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Babylonian Times • Mesopotamia Lies Between Euphrates and Tigris Rivers, in Present-Day Iraq, Greek for “Between the Rivers”

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Babylonian Times • Mesopotamia Lies Between Euphrates and Tigris Rivers, in Present-Day Iraq, Greek for “Between the Rivers” Babylonian Times • Mesopotamia lies between Euphrates and Tigris rivers, in present-day Iraq, Greek for “between the rivers”. The rivers used to flow separately into the Persian Gulf, but today the coastline has receded. • Scribal schools were developed around 2000 BC and Hammurabi ruled ~1800- 1750 BC during the high point of Old Babylonian Empire • Babylonians in Mesopotamia wrote in mud, which they baked into clay tablets, many of which which still survive today. (2 slides) • Plimpton 322 is a mathematical tablet from Babylonian times that we'll talk more about later. Greek Dark Age = 1100-750 BC • History was written in verse, rather than prose, and subject to artistic license, rather than being valued for accuracy and explanation. This poetry mixed history with folklore and myth. Homer was believed to have lived in the 8th or 7th century BC, as Greece was transitioning out of the Dark Age. He wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey, about the mythical Trojan War. (~1190 BC) Archaic Era = 800-480 BC. • In 753 BC Rome was founded and ~700 BC was the rise of Greek polis, or city-states. (map shows Rome on L, Babylon on R, Corinth above Sparta and Athens) • Athens, Sparta and Corinth were 3 of the major city-states. They were a major development in politics and provided models of ruling through a system of laws. • Athens paved the way for a democratic government. The kleroterion was used to select jurors. Slots in the device held volunteers names and black and white balls were dropped down a tube to select them. Citizens inscribed the names of overly ambitious politicians that they wished to “ostracize” from the city on an ostrakon. Democracy didn't become the most common form of government until the mid-20th century AD. Athens had a direct democracy, while the republican government in Rome was a representative democracy like our own. • City-states were generally walled, with a central acropolis (citadel, fortress protecting the city), main marketplace, and gymnasium for sports and socializing. They were still mainly a collection of villages and not urbanized. The main difference was that the primary idea of citizenship: you were a Spartan or Athenian before you were a Greek. For many, the key characteristic was the idea of participation (by males) in government and self-rule. • There was a constant rivalry between the city-states, even though they came together for the Olympics and religious festivals. • It's worth noting here that the polytheism of the time held gods responsible for areas of land like specific cities and rivers, as well as for weather, social and political changes, etc. As society grew more complex, the Greek gods were linked in a pantheon with complicated family ties and hierarchies of power, the Greek/Roman mythology we know today. (Painting shows Jupiter and Juno – known as Zeus and Hera to the Greeks – and is by Carracci ~1600 AD.) • Before 600 BC, math in Greece was used primarily for commerce and construction, and astronomy was used for time-keeping. Thales of Miletus (624-546 BC) is considered the “father of science” and was among the “natural philosophers” after ~600 BC who applied logic and reason to the accepted myths of natural phenomenon. He brought together math ideas from Mesopotamia and Egypt to “invent” geometry. Thus began the idea of mathematics as philosophy and knowledge rather than just a tool restricted to practical issues. The Greeks will later recognize “seven sages” as the founders of their intellectual tradition. The full list tends to vary, but it always includes Thales and Solon of Athens, who lived ~630 BC and laid the foundations of democracy in Athens. This was also the time of Pythagoras (570-495 BC), who we'll talk much more about later. At this time math was divided into geometry, the study of the relative position and size of objects, including the Earth, and arithmetic, the study of numbers. Classical Era = 480 BC – 600 AD • 450 BC is the peak of Athenian power. (This is also about when the movie 300 takes place.) 443 BC begins the Golden Age of Athens under Pericles, who led Athens to become the political and cultural center of the Greek world. 431 BC marks the Pelopenesian Wars between Athens (democracy) and Sparta (oligarchy). Sparta ends up replacing Athens as the leading power in Greece, but the cost of the war is widespread poverty throughout parts of Greece. Meanwhile, across the Mediterranean Sea, Rome transformed from monarchy to republic (Latin for “public thing”) in 509 BC. • The theory of 4 elements – earth, air, fire and water – was put forth by Empedocles (490-430 BC). Leucippus (~480 BC) and his student Democritus (~460 BC) suggested that matter is made of tiny, indivisible particles separated by empty space (atoms!). The essence of science – thinking rationally and philosophically and making observations to satisfy human curiosity – was absent from most earlier civilizations. (It was present in ancient India and China, but the lineage of Western scientific thinking leads directly back to ancient Greece.) • Socrates (469-399 BC) had a student named Plato (427-347 BC) who had a student named Aristotle (384-322 BC). These three philosophers laid the foundation of classical thought and established philosophy and a method of rational inquiry used to attempt to understand the world and phenomena around us. Socrates questioned things like good and evil, courage and justice and was concerned with ethics and truth. Plato was concerned with ethics, justice, the nature of reality and the immortality of the soul. He thought the real world was an imperfect reflection of an ideal theoretical and mathematically perfect world. Aristotle took a more practical view of philosophy and wrote books on poetry, drama, ethics, politics, math, physics, logic, zoology and anatomy that were the basis of Western and Islamic science and philosophy until the 17th century AD. He was the single person with the greatest influence on the history of science. His theories were plausible, well-thought out and based on common sense, but they lacked rigorous logic and careful observation and many were later discovered flawed. His flawed theories were accepted as fact centuries later by the Catholic church, setting back scientific progress in Europe. By 370 BC, the many conflicts between the city-states had significantly weakened their power. This is also when Eudoxus introduced his theory of planetary movement and determined the length of a year. • School of Athens painting by Raphael in 1510 AD. May feature: ◦ Democritus (in blue on left pillar): ~460 BC, atoms ◦ Empedocles (seated in brown next to him): 490-430 BC, 4 elements ◦ Pythagoras (with book): 570-495 BC ◦ Alexander the Great (with golden hat): 356-325 BC ◦ Hypatia (woman in white): 360-415 AD ◦ Socrates (standing above her in olive-green): 469-399 BC ◦ Plato and Aristotle (main figures in center): 427-347 BC and 384-322 BC ◦ Euclid or Archimedes (teaching in red on right): ~300 BC or 287-212 BC ◦ Claudius Ptolemy (next to him with back turned): 90-168 AD, gave more mathematical treatment to Aristotle's atronomy Hellenistic Age, Ptolemaic Period and Roman Republic • Alexander the Great (Alexander of Macedonia) was born in 356 BC. He claimed to be descended from the gods, namely from Hercules on his father's side and Achilles, hero of the Trojan War, on his mother's side. • In 10 years time, Alexander conquered the Persian Empire, the largest empire the world had ever seen. The Hellenistic Age began with the death of Alexander in 323 BC and lasted until 31 BC. During this time, Greek ideas, especially in art and culture, spread well beyond Greece to Asia, Rome and Egypt. • After Alexander the Great's death in 323 BC, Ptolemy I Soter became the ruler of Egypt and became king/pharaoh in 304 BC. (Remember Egypt was part of Alexander's empire.) The Ptolemaic Period of Greek rule in Egypt, during which time Ptolemy I's lineage ruled, lasted 300 years. (Sidenote: The Rosetta Stone was inscribed in 196 BC with a decree of Ptolemy V. It's inscribed in Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, Demotic – a language used in northern Egypt, and Ancient Greek. Discovered by the French in 1799, who knew Ancient Greek, this is what allowed Western civilization to finally understand the hieroglyphs on Egyptian artifacts.) During this time, Egypt became more stable and methods of agriculture improved there. Ptolemy I Soter moved the capital of Egypt form Memphis (present-day Cario) to Alexandria, which became the greatest city the world had ever seen • The Library at Alexandria was founded ~300 BC. It was the first form of a university and attracted scholars from throughout the region. • Euclid wrote his Elements in 290 BC, and 200 BC marked the peak of Alexandrian learning. (Slide shows the oldest surviving fragments of Euclid's Elements, dated to ~100 AD.) • Rome was at a crossroads of major trade routes connecting Europe, Asia and North Africa. This brought money, ideas, art, etc. to contribute to the rise of Rome. The Roman Republic consisted of free men and slaves. Most significant free men were citizens (the rest were Latins, foreigners and former slaves). Citizens were divided into Patricians, landowners who could be members of the Senate, and Plebeians. • This was the time of Archimedes (287-212 BC), who studied at the Library at Alexandria. He was a mathematician, engineer, and inventor, and an example of how in Roman Times even the Greek thinkers had circled back to more practical applications in their work compared to Classical philosophers. • By the 2nd century BC, Rome was in a near-constant state of war, flux, and social discontent even as the Republic expanded east into the Mediterranean, North Africa and Greece.
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