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NOTES NOTES FOR INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER The NSR is a series of shipping routes along the Russian coast passing through the Kara, Laptev, East Siberian and Chukchi Seas, which can be located, depending on ice conditions, in the Russian economic zone, territorial or internal waters. The northern boundary of the NSR coincides with the boundaries of the Russian economic zone. The length of the shipping route varies between 2200 - 2900 nautical miles (see figure I). James M. Broadus and Raphael V. Vartanov (eds.), The Oceans and Environmental Security. Shared U.S. and Russian Perspectives (Washington D.C.lCovelo: Island Press, 1994), 163. When referring to Arctic states at least three alternative defmitions come to mind: the Arctic jive, meaning the five coastal states to the Arctic Ocean, the Arctic eight, meaning all coastal states plus Sweden, Finland and Iceland, and the extended group of Arctic states, meaning all states with traditions and actual engagement in the region. All these defmitions of Arctic states concern the bioregional basis of this book. When we, nevertheless, attune ourselves to the Arctic five and do not provide country-chapters on Iceland, Finland and Sweden this is due to the maritime-oceanic-shipping related focus of this inquiry. The Arctic Ocean physically links the coastal states together in an ocean-related community of interests, not least in relation to the NSR. Other states are less affected by, and farther removed from, the immediate problems stemming from maritime activities in the Arctic. If our concern had been atmospheric and centered on long-range airborne transport of pollutants, not only the 8 countries would be in play but also a number of non-Arctic states. 4 S. Melinokov, "Zones of relatively enhanced contamination levels in Russian Arctic Seas," Arctic Research ofthe United States 8 (1993), 277-283. J.M. Martin, D.M. Guan, F. Elbaz-Poulichet, AJ. Thomas and V.V Gordeev, "Preliminary assessment of the distribution of some trace elements (As, Cd, Cu, Fe, Ni,Pb and Zn) in pristine aquatic environment: The Lena River estuary," Marine Chemistry 43 (1993),185-199. 6 See Ernst B. Haas, When Knowledge is Power. Three Models of Change in International Organizations, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990). Broadus and Vartanov (eds.), The Oceans and Environmental Security, 165. "State of the Arctic Environment. Report on Oil Pollution," Document 90:08 (Oslo: State Pollution Control Agency, 1990). Notes 268 9 For a more detailed account see G. Futsaeter, et aI., "Report on Oil Pollution," The State of the Arctic Environment: Report (Rovaniemi: The Arctic Center, 1991). 10 David Scrivener, "Envirorunental Cooperation in the Arctic: From Strategy to Council," Security Policy Library 1 (Oslo: The Norwegian Atlantic Committee, 1996), 10. II For a discussion of this see: Anders Backlund, "m.o 1.3: Development of Oil and Gas Exports from Northern Russia," INSROP Working Paper 22-1995; Bruce Buchan, "111.07.2: The Potential of the Northern Sea Route for a regular cargo service," INSROP Working Paper 15-1995; 0ystein Andersen, Tore J. Heggeli, Tor Wergeland, "I1I.I0.I: Assessment of Potential Cargo from and to Europe via the NSR," INSROP Working Paper 11-1995; and Trond Ragnvald Ramsland, "111.01.3: Oil Products from North West Russia," INSROP Working Paper 8-1995 (Lysaker: The INSROP Secretariat). 12 Alexander Granberg, "The Northern Sea Route and the economy of the Russian Arctic: from lNSROP I to lNSROP II," The INSROP Newsletter 4, No. 1 (Lysaker: The lNSROP Secretariat, June 1996), 1. 13 Ibid., 2. 14 See chapter I. IS Terence Armstrong, George Rogers and Graham Rowley, The Circumpolar North. A Political and Economic Geography of the Arctic and Sub-Arctic (London: Methuen & Co Ltd, 1978),274-275. 16 See chapter I. 17 Lawson W. Brigham, "The Russians open the Arctic for Business," u.s. Novallnstitute Proceedings 11911/1,1,079 (January 1993),92-93. 18 Tor Wergeland, "The Northern Sea Route - Rosy Prospects for Commercial Shipping?," International Challenges, The Fridtjof Nansen Institute Journal 12, No.1 (1992),43-57. 19 Willy 0streng, "Die Nordliche Seeroute und das Neue Russland. Wirtschaftliche, volkerrechtliche und sicherheitspolitische Aspekte," Die sicherheitspolitische Bibliothek 13, (Oslo: The Norwegian Atlantic Committee, 1992},5-8. 20 Article in Segodnia (l March 1997). 21 Olav Schram Stokke and Davor Vidas (eds.), Governing the Antarctic. The Effectiveness and Legitimacy of the Antarctic Treaty System (Cambridge University Press, 1996). See also: Arnfinn Jergensen-Dahl and Willy 0streng (eds.), The Antarctic Treaty System in World Politics (London: MacMillan, 1991). Notes 269 22 "Circumpolar Protected Area Network. Highest on the Agenda," Arctic Bulletin No. 2 (1995), 6-7. 23 Citation of Natalia Romanovna Danilina, Director of the Department for Nature Reserve Management in the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, in Arctic Bulletin No.2 (1995), 7. 24 Broadus and Vartanov (eds.), The Oceans and Environmental Security, 6. 25 Alexei Roginko and Matthew J. LaMourie, "Emerging Marine Environmental Protection Strategies for the Arctic," Marine Policy (1992) 259-276. 26 Alex Morrison, "Security in the Arctic Region. Coming in from the Cold War: Arctic Security in the Emerging Global Climate: A View from Canada," Disarmament 15, No.4, (1992),39-57. 27 Ibid. 28 For a discussion of this concept see: Franklyn Griffiths, "Epilogue: Civility in the Arctic," in Franklyn Griffiths (ed.): Arctic Alternatives: Civility or Militarism in the Circumpolar North (Toronto: Science for Peace/Samuel Stevens, 1992),279-309. 29 See Patricia M. Mische, "Ecological Security and the Need to Reconceptualize Sovereignty," Alternatives 14, No.4 (1989), 424. 30 Arthur H. Westing, Comprehensive Security for the Baltic. An Environmental Approach, (London: Taylor & Francis, 1989), 2. 31 There is no lack of definitions of the Arctic. The criteria for delimitation are many: the northern limits of trees, the 10 degree July-isotherm, the southern limit of tundra, sea ice extension, the Arctic Circle and various functional definitions to suit research (see figure 2). The difficulty arises when one tries to fmd a definition to fit all purposes and subjects. Most of the defmitions are made for purposes different from those relevant to the social sciences. The political processes important for the Arctic, do not end or change much at any of these delimitations. They are webbed together with the political processes of the South and are, by and large, dictated by the power centres located beyond the limits of any appropriate definition of the region. For this reason, the definition matters little for the purpose of the analysis. However, since the book has an important focus on the functioning of the ecosystem, we delimit the Arctic to coincide with the delimitation of the Arctic bioregion as defined by the International Working Group for the Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna. 32 Rasmus Hansson and Kjell A. Moe, "INSROP sub-programme II: Environmental Factors, Conceptual Design and Current Status," Mimeographed paper in the INSROP archives (1995). Notes 270 33 M. 1. Dunbar, "The Arctic Marine Ecosystem," in F.R. Engelhardt (ed.), Petroleum Effects in the Arctic Environment (LondonlNew York: Elsevier Applied Science, 1985), 27. 34 Teal Farrington, 1.W. Bums, K.A.Stegemann, J.J. Tripp and C. Phinny, "The West Falmouth Oil Spill after 20 Years: Fate of fuel oil compounds and effects on animals," Mar Poll. Bull. 12, No. 24 (1992), 607-614. 35 Gary A. Sergy and Peter J BlackalJ, "Design and Conclusions of the Baffin Island Oil Spill Project," Arctic 40, Supp. 1 (1987), 5. 36 Dunbar, "The Arctic Marine Ecosystem," 27. 37 W.J. CampbeIJ and S. Martin, "Oil and Ice in the Arctic Ocean: Possible Large Scale Interactions," Science 181, (1973). 38 Ibid., 166. 39 The average depths of the marginal seas off Siberia and Northwest Russia are as follows: Barents Sea= 229 meters, Laptev Sea= 519 meters, Kara Sea= 118 meters, East Siberian Sea= 58 meters, Chukchi Sea= 88 meters. More important than average depth of seas is the fact that most straits through the archipelagos have depths of less than 20 meters with smaIlest depths down to 11 and 8 meters. Source: Donat Pharand, The Law ofthe Sea ofthe Arctic with Special Reference to Canada (University of Ottawa Press, 1973), 257. 40 A.1. Arikaynen and K.N. Chubakov, "Azbukha ledovogo plavaniya" (The A to Z in Ice Navigation), Transport (1987), 130-184. The citation is taken from Gordon G. Watson, "Technical aspects of ice navigation and port construction in Soviet Arctic" in Lawson W. Brigham (ed.), The Soviet Maritime Arctic (London: Belhaven Press, 1991), 159 . 41 L. Lensky, "Damage Statistics on Ships Sailing the Northern Sea Route," Undated mimeographed paper in the FridtjofNansen Institute archives, 1. 42 "Drilling in the Beaufort Sea," Canada Today I (1977), 10-12. 43 The MacKenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry (Ottawa: Canada Ministry of Supply and Services, I 977), 69. 44 Inadvertent Climatic Modification: Report on the Study of Man's Impact on Climate (SMIC), sponsored by MIT and hosted by The Royal Swedish Academy of Science and the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1971), 73. 45 G.A Maykut and N. Untersteiner, "Some Results of a Time-Dependent Thermodynamic Model of Sea Ice," Journal of Geophysical Research 76 (1971). 46 1.8. MaxweJl and L.A. Barrie, "Atmospheric and Climate Change in the Arctic and the Antarctic," Ambio 18, (1989), 42-49. Notes 271 47 Rene O. Ramseier, "Oil on Ice," Environment 16, No.4 (1974), 8. 48 Douglas Brubaker, Marine Pollution and International Law. Principles and Practice (London: Belhaven Press, 1993),278. 49 We use the tenn relative deliberately, in that the regional variations in the sediment load in sea range from very clean to very dirty across the whole of the Arctic Basin.
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