour Party, 31, 32, 55, 75 Mackintosh, John, Labour academic, 71 and Bennism, 164–8 Macleod, Iain, Conservative politi- and radicals, 80–6 cian, 118, 143–4 Index 223

Macmillan, Harold, Conservative Mill, John Stuart, 19th century Liberal leader (1957–63), 53, 139 political philosopher and econo- as demon of Right, 117, 118, 120, mist, 66, 68, 92, 96, 98 126, 141, 143, 147, 148, 151, Miller, David, market socialist, 183 176 Mills, C. Wright, US New Left sociolo- Macpherson, C.B., Canadian commu- gist, 33, 34 nitarian political scientist, 178 Milton, John, 17th century republican Madison, James, 18th century US and poet, 16, 19 politician, 10 Mitterand, François, French Socialist Major, John, Conservative leader President (1981–95), 177 (1990–7), 164 Mont Pelerin Society, 138 Marquand, David, progressive writer, Montesquieu, 18th century French 178 philosophe, 41, 129, 176 Marr, Andrew, political commentator, Morris, William, 19th century 179 English Romantic and socialist, Marshall, T.H., sociologist, 63, 90–1 21–2 Martell, Edward, free market Liberal, 90 Morris Jones, W.H., political scientist, Marx, Karl, 19th century German 65 communist, 24, 25, 184–5 Morton, A.L., Communist Historians and alienation 28–9, 37 Group, 16, 17 and class, 34, 38–9 Mount, Ferdinand, Conservative and republicanism, 40–2, 78 intellectual, 180, 182 ‘Masses in Representative Democracy, The’ (Michael Oakeshott, 1961), Nairn, Tom, NLR writer, 59, 60, 62 135–6 New Labour, 1, 162–3, 185 Maude, Angus, Conservative politi- New Left: cian, 118–19: defining characteristic, 21–2 markets, 152–4, 173 formation, 19–21: and Communist and New Left, 152, 154 Historians Group, 18; and ‘mid- and Powell, 152, 153, 155, 159, 174 dle-class revolt’, 129 republican tradition, 152–3, 155–6: and IWC, 76 and corruption, 153–5, 160; and Liberals, 92, 98, 99, 100, 102, middle classes and citizenship, 105, 111, 113 130, 179; debate with Joseph, and Marxism, 22, 28–9, 39–42 173 and Oakeshott, 124, 128, 154 and Scruton, 174 and radicals, 66 McKenzie, Robert, political scientist, republican tradition, corruption 47 as apathy 27–30: corruption Meacher, Michael, left-wing, then as oligopoly, 31–4; and class, New Labour politician, 178 36–8; independence/liberty Meek, Ronald, Communist econo- as community 35–7, 45–8; mist, 20 independence/liberty as direct ‘Middle-class revolt’, 91, 93, 129, 179 action, 48–9; independence/ Mikardo, Ian, left-wing Labour politi- liberty as industrial democracy, cian, 84 52–3, 189; and imperialism, Miliband, Ralph, New Left sociologist, 49–51, 54–6; and inconsistent 59, 200n84 political economy, 52, 54–8; corporate capitalism, 32–4 and Right, 114, 130, 150, Labour Party, 33–4 152, 154 224 Index

New Left Review (NLR), 21, 56, 58–62, Pelloutier, Fernand, 19th century 74, 79 French anarcho-syndicalist, 73 New Liberalism, 90–1 People’s League for the Defence of and rejection by Grimond, 91–2, Freedom, 90 95–8 Pettit, Philip, academic, 5 New Reasoner, The, 20–2, 24, 37, 43, Plant, Raymond, Labour political 50–1, 58–9 philosopher, 181 ‘Notes from the Moral Wilderness’ Political economy: (Alasdair MacIntyre, 1959), 43–5, jurisprudential model, 52, 98–9 141, 184 Keynesian model, 55, 78, 91, 98, Notting Hill race riots (1958), 36, 48 103–04, 108, 166, 184 republican model, 99, 100, 103, Oakeshott, Michael, Conservative 106–08, 124–7, 183–5 philosopher: Potter, Dennis, radical dramatist, and and Diana Spearman, 131, 134, corruption, 195n61 142, 173 Powell, J. Enoch, Conservative and New Left, 128, 128, 154 politician: political philosophy, 121–9, 154 and Diana Spearman, 131, 132, and Powell, 143, 144, 145, 146, 160 143, 145 and Rationalism, 114–15 and Hayek, 145, 146, 148 republican tradition, neutrality, and Joseph Chamberlain, 144 121–3, 128–9: dependence as and Maude, 152, 153, 159, 174 oligopoly, 126–7; dependence and Oakeshott, 143, 144, 145, and mass democracy, 135–6; 146 community as custom, 114–15, and One Nation, 118–19, 143 127–9, 154; independence/ and republican tradition, ambigu- liberty as property owners’ ity, 144–5, 146, 149–50, 160–1: democracy, 122, 124–7, 176, custom as community, 143–45, 180, 189 146–7, 155; corruption of and Scruton, 173–4 the Establishment 149–52, and Shirley Letwin, 122, 175 158–61; corruption as immi- One Nation Group, 118–19, 140, 145 grants within the community, Osborne, Sir Cyril, Conservative 157–61, 186; independence/ politician, and agrarianism, 155 liberty as market arena for the nation, 145–9, 150–1, Paine, Tom, 18th century British 157; independence/liberty radical, 10, 123 as property-owners’ Paish, F.W., Liberal economist, 104 democracy, 147 Paris Commune, 40–2, 197n107 and Thatcher, 172 Participation and Democratic Theory and Ulster Unionism, 173 (Carole Pateman, 1970), 67–9, Pressure for Economic and Social Pateman, Carole, radical intellectual, Toryism (PEST), 140 67–9, 71, 72 Pribi´cevi´c, Branco, Yugoslav Peacock, Alan, Liberal political writer, 74 economist: Private Eye, 139 republican political economy, property-owners’ democracy: 106–08, 171 and the Liberals, 95, 101–02 Welfare State, 104–06 and republican concept, 7–9 Index 225

transmutation of meaning within citizenship, 30–1, 48–9; inde- Right, 114, 115–16, 117–18: pendence/liberty through Skelton/Eden/Macmillan decentralization, community approach, 117, 119–20, 176; and and the city, 35, 48, 70–3, Diana Spearman, 133, 141–2 111–12; independence/liberty Oakeshott’s approach, 122, 124–7: as industrial democracy, 52–3, and Powell, 147; and the 67–9, 73–5, 77–80, 81–6; inde- excluded, 186 pendence/liberty as property- ownership, 7–9; independence/ Radical Alternatives (1962), 109, liberty within boundaries, 204n65 48–51, 157–61, 185–6; and Radical Reform Group, 90 imperialism, 8, 55–6; aliens and Raison, Timothy, Bow Group propertyless as those excluded Conservative, 140 from independence/liberty, 8, Reasoner, The, 19–20 157–61, 186–8; and crisis of Rees, Ioan Bowen, Welsh local gov- 1970s, 164–5; new conception, ernment writer, 202n27 188–90 Rees-Mogg, William, Sunday Times relations to Marxism, 17–18, 24–6, editor, 145, 146–7 40–2, 60–2, 78: to market liber- Republicanism: tarians, 120–1; to Right, concept defined as ‘the mother prin- 114–15, 117–18; Oakeshott’s ciple’ ( Jefferson) 3, 4–7, 23–4: ambiguity, 121–3, 124–6, not anti-monarchy, 2, 3, 144; 128–9, 176, 180, 189; Powell’s vagueness alleged, 3–4; corrup- ambiguity, 144–5, 146, 149–50, tion as dependence 6–7, 8, 11; 160–1; to New Labour, 163–4 virtue as independence/liberty, Riesman, David, US sociologist, 28 5, 6, 7–9, 11; independence/ Robbins, Caroline, academic, 5 liberty through decentraliza- Robbins, Lionel, free market econo- tion, community and the city, mist, 131, 145 6, 9–10; independence/liberty Roberts, Ernie, left-wing trade union- within boundaries, 7–11 ist and Labour MP, 76 conceptions 4–5, 6: transposition to Robson, W.W., local government mass society, 10–12, 43, 51–2; writer, 70–1, 90–1 and political economy, 51–2, Rodgers, Daniel, US academic, 3–4 56, 58, 99, 100, 103, 106–08, Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 18th century 141–2, 164–5; and social citi- French philosophe, 4, 5, 6, 17, 41, zenship 64–5; corruption as 68, 73, 79, 166–7 dependence 26, 27–31, 37, 61, Russell, Bertrand, British philosopher 126–7; corruption as apathy, and peace activist, 77 27–30, 96–7; corruption as bal- lot-box democracy, 5–6, 132–3, Salisbury, Lord, 19th century 135–6; corruption as oligopoly, Conservative politician, 123 11–12, 31–2, 81–2, 126–7; cor- Salisbury Review, 173 ruption of the Establishment, Samuel, Raphael, New Left historian, 29, 33, 139–40, 144–5, 148, 16, 20, 21 149–52, 160–1, virtue as inde- active democracy 30: and British pendence/liberty, 51–2, 124–6; citizenship, 186 independence/liberty as active Sandel, Michael, US academic, 5 226 Index

Sartre, Jean-Paul, French existentialist Socialist Wages Plan, A (Ken Alexander philosopher, 22, 59 and John Hughes, 1959), 56–8, Saville, John, Communist, then New 80–1 Left, historian 16, 19–20 Spearman, Diana, Conservative intel- Scanlon, Hugh, left-wing IWC and lectual: trade union leader, 76 and Oakeshott, 131, 134, 142, 145 and corporatism, 79 and Powell, 131, 132, 143, 145, and Labour, 83–4, 159, 213n26 Scarfe, Gerald, cartoonist, 139 republican tradition, corruption as Scruton, Roger, Conservative decline of participation, 133–4, intellectual; 137: corruption as mass democ- and Diana Spearman, 173, 174 racy 131, 132–5, 144; independ- republican tradition, 174–5: corrup- ence liberty through the market, tion as mass democracy, 174; 138, 141, 142–3; independence independence/liberty as agrari- liberty as agrarianism, 155–6; anism, 153 political economy, 141–2, 176 Sedgwick, Peter, IS libertarian Marxist, Salisbury Review, 173 31, 75, 198n28 Spectator, The, 99, 117, 152 Seear, Nancy, Liberal activist, 100 Stalin, Joseph, Soviet Communist Seyd, Patrick, political scientist, 178 leader, 17, 18, 19 Selbourne, David, ex-Ruskin College Steele, Joseph, 18th century editor of academic, 187–8 The Spectator, 99 ‘Sense of Classlessness, A’ (Stuart Hall, Sunday Times, 145 1958), 36–7, 47 Sunday Telegraph, 159–60 Shakespeare, William, dramatist, Swift, Jonathan, 18th century 19, 25 Country Tory, 51 Sherman, Alfred, Thatcher adviser, Swingler, Steven, left-wing Labour 116 MP, 81 Shonfield, Andrew, political econo- Swinton Journal, 156 mist, 54 Suez crisis, 1956, 20 Shop stewards, 74, 79–80, 135 Szamuely, Tibor, Conservative intel- Sidney, Algernon, 17th century repub- lectual, 156 lican martyr, 6, 123, 131 Taylor, A.J.P., radical historian, and Silver, Alan, political scientist, 47 Diana Spearman, 135 Skelton, Noel, 20th century Taylor, Charles, New Left philosopher, Conservative politician, 117, 20, 59, 67: 120, 176 and Maude, 154 Skinner, Quentin, Cambridge histo- republican tradition, corruption as rian of ideas, 7 apathy, 28–9: independence/ Smith, Adam, Classical economist, 52, liberty as active community, 98, 153–4, 35–6, 48 Smith, Sir Thomas, 16th century Socialist Humanism and Marx, 39–42 writer, 3 Socialist Charter, The (1968), 85–6 Taylor, John, of Caroline, US republi- Socialist Humanism can writer, 4 and inconsistent economic theory Thatcher, Margaret, Conservative 51–2, 56–8 leader (1975–90), 2, 145, 163, 164 as morality, 16, 24–7, 35, 39–40, and Grimond, 169–70, 171, 172 43–5 and Oakeshott, 122 Index 227

on participation, 116: and active Unservile State, The (George Watson citizens, 179; and the ed., 1957), 94–5, 98, 100 Establishment, 189 Unservile State Group, 94–5, 98, 100, and Powell, 172, 186 107–08, 180, 188 and Thatcherism, 116–18, 177 and erosion of republican politics, Thompson, Dennis, radical sociolo- 109 gist, 67, 69–70, 71, 72 Utley, T.E., Conservative intellectual: Thompson, E.P., Communist, then and Burke, 130 New Left historian, 16, 22–3 corporatism, 140 and defence, 48, 50 and Powell, 143, 159–60, 173 and IS, 76 and IWC, 76 Verba, S., US sociologist, 68 The New Reasoner, 20, 59 Victory for Socialism (VFS), 81, 82, 86 and Perry Anderson, 59, 60–2 Vincent, John, Liberal historian, 112 The Reasoner, 19–20 Voice of the Unions, 76 Republican tradition, corruption as ‘The Great Apathy’, 27–8, 60–1: Wade, Donald, Liberal politician, and irrelevance of economic 100–02 theory, 58; independence/lib- Wagner, Adolph, 19th century erty through class struggle German economist, 106 37–40, 45–6, 60–1 Wainwright, Hilary, British radical Socialist Humanism, 24–7, 39–40, 186 activist, 178 Thomson, George, 16 Walpole, Sir Robert, 18th century Thorpe, Jeremy, Liberal leader Whig politician, 115, 139 (1967–76), 112 Walters, Alan, Thatcher adviser, 116 Tocqueville, Alexis de, French writer Watson, George, Unservile State on democracy, 10 Liberal, 94 Topham, Tony, IWC activist, 76, 167 Week, The, 77 Torr, Dona, Communist historian, 17, 18 ‘The Welfare Society’ (Alan Peacock, Trenchard, John, 18th century British 1960), 104–5 Commonwealthman, 115 Welfare State: Trewe Law of a Free Monarchy ( James I), and Diana Spearman, 133, 123 and Grimond, 96–7 Tribune, 80 and Oakeshott, 126 and May Days, 85 and Peacock, 104–06 post-1959 debate, 81–3 Wiles, Peter, Unservile State Group The Socialist Charter, 85–6 writer, 95, 109 , 20, 53–4, 75, 77, 203n45 Willetts, David, Conservative politi- cian, 179, 180 Universities and Left Review (ULR), Williams, Raymond, New Left 20–2, 24, 58–9 writer, 47 and Cold War, 49–50 corruption, 29–30 corporatism, 31–2, 54, 56–8 Willmot, Peter, British sociologist, 35 republican tradition, corruption as Wilson, Colin, British existentialist alienation and apathy, 26–7, writer, 22 31–2: independence/liberty as Wilson, Harold, Labour leader community, 35–8; independ- (1963–76), 57, 66–7, 79, 109, ence/liberty as industrial 140, 168 democracy 53, 166 Wiseman, Jack, British economist, 106 228 Index

Wolin, Sheldon, US communitarian Young Liberals: political theorist, 41 and Grimond, 112, 169, 172 ‘fugitive democracy’, 189 republican tradition, 168–9 Wood, John, Conservative intellec- Young, Michael, British sociologist, tual, 131 35 Worsley, Peter, New Left activist, 48 Wright, Tony, Labour MP, 181–2 Zhdanov, Andrei, Soviet ‘scientist’, 17