England Before the Norman Conquest: Being a History of the Celtic, Roman and Anglo-Saxon Periods Down to the Year AD 1066

Routledge Revivals

ENGLAND BEFORE THE NORMAN CONQUEST BEING A HISTORY OF THE CELTIC, ROMAN AND ANGLO-SAXON PERIODS DOWN TO THE YEAR A.D. 1066

BY Sir CHARLES OMAN, K.B.E. ALL SOULS COLLEGE, OXFORD; HON. D.C.L., OXFORD; HON. LL.D., CAMBRIDGE AND EDINBURGH CHICHELE PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD, FELLOW OF THE BRITISH ACADEMY, AND PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

WITH THREE MAPS First published in 1938 by Methuen & Co. Ltd.

This edition ﬁrst published in 2018 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business ©1938 Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

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ISBN 13: 978-1-138-55886-1 (hbk) ISBN 13: 978-1-315-12345-5 (ebk) A HISTORY OF ENGLAND IN BIGHT VOLUMBS

GBNBRAL EDITOR: SIR CHARLES OMAN, K.B.E.

VOLUME J ENGLAND BEFORE THE NORMAN CONQUEST A HISTORY OF ENGLAND IN EIGHT VOLUMES EDITED BY SIR CHARLES OMAN

I. ENGLAND BEFORE THE NORMAN CONQUEST. By Sir CHAIU.ES OMAN, K.B.E., M.A., F.B.A., All Souls College, Oxford. [Eighth Edition. 11. ENGLAND UNDER THE NORMANS AND ANGEVINS. By H. W. C. DAVIS, M.A., LL.D., C.B.E., late Regius Professor of Modern History in the U ni• versity of Oxford. [Eleventh Edi#on. Ill. ENGLAND IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES. By KENNETH H. VICKERS, M.A., Principal of Uni• versity College, Southampton. [Sixth Edition. IV. ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS. By ARTHUR D. INNES, sometime Scholar of Oriel College, Oxford. Revised by J. M. HENDERSON, M.A., Lecturer in British History in the University of Aberdeen. [Eleventh Edition. V. ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. By G. M. TRE• VELYAN, O.M., Regius Professor of Modern His• tory in the University of Cambridge. [Seventeenth Edition. VI. ENGLAND UNDER THE HANOVERIANS. By Sir CHARLES GRANT ROBERTSON, M.A., LL.D., Vice• Chancellor and Principal of the University of Birmingham, Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. [Eleventh Edition. VII. ENGLAND SINCE WATERLOO. By Sir J. A. R. MARRIOTT, M.A., Honorary Fellow, formerly Fellow, Lecturer and Tutor in Modem History, of Worcester College, Oxford. [Eleventh Edition. VIII. MODERN ENGLAND, 1885-1932. By Sir J. A. R. MARRIOTT. ENGLAND BEFORE THE NORMAN CONQUEST

BEING A HISTORY OF THE CELTIC, ROMAN AND ANGLO-SAXON PERIODS DOWN TO THE YEAR A.D. 1066

BY SIR CHARLES OMAN, K.B.E. ALL SOULS COLLEGE, OXFORD; HON. D.C.L., OXFORD; HON. LL.D., CAMBRIDGE AND EDINBURGH

CHICHBL& PROPESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OP OXFORD,

FELLOW OF THE BRITISH ACADEMY J AND PRESIDENT OP THE BOY AL ARCBAtOLOGICAL INsTlroTa

WITH THREE MAPS

EIGHTH EDITION, REVISlfD

METHUEN & CO. LTD. 36 ESSEX STREET W.C. LONDON Fil'st Published April zznd I9IO Second Edition Septembel' I9IO Thil'd Edition APl'il I9I3 Fourlh Edition May I9I9 Fifth Edition, Revised January I9zI Sixth Edition Februal'Y I911S Seventh Edition, Revised Octobe1' I9z9 Eighth Edition, RMJised I938

HINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN INTRODUCTORY NOTE

BY THE GENERAL EDITOR

N England, as in France and Germany, the main I characteristic of the last fifty years, from the point of view of the student of history, has been that new material has been accumulating much faster than it can be assimilated or absorbed. The standard works of the 19th-century historians need to be revised, or even to be put aside as obsolete, in the light of the new information that is coming in so rapidly and in such vast bulk. The series of which this volume forms a part is intended to do something towards meeting the de• mand for information brought up to date. Individual historians will not sit down, as once they were wont, to write twenty-volume works in the style of Hume or Lingard, embracing a dozen centuries of annals. It is not to be desired that they should-the writer who is most satisfactory in dealing with Anglo-Saxon antiqui• ties is not likely to be the one who will best discuss the antecedents of the Reformation, or the constitutional history of the Stuart period. But something can be done by judicious co-operation. In the thirty-four years since the first volume of this series appeared in 1904, it would seem that the idea has iustified itself, v vi INTRODUCTORY NOTE as the various sections have passed through many editions and revisions varying from six to seventeen. Each is intended to give something more than a mere outline of one period of our national annals, but they have little space for controversy or the discussion of sources. There is, however, a bibliography annexed to most of the series, which will show the inquirer where information of the more special kind is to be sought. Moreover, a number of maps are to be found at the end of each volume which, as it is hoped, will make it unnecessary for the reader to be continually referring to large historical atlases-tomes which (as we must confess with regret) are not to be discovered in every private library. The general editor and his collaborators have been touched lightly by the hand of time. All regret the too early decease of our colleague Henry Carless Davis, sometime Regius Professor of Modern History in this University, who wrote the second of the eight volumes of the series. He had several times revised his contribution. Most of us survivors continue to do the same from time to time, as the pen (or sometimes the spade) produces new sources of information. Naturally the spade is particularly active for the purveying of fresh material for the first of our volumes, and the pen (or the press) for the two last. Informa• tion must be kept up to date, whatever the epoch concerned, even though it is known that much undis• covered evidence may yet be forthcoming in the near future. C. OMAN

OXFORD, 1st Jan., 1938 PREFACE

HEN the first edition of this volume was sent W to the press in 1910, I had the privilege of finding three good friends, who each revised one section of its contents. All three, alas! are now gone from us, but my gratitude persists. The first was T. Rice Holmes, who looked over the prehistoric and early Celtic chapters. The second was myoId school• fellow and colleague, Francis Haverfield, the greatest of specialists in his day for all that concerned Roman Britain: indeed he might well be called the father of modern Roman-British research. The third was H. Carless Davis, then a fellow of All Souls and after• wards Regius Professor of Modern History. I rewrote or retouched many a paragraph in my Anglo-Saxon chapters after considering his comments. But since 1910 much has been done in the way of excavation and other forms of research, leading to conclusions which were not available when this book first went to the press. The problem of the N orthum• brian wall and "vallum," still a subject of controversy in 1910, has been settled. An immense amount of new evidence concerning the Scottish Wall of Antoninus, and Roman Scotland in general, has been produced by Sir George Macdonald, who has :.tlways been good enough

1111 viii PREFACE to help me in keeping abreast with recent discovery. The spade has been busy at Lydney, Wroxeter, and Richborough, and more recently at Colchester and Verulam, Margidunum, Leicester, and Maiden Castle. Discoveries there made have led to the cancelling of some of my original paragraphs, and the modification of others. Dr. Mortimer Wheeler's work on the Lydney Sanctuary, for example, has forced me to rewrite much that had been held about the early extinction of Paganism in Britain, and it is to him that I owe the discovery that the site of the original fortress-capital of Cassivelaunus was at Whethampstead and not at Verulam, a slightly later stronghold of the Catuvel• launi. Whenever I found it possible, I have visited the spots where important excavation was in progress, and tested deductions with my own eyes. Hence three tours along Hadrian's Wall, one (in company with Sir George Macdonald) to parts of the Wall of Antoninus between Forth and Clyde. I have thrice inspected Veru• lam (once in drenching rain), twice Colchester. I have looked over Richborough with care, Whethampstead, Corbridge, Chester, Caerleon and Maiden Castle, besides a great number of Roman villas. On several of these occasions I was leading my flock of the Archreological Institute, and profiting by the observations of its members. I am well aware, therefore, that more has been done with the spade for our knowledge of Roman Britain since 1920 than in any other previous term of sixteen years, great as had been the work of Haverfield and his contemporaries in the time between 1890 and 1914. Some old problems have been solved since my first edition appeared, but several new ones have PREFACE ix emerged. I have done my best to make myself acquainted with them. There has also been, of recent years, much active interest taken in the archreology of pre-Roman Britain, especially in the Iron-Age period. I must confes& that I regarded N eolithic and Bronze-Age explorations as pre-history, not as history proper, and that anything before the coming of the Celts (whenever exactly that may have been) appeared a little remote to me. But since it is necessary to have a preliminary chapter, it is well that such a chapter should be correct in detail so far as can be ascertained. I have cancelled my original pages, and Mr. Christopher Hawkes has been kind enough to rewrite the revised version according to the latest results of modern research in which he has taken such a prominent part. I owe him my best thanks for carrying out a task which would have been beyond my own capacity. On the other hand, I have rewritten on my own responsibility the chapters which deal with the last days of the Roman domination in Britain, and the coming of the Anglo-Saxons. These are subjects on which I have my own views, and I arrive at my conclusions after studying, but not always accepting, the recent arguments of Mr. Leeds of the Ashmolean Museum, Dr. Mortimer Wheeler, Mr. J. N. Myres and others. I still adhere to my original views on the date and origin of the Wansdyke, on the entire worthlessness of all the West-Saxon entries in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle down to A. D. 577, and on the non-survival of Roman London, in spite of all that has been written on these points. And I adhere to the majority of historians who hold that Professor Bury's hypothesis as to a continuance x PREFACE of Roman imperial authority in Britain long after A.D. 410 may be rejected. As to archreological detail, space does not allow dissertations on "saucer-brooches and "hanging bowls," etc., but their existence and the evidences drawn from them has not passed unnoticed. I leave details to the archreologists, whose contentions are always interesting. Nor have I neglected to study Anglo-Saxon leavings, such as the carvings of Breedon• on-the-Hill, the crosses of Nantwich, or the mutilated fragments of the great rood of Reculver. In a volume in which the criticism of sources has to be carried out in the text-for a discussion of the authority of Caesar and Tacitus, of Gildas and" Nennius" (not to speak of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle) is essential-I have throught it unnecessary to give a separate appendix on authorities. This would have been equivalent to repeating in a second place almost the whole of Chapters XI., XII., XIII., and many paragraphs and footnotes in other sections of the book. But copious reference to authorities and discussion of them will be found everywhere. As I have already intimated, I owe special thanks for this revision of a book now twenty-seven years old, and in its eighth edition, to Sir George Macdonald, Dr. Mortimer Wheeler, and Mr. Christopher Hawkes, by whose assistance many old problems have been solved or at least envisaged. C. OMAN

OXFORD, Jan., 1988 CONTENTS

BOOK I BRITAIN BEFORE THE ROMAN CONQUEST

CHAPTER I "Ma PREHISTORIC BRITAIN 7 Neolithic Man in Britain-The Bronze Age and the Iron Age.

CHAPTER II THE CELTS IN BRITAIN DOWN TO THE INVASION OF JULIUS CAESAR (50o? 55 B.C.) • 15 The Wanderings of the Celts-The Belgae-Britain as seen by Pytheas - Early British Trade and Coinage - The Celtic religion - The Druids. CHAPTER III

CAESAR IN BRITAIN (SS-54 ••c.) ~7 Caesar's reason. for invading Britain-Hi. first invasion-His second inva• sion-He imposes tribute and departs.

CHAPTER IV BRITAIN BETWEEN THE INVASION OF JULIUS CAESAR AND THE INVASION OF CLAUDIUS (54 B.Co to A.D. 43) . 50 Effects on Britain of the Roman Conquest of Gaul-Dealings of Augustu8 with Britain-Kings of the House of Commius in Britain-Cymbeline, his family and his empire-Threatened invasion by Caligula-Claudius and his policy. zI XlI CONTENTS

BOOK II

ROMAN BRITAIN, A.D. 43-410 CHAPTER V PAG& THE ROMAN CONQUEST OF BRITAIN-CLAUDIUS AND NERO (A.D. 43-69) 61 Invasion of Aulus Plautius-Claudius visits Britain-Conquest of Southern Britain by Plautius and Vespasian-Governorship of Ostorius Scapula -Capture of Caratacus-Rule of Didius and Veranius-SuetoniuB Paulinus conquers Mona-Revolt and death of Boudicca-Pacification of Southern Britain. CHAPTER VI CONQUEST OF NORTHERN BRITAIN-CEREALIS AND AGRICOLA ~~~~ ~ Cerealis and the war with the Brigantes-Arrival of Agricola-He subdues the Ordovices-His efforts to spread Roman civilisation in Britain-He subdues the Brigantes-His invasion of Caledonia-His victory at the Mons Graupius-His recall by Domitian.

CHAPTER VII ROMAN BRITAIN FROM DOMITIAN TO COMMODUS (A.D. 85-180) 103 Consequences of the recall of Agricola-The towns of Roman Britain• Character of Romano-British civilisation-The religion of Roman Britain-Hadrian visits Britain-His works, the Limes-The Wall• The Roman Army in Britain-Campaigns of Lollius Urbicus-The Wall of Antoninus-Last rebellion of the Brigantes-Tbe reign of Marcus Aure1ius. CHAPTER VIII FROM COMMODUS TO CARAUSIUS (A.D. 180-2g6) 125 Reign of Commodus-Loss of the territory beyond Hadrian's Wail-Gov• ernment and usurpation of Clodius Albinus-He is crushed by Severus -Troubles in the North-Severul visits Britain-His Caledonian War-His death at York-Severus's Wall-State of Britain in the third century-Rebellion of Carausius-His career as Emperor in Britain• His character-Reign of Allectus in Britain-He is defeated and slain by the generals of Constantius Chlorus.

CHAPTER IX FROM DIOCLETIAN TO HONORIUS (A.D. 2g6-410) 149 Dioc1etian's reorganisation of the Empire, its effects in Britain-Accession of Constantine-Britain under Constantine-Reign of Constans-Inva- CONTENTS Xlll

no. sions by the Picts and Scots-Their Origin-Campaigns against them by Theodosiul the Elder-Usurpation of Magnus Maximus-StiIicho pro• tects Britain-Britain in the Notitia Dignitatum-Problems in the Notitia-Renewed rebeIlion in Britain-Usurpation of Constantine 1II.- He removes most of the garrison-End of the Roman power in Britain. CHAPTER X CHRISTIANITY IN BRITAIN DURING THE ROMAN PERIOD. 177 Early mentions of Christianity in Britain-St. Alban and St. AuguIuB• Bishops from Britain present at the fourth-century councils-Character of early Britiah Christianity-Pelag-ius and his followers-Survival. of heathenism.

BOOK III THE ANGLO-SAXONS IN BRITAIN (A.D.410-796) CHAPTER XI THE ANGLO-SAXON INVASION (A.D.410-516) • 186 Authorities for the fifth-century history of Britain-Coroticu8 and the defence of the North-Legend of Cunedda and his conquests-General condition of the British lands after A.D. 410-The visit of St. Germanus and the .. HalIelujah Victory "-Gildas's account of the coming of the Anglo-Saxons-Ambrosius Aurelianus-The Historia Brittonum and its narrati_Legend of Vortigern and Hengist-The narrative of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle-Extent of the early Anglo-Saxon conquests• The legend of King AIthur and his battles. CHAPTER XII THE SETTLEMENT OF THE CONQUERORS-THE EARLY KINGDOMS (A.D. 516-570) 213 Character of the Invaders-Origin of the Saxons, of the Jutes, of the Angles-The old kingly houses-The early history of Kent and Sussex• Of the East Saxons-Of the West Saxons-Its doubtfulIy authentic char• acter-Legend of Cerdic-Settlements of the Angles in Mid-Britain• The Celtic kingdoms of the sixth century as described by Gildas-In. vasion of Gaul by the Britons-The Celtic states of North Britain, their struggle with the Angles of Northumbria-Wars of Urien and the sons of Ida. CHAPTER XIII THE SECOND ADVANCE OF THE INVADERS-CEAWLIN AND AETHELFRITH (A.D. 577-617) 245 Ceawlin and the West Saxons-Battle of Deorham-Fall of Ceawlin• Aethelbert of Kent-Aethelfrith of Northumbria, his victory over the Northern Celts at Dawston-His victory of Chester. xiv CONTENTS CHAPTER XIV PAD. THE CONVERSION OF THE ANGLO-SAXON KINGDOMS (A.D. 597-671 ) 255 Gregory the Great and his work-He sends St. Augustine to Britain• Augustine arrives in Kent-Character of Old English Paganism-Sur• vivals of Christianity in Western Britain-Baptism of Aethelbert and conversion of Kent-Augustine and the Welsh-Conference of Aust• The Paschal Controversy-Breach between the English and the Welsh Churches-Pagan reaction after the deaths of St. Augustine and Aethel• bert-Raedwald slays King Aethelfrith-Accession of Edwin of North• umbria-Mission of Paulinus to Northumbria-Baptism of Edwin• His supremacy in Britain and death-Reign of St. Oswald in North• umbria-Victories of Penda of Mercia-Conversion of the smaller English States - Penda slain at the Winweedfield - Supremacy of Oswy of Northumbria-Wulfhere rebels against him-Conquests of Wulfhere-The Synod of Whitby-Its consequences-Quarrel of Oswy and St. Wilfred.

CHAPTER XV THE BALANCE OF POWER - MERCIA, NORTHUMBRIA AND WESSEX (A.D. 671-709) • 2g6 The Mercian realm, its strength and weakness-Wars of Wulthere of Mercia and Ecgfrith of Northumbria-Mediation of Archbishop Theodore-The Mission of Theodore of Tarsus-His reorganisation of the English Church-Synods of Hertford and Hatfield-Quarrels of Ecgfrith and St. Wilfred-Ecgfrith's Pictish wars-He is slain by the Picts at Nech• tansmere-Decline of Northumbria-Ceadwalla of Wessex and his conquests-Reign of Aethelred of Mercia-Latcr career of St. Wilfred.

CHAPTER XVI

THE EIGHTH CENTURY-THE MERCIAN DOMINATION (A.D. 709-802) 318 State of England in the eighth century-Causes of decay and trouble-Bede on the character of his own times-Political dangers-Turbulent history of Northumbria-Ine of Wessex and his conquests-Supremacy of Aethelbald of Mercia-Eadbert of Northumbria and his northern wars-Defeat and death of Aethelbald of Mercia-His successor Offa supreme in England-His vassal-kings in Wessex-Offa's Welsh wars -His new Archbishopric of Lichfield-His death-Anarchy in North• umbria during the later eighth century-Atrocities of Aethelred of Northumbria-First attack on England by the Danes. CONTENTS 1 CHAPTER XVII PAO. THE SOCIAL ORGANISATION OF THE EARLY ENGLISH KING· DOMS 351 Problems of early English social history-The classes of the people• Nobility by birth and nobility by service-The comitatus and the mQ.6gth -The free village-The servile population-Social ranks in Ine's laws.

CHAPTER XVIII THE POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF THE EARLY ENGLISH KINGDOMS 366 The Witan, its composition and powers-The kingship-The Ealdorman, his office and importance-The shire and shire·reeve-The hundred• Compurgation-Influence of the Church-Folkland and Boc1and.

BOOK IV THE DANISH INVASIONS (A.D. 796'900) CHAPTER XIX THE EVE OF THE STORM-RISE OF ECGBERT OF WESSEX (796•834) 38a England after the death of Offa-Rebellion and suppression of Eadbert of Kent -Supremacy of Coenwulf of Mercia-Early life of Ecgbert of Wessex, his expulsion from Kent-His reign in Wessex-Civil wars of Mercia after Coenwulfs death-Ecgbert conquers Kent, and receives homage from other realms-Later history of the Kingdom of Northumbria• The supremacy of Ecgbert.

CHAPTER XX

THE VIKINGS AND THEIR ORIGIN 400 Scandinavia in the eighth century-The ships of the Vikings-Wars of Charles the Great with the Danes-The Vikings in Ireland-The Vikings attack the Frankish Empire-The pirate kings-Military efficiency of the Vikings. CHAPTER XXI FROM ECGBERT TO ALFRED (834.871 A.D.) • • 417 Ecgbert and the Danes, battle of Hingston Down-Death of Ecgbert• Character of Aethelwulf-The Danes in Mercia and Wessex-Aethel. wuJf's victory at Oakley-Alfred and Aethelwulf at Rome-The " Dona• tion of Aethelwulf"-Aethelwulf's second marriage and death-Reign of Aethelbald and of Aethelbert-The Danes in East Anglia-Ruin of Northumbria-Reign of Aethelred I., and the campaign of Reading and Ashdown-Death of Aethelred. 1 ~ CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXII PAGB THE REIGN OF ALFRED-THE EARLIER DANISH WARS (871- 888 A_D.) • 443 The position and character of Alfred-His education-His marriage-His first battles in 871-Buys peace from the Danes-The Danes over• run Mercia, and establish a kingdom at York-Second Danish War of Alfred-Operations round \Vareham and Exeter-The Danes divide up Mercia-Alfred's third Danish War-He takes refuge in Athelney• His victory at Ethandun-He imposes peace on Guthrum and the Danes.

CHAPTER XXIII ALFRED'S LATER YEARS-HIS WORK AS STATESMAN AND SCHOLAR-HIS LAST DANISH WAR (879--900 A.D.) 462 Results of Ethandun-Alfred becomes Overlord of Mercia-He recovers London-His military and naval reforms-The" Burghal Hidage "• Extension of the Thegnhood-Alfred as legislator-His Budget• Alfred's patronage of scholars-His literary work-His last Danish War-Landing of Hasting-Hasting's raids checked-The Campaign of 893-The Danish fleet captured in the Lea-The enemy retires from England-Death of Alfred.

BOOK V THE KINGS OF ALL ENGLAND (A.D. 900-1066)

CHAPTER XXIV THE RECONQUEST OF THE DANELAW (A.D. 9°0-940) 492 Reign of Edward the Elder: revolt of Aethelwald-Aethelflaed of Mercia and her" Burhs "-Edward's great Danish war, battle of Tottenhall• Death of Aethelred of Mercia-The Danes in the Bristol Channel• Edward subdues Bedford-Battle of Tempsford-Reconquest of East Anglia-Death of Aethelflaed and annexation of Mercia to Wessex• Edward subdues the Danes of the North Midlands-He becomes suze• rain of all Britain-His character and death-His administration-Ac• cession of Aethelstan-Subjection of N orthumbria-Aethelstan' s Scottish wars-His victory at Brunanburh-His relations with the Continent.

CHAPTER XXV FROM EDMUND 1. TO EDWARD THE MARTYR (A,D. 940-978). 524 Reign of Edmund-His wars with the Danes of Northumbria-He subdues Cumberland-His murder by Leofa-Reign of Eadred-He twice sub• dues and finally annexes Northumbria-His patronage of Dunstan• Dunstan's early life-Eadred's death-Troubled reign of Eadwig-His CONTENTS 3

rAOS brother Eadgar set up against him-Eadgar's supremacy in Britain• His pageant at Chester-He aids Dunstan in monastic reforms-Hi. death-Short reign and murder of Edward the Martyr.

CHAPTER XXVI AETHELRED THE REDELESS AND EDMUND IRONSIDE (A.D. 978. 1016) • SS:! Accession of Aethelred n.-His minority-His character-Ill-governance of the realm-Viking raids renewed by Olaf Tryggveson-Battle of Maldon-Olaf and Sweyn of Denmark besiege London-They are bribed by Aethelred to depart-Fresh incursions on Wessex-Aethelred ravages Cumberland-The Massacre of St. Brice-Sweyn's second in• vasion and successes-Aethelred's abortive attempt to raise a great fleet -Invasion by JurI Thorkil-Martyrdom of St. Aelfheah-Wessex sub• mits to Sweyn-Aethelred flies to Normandy-Death of Sweyn and restoration of Aethelred-Cnut's invasion, and treachery of Eadric Streona-Death of Aethelred and accession of Edmund Ironside-Cam• paigns of Edmund and Cnut-Partition Treaty of Deerhurst and death of Edmund. CHAPTER XXVII CNUT AND HIS SONS (A.D. 1OI6-I042) S82 Cnut becomes King of all England-He slays Eadric Streona-His adminis• trative system-His marriage to Emma of Normandy-His policy in England-His personal character-Contrast between him and William the Conqueror-Hill northern wars-His visit to Rome-Conquers Nor• way-His relation with Scotland-His death-Strife between his sons Harold and Harthacnut-Murder of the Aetheling Alfred-Reign of Harold Harefoot-His death, and accession of Harthacnut-Death of Harthacnut. CHAPTER XXVIII EDWARD THE CONFESSOR AND HAROLD GODWINESON. CONCLUSION (A.D. 1042-I066) bog Edward the Confessor elected king-His character-Predominance of Earl Godwine-Crimes of Sweyn Godwineson-Eustace of Boulogne at Dover-Exile of Earl Godwine-His triumphant return-His death• War with Macbeth of Scotland-Welsh wars-Return and death of Edward the Exile-Predominance of Harold Godwineson-His success• ful Welsh war-His visit to Normandy and oath to Duke WiIliam• Troubles in the North and exile of Earl Tostig-Death of King Edward -Election of Harold as king-William of Normandy's scheme for invad• ing England-Harald Hardrada invades England-And is slain at Stamford Bridge-William of Normandy lands in England-Battle of Hastings and death of Harold-ConcJuding remarks. 4 CONTENTS APPENDICES ••0:& CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF KINGS OF KENT 652 EAST ANGLIA 65 2 " MERCIA 65 2 " NORTHUMBRIA. .652 -3 " "WESSEX 653 THE HOUSE OF ECGBERT 653 GENEALOGY OF THE NORTHUMBRIAN KINGS 654 MERCIAN KINGS 655 " EARLY KINGS OF WESSEX 656 " HOUSE OF ECGBERT 657 .. " DANISH KINGS OF YORK 658 THE HOUSE OF CNUT 658 [NDEX . 659

MAPS

ROMAN BRITAIN ENGLAND ABOUT THE YEAR 730. To face page 658 ENGLAND ABOUT THE YEAR 910. CONTRACTIONS

THE FOLLOWING OFTEN-USED CONTRACTIONS SHOULD BE NOTED:-

Ag. • • = Tacitus, Agricola. A. S. C. or A. S. Chronicle == Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (Plummer's Edition). B. C. S. or Birch C. S. • == Birch's Cartulari.um Saxonicum. B. G. or Bell. Gall.. • = Caesar De Bello Gallico. C. I. L. • = Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (vol. vii. ed. Hiihner). E. H. or Eccl. Hist. • • = Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation (Plummer's Edition). Eng. Hist. Rev. • = English Historical Review. H. B. or lIist. Brit. • == The Hi.stona Brittonum (" Nennius "). H. Y. • = Historians of the Church of York (Rolls Series). K. C. D. or Kemhle C. D. == Kemble's Codex Di.plomaticus Aevi Saxonici.. Liebermann • = Felix Liebermann's Gesetse der A"gelsachsen. M. H. B. . • == Monumenta Historica Britannica (Petrie, I848). Num. Chron. • "" Numismatic Chronicle. Thorpe Dipl. • = Thorpe's Diplomatarium AI"i Saxonici. W. M. • = William of Malmesbury (Rolls Series). W. P. • = WiIliam of Poitiers (M. H. B.). Freeman N. C. • • == Freeman's Norman Conquest. Hist. Eccl. Dunelm. • • ... Histona DU1llllmensis Ecclesia, in Simeon of Durham (Rolls Series). Crawford Charters • - Stevenson's Edition of the Crawford Charters in Anecdota Oxoniensia.