NOTES

NOTES FOR INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER

The NSR is a series of shipping routes along the Russian coast passing through the Kara, Laptev, East Siberian and Chukchi Seas, which can be located, depending on ice conditions, in the Russian economic zone, territorial or internal waters. The northern boundary of the NSR coincides with the boundaries of the Russian economic zone. The length of the shipping route varies between 2200 - 2900 nautical miles (see figure I). James M. Broadus and Raphael V. Vartanov (eds.), The Oceans and Environmental Security. Shared U.S. and Russian Perspectives (Washington D.C.lCovelo: Island Press, 1994), 163. When referring to Arctic states at least three alternative defmitions come to mind: the Arctic jive, meaning the five coastal states to the Arctic Ocean, the Arctic eight, meaning all coastal states plus Sweden, Finland and Iceland, and the extended group of Arctic states, meaning all states with traditions and actual engagement in the region. All these defmitions of Arctic states concern the bioregional basis of this book. When we, nevertheless, attune ourselves to the Arctic five and do not provide country-chapters on Iceland, Finland and Sweden this is due to the maritime-oceanic-shipping related focus of this inquiry. The Arctic Ocean physically links the coastal states together in an ocean-related community of interests, not least in relation to the NSR. Other states are less affected by, and farther removed from, the immediate problems stemming from maritime activities in the Arctic. If our concern had been atmospheric and centered on long-range airborne transport of pollutants, not only the 8 countries would be in play but also a number of non-Arctic states. 4 S. Melinokov, "Zones of relatively enhanced contamination levels in Russian Arctic Seas," Arctic Research ofthe United States 8 (1993), 277-283. J.M. Martin, D.M. Guan, F. Elbaz-Poulichet, AJ. Thomas and V.V Gordeev, "Preliminary assessment of the distribution of some trace elements (As, Cd, Cu, Fe, Ni,Pb and Zn) in pristine aquatic environment: The Lena River estuary," Marine Chemistry 43 (1993),185-199. 6 See Ernst B. Haas, When Knowledge is Power. Three Models of Change in International Organizations, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990). Broadus and Vartanov (eds.), The Oceans and Environmental Security, 165. "State of the Arctic Environment. Report on Oil Pollution," Document 90:08 (Oslo: State Pollution Control Agency, 1990). Notes 268

9 For a more detailed account see G. Futsaeter, et aI., "Report on Oil Pollution," The State of the Arctic Environment: Report (Rovaniemi: The Arctic Center, 1991). 10 David Scrivener, "Envirorunental Cooperation in the Arctic: From Strategy to Council," Security Policy Library 1 (Oslo: The Norwegian Atlantic Committee, 1996), 10. II For a discussion of this see: Anders Backlund, "m.o 1.3: Development of Oil and Gas Exports from Northern Russia," INSROP Working Paper 22-1995; Bruce Buchan, "111.07.2: The Potential of the Northern Sea Route for a regular cargo service," INSROP Working Paper 15-1995; 0ystein Andersen, Tore J. Heggeli, Tor Wergeland, "I1I.I0.I: Assessment of Potential Cargo from and to Europe via the NSR," INSROP Working Paper 11-1995; and Trond Ragnvald Ramsland, "111.01.3: Oil Products from North West Russia," INSROP Working Paper 8-1995 (Lysaker: The INSROP Secretariat). 12 Alexander Granberg, "The Northern Sea Route and the economy of the Russian Arctic: from lNSROP I to lNSROP II," The INSROP Newsletter 4, No. 1 (Lysaker: The lNSROP Secretariat, June 1996), 1. 13 Ibid., 2. 14 See chapter I. IS Terence Armstrong, George Rogers and Graham Rowley, The Circumpolar North. A Political and Economic Geography of the Arctic and Sub-Arctic (London: Methuen & Co Ltd, 1978),274-275. 16 See chapter I. 17 Lawson W. Brigham, "The Russians open the Arctic for Business," u.s. Novallnstitute Proceedings 11911/1,1,079 (January 1993),92-93. 18 Tor Wergeland, "The Northern Sea Route - Rosy Prospects for Commercial Shipping?," International Challenges, The Fridtjof Nansen Institute Journal 12, No.1 (1992),43-57. 19 Willy 0streng, "Die Nordliche Seeroute und das Neue Russland. Wirtschaftliche, volkerrechtliche und sicherheitspolitische Aspekte," Die sicherheitspolitische Bibliothek 13, (Oslo: The Norwegian Atlantic Committee, 1992},5-8. 20 Article in Segodnia (l March 1997). 21 Olav Schram Stokke and Davor Vidas (eds.), Governing the Antarctic. The Effectiveness and Legitimacy of the Antarctic Treaty System (Cambridge University Press, 1996). See also: Arnfinn Jergensen-Dahl and Willy 0streng (eds.), The Antarctic Treaty System in World Politics (London: MacMillan, 1991). Notes 269

22 "Circumpolar Protected Area Network. Highest on the Agenda," Arctic Bulletin No. 2 (1995), 6-7. 23 Citation of Natalia Romanovna Danilina, Director of the Department for Nature Reserve Management in the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, in Arctic Bulletin No.2 (1995), 7. 24 Broadus and Vartanov (eds.), The Oceans and Environmental Security, 6. 25 Alexei Roginko and Matthew J. LaMourie, "Emerging Marine Environmental Protection Strategies for the Arctic," Marine Policy (1992) 259-276. 26 Alex Morrison, "Security in the Arctic Region. Coming in from the Cold War: Arctic Security in the Emerging Global Climate: A View from Canada," Disarmament 15, No.4, (1992),39-57. 27 Ibid. 28 For a discussion of this concept see: Franklyn Griffiths, "Epilogue: Civility in the Arctic," in Franklyn Griffiths (ed.): Arctic Alternatives: Civility or Militarism in the Circumpolar North (Toronto: Science for Peace/Samuel Stevens, 1992),279-309. 29 See Patricia M. Mische, "Ecological Security and the Need to Reconceptualize Sovereignty," Alternatives 14, No.4 (1989), 424. 30 Arthur H. Westing, Comprehensive Security for the Baltic. An Environmental Approach, (London: Taylor & Francis, 1989), 2. 31 There is no lack of definitions of the Arctic. The criteria for delimitation are many: the northern limits of trees, the 10 degree July-isotherm, the southern limit of tundra, sea ice extension, the Arctic Circle and various functional definitions to suit research (see figure 2). The difficulty arises when one tries to fmd a definition to fit all purposes and subjects. Most of the defmitions are made for purposes different from those relevant to the social sciences. The political processes important for the Arctic, do not end or change much at any of these delimitations. They are webbed together with the political processes of the South and are, by and large, dictated by the power centres located beyond the limits of any appropriate definition of the region. For this reason, the definition matters little for the purpose of the analysis. However, since the book has an important focus on the functioning of the ecosystem, we delimit the Arctic to coincide with the delimitation of the Arctic bioregion as defined by the International Working Group for the Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna. 32 Rasmus Hansson and Kjell A. Moe, "INSROP sub-programme II: Environmental Factors, Conceptual Design and Current Status," Mimeographed paper in the INSROP archives (1995). Notes 270

33 M. 1. Dunbar, "The Arctic Marine Ecosystem," in F.R. Engelhardt (ed.), Petroleum Effects in the Arctic Environment (LondonlNew York: Elsevier Applied Science, 1985), 27. 34 Teal Farrington, 1.W. Bums, K.A.Stegemann, J.J. Tripp and C. Phinny, "The West Falmouth Oil Spill after 20 Years: Fate of fuel oil compounds and effects on animals," Mar Poll. Bull. 12, No. 24 (1992), 607-614. 35 Gary A. Sergy and Peter J BlackalJ, "Design and Conclusions of the Baffin Island Oil Spill Project," Arctic 40, Supp. 1 (1987), 5. 36 Dunbar, "The Arctic Marine Ecosystem," 27. 37 W.J. CampbeIJ and S. Martin, "Oil and Ice in the Arctic Ocean: Possible Large Scale Interactions," Science 181, (1973). 38 Ibid., 166. 39 The average depths of the marginal seas off Siberia and Northwest Russia are as follows: Barents Sea= 229 meters, Laptev Sea= 519 meters, Kara Sea= 118 meters, East Siberian Sea= 58 meters, Chukchi Sea= 88 meters. More important than average depth of seas is the fact that most straits through the archipelagos have depths of less than 20 meters with smaIlest depths down to 11 and 8 meters. Source: Donat Pharand, The Law ofthe Sea ofthe Arctic with Special Reference to Canada (University of Ottawa Press, 1973), 257. 40 A.1. Arikaynen and K.N. Chubakov, "Azbukha ledovogo plavaniya" (The A to Z in Ice Navigation), Transport (1987), 130-184. The citation is taken from Gordon G. Watson, "Technical aspects of ice navigation and port construction in Soviet Arctic" in Lawson W. Brigham (ed.), The Soviet Maritime Arctic (London: Belhaven Press, 1991), 159 . 41 L. Lensky, "Damage Statistics on Ships Sailing the Northern Sea Route," Undated mimeographed paper in the FridtjofNansen Institute archives, 1. 42 "Drilling in the Beaufort Sea," Canada Today I (1977), 10-12. 43 The MacKenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry (Ottawa: Canada Ministry of Supply and Services, I 977), 69. 44 Inadvertent Climatic Modification: Report on the Study of Man's Impact on Climate (SMIC), sponsored by MIT and hosted by The Royal Swedish Academy of Science and the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1971), 73. 45 G.A Maykut and N. Untersteiner, "Some Results of a Time-Dependent Thermodynamic Model of Sea Ice," Journal of Geophysical Research 76 (1971). 46 1.8. MaxweJl and L.A. Barrie, "Atmospheric and Climate Change in the Arctic and the Antarctic," Ambio 18, (1989), 42-49. Notes 271

47 Rene O. Ramseier, "Oil on Ice," Environment 16, No.4 (1974), 8. 48 Douglas Brubaker, Marine Pollution and International Law. Principles and Practice (London: Belhaven Press, 1993),278. 49 We use the tenn relative deliberately, in that the regional variations in the sediment load in sea range from very clean to very dirty across the whole of the Arctic Basin. During the U.S.CGC Polar Sea transarctic crossing in 1994, foreign, long-transported substances including: sediment, driftwood, fossils and anthropogenic pollutants, were observed in varying degrees along the entire 1700 nm track line to the North Pole. What can be said is that within the whole of the central Arctic Basin there are both clean, non-polluted pristine areas and areas of pollution. Reference: "Infonnation Package," u.S.CGC Polar Sea WAGB ii. Arctic Ocean Section'94 (Washington D.C.: U.S. Coast Guard, 1994). See also: Lawson W. Brigham, "Across the Arctic Ocean," The Explorers Journal (Winter 1994/95), 127-131. so See Brubaker, Marine Pollution and International Law, 278. 51 See Ellen Hey, "The Precautionary Approach. Implications of the revision of the Oslo and Paris Conventions," Marine Policy (1991), 245. 52 Scrivener, "Environmental Cooperation in the Arctic," I I. 53 Scrivener, "Environmental Cooperation in the Arctic," 13. 54 Statement of Intent Among the Governors, Premiers, Ministers and Chairs of Northern Regions, at the Third Northern Regions Conference on Regional Environmental Cooperation, Anchorage, Alaska, (September 1990), I. 55 Franklyn Griffiths, "Epilogue: Civility in the Arctic," 279-310. 56 Ibid., 305. 57 ibid. 58 See G. Skilling and F. Griffiths (eds.), Interest Groups in Soviet politics (Princeton University Press, 1971). 59 Statement of Intent Among the Governors, Premiers, Ministers and Chairs of Northern RegiOns, I. 60 The Northern Forum Resolution no. 007, Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada (4 September 1992). 61 "Declaration on the Establishment of the Arctic Council," September \996, Arctic Bulletin No.4 (1996), 4-5. 62 ibid. 63 Monica Tennberg, "Indigenous Peoples' Involvement in the Arctic Council," Northern Notes 4 (Hanover, New Hampshire: Dartmouth College, 1996), 30. Notes 272

64 Barentsregionen, Et regionaliseringsprosjekt i del nordligste Europa, (Oslo: The Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1993). 6S Willy 0streng, "Organiseringen av den Euro-arktiske Barentsregionen: Formal, funksjon og potensiale," in prep.

NOTES FOR CHAPTER 1

Willy 0streng, "The Barents Region: A Contribution to European Security and Cooperation?," InternationaL Challenges, The Fridtjof Nansen Institute JournaL 12, No.4 (1992), 13-20. Olav Schram Stokke, "Politiske og samfunnsmessige utfordringer i Arktis," Strategisk plan for norsk poLarforskning 2, (Oslo: Norwegian Research Council, 1995). See also Wi\ly 0streng, "The post-Cold War Arctic: Challenges and transition during the 1990's" in Davor Vidas (ed.), Arctic DeveLopment and Environmental Challenges. Information needs for decision• making and international cooperation (Copenhagen: Scandinavian Seminar College/GRID-ArcndaVthe FridtjofNansen Institute, 1997),33-45. Willy 0streng, Politics in High Latitudes. The Svalbard Archipelago (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1978),44-60. 4 For a detailed account of this development see: Willy 0streng, "The Soviet Union in Arctic Waters. Security Implications for the Northern Flank of NATO," Occasional Paper No. 36, Law of the Sea Institute (Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1987), 16-25,42-47. Willy 0streng, "Political-Military Relations among the Ice-states: The Conceptual Basis for State Behaviour," in Franklyn Griffiths (ed.), Arctic Alternatives: Civility or Militarism in the Circumpolar North (Toronto: Science for Peace/Samuel Stevens, 1992), 26-45. 6 In the 1960s and 1970s the Soviet Union transferred one or two convoys of surface warships between the Kola peninsula and the Pacific. This happened in the part of the transit season when ice conditions were most favourable. On average it is possible to transit between the Atlantic and the Pacific on 15-20 days a year without ice breaker assistance. Transit of warships probably took place in such periods. See T011ne Huitfeldt, "A Strategic Perspective on the Arctic," Cooperation and Conflict 2/3 (1974), 83-99. Notes 273

In the period 1957-62 the U.S. Atlantic and Pacific fleets conducted long lasting submarine operations beneath the ice of the Arctic Ocean, and covered a distance of about 50,000 kilometers. At that time the U.S. Navy demonstrated that it was possible to navigate parts of the marginal seas (the Chukchi Sea) just 25 feet above the sea floor, and with the ability to break through more than 4 feet of ice. See Waldo Lyon, "The Submarine and the Arctic Ocean," Polar Record 10, No. 66 (1960), and E.P. Stafford, The Far and the Deep (London: Barker, 1968),323. Ventures like these - unique as they are - were regarded as evidence that the NSR possessed a strategic potential to be reckoned with. In the heat of the Cold War western analysts publicly transformed these exceptional demonstrations of naval mobility into an all-year Soviet capability to be counteracted by the West. This over-generalization fed on the hegemonialism of the East/West confrontation and disregarded the operational differences confronting submarines in respectively the Central Arctic Ocean and the shallow ice• infested NSR. A.N. Yakovlev, O.A.Kossov and A.P. Ushakov, "IV. 2.2: Political Aspects of International Shipping along the Northern Sea Route," INSROP Discussion Paper (Lysaker: The INSROP Secretariat, December 1994), 39. Ibid., 10-11 and 43. 9 A.1. Arikaynen and O.A. Kossov, "Technological Possibility of Safe Convoy of Non-Ice Class Ships Along the Northern Sea Route," Proceedings of the Second International Conforence on Ice Technology, Downing College, Cambridge University, 18-20 September, 1990 (Boston: Computational Mechanics Publications, 1991),260-261. 10 Yakovlev, Kossov and Ushakov, "IV. 2.2: Political Aspects of International Shipping along the Northern Sea Route," 39. II Ibid., 10-11. 12 Average depth in meters, marginal seas of the Northern Sea Route: - Kara Sea 118 - Laptev Sea 519 - East Siberian Sea 58 - Chukchi Sea 88 Source: Donat Pharand, The Law of the Sea of the Arctic with Special Reference to Canada (University of Ottawa Press, 1973), 257. 13 H.O. Bergesen, A. Moe and W. 0streng, Soviet oil and Security Interests in the Barents Sea (London: Frances Pinter Publishers, 1987),71-72. See also: John Berg, Nf£rbilde av Sovjets ublzter (Oslo: Sem og Stenersen AlS, 1984), II, and Harriet Critchley, "Polar Deployment of Soviet Submarines," International Journal 39, No.4 (1994), 856. Notes 274

14 John E. Sater, The Arctic Basin, revised edition (Washington: Arctic Institute of North America, 1969),265-274.

15 Waldo Lyon, "The Submarine and the Arctic Ocean," Polar Record II, No.75 (1963). 16 G.E. Synhorst, "Soviet Strategic Interests in the Maritime Arctic," u.s. Naval Institute Proceedings (May 1973), llO-111. 17 Terence Annstrong, "A History of the Northern Sea Route," International Challenges, The Fridtjof Nansen Institute Journal 12, No. I (1992),41. 18 Yakovlev, Kossov and Ushakov, "IV. 2.2: Political Aspects of International Shipping along the Northern Sea Route," 50. 19 TJ. Laforest, "Strategic Significance of the Northern Sea Route," u.s. Naval Institute Proceedings 93, No. 12 (1967), 63. 20 D. Luehring, "The Never-Never Sea," u.s. Naval Institute Proceedings 95, No.8 (1969), 142. 21 George Lindsay, "Strategic Stability in the Arctic," Adelphi Paper 24 I (London: Brassys for International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1989),73-74. 22 K.M. Shusterich, "International Jurisdictional Issues in the Arctic Ocean," Ocean Development and International Law 14, No.3 (1984),257. 23 S.M. OlenicotT, "Territorial Waters in the Arctic: The Soviet Position," R- 907-ARPA, (Santa Monica: Rand, 1972),28. 24 Yakovlev, Kossov and Ushakov, "IV. 2.2: Political Aspeets of International Shipping along the Northern Sea Route," 5. 2S Ibid., II. Italics of penetration added by the author. 26 For a detailed account of this legislation see William Butler, The Soviet Union and the Law of the Sea (BaltimorelLondon: The Johns Hopkins Press, 197 I), 17-101. 27 For a detailed account of this legislation see A.L. Kolodkin and M.E. Volosov, "The Legal Regime of the Soviet Arctic: Major Issues," Marine Policy 14, No.2 (1990), 158-168. 28 Erik Franckx, "Non-Soviet Shipping in the Northeast-Passage and the Legal Status of Proliv ViI'kitskogo," Polar Record 24, No. 151 (1988),270. 29 Ibid. 30 Ibid., 12. 31 Willy 0streng, "lhe Northern Sea Route: A New Era in Soviet Policy?," Ocean Development and International Law 22, No.3 (1991),259-287. Notes 275

32 Terence Armstrong, George Rogers and Graham Rowley, The Circumpolar North. A Political and Economic Geography of the Arctic and Sub-Arctic (London: Methuen & Co Ltd., 1978),277-278. 33 For an early account of this see Willy Q)streng, "The Strategic Balance and the Arctic Ocean: Soviet Options," Cooperation and Conflict I (1977),41-62. 34 Franklyn Griffiths and Rosmarie Kuptana, "Det liingsiktiga behovet av ett arktiskt rod," Nordisk Kontakl2 (Stockholm: Nordic Council, 1993), 10-13. 35 See Willy Q)streng, "De skandinaviske land i Arktis. Forutsetninger og muligheter for samarbeid," Mimeographed manuscript from study AA: H007, ArktislAntarktisprosjektet: Nye-territorie problematikken, (Lysaker: The FridtjofNansen Institute, January 1973),62-72. 36 Q)streng, "Political-Military Relations among the Ice States," 26-45.

37 See Willy Q)streng, Polhavet i internasjonal politikk (Lysaker: The Fridtjof Nansen Institute, 1978),264-302. 38 Willy Q)streng, "Polar Science and Politics: Close Twins or Opposite Poles in International Cooperation," in Steinar Andresen and Willy Q)streng (eds.), International Resource Management: The Role of Science and Politics (London: Belhaven Press, 1989), 88-114. 39 For a discussion of why the Arctic Ocean is not suitable as a nuclear free zone see Willy Q)streng, "Strategic Developments in Norwegian and Polar Seas: Problems of Denuclearization," Bulletin of Peace Proposals 13, No.2 {I 982), 101-112. 40 For an excellent account of the security thinking of the Gorbachev regime see Bruce Parrott, "Soviet National Security under Gorbachev," Problems of Communism 37, No. 10 (1988). 41 Mikhail Gorbachev, "Reality and Guarantees for a Secure World," in Moscow News 39 {I 987). 42 Andrey E. Granovsky, "Soviet Approaches to Security in the Arctic," in W.A. Hurlburt (ed.), The Arctic. Choices for Peace and Security (Seattle: The True North Strong and Free Inquiry Society/Gordon Soules Book Publishers, \989), 215-222. 43 Alexei A. Rodionov, "Soviet Approaches to Security and Peaceful Cooperation in the Arctic: An Overview," in Hurlburt (ed.), The Arctic. Choices for Peace and Security, 212. 44 N.I. Ryzhkov, "Neighbours in Northern Europe: The Soviet Union and Norway," International Challenges, The Fridtjof Nansen Institute Journal 9, No.2 (1989), 7. 45 Rodionov, "Soviet Approaches," 211. Noles 276

46 Robert Bathurst, "Where Cultures Cross: Old Russia in a New North," in Olav Schram Stokke and Ola Tunander (eds.), The Barents Region: Cooperation in Arctic Europe (London: Sage Publications, 1994), 53. 47 Robert Bathurst, "What Happens in Murmansk," Internal mimeographed report (Oslo: PRI~, 1994), 1. The report is based on a visit to the area. 48 Ibid. 49 Ibid., 7. 50 Militcerbalansen, 1984-85 (OslolLondon: The Norwegian Atlantic CommitteelInternationallnstitute of Strategic Studies, 1985), 1 ) 6- ) 21. 51 Militcerbalansen, 1994-95, (OslolLondon: The Norwegian Atlantic Committee/International Institute of Strategic Studies, 1994), 196-203. 52 INSROP is a five-year multidisciplinary research programme, the main phase of which commenced in June 1993. The three principal operating partners are Central Marine Research and Design Institute (CNIIMF) in St. Petersburg, Ship & Ocean Foundation (SOF) in Tokyo and the Fridtjof Nansen Institute (FNl) in Lysaker, Norway. INSROP's main secretariat is located at FNI. The aim of INSROP is to build up a knowledge base adequate to provide a foundation for long-term planning and decision-making by state agencies as well as private companies etc, for purposes of promoting rational decision• making concerning the use of the NSR for transit and regional development. For more information see: The INSROP Newsletter 1, No.1 (1993); 2, No. ) (1994); 2, No.2 (1994); and 2, No.3 (1994), (Lysaker: The INSROP Secretariat). 53 Alexander Granberg, "International Economic Cooperation Along the Northern Sea Route," in Henning Simonsen (ed.), Proceedings from the Northern Sea Route Expert Meeting, 13-/4 October, 1992, (Lysaker: The Fridtjof Nansen Institute, 1993), 153-166. 54 Segodnia (I March 1997). The citation is translated by this author. 55 Ibid. 56 Yakovlev, Kossov and Ushakov, "IV. 2.2: Political Aspects of International Shipping along the Northern Sea Route," 39. 57 Ibid.,5. 58 Herman Pollack and Peter Anderson, "United States Policy for the Arctic," Arctic Bulletin No.2 (1973). 59 Hugh Odishaw, "International Co-operation," Science and Technology, unnumbered and undated, in the archives of the FridtjofNansen Institute, 28. 60 Armstrong, Rogers and Rowley, The Circumpolar North, 269. Notes 277

61 For a more detailed discussion of the western attitudes towards cooperation in these years see 0streng, Po/have! i internasjonal politikk, 39-41. 62 Treshnikov, Baranov, Surukhanyan, Smirnov and Timokhev, The Polar Experiment (Leningrad: AARI, 1974). 63 See "Aidjex Scientific Plan," Aicijex Bulletin 15 (Seattle: University of Washington, 1972). See also N. Untersteiner, "United States/Canadian Project: Arctic Ice Dynamics Joint Experiment (Aidjex)," Polar Record 15, No. 98 (1971), 725-726. 64 AF. Treshnikov, E. Borisenkov, N.A Volkov and E.G.Nikiforov, "The American Ice Dynamics Joint Experiment Project," in AF. Treshnikov (ed.), Problems ofthe Arctic and Antarctic (Leningrad: AARI, 1971), 38. 65 Anne Fikkan, Gail Osherenko and Alexander Arikainen, "Polar Bears: The Importance of Simplicity," in Oran R. Young and Gail Osherenko (eds.), Polar Politics: Creating International Environmental Regimes (IthacaILondon: Cornell University Press, 1993),96-152. 66 Tore Gjelsvik, "Science and Politics in Polar Areas," Mimeographed article in the archives of the FridtjofNansen Institute (October 1985),6-7. 67 Trevor Lloyd, "International Co-operation in Arctic Science and Disarmament" Mimeographed article in the Library of the Canadian Institute ofinternational Affairs, Toronto (March 1969). 68 Ibid. 69 Armstrong, Rogers and Rowley, The Circumpolar North, 268. 70 Gjelsvik, "Science and Politics in Arctic Areas," 7-10. 71 For the work of this group see: Oran R. Young, "The Work of the Working Group on Arctic International Relations," Northern Notes 4 (Hanover, New Hampshire: Dartmouth College, 1996), 1-21. 72 Letter from Jasov A Ostrovsky to Oran R. Young and Franklyn Griffiths, 15 October 1990, published in Northern Notes 4 (Hanover, New Hampshire: Dartmouth College, 1996), 18-19. 73 Gordon W. Brown,"The Arctic ASW," Us. Naval Institute Proceedings 88, No.3 (1962). See also "Reds Issue Hudson Bay Threat," Montreal Daily Star (18 August 1959); and "New Dangers in the North," Ottawa Evening Journal (11 August 1958). 74 Charles Bishop, "Oceanography in Naval Warfare," US. Naval Institute Proceedings 85, No.5 (1959), 82. 75 The extraterritorial states are: France, Germany, Japan, The Netherlands, Poland and Great Britain Notes 278

76 For a detailed discussion of this cooperation see David Scrivener, "Environmental Cooperation in the Arctic: From Strategy to Council," Security Poli'-Y Library 1 (Oslo: The Norwegian Atlantic Committee, 1996). 77 Monica Tennberg, "Indigenous Peoples' Involvement in the Arctic Council," in Northern Notes 4 (Hanover, New Hampshire: Dartmouth College, 1996), 23. 78 Scrivener, "Envirorunental Cooperation in the Arctic," 18. 79 Ibid., 18-28. 80 Ibid., 23 81 See Tennberg, "Indigenous Peoples' Involvement in the Arctic Council," 28. 82 Ibid., 29. 83 Ibid., 30. 84 Olav Schram Stokke, "Arctic Environmental Cooperation after Rovaniemi - What Now?" in Lise Lyck (ed.), Nordic Arctic Research on Contemporary Arctic Problems: Proceedings from Nordic Arctic Research Forum Symposium (Aalborg University Press, 1992),231. 85 Griffiths and Kuptana, "Det lAngsiktiga behovet av ett arktiskt rAd," 7-17. 86 For a most interesting discussion on the working agenda of the Arctic Council see: Oran R. Young, The Arctic Council: Marking a New Era in International Relations (New York: The Twentieth Century Fund, 1996). 87 Ibid., p.13. 88 Ibid. 89 See Stokke and Tunander (eds.), The Barents Region. 90 "Declaration on the Establishment of the Arctic Council," September 1996, Arctic Bul/etin No.4 (1996), footnotes 1 and 5. 91 Scrivener, "Envirorunental Cooperation in the Arctic," 22. 92 Young, "The Arctic Council," 9. 93 Oran R. Young, "A Sustainable Development Strategy for the Arctic Council," Arctic Bulletin No. I (1997),7. 94 The Northern Forum Resolution no. 001, Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada. (4 September 1992). 95 Young, "The Arctic Council," 9. 96 Amfinn J0I'gensen-Dahl, "The Arctic and the Rest," in Challenges of a Changing World. Festschrift to Willy @streng (Lysaker: The Fridtjof Nansen Institute, 1991),55. Notes 279

97 For an interesting discussion of this development see: Leonid Timtchenko, Quo Vadis, Arcticum? The international Law Regime ofthe Arctic and Trends in its Development (Kharkov: State University Press "Osnova," 1996). 98 Franklyn Griffiths, "Challenge and Leadership in the Arctic," in EJ. Dosman (ed.), Sovereignty and Security in the Arctic (LondonlNew York: Routledge, 1989),211-227. 99 Statement of intent Among the Governors, Premiers, Ministers and Chairs of Northern Regions, at the Third Northern Regions Conference on Regional Environmental Cooperation, Anchorage, Alaska, (September 1990), paragraphs IV and V.

100 "Declaration on the Establishment of the Arctic Council," Arctic Bulletin No. 4 (1996), footnotes I and 5.

NOTES FOR CHAPTER 2

See an interview with academician M. Vinogradov, izvestiya, No. 28 (12 February 1994),2. This task has not materialized, however: Despite all efforts, the NSR has never taken on any great military/strategic importance as a link between the Pacific and the Atlantic (see Willy 0streng, "The Northern Sea Route: A New Era in Soviet Policy?," Ocean Development and international Law 22, No.3 (1991), 265-267. Terence Annstrong, "A History of the Northern Sea Route," International Challenges. The FridtjofNansen institute Journal 12, No.1 (1992),38.

4 See Trofimov, "Komu prinadlezhit Arktika? K voprosu 0 rossiyskikh granitsakh v severnykh moryakh," Nezavisimaya gazeta (29 April 1995), 1- 2. Terence Annstrong, The Northern Sea Route: Soviet Exploitation of the North East Passage, (Cambridge University Press, 1952), 173, cited by Franklyn Griffiths, "The Arctic in the Russian Identity," in Lawson W. Brigham (ed.), The Soviet Maritime Arctic (London: Belhaven Press, 1991), 102. 6 Materialy XXV S'ezda KPSS. (Moscow: Politizdat, 1976), 5. 7 William Butler, The Soviet Union and the Law of the Sea (Baltimore/London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971),4. See Erik Franckx, Maritime Claims in the Arctic: Canadian and Russian Perspectives (Dordrecht: Nijhoff, 1993). Notes 280

9 Olli-Pekka Jalonen, "Russian naval strategy: The feasibility of non• offensive alternatives," in Jyrki Kak6nen (ed.), "Vulnerable Arctic: Need for an Alternative Orientation", Tampere Peace Research Institute Research Report No. 47 (1992),14. 10 G.E. Synhorst, "Soviet Strategic Interests in the Maritime Arctic," u.s. Novallnstitute Proceedings (May 1973),93. II Jalonen, "Russian naval strategy", 14-15. 12 Ibid,15. 13 Finn Sollie, "The Soviet Challenge in Northern Waters," in Kari Mott6la (ed.), The Arctic Challenge. Nordic and Canadian Approaches to Security and Cooperation in an Emerging International Region (Boulder/London: Westview Press, 1988), 88. 14 Willy (?Jstreng, "The Soviet Union in Arctic Waters. Security Implications for the Northern Flank of NATO," Occasional Paper No. 36, Law of the Sea Institute (Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1987), 1. IS See "Severnyi Ledovitiyi Okean i Mezhdunarodnaya Bezopasnost," in Geografiya Mirovogo Okeana: Severnyi Ledovityi i Yuzhnyi Okeany (Leningrad: Nauka, 1985), 151. 16 (?Jstreng, "The Northern Sea Route", 270. 17 Lise Lyck, Military Strategy and its Socio-Economic Consequences in the Arctic since World War II. Paper Presented at Aarhus University, 25-28 October 1993 at the Conference "Military Development and Socio-Cultural Change in the Arctic." 18 This fact accounts for a virtual absence of any Soviet non-classified writings concerning Arctic security issues published prior to perestroika. Even the comprehensive monograph on the geography of the Arctic ocean published in 1985 (see "Severnyi Ledovitiyi Okean i Mezhdunarodnaya Bezopasnost"), avoided any references to the Soviet security interests in the Arctic. The heavy censorship on "Arctic" publications was lifted only in 1988. 19 (?Jstreng, "The Northern Sea Route", 272. 20 Franklyn Griffiths, "A Tendency Analysis of Soviet Policy-Making," in G. Skilling and F. Griffiths (eds.), Interest Groups in Soviet politics (Princeton University Press, 1971),372. 21 Alexander Granberg, "The Northern Sea Route and the Policy of New Russia," International Challenges. The Fridtjof Nansen Institute Journal 12, No. 1(1992),7. 22 V. Kotov and E. Nikitina, "Russia in Transition: Obstacles to Environmental Protection," Environment 35, No. 10 (1993), II. Notes 281

23 Griffiths, "The Arctic in the Russian Identity," 103-104. 24 For a detailed description and discussion of the Edict, see chapters 5 and 14 by Alexei Roginko and William Butler in Brigham (ed.), The Soviet Maritime Arctic. 2S See, e.g., Yu.G. Barsegov, "Osobennosti mezhdunarodno-pravovogo rezhima," in GeograflJla Mirovogo Okeana (Leningrad: Nauka, 1985), 155. 26 In the late eighties, observers have noted an almost total lack of waste oil reception facilities in place at Russian arctic ports; nor have adequate oil spill contingency plans been established in the Arctic in the event of an accidental release along the NSR (see S.V. Latukhov, "Transportnoie ispol'zovanie Severnogo Morskogo Puti i zagryaznenie Arktiki," in Geoekologiya Mirovogo Okeana (Leningrad: Nauka, 1990), 127-128 ). There are no reasons to believe that the situation has significantly improved (if not deteriorated) since then. 27 0streng, "The Northern Sea Route", 274. 28 David Scrivener, Gorbachev's Murmansk Speech: The Soviet Initiative and Western Responses (Oslo: The Norwegian Atlantic Committee, 1989), 17. 29 R.V. Vartanov, "Commentary Article: The Arctic: One of Many Concerns of the New Russian Decision-Makers," International Challenges, The FridtjofNansen Institute Journal 12, No.3 (1992),40-46. 30 Andrei Kozyrev, "Russia: a chance for survival," Foreign Affairs 71, No.2 (1992), 1. 31 Andrei Nikolayev, "Military Aspects of Russia's Security," International Affairs, No. 10, (October 1993),2. 32 Granberg, "The Northern Sea Route and the Policy of New Russia," 12-13. 33 A. Arbatov, "Rossiya: natsional'naya bezopasnost' v 90-e gody," MEiMO No.7 (1994), 10. 34 The very notion of "national security" was first mentioned in Russia in 1989 at one of the sessions of the Supreme Soviet of the U.S.SR, when the Supreme Soviet authorized a group of academicians headed by the Chairman of the Committee for Science and Technology, Yuri Ryzhov (currently Russian ambassador to France) to work out the basic provisions and concepts of national security. That was when a broader approach to the very notion of national security was officially adopted, and it came to comprise not only military and "special" aspects, but also economic, cultural and environmental security (see Victor Litovkin, "Kontseptsiyu natsionalnoi bezopasnosti kritikuyut experty, no khvalit prezident," Izvestiya (8 May 1997). Notes 282

35 Kratkiy slovar' spetsial'nykh terminov dUa rukovodiashchego sostava vooruzhennykh sil Rossiyskoi Federatsii (KSST), (Moscow: 1994),9, cited in I.Yu. Zhinkina, "0 poniatii 'bezopasnost gosudarstva'," SSM: EPI No.9 (1995),58. 36 Zhinkina, "0 poniatii 'bezopasnost gosudarstva'," 59. 37 "Politika natsional'noi bezopasnosti Rossiyskoi Federatsii (1996-2000)," Nezavisimaya gazeta No. 93, Supplement (23 May 1996). 38 On 7 May, 1997 the Security Council, headed by the President, has finally approved the Russian concept of national security. However, the document itself has been classified and it is unclear whether it would be made public. Still, it became known that this very compact (30 pages) document confirms the priority of the individual's security over the security of the society, declares that domestic non-military threats, such as crime, corruption, regional separatism and mass poverty, pose the main danger to Russia's security, and urges "strengthening Russian federalism," promoting economic growth and building "public concord" as the main directions for reviving Russia as a global power (see Litovkin, "Kontseptsiyu natsionalnoi bezopasnosti kritikuyut experty;" I. Bulavinov, "Odobrena kontseptsiya natsional'noi bezopasnosti Rossii," Kommersant-Dai/y (8 May 1997). 39 This geopolitical concept, obviously associated with the process of erosion of Russian sovereignty in its constituent territories and with centrifugal tendencies within the Federation, was not sufficiently clarified conceptually, but was nevertheless surprisingly similar in essence to a well-known Haushofer's concept of lebensraum which served as a theoretical basis for the expansion of the Third Reich. 40 See I1ya Mogilevkin, "Arktika kak posledniy oplot Rossii," Nezavisimaya gazeta (25 November 1994),3. 41 Ibid. 42 Trofimov, "Komu prinad1ezhit Arktika?," 1-2. 43 For example, this principle has been used in the 1990 USSR-U.S.A Maritime Boundary Agreement and is being used by Russia at the negotiations commenced by the USSR in 1974 with Norway on the delimitation of the exclusive economic zones (EEZ) and continental shelf in the Barents Sea (see L. Timchenko, The International Legal Regime ofthe Arctic and Trends of its Development. Paper Presented at Aarhus University, 25-28 October 1993 at the Conference "Military Development and Socio-Cultural Change in the Arctic." 44 This assessment has been made by Russian security analyst A. Arbatov, on the basis of data provided by D. Krawford. (A. Arbatov, "Rossiya: Natsional'naya bezopasnost' v 90-e gody," MEiMO No. 8-9 (1994), 11-12.) Notes 283

4S Ibid. 46 See Gael D. Tarleton, "Red Star of the Sea: the Soviet Navy and Strategic Policy," in D. Leebaert and T. Dickinson (eds.), Soviet Strategy and the New Military Thinking (Cambridge University Press, 1992), 127-153. 47 Despite the issuance, in June 1995, of a special Presidential decree No. 567 "On urgent measures to support the combat readiness of strategic naval nuclear forces," government has practically stopped the financing of the naval component of Russian strategic nuclear forces, with no funds allocated for SSBN's maintenance and repair either in 1995 or in 1996 budgets (Oleg Yerofeev, "Morskaya sostavliayushchaya yadernoi triady," Nezavisimaya gazeta{l4 March 1996).) 48 Valeriy Aleksin and Eduard Shevelev. "VMF v obespechenii natsional'noi bezopasnosti Rossii," NO - Nezavisimoye voyennoe obozreniye (24 October 1996), 4. 49 See The Military Balance 1992-93 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1992), 91-92; Admiral Felix Gromov, "Reforming the Russian Navy," Naval Forces 14, No.4 (1993), 6-12. 50 K. Pleshakov, "Mirovoy okean i Andreevskiy flag," Mezhdunarodnaya zhizn'No. 11-12 (1995), 65. 51 According to Russian naval experts, this advantage is based on the specific design features of Russian SSBNs (capabilities to launch missiles from high latitudes and to break ice cover) as well as on the existence of heavy ice cover in the Arctic seas, that ensures the submarines' adequate protection from enemy ASW aircraft and space surveillance, and provides for their high combat stability (Aleksin and Shevelev, "VMF v obespechenii natsional'noi bezopasnosti Rossii"). 52 Georgi Sobolev, "Bezopasnost' Rossii budet opiratsia na 'Severnyi strategicheskiy bastion'," Segodnia (6 November 1996), 3. S3 Gennadyi Voronin, "Kakoi podvodnyi flot nuzhen Rossii?," Nezavisimaya gazeta (29 December 1994),3. 54 Roy Allison, "Military Forces in the Soviet Successor States," Adelphi Paper No. 280 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1993), 30-32. 55 Oleg Yerofeev, "Reformirovat' nado. Razrushat' - nel'zia! Severnyi flot dolzhen byt' sokhranen kak moshchnoe operativno-strategicheskoe ob'edinenie," NO - Nezavisimoye voyennoe obozreniye (22 April 1995), 4. 56 Ibid 57 "The Russian Northern Fleet: Sources of Radioactive Contamination," Bellona Report No 2 (1996), Chapter I. Notes 284

58 Yerofeev, "Refonnirovat' nado." 59 "The Russian Northern Fleet," Chapter I. 60 Olga Podkolzina, "Yadernymi otkhodami rossiyskogo Severa prikhoditsia zanimatsia vsem mirom," Finansovye izvestiya (20 May 1997), VIlI. 61 "The Russian Northern Fleet," Chapter I. 62 Ibid 63 Podkolzina, "Yadernymi otkhodami rossiyskogo Severa prikhoditsia zanimatsia vsem mirom." 64 The Boston Globe (26 September \995). 65 A group of prominent Navy admirals has voiced concern in the media about the inadequacy of Russian military doctrine which does not reflect changes which led to Russia's losing supremacy in the Black, Baltic and the Caspian Seas, as well as in the major strategic regions of the world's oceans. The doctrine refers to naval issues only in the context of naval forces' reduction and limitation of naval activity, without even mentioning the necessity of maintaining the sea power of the state as an element of national security. (" Admiraly obespokoyeny sud'boi rossiyskogo YMF," Nezavisimaya gazera (I March 1996).) 66 See, e.g., Arbatov, "Rossiya: Natsional'naya bezopasnost' v 90-e gody;" V. Zagashvili, "Natsionalizm v geoekonomicheskoi politike," MEiMO No. 3 (1995),9; etc. 67 Finansovye Izvestiya No. 17 (14 March 1995); Finansovye Izvestiya No. 43 (22 June 1995). In 1993-94, only in three macroregions, which together comprise the whole of the Russian North, a net migrational loss of population has been registered: Far East, East Siberia and the European North. 68 In 1996, some northern regions received about 40 percent of the required coal stocks and less than 50 percent of fuel oil. The Chukchi and the Koryak autonomous districts had practically no stocks of coal (Andrei Ivanov, "Loss of Reindeer Herds Threatens Indigenous Communities," glas: ips. english ( I 0 January 1997». 69 Andrei Ivanov, "Moscow Promises to Put Right Its Arctic Chaos - Next Winter," glas:ips.english (12 February 1997); Irina Nagomykh, "Den'gami severnogo zavoza oplacheny dolgi po zarplate i vodka," Segodnia (26 May 1997). 70 A. Zverev, "Ekonomicheskaya bezopasnost' v Rossii," Ekonomika i Zhizn' No.8 (February 1995), 16. 71 "Politika natsional'noi bezopasnosti Rossiyskoi Federatsii." Notes 285

72 Alexei Roginko, "Arctic development, environment and northern natives in Russia," in J. KlikOnen (ed.), Politics and Sustainable Growth in the Arctic (Aldershot: Dartmouth Publishing 1993),25-33. 73 "Discrimination against indigenous peoples of the North in the Russian Federation: A Statement by Social Organizations and Movements of Indigenous Peoples of the North," glas:env.siberia (19 May 1996). 74 See N. Mirovitskaya and A. Roginko, "Vozmozhna Ii ekologicheskaya bezopasnost' v Arktike?," MEiMONo. I (1992), 135-136. 7S The President of Sakha-Yakutia, Mikhail Nikolaev, became one of the initiators and major proponents of the establishment of the Northern Forum which would provide for a subsequent integration of Yakutia into the international "northern" community. 76 M. McFaul and N. Petrov (eds.), Politicheskiy almanakh Rossii. 1995 (Moscow: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1995). 77 Oran R.Young and Gail Osherenko define regimes as "social institutions composed of agreed-upon principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures that govern the interactions of actors in specific issue ares" (Oran R. Young and Gail Osherenko (eds.), Polar Politics: Creating International Environmental Regimes (Ithaca/London: Cornell University Press, 1993), I). 78 Rune Castberg, Olav Schram Stokke and Willy 0streng, "The Dynamics of the Barents Region," in Olav Schram Stokke and Ola Tunander (eds.), The Barents Region: Cooperation in Arctic Europe (London: Sage Publications, 1994),77. 79 Olav Schram Stokke, "Environmental Cooperation as a Driving Force in the Barents Region," in Stokke and Tunander (eds.), The Barents Region. 156. 80 Anders Kj0lberg, "The Barents Region as a European Security-building Concept," in Stokke and Tunander (eds.), The Barents Region, 187. 81 The authors of the Russian national strategy for economic security have included "underdeveloped transport infrastructure for export-import operations" into the list of major factors detrimentally affecting external economic security of the nation. (See Zverev, "Ekonomicheskaya bezopasnost' v Rossii.") 82 See e.g. Grigory Agranat, "Nuzhny Ii Rossii ee prostory?," Segodnia (3 October 1996), 5. 83 G. Futsaeter et aI., "Report on Oil Pollution," The ,(,,'tate of the Arctic Environment: Report (Rovaniemi: The Arctic Centre, 1991), 300. 84 "Gosudarstvennyi doklad 0 sostoyanii okruzhayushchci prirodnoi sredy Rossiyskoi Federatsii v 1994 godu," Zelionyi Mir No. 31 (1995), 9. Notes 286

85 Futsaeter et aI., "Report on Oil Pollution," 3 18. 86 Latukhov, "Transportnoie ispol'zovanie Severnogo Morskogo Puti zagryamenie Arlctiki," 127-128. 87 "Gosudarstvennyi dok1ad ...• " II. 88 Lassi Heininen, "Environmental threats of military presence in northern waters and the Arctic." in Lassi Heininen (ed.), "Arctic environmental problems," Tampere Peace Research Institute Occasional Papers No. 41 (1990). 89 Greenpeace Press Release (24 March 1994). 90 John A. KroH. "Naval arms control in the Arctic: Interdependence and security after the cold war." Paper prepared for presentation at the Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, Washington D.C.. 28 March - I April 1994. 91 B. Auffermann and J. Kltkonen. "European disarmament and the Nordic Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone - Is there still need for such a zone?," in L. Heininen and J. Kakonen (cds.), "Arctic complexity: Essays on Arctic interdependence," Tampere Peace Research Institute Occasional Papers No. 44 (1991). 92 It has been posited that plutonium in the warheads of Komsomolets torpedoes presents a much more potent environmental threat compared to cesium and strontium released as a result of nuclear tests or radioactive wastes dumping ill the northern seas; the latter have a much shorter lifetime and are relatively harmless with respect to overall background radiation levels. All the nuclear weapons tests conducted at Novaya Zemlia produced just 100 Cu of plutonium compared to 430 Cu contained in the submarine's torpedoes. (A. Baiduzhi. "U Rossii ostalos' malo vremeni, chtoby predotvratit' yademuyu katastrofu," Nezavisimaya Gazeta No. 74 (20 April 1994).)

93 Press Relea~·e of the Conference on Radioactivity and Environmental Security in the Oceans: New Research and Policy Priorities in the Arctic and North Atlantic, 7-9 June 1993, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA. 94 For example, a publication in the official Russian daily Rossiyskaia Gazeta. quoting the Research Institute of the Russian Defense Ministry and the Arctic Center of Groningen University in Holland, stated that the richest fishing grounds in Europe would become closed for 6-7 centuries, and possible damage for Russian fisheries for the five-year period has been tentatively estimated by the Russian State Committee on Fisheries at about 3,500 billion rubles at 1993 prices. (See A. Kurchatov. "Komsomo/'tsu khotyat otsech golovu," Rossiyskaia Gazeta (II October 1994), 3.) On the other hand, a more recent report prepared by the Research Institute of the Notes 287

Norwegian Anned Forces asserts that radioactive leakages from the sunken submarine do not present any environmental threat. (M. Zubko, "Zatonuvshiy Komsomolets ne opasen dlia okeana," Izvestiya (3 March 1995).) 95 According to Alexandr Kurchatov, the president of the "Eureka" Society, the sealing of torpedo tubes and the separation of the vessel's bow part with water-filled sacks, accomplished in the course of the 1995 expedition, cannot guarantee against further radiation leakages, especially in case of "underwater stonns" and, moreover, prevent the capture of nuclear weapons by terrorists (Alexandr Kurchatov, "Yadernye arsenaly dlia terroristov," Moskovskie Novosti No. 35 (8 September 1996),23). 96 It has been made public in Russia that 77 nuclear explosions in Novaya Zemlya caused extensive contamination at the Chukchi Peninsula. The native Chukchi, whose diet almost exclusively consists of reindeer meat, have about one hundred times higher concentration of CS137 compared to other population groups. The result is a higher (two to ten times) cancer mortality rate among them compared to the national average. (D. MacKenzie, "Environmental issues surface at the summit of the world," New Scientist 121, No. 1653 (1989),29.) 97 Facts and Problems Related to Radioactive Waste Disposal in Seas Adjacent to the Territory of the Russian Federation (Moscow: Office of the President of the Russian Federation, 1993). (Materials for a Report by the Government Commission on Matters Related to Radioactive Waste Disposal at Sea, Created by Decree #613 of the Russian Federation President (24 October 1992).) 98 The Northern Fleet has a total of 270 reactors in service or in storage; wastes from additional 90 reactor cores are stored under unsafe conditions at the naval base in Zapadnaya Litsa, and 18 reactor cores are stored under similar conditions on board storage ships and barges. (See "The Russian Northern Fleet.") According to the military's own forecasts, by the year 2000 about 200 decommissioned submarines would contain up to 300 tons of nuclear fuel (Victor Litovkin, "Yadernyi vzryv pod grifom 'sekretno' ," !zvestiya ( May 1997) 5). 99 By 1995, only 18 submarines of the Northern Fleet had their active reactor zones unloaded. (See "Gosudarstvennyi Doklad ... ," 7.).

100 Ibid.

101 V. Filippov, "Atomnye submariny vzyvayut 0 pomoshchi," Izvestiya No. 93 (4 May 1995). 102 Greg McIvor, "Norway Nervous About Decaying Nuclear Pants,'I ' glas:ips.english (3 May 1994). Notes 288

103 See "The Russian Northern Fleet," Chapter 4; Renfrey Clarke, "Russian Environmental Activist Held for "Espionage," glas:env.cis (8 February 1996); N. Gorodetskaya, "Gosudarstvennye tainy Rossii neizvestny tol'ko rossiyanam," Segodnia (17 February 1996). 104 The text below is partly based on a condensed version of the following article: R.V. Vartanov and C.D. Hollister, "Nuclear legacy of the Cold War," Marine Policy 21, No 1(1997),5. 105 At that time, just one month before the 16th LC Consultative Meeting, Russia had been forced to discharge the contents of a filled storage tanker in the Sea of Japan to avoid an uncontrolled release in its own shallow coastal waters. (See "Radioactivity in the Oceans," in James M. Broadus and Raphael V. Vartanov (eds.), The Oceans and Environmental Security: Shared U.S. and Russian Perspectives (Washington D.C./Covelo: Island Press, 1994), chapter 5.

106 The information was first published by a Russian environmental NGO called "Toward a New Earth" and by A.A. Zolotkov, an engineer in the Radiation Safety Service of the Murmansk Marine Shipping Company (see Facts and Problems Related to Radioactive Waste DisposaL.)

107 Related to Radioactive Waste Disposal...

108 Ibid.

109 Joint U.S.-Russian Announcement on Environmental Protection in the Arctic (Washington D.C.: Office of the Press Secretary, The White House, 28 September 1994).

110 See Broadus and Vartanov (eds.), The Oceans and Environmental Security; and Stokke and Tunander (eds.), The Barents Region.

III Declaration on Cooperation in the Barents Euro-Arctic Region. Adopted at a Conference of Foreign Ministers in Kirkenes (Norway (I November 1993), 10 p.

112 See Stephen Dale, "New Arctic Body Grapples with External Pressures," glas:ips.english (29 September 1996).

113 Thomas Nilsen and Nils Bohmer, "Sources to Radioactive Contamination in Murmansk and Arkhangel'sk County," Bellona Report No.1 (1994), 162 pp.

114 Andrei Ivanov, "Researcher Faces Treason Charge Thursday," glas:ip!J·.english (5 April 1996).

115 There IS• a pressing need to provide adequate modem equipment for th e treatment of solid radioactive waste, including efficient compactors to reduce the volume of such waste. It is necessary to make urgent decisions about the siting and technical specifications for storage sites and disposal Notes 289

sites for radioactive waste of different levels of radioactivity. The absence of such decisions increases the potential risk for the uncontrolled release of radioactivity. (See "Conclusions and Recommendations of the Conference on the Protection of Russia's Northern and Arctic Environment. Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter," LC.21346 (31 October 1994).)

116 See Litovkin, "Yadernyi V'ZIyv pod grifom 'sekretno'."

117 Igor Kudrik, "Nuclear wastes piling up at Kola," The Russian Nuclear Fleet (Bellona WWW Home Page. updated 5 March 1997).

118 Remarks by Ambassador David A. Colson. United States Representative, London Convention. London (November 1993).

119 Igor Kudrik, "Finnish processing facility to the Northern Fleet," The Russian Nuclear Fleet (Bellona WWW Home Page, updated 7 March 1997).

120 Judith Perera, "Battle over dumped Soviet radioactive waste continues," glas:ips.english (16 September 1993).

121 In 1991, President Yeltsin made GAN responsible for the safety of all nuclear enterprises and organisations, including those of the Russian Defence Ministry, and its very first inspections showed that there were serious problems at these sites, especially with respect to the disposal of spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste, as well as the dismantling and disposal of decommissioned nuclear-powered ships and submarines. In 1993, GAN produced a damning report on conditions at nuclear submarine facilities in the Arctic. This resulted in the Defence Ministry refusing entry to any other facilities.

122 See E. Nesterov, A. Ioirysh and Yu. Rogozhin, "Voyennyi atom na samokontrole," Segodnia (14 October 1995).

123 The espionage charges against nuclear safety campaigner Aleksandr Nikitin were followed by a flurry of restrictions on environmental activists. Four Norwegian Bellona members were banned indefinitely from entering St. Petersburg, two Norwegian journalists were denied visas to travel to Murmansk, and a shipment of 1,500 copies of the controversial Bellona report was seized by customs officials (R. Clarke, "Russia: Nikitin Freed, But Charges Remain." glas:env.cis (II January 1997).)

124 See R. Clarke, "Protests Follow Jailing of Russian Anti-Nuclear Researcher," glas:env.cis (27 February 1996).

12S See R. Clarke, "Espionage Charges Laid Against Russian Eco• Campaigner," glas:env.cis (7 October 1996).

126 The evidence of the current environmental effects of nuclear wastes dumping in the Arctic seas is controversial. On the one hand, speaking at one of the scientific forums on nuclear contamination in the Arctic Ocean, Notes 290

Mr. T. Berntsen, Norway's Minister of Environment, noted that studies resulting from three recent joint Norwegian-Russian expeditions concluded that nuclear waste dumped east of Novaya Zemlya had little effect on the environment, and that contamination was limited to areas close to the dumped material and that there has been no impact on the main body of the Kara and Barents seas (OMRI Daily Digest No. 163 (22 August 1995». On the other hand, the director of the Kola Research Institute of Marine Life, Professor Gennadii Matishev, claimed that the level of radioactive contamination in the Kola Bay is higher than in the area of the Norwegian Sea where the Komsomolets submarine sank, due to the fact that nuclcar waste once dumped into the sea had accumulated in hollows on the bottom of the gulf, posing a serious threat both to marine life and to the local popUlation (OMRI Daily Digest No. 171 (1 September 1995».

127 The revenues from the export of the Northern resources still account for over 50 per cent of the total Russian hard currency earnings (M. Nikolaev, "Arktika vzyvaet k mirovomu soobshchestvu," Nezavisimaya gazeta (20 October 1994), 5).

128 David D. Caron, "Toward an Arctic Environmental Regime," Ocean Development and International Law 24, No.4 (1993), 377-392.

129 Renfrey Clarke, '''Reform' as Ecocide: behind the Russian Oil Disaster," in glas:env.cis (II November 1994).

130 The privatized "Komineft" oil company which operates the ruptured pipeline is close to bankruptcy: Its outstanding payments to employees at the end of 1994 exceeded 25 billion rubles ($5.5 m), and there are indications that the World Bank loan money is being spent for purposes totally unrelated to clean up or the modernization of the dilapidated pipeline network (Nezavisimaya gazeta (28 December 1994); Segodnia (6 May 1995).

131 "Multinational companies exploiting Russian oil," Greenpeace Press Release (15 November 1994).

JJ2 Clarke, "'Reform' as Ecocide."

J33 Nezavisimaya Gazeta (28 December 1994).

134 R. Clarke, "Thaw Brings New Phase in Russian Oil Spill Disaster," glas:env.cis (4 May 1995).

13S A.F. Poryadin, "Sever: Zhim' trebuet povorota k ekologizatsii politiki gosudarstva," Zeliony; Mir No.5 (1995), 4-5.

136 Clarke, "'Reform' as Ecocide."

137 Ibid

138 B. Urigashvili, "Dyra v trube: Pripoliamyi Usinsk na fone ekologicheskogo bedstviya," /zvestiya No. 108 (15 June 1995). Notes 291

1~9 "World Wildlife Fund Statement on Russian Oil Spill," wwfnews (26 October 1994).

NOTES FOR CHAPTER 3

A partial exception: John Hannigan, Jan Drent, and Oleg Shakov, "Commercializing the Northern Sea Route: Implications for Future Development of Shipping Along the MacKenzie River," Occasional Paper 2, Research Centre for Canada and the Soviet Successor States (Ottawa: Carleton University, December 1994). Shelagh D. Grant, Sovereignty or Security? Government Policy in the Canadian North, 1936-1950 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1988), and Gordon W. Smith, Canada's Arctic Archipelago: 100 Years of Canadian Jurisdiction (Ottawa: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 1980). The Arctic security story is recounted in Ron Purver, "The Arctic in Canadian Security Policy, 1945 to the Present," in David B. Dewitt and David Leyton-Brown (eds.), Canada's International Security Policy (Scarborough: Prentice-Hall Canada, 1995), 81-110. Michel Fn!derick, "La securite environnementale: elements de dcfmition," Revue Etudes intemationales 24, No. 4 (1993), 753-765. Environmental security here (76 I) is "for the state, an absence of non-conventional threats to the environmental substrate that is essential to the well-being of its population and to the maintenance of its functional integrity." At Laval University, Paul Painchaud has spearheaded the creation of an International Institute for Environmental Strategies, an international consortium of some 70 universities. The Institute has held conferences on aspects of "environmental security" in various parts of the world, established regional seminars, and is bringing out a journal, Environment and Security. As well, at the University of Victoria, the Centre for Sustainable Regional Development has sponsored research on the regional dimensions of environment and security. Neither institution has yet made a discernible mark on the Canadian discourse. 4 Thomas F. Homer-Dixon, interview at the University of Toronto, 2 April 1996. See also his "Environmental Scarcities and Violent Conflict: Evidence from Cases," in International Security 19, No.2 (1994), 5-40. Homer-Dixon is director of the Peace and Conflict Studies Programme at the University of Toronto. For discussion of his international role, see chapter 5. Telephone conversations with Gary Soroka and Robert McRae, Policy Planning, Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, Ottawa, 13 September 1994 and 21 February 1996. Notes 292

For background, see David B. Dewitt and David Leyton-Brown, "Canada's International Security Policy," and David G. Haglund, "Changing Conceptions and Trends in International Security," both in Dewitt and Ley ton-Brown (eds.), Canada's International Security Policy, 1-30 and 31- 50, respectively. 7 On collective security: Harald von Riekhoff, "Canada and Collective Security," ibid., 227-250. John Kirton and Don Munton, "The Manhattan Voyages and Their Aftermath," in Franklyn Griffiths (ed.), Politics of the Northwest Passage (Kingston/Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1987),67-97. See, for example, David 8. Dewitt, "Common, Comprehensive, and Cooperative Security in Asia-Pacific," CANCAPS Papier 3 (Toronto: Centre for International and Security Studies, York University, 1994); Canada 21: Canada and Common Security in the Twenty-First Century (Toronto: Centre for International Studies, University of Toronto, 1994); Franklyn Griffiths, "The Greening of Security Intelligence," Policy Options 12, No.6 (1991), 17-19; Thomas F. Homer-Dixon, "On the Threshold: Environmental Changes as Causes of Acute Conflict," International Security 16, No. 2 (1991), 76-119; and Kim Richard Nossal, "Seeing Things? The Adornment of 'Security' in Australia and Canada," Australian Journal of International Affairs 49, No. I (1995), 33-48 which considers the bureaucratic interest of ministries of foreign affairs vis-A-vis defence ministries in widening the notion of security. 10 Dewitt, "Common, Comprehensive, and Cooperative Security," is particularly emphatic on the significance of the regional level. See also Paul Painchaud, "The Problem of Levels of Analysis in the Study of Environmental Security," Newsletter, International Consortium for the Study of Environmental Security (Quebec: Laval University, October 1992), 2-3. II Leslie Beckmann, "Marine Conservation in the Canadian Arctic," Northern Perspectives 22 (I 994), 33-39; Robert E. Bedeski, "Unconventional Security Threats: An Overview," NPCSSD Working Paper II (Toronto: NPCSD Research Programme, York University, 1992); Canada's National Report on Climate Change: Actions to Meet Commitments Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Ottawa: Supply and Services, 1994); Citizens' Inquiry into Peace and Security, Transformation Moment: A Canadian View of Common Security (Toronto: Project Ploughshares, 1994); David Cox and Tariq Rauf, Security Cooperation in the Arctic: A Canadian Response to Murmansk (Ottawa: Canadian Centre for Arms Control and Disarmament, 1989); Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, Report of Canada to the United Nations Commission un Sustainable Development (Ottawa: Supply and Services, 1994); Forum on Canada's International Relations, "Report of the National Notes 293

Forum on Canada's International Relations," Canadian Foreign Policy 2, No 1 (1994), 163-175; Timothy Goos and Geoffrey Wall, "Impacts of Climate Change on Resource Management in the North" (Downsview: Atmospheric Environment Service, 1994); Franklyn Griffiths, "Epilogue: Civility in the Arctic," in Griffiths (ed.), Arctic Alternatives: Civility or Militarism in the Circumpolar North (Toronto: Science for Peace/Samuel Stevens, 1992), 279-309; Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, The Arctic Environment Strategy: An Action Plan (Ottawa: Supply and Services, 1991); John Lamb (ed.), A Northern Foreign Policy for Canada (Ottawa: Canadian Centre for Global Security, 1994); Min Yong Lee, "Resource Supplies and Dependence in the North Pacific: An Ecological Analysis of Unconventional Security Issues," NPCSD Working Paper 10 (Toronto: NPCSD Research Programme, York University, 1992); and E. F. Roots, "The Arctic Region: Challenges and Opportunities," in Arctic Challenges: Report of the Nordic Council's Parliamentary Conference at Reykjavik, 16-17 August 1993 (Stockholm: Nordic Council, 1993), 143-154. 12 A.D. Bryce, "Environmental Security: Implications for Canada," internal report (Ottawa: Environment Division, Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 15 June 1994); A.-G. Elmekki, "Environment, Security and Foreign Policy" (Ottawa: IDRP, 1994); and Frederick, "La securite environnementale." Mention should also be made of Joan DeBardeleben and John Hannigan (eds.), Environmental Security and Quality after Communism: Eastern Europe and the Soviet Successor States (Boulder: Westview, 1995), which is however a collection of disparate essays written without benefit of a common analytical framework. \3 See, for example, Canada 21. Security is seen to be common in that the wellbeing and safety of Canadians depend on the capacity to cooperate in resolving tightly interconnected military, economic, environmental, and other transboundary processes which serve to obliterate the distinction between domestic and foreign affairs, and which necessitate new policy responses if Canadians are to make the most of their capacity to secure themselves by contributing to the safety of all. 14 Dewitt, "Common, Comprehensive, and Cooperative Security." Cooperative security focuses "on inclusiveness, preventive diplomacy, reassurance, confidence-building, functional cooperation, shared concerns, and the effort to build shared norms" in order to strengthen both military and non-military security and "to complement, co-exist with, and in some instances replace, bilateral security arrangements." Ibid., 14 and 21. 15 For instance, John Halstead, "International Security Institutions: NATO and the CSCE," Canadian Foreign Policy 2, No.1 (1994), 45-62. The term collective security has long served as a synonym for collective defence through membership in the North Atlantic Alliance. As such, it has drawn attention to multilateral military and other contributions to national security Noles 294

against identified and potential threats external to the Alliance. With the end of the Cold War, collective security shows signs of coming to mean joint enforcement and humanitarian intervention under the United Nations as well as NATO against threats to stability arising from within the framework of either organization. Von Riekhoff, "Canada and Collective Security," 228, and David G. Haglund, "Changing Concepts and Trends in International Security," also in Dewitt and Leyton-Brown (eds.), Canada's international Security Policy, 36-40. In no way, again, should we assume the existence of hard and fast distinctions between common, cooperative, and collective security in Canadian thinking and practice. In particular, where cooperative and collective security were concerned, Canadians were likely to have had both in mind, the emphasis depending upon the circumstance. 16 To Establish an International Arctic Council. A Framework Report (Ottawa: Canadian Arctic Resources Committee, 1991), and David Scrivener, "Environmental Cooperation in the Arctic: From Strategy to Council," Security Policy Library 1 (Oslo: 'me Norwegian Atlantic Committee, 1996). 17 Security in a Changing World: Report of the Special Joint Commillee on Canada's Defence Policy (Ottawa: Parliamentary Publications Directorate, 1994); Canada's Foreign Policy: Principles and Priorities for the Future. Report of the Special Joint Committee on Canada's Foreign Policy (Ottawa: Parliamentary Publications Directorate, 1994); and National Defence, 1994 Defence White Paper (Ottawa: Supply and Services, 1994). 18 Government Response to the Recommendations of the Special Joint Parliamentary Committee Reviewing Canadian Foreign Policy (Ottawa: Supply and Services, 1995), 8. 19 "Notes for an Address by the Honourable Lloyd Axworthy, Minister of Foreign Affairs, to the 51st Geneml Assembly of the United Nations," Statement 96/37 (Ottawa: Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 24 September 1996); "Building Peace to Last: Establishing a Canadian Peace-building Initiative. Notes for an Address... at York University," Ibid., 96/46 (30 October 1996); "Canadian Foreign Policy in a Changing World. Notes for an Address ... to a Meeting of the National Forum on Foreign Policy," Ibid., 96/57 (13 December 1996); and ""Notes for an Address ... on Sustainable Development in Canadian Foreign Policy," Ibid., 97/21 (17 April 1997). 20 For example: "The recent series of UN conferences in New York, Rio, Vienna, Cairo, Copenhagen, Beijing and Istanbul have served both to define the concept of sustainable human security and to bring home the growing challenges to the security of the individual. The road map is clear; we do not need to study it any further. Now is the time to move forward in a concerted, comprehensive way ... Sustainable human security means providing basic needs in both economic and political ways, It means ensuring quality of life NOles 295

and equity, it means protection of fundamental human rights." "Notes ... to the 51 st General Assembly of the United Nations." Or: "The basic premise behind 'human security' is that human rights and fundamental freedoms, the rule of law, good governance and social equity are as important to global peace as are arms control and disarmament. In other words, that security should be measured in terms of the ultimate outcome for individuals and peoples, rather than in terms of the number of arms control agreements signed." "Notes... on Sustainable Development in Canadian Foreign Policy." What we have here is the work of the Minister's speechwriters, done without supporting analysis and integrative study such as had occurred within the ministry prior to the appearance of "cooperative security." Personal communication with the Office of the Minister, 1 May 1997. 21 "Declaration on the Establishment of the Arctic Council," WWF Bulletin No.4 (1996), 4-5. 22 Staffed by the Circumpolar Liaison Directorate of the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, the Interdepartmental Committee's purpose is "to provide the Ambassador for Circumpolar Affairs with an interdepartmental forum for advice and consultation on policy development and co-ordination concerning Arctic issues." As such, it is to "assist in the formulation and the development of the Canadian government's policy and strategy related to international Arctic issues; advise on domestic implications of international Arctic issues; provide a mechanism of consultation; and promote greater awareness of international Arctic issues and relations among federal departments." Its membership includes Heritage Canada, Environment Canada, Fisheries and Oceans, Foreign Affairs and International Trade, Health Canada, Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Industry Canada, National Defence, Natural Resources Canada, Privy Council Office, and Transport Canada. "Interdepartmental Committee on Circumpolar Affairs: Purposes and Terms of Reference," Circumpolar Liaison Directorate, DIAND, no date. Departmental representation was to be at the assistant deputy minister level, but it had not turned out that way as of early 1997. 23 Canada and the Circumpolar World: Meeting the Challenges of Cooperation into the Twenty-first Century, Draft report (Ottawa: The House of Commons Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Trade, February 1997). 24 Kim Richard Nossal, "Rationality and Non-Rationality in Canadian Defence Policy," in Dewitt and Leyton-Brown, Canada's International Security Policy, 351-364. 25 The reference here is to the oft-quoted statement of Senator Raoul Dandurand, made before the Assembly of the League of Nations in 1924: "We live in a fireproof house, far from flammable materials." What it was like living next to the fire station during the Cold War years is well captured Notes 296

by John Holmes: "Canada conducts a defence on two fronts. We are of course reluctant to equate the two threats and in fact we don't. The threat from an extra-continental aggressor may be greater to our personal lives, but the threat from the United States is greater to our national existence. The former may be more fatal, but the latter preoccupies us more. The acceptance of this paradox is surely the beginning of wisdom." John W. Holmes, Canada: A Middle-aged Power (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1976),221. 26 Halstead, "International Security Institutions," 47. 27 Holmes, Canada as a Middle-Aged Power; Maureen Appel Molot, "Where Do We, Should We, or Can We Sit? A Review of the Canadian Foreign Policy Literature," International Journal of Canadian Studies, No. 1-2, (1990), 77-98; Kim Richard Nossal, "A European Nation? The Life and Times of Atlanticism in Canada," in John English and Norman Hillmer (eds.), Making a Difference? Canada's Foreign Policy in a Changing World (Toronto: Lester Publishing, 1992), pp.79-102; and Denis Stairs, "The Political Culture of Canadian Foreign Policy," Canadian Journal of Political Science 15, No.4 (1982), 667-690. 28 "The North Atlantic Treaty (1949)," NATO Basic Documents (Brussels: NA TO Publications Series, 1981), 10. For recollection and comment, see Lester B. Pearson, Mike. The Memoirs of the Rt. Hon. Lester B. Pearson 2 (University of Toronto Press, 1973),91-97; Escott Reid, Time of Fear and Hope (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1977); and John W. Holmes et aI., No Other Way: Canada and International Security Institutions (Toronto: McClelland and Stcwart, 1986). 29 Franklyn Griffiths, "Beyond the Arctic Sublime," in Griffiths (ed.), Politics of the Northwest Passage, 253. Not too much should be made of the coincidence of Canadian and Soviet interests in the regulation of international legal issues relating to the Northwest Passage and the Northern Sea Route or Northeast Passage. Interests did indeed coincide to the point that while on a stint as senior policy advisor to the Secretary of State for External Affairs in 1986-1987, it was clear to me that legal officers in the department would strongly favour the presence of a Soviet jurist on a panel of judges if ever the Canadian claim came to international adjudication. Nevertheless, Canada was a NATO ally and the U.S.SR was an adversary with nuclear-powered attack submarines capable of traversing the Canadian Archipelago to reach cruise-missile launch points in the Atlantic Ocean without running the GIUK gap as discussed in chapter 6. Responding to Cox and Rauf, Security Cooperation in the Arctic, Soviet Foreign Minister Eduard Shevardnadze declared in November 1989 that Soviet Submarines "do not enter the waters of the Canadian archipelago." Purver, "The Arctic in Canadian Security Policy." 99-100. Whatever the value of this statement, a non-prejudicial agreement between Canada and the United States in 1988 Notes 297

had effectively shelved the Arctic sovereignty issue for surface ship transits, but said nothing about possible subsurface use of Canadian waters by u.s. submarines. Christopher Kirkey, "Smoothing Troubled Waters: The 1988 Canada-United States Arctic Cooperation Agreement," International Journal 50, No.2 (Spring 1995),401-426. See also D.M. McRae, "Arctic Sovereignty: Loss by Dereliction?," Northern Perspectives 22, No.4 (1994- 1995),4-9. 30 The key document is Cooperative Security: A New Security Policy for Canada (Ottawa: Department of External Affairs, 16 April 1991). 31 "Notes for a Speech by the Secretary of State for External Affairs, the Right Honourable Joe Clark, at a Luncheon Hosted by the Foreign Correspondents Club of Japan, Tokyo 24 July 1990," in Canada on Asia Pacific Security in the 1990s, CANC'APS Papier 1 (Toronto: Centre for International and Security Studies, York University, 1994),3-9, and "Notes for A Speech by the Secretary of State for External Affairs, the Right Honourable Joe Clark, to the 45th Session of the United Nations General Assembly, New York, USA, 26 September 1990," Ibid., 13-22. Clark wishing to make an Asia• Pacific initiative in 1990, officials responsible for the region persuaded him to make use of "cooperative security" against the wishes of those in the department who had formulated the new approach to international security affairs. Telephone conversation, 19 September 1994, with Professor Paul Evans, Joint Centre for Asia Pacific Studies, York University. 32 See, for instance, "Notes for an Address by the Honourable Andre Oueliet, Minister of Foreign Affairs, to the International Institute for Strategic Studies, Vancouver, British Columbia, 8 September 1994," Statement (Ottawa: Government of Canada, 8 September 1994). 33 Canada 21. Support came from the Walter and Duncan Gordon Charitable Foundation, of Toronto. It should be made clear that I provided a background paper for this project, "Canada as a Sovereign State," Canadian Foreign Policy 2, No. I (1994), 15-43. 34 Canada 21, 11-12. For the Palme Commission, see Olaf Palme et aI., Common Security: A Blueprintfor Survival (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982). 35 Canada's Foreign Policy, 22. The reference to "lumping" evidently comes from Denis Stairs, "Contemporary Security Issues," in Special Joint Committee ... Reviewing Canadian Foreign Policy, Canada's Foreign Policy: Principles and Priorities. Position Papers (Ottawa: Supply and Services, 1994), 5, where opposition is registered to "lumping our alliance policies into the same pot as our approach to the international regulation of the use of pressure cans or refrigerator gasses." 36 Government Response, 21. Notes 298

37 Whereas cooperative security emphasizes inclusiveness in the understanding of threats to security and participation in multilateral forums to deal with them, security cooperation stresses military threats, favours bilateral defence relationships, and resists the thought of developing CSCE-type security processes in the Asia-Pacific region. Dewitt, "Common, Comprehensive and Cooperative Security in Asia-Pacific," 10-12, 14; and Paul M. Evans, "The Council for Security Cooperation in Asia Pacific: Context and Prospects," CANCAPS Papier 2 (Toronto: Centre for International and Security Studies, York University, 1994), 13-14. 38 Griffiths, "Epilogue: Civility in the Arctic." Civility is treated here as a widespread but latent value that connotes an emerging sense of community around the Arctic. It is defined as a predisposition whereby southern majorities, and the goverrnnents that speak for them, accord progressively greater respect and consideration to one another, to their circumpolar environment, and to their Arctic popUlations - aboriginal populations first and foremost. See also the discussion in chapter 1 of the present volume. 39 Thomas F. Homer-Dixon, "Environmental and Demographic Threats to Canadian Security," Canadian Foreign Policy 2, No.2 (1994), 10. 40 Canada's Foreign Policy, 9. 41 Following Ernst Haas, consensual knowledge is "the sum of technical information and theories about that information which commands sufficient consensus at a given time among interested actors to serve as a guide to public policy designed to achieve some social goal." Ernst B. Haas, "Why Collaborate? Issue-Linkage and International Regimes," World Politics 32 (April 1980), 367-368. 42 "Notes for a Speech by the Right Honourable Joe Clark, Secretary of State for External Affairs, to the Colloquium on North-Pacific Cooperative Security Dialogue in Victoria, British Columbia, 6 April 1991," in Canada on Asia Pacific Security, 27. 43 "Notes for ... Ouellet," 3. 44 "Notes for ... Clark," in Canada on Asia Pacific Security, 16. 45 "Notes for ... Ouellet," 6. 46 "Notes for ... Clark," in Canada on Asia Pacific Security, 20. 47 Janice Gross Stein, "Canada 21: A Moment and a Model." Canadian Foreign Policy 2, No. 1(1994), 11. 48 Dewitt, "Common, Comprehensive, and Cooperative Security," 20. 49 See the discussion in Roy Rempel, "Alternatives to Nuclear Deterrence after the Cold War: The Implications for Europe," Occasional Paper (Winnipeg: Notes 299

Centre for Defence and Security Studies, University of Manitoba, 1994), esp.29-30. 50 The following draws principally on "Cooperative Security," Canada on Asia Pacific Security, and Dewitt, "Common, Comprehensive, and Cooperative Security." 5 I Dewitt, "Common, Comprehensive, and Cooperative Security," 20. The reference is to international conversation among "experts from the academic, foundation, private economic, and other sectors." Officials acting in their personal capacity may also take part. 52 Stewart Henderson (then Policy Planning staff, Department of External Affairs), "Canada and Asia Pacific Security. The North Pacific Cooperative Security Dialogue: Recent Trends," NPCSD Working Paper I (January 1992), in Canada on Asia Pacific Security, 39. 53 "Notes for ... Ouellet," 2. 54 Henderson, "Canada and Asia Pacific Security," 39. 55 Gary J. Smith and Jill E. Sinclair (then Asia and Pacific Branch and International Security Branch, respectively, Department of External Affairs), "Anns Control and Security-Building in Asia-Pacific: A Canadian Perspective," in Canada on Asia Pacific Security, 60. 56 "Notes for ... Ouellet," 2. 57 "Notes for ... Clark," in Canada on Asia Pacific Security, 17, and "Notes for ... Ouellet," 5. 58 Dewitt, "Common, Comprehensive, and Cooperative Security," 19. 59 The principal source here is Canada 21. 60 Stein, "Canada 21 ," to. 61 For detail, see Kirton and Munton, "The Manhattan Voyages," and D.M. McRae, "The Negotiation of Article 234," both in Griffiths (ed.), Politics of the Nurthwest Passage, McRae at 98-114. 62 Kirkey, "Smoothing Troubled Waters." u 63 "The Concept of Cooperative Security," in Janne E. Nolan (ed.), Global Engagement: Cooperation and Security in the 21st Century (Washington D.C.: Brookings, 1994),3. 64 Canadian Coast Guard, "Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS). Protection of the Marine Environment (PAME) Working Group". in Arctic Shipping (Ottawa: Ship Safety Northern, Transport Canada, 1994). For the ASPPR, see Canadian Coast Guard, Proposed Revisions to the Arctic Shipping Pollution Prevention Regulations I & II (Ottawa: Ship Safety Northern, Transport Canada, 1989). NOles 300

65 Interviews, 16 September 1994 and 7 March 1996 in Ottawa, with Victor Santos-Pedro, Director Ship Safety Northern, Transport Canada. Though the Canadian initiative is clearly animated by practical requirements of improved Arctic ship safety, judging by the reference to UNCLOS Article 234 in Arctic Shipping, it also seeks in passing to bolster the article by further international agreement. The main axis of cooperation in the talks saw Canada and Russia provide much of the momentum from the outset. Interview, 13 September 1994 in Ottawa, with John Karau, Chief Marine Environmental Division, Environment Canada. 66 Arctic Shipping. 67 International Maritime Organization, "Harmonization of Polar Ship Rules (Code of Polar Navigation)," Document DE 39INFA (1 December 1995). See also "Summary Minutes" from the Alesund meeting, 20-22 November 1995, available from Ship Safety Northern, Transport Canada; Enhancing the Effectiveness of the Arctic Shipping Regulatory System: Final Report (Montreal: NKF Services Ltd., December \995); and The International Protection of the Arctic Ocean (Montreal: NKF Services, Ltd., January 1996). As of spring 1997, a draft code had been prepared: International Code of Safety for Ships Navigating in Polar Waters (Code of Polar Navigation), Draft 2 (29 February 1997), available from Transport Canada, Prairie and Northern Division, Marine. 68 Interview, 13 September 1994 in Ottawa, with Leslie Beckmann, Canadian Arctic Resources Committee.

NOTES FOR CHAPTER 4

Barry Buzan, People. States and Fear - An Agenda for International Security Studies in the Post-Cold War Era (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), 18. 2 Ole Wrever, "Security, the speech act: analysing the politics of a word" Mimeographed article in Centre for Peace and Conflict Research, Copenhagen (1989). See Anders Kj",lberg, "Konsepter for europeisk sikkerhet etter den kalde krigen - konsekvenser for Norge," Europeiske sikkerhetssprrsmal (Oslo: The Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, September 1995). The reasoning here is that any international order contains its own peculiar "security logic," affecting and restraining the foreign policy options of states, in particular small states. As an example, bipolarity often results in long-lasting alliance fonnations, whilst multipolarity demand more flexibility and result in looser alliances; collective security is only possible if the tone-setting great powers Notes 301

cooperate and do not fonn alliances, whilst Center-periphery orders imply that the security of small states are dependent on the interests and mood of the hegemon state. "Forsvarskommisjonen av 1974. Utredning fra et utvalg oppnevnt ved kongelig resolusjon 31. mars 1974," Norges Offentlige Utredninger 9 (1978), 38. Ibid.,36. 6 Ibid.,37. 7 Bj0rn Tore Godal, "Norge, NATO og det Transatlantiske samarbeidet," lecture in Oslo Militrere Samfunn, 2 October 1995, Norsk Milila!rl Tidsskrifl 164, No. II (1995), 1. Johan J0rgen Holst, "Security and Defence in the Arctic Region," speech at the Nordic Council's Parliamentary Conference in Reykjavik 16-17 August 1993, 1. 9 Ibid., 12. 10 Ibid., 38. The study referred to was the International Northern Sea Route Programme (INSROP) II Iver B. Neumann and StAle Ulriksen, "Norsk forsvars- og sikkerhetspolitikk" in Torbj0m Knutsen, Gunnar M. S0roo and Svein Gjerdaker (eds.), Norges utenrikspolilikk (Oslo/Bergen: Cappelen/Christian Michelsens Institutt, 1995), 80. The citation is translated from Norwegian by this author. 12 Ibid., 103. 13 See the geographical extent of the Arctic region as defined in footnote 3 I in the Introductory Chapter of this book. 14 Arseny Golovko, With the Red Fleet. The War Memories of Admiral Golovko (London: 1965),40. 15 Thomas Ries, The Soviet Military Operational Command Structure and its application to Fenno Scandia (Oslo: NUPI, 1986),61-61 and 64. 16 The Military Balance 1984-85 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1985). The figures referred are taken from the Norwegian edition issued by the Norwegian Atlantic Committee in Oslo. 17 The tenn is used in Willy 0streng, "The Soviet Union in Arctic Waters. Security Implications for the Northern Flank of NATO," Occasional Paper No. 36, Law of the Sea Institute (Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1987), 1. 18 In the Norwegian daily Arbeiderbladet (19 October 1981), 17. 19 Jan Ingebrigtsen, "Norskehavets strategiske betydning som funksjon av Sovjetunionens NordflAtes operasjoner," Internasjonal Politikk No.1 (1976). Notes 302

20 Buzan, People, States and Fear, 379. 21 The United States, France, Italy, Japan, Denmark, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Sweden and Norway. For a most comprehensive and thorough discussion of this regime see Geir Ulfstein, The Svalbard Treaty. From Terra Nullius to Norwegian Sovereignty (Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1995), 81-464. 23 Trygve Lie, Hjemover (Oslo: Tiden, 1958), 158. 24 See Willy 0streng, Politics in High Latitudes. The Svalbard Archipelago (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1978),26-100. 25 0streng, Politics in High Latitudes, 44-60. 26 White Paper no. 39, 1974-75, relating to Svalbard (Oslo: Stortinget, 1975),8. 27 For a thorough discussion of these aspects sec 0streng, Politics in High Latitudes, 44-60. 28 Foreign Minister Knut Frydenlund's Foreign policy statement in the Storting 6 June 1977 to be found in UD-informasjon No. 25 (Oslo: The Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, \3 June 1977), 15. 29 See 0streng, Politics in High Latitudes. 30 For a detailed account of the positions of the two countries and security interests involved in these negotiations at the time see Willy 0streng, "Soviet• Norwegian relations in the Arctic," in International Journal 39, No.4 (l984), 866-887. 31 UD-informasjon No. 30 (Oslo: The Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1977),26. 32 Nils Morten Udgaard, "Russisk s0kelys mot Finnmark pa ny," in Aftenposten (13 February 1996), 18. 33 See Magne Skodvin, Norden eller NATO. Utenriksdepartementet og alliansesprrsmalet 1947-49 (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1971), 106-110 and 333-336. 34 Bo Svensson, "National interests and Transnational Regionalisation - Norway, Sweden and Finland Facing Russia," in Margaretha Dahlstrmn, Heikki Eskelinen and Ulf Wiberg (eds.), The East-West Interface in the European North (Uppsala: Nordisk Samhellsgeografisk Tidsskrift, 1995),63. 35 Ibid. 36 Lie, Hjemover, 158. 37 The geographical interconnectedness between the four basic areas in Soviet thinking was illustrated during the meeting when Molotov suddenly placed his fist on a map of the Dardanelles and said: "We're bottled up here." He then Notes 303

moved his hand across to 0resund: "We're bottled up here. Only in the North is there an outlet, but this war has shown that the line of communication with the North can be cut or threatened. "Ibis must not be allowed to happen again in the future." For further reading see: Lie, Hjemover. 38 Excerpts from Deputy Foreign minister V.G. Dekanozov's memorandum, to Foreign Minister V.M. Molotov concerning Spitsbergen and Bear Island of II November 1995, published in Sven G. Holtsmark (ed.), Norge og Sovjetunionen 1917-1955. En utenrikspolitisk dokumentasjon (Oslo: Cappelen, 1995), 339-340. 39 Memorandum from M.S. Vetrovs and T.L. Zjdanovas to Deputy Foreign Minister Vysjinskij and Lozovskij concerning the necessity to establish Soviet Military bases in North Norway of 3 July 1945, published in Holtsmark (ed.), Norge og Sovjetunionen, 359-360. 40 In the early 1980's there were incidents where Soviet Coast Guard vessels inspected third-country ships which had been authorized by the Norwegian government to fish within the zone. Such incidents were protested through diplomatic channels. 41 Brit Fl0istad, "Fish and Foreign Policy. Norway's Fisheries Policy Towards Other Countries in the Barents Sea. the Norwegian Sea and the North Sea," Occasional Paper No. 37, Law of the Sea Institute (Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1991),55. 42 Holtsmark (ed.), Norge og Sovjetun;onen, 359-360. The citation is taken from Tom Hetland, "Slik tenkte russerane," Norsk Milita!rl Tidsskrifl 165, No.2 (1996),31. 43 Commander in Chief, General Arne Solli, "Det nye forsvaret," Norsk Milittert Tidsskrifll69, No. 12 (1995), 8. 44 General Arne Solli, "Militrer stabilitet i nord - Hva kreves?," Det sikkerhetspolitiske bibliotek No.4 (Oslo: The Norwegian Atlantic Committee, 1996),14-15. 45 Alexander Granberg, "The Northern Sea Route and the Policy of New Russia," International Challenges, The FridtjoJ Nansen Institute Journal 12, No. I (1992),9. 46 Militterbalansen, 1995-96, (Oslo/London: The Norwegian Atlantic CommitteelInternational Institute for Strategic Studies, 1996), 184. 47 Ibid., 186. Author's translation. 48 "VAr flanke," Editorial in Ajtenposlen (3 July 1996), 2. 4'1 Solli, "MilitreT stabilitet i nord," 8. 50 Neumann and Ulriksen, "Norsk fOTSvars-og sikkerhetspolitikk," 99. Notes 304

51 Solli, "Militrer stabilitet i nord," 8. Author's translation. 52 Ibid., 10. S3 Solli, "Militrer stabilitet i nord," 14. 54 Neumann and Ulriksen, "Norsk forsvars-og sikkerhetspolitikk," 90. 55 Buzan, People. Stales and Fear, 25. S6 Foreign Minister BjOOl Tore Godal, "Det nyc NATO," Norsk Mililcert Tidsskrift 166, No.1 (1997),5. 57 Minister of Defence J0l'gen Kosmo, "Nasjonale og internasjonale utfordringer for forsvaret," NOTsk Milita!rt tidsskrift 166, No.2 (1997), 5. 58 Buzan, People, States and Fear, 25. 59 Troms is the county in northern Norway being designated the prime deployment area of Norwegian forces. 60 Viseadrniral BjOOlar Kibsgaard, "Forsvaret er "Troms-fiksert," Aflenposten (6 July 1996),5. 61 Ibid. 62 Buzan, People. States and Fear, 373. 63 Neumann and Ulriksen, "Norsk forsvars-og sikkerhetspolitikk," 103. 64 Kosmo, "Nasjonale og internasjonale utfordringer for forsvaret," 10. 65 Ibid. Odd Gunnar Skagestad, Norsk Polarpolitikk. Hovedtrekk og utvikiingslinjer 1905-1974 (Oslo: Dreyer, 1975),145-160. 67 Willy 0streng, "Nreroppgaven i Dorsk utenrikspolitikk., med spesiell vekt pii nordommdene," Nor.~k utenrikspolitiskArbok 1977 (Oslo: NUPI, 1977),9-31. 68 See Fact Sheet No. 2 (Os\o: The Norwegian Ministry of Defence, October 1995). 69 UD-InformasjonNo. 13 (1994),14. 70 General Per Bothun, "Fra kald krig til nye utfordringer," Norsk Mi/itcert Tidsskrift 165, No. 6-7 (1996), 2. 71 Solli, "Militrer stabilitet i nord," 10. 72 Iver B. Neumann, "Ber vi ffl feUes nordisk militrerkommando?," Afienposten (15 April 1996). 73 Kosmo, "Nasjonale og internasjonale utfordringer for forsvaret," 11. 74 Kjell Dragnes, "Russerne liker ikke norsk snusing," Afienposten (13 December 1995), 3. Notes 305

75 Udgaard, "Russisk s0kelys mot Finnmark pA ny." 76 Ajtenposten (3 February 1996), 6. 77 For a thorough discussion of this scenario see: Henning Simonsen, Arild Moe, Willy (2)streng, Olav Schram Stokke and Davor Vidas, "Norge utenfor Fastlands-Norge: Nye Utenrikspolitiske Rammebetingelser," Report commissioned by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (March 1995). 78 The provinces referred to are the counties of Nordland, Troms and Finnmark in Norway, the counties of Norrbotten and Vasterbotten in Sweden and Lappland and Oulu in Finland, and the oblasts of Murmansk and Archangelsk, the autonome Republic of Nenets and the Karelian Republic in Russia. Approximately 4.5 million people live in the Barents Region - one million on the Nordic side. 79 Margaretha Dahlstr01ll, Heiki Eskelinen and Ulf Wiberg, "East Meets West in the North," in Dahlstr01ll, Eskelinen and Wiberg (eds): The East-West Interface in the European North, 3. 80 Thorvald Stoltenberg, Speech to Landsdelsutvalget for Nord-Norge, 17 November 1992. 81 Bj0m Tore Godal, "In Nansen's Footsteps. The Barents Cooperation: A Vision for a better Europe," Lecture at the Royal Geographical Society, London, 5 October 1995, UD-informasjon No. 32 (Oslo: The Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 13 October 1995),24. 82 For a more detailed discussion of the buffering and supporting effect of those processes on BEAR see Willy 0streng, "The Barents Region: A Lasting Contribution to the Post-Cold War Order?," in a forthcoming issue of Arctic. The Journal ofthe Arctic Institute ofNorth America (in prep). 83 Sverre Jervell, "Barentssamarbeidet februar 1996. Hvor star vi, hvor gw- vi?," Lecture at Pax Nordica, University ofUmeli (29 February 1996),2. 84 The Barents Programme 1994 (Kirkenes: Barents Secretariat, 1993). 85 John Kristen Skogan, "Det nye samarbeidsopplegget for Barentsregionen," Norsk utenribpolitisk Arhok (Oslo: NUPI, 1993), 25. 86 UlfWiberg, "The Idea of Pluralistic East-West Integration and Policy-Making for the European North," in Dahlstr01ll, Eskelinen and Wiberg (eds): The East• West Interface in the European North, 82. 87 On the key role of Norway and Russia in subregional efforts to cope with protection of the marine environment, see Olav Schram Stokke:"Subregional Cooperation for Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment: The Barents Sea", POLOS Report 5197, (Lysaker: The Frid~ofNansen Institute, 1997). Notes 306

88 Johan Eriksson, "Security in the Barents Region. Interpretations and Implications of the Norwegian Barents Initiative," Cooperation and Conflict 30, NO.3 (1995), 266-267. 89 For a most interesting and thorough discussion of the security implications of the BEAR see: Eriksson, "Security in the Barents Region," 259-286. 90 "Barentsregionen. Et regionaliseringsprosjekt i det nordligste Europa," Aktuelle UtenrikssPfJrsmal No.1 (Oslo: The Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1993). 91 Johan Eriksson, "Euro-Arctic Security: The Policy Puzzle," in G. Lassinantti (ed.), Common Security in Northern Europe after the Cold War: The Baltic Sea Region and the Barents Sea Region (Stockholm: Olof Palme International Centre, 1994). 92 John Newhouse, "Europe's Rising Regionalism," Foreign Affairs 76, No. (1977),74. 93 Eriksson, "Security in the Barents Region," 270. 94 Eriksson, "Security in the Barents Region," 271. 95 Eriksson, "Euro-Arctic Security", 55. 96 Thorvald Stoltenberg, "Barentsregionen: En ny dynarnisk rarnme for samarbeidet i nord," Speech at the Conference "Fra Nordkalotten til Storkalotten," in Rovaniemi on 21 October 1992 (Oslo: The Norwegian Ministry ofForeign Affairs, 1992). 97 D.E. Magga, "Cooperation in the Barents Euro-Arctic Region," Speech given at the Foreign Ministers' Conference in Kirkenes (13 January 1993). 98 Eriksson, "Euro-Arctic Security", 63. 99 Jervell, "Barentssarnarbeidet februar 1996," 2.

100 Eriksson, "Euro-Arctic Security", 65.

101 Eriksson, "Euro-Arctic Security", 55.

102 Eriksson," Euro-Arctic Security", 55.

103 Eriksson, "Security in the Barents Region," 270.

\04 Ibid.

105 Godal, "In Nansen's Footsteps," 32.

106 "Report on Infrastructure," Paper presented by a working group headed by Willy 0streng at the Expert Conference on the Barents Region, Kirkenes, 26- 27 September 1992.

107 Granberg," The Northern Sea Route," 10. Notes 307 lOB NSR - The Northern Sea Route. Consequences for Northern Norway (Troms",: ARCTEC - Foundation for Arctic Trade and Industry Development, 25 November 1991). 109 For a discussion of the interlinks between the NSR and the Barentsrcgion see: Willy 0streng, "The Northern Sea Route and the Barents Region," in Olav Schram Stokke and Ola Tunander (eds.), The Barents Region: Cooperation in Arctic Europe (London: Sage Publications, 1994), 159-172. 110 See G. Lassinantti (ed.), Common Security in Northern Europe after the Cold War: The Baltic Sea Region and the Barents Sea region. Olof Palme International Centre, Stockholm, 1994. III Holst, "Security and Defence in the Arctic Region."

112 Ibid., 39-40.

113 Ibid.

114 For a more comprcltensive discussion of this aspect see Willy 0streng, "The Barents Region: A Contribution to European Security and Coopemtion?" International Challenges, The Fridtjof Nansen institute Journal 12, No.4 (1992), 13-21.

liS Neumann and Ulriksen, "Norsk forsvars-og sikkerhetspolitikk," 103.

116 Buzan, People, States and Fear, 368.

117 Foreign Minister Bjmn Tore Goda1, Speech to Finnmark fylkesting in VadsliJ, 6 June 1996. Available from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

NOTES FOR CHAPTER 5

Emma Rothschild, "What [s Security?" Daedalus 124, No.3 (Summer 1995), 55. U.S. capabilities for Arctic scientific research and understanding of the physical environment, for example, exceed those of any regional country and indeed most of them combined. See Arctic Research of the United States, a series sponsored by the Inter-Agency Arctic Policy Group and issued by the Office of Polar Affairs, National Science Foundation. Quoted in Joseph 1. Romm, Defining National Security: The Nonmilitary Aspects (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1993),2. On NSC-68, see Samuel F. Wells, Jr., "Sounding the Tocsin: NSC-68 and the Soviet Threat," International Security 4, No.2 (Fall 1979), 116-158. The reference to "realism" here pertains to political realism as a worldview Notes 308

which reduces international relations to the interaction of sovereign states pursuing the national interest defined in terms of power. The classic formulation is Hans Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, 5th cd. (New York: Knopf, 1978). On the militarization of Arctic waters in particular, see Steven E. Miller, "The Arctic as a Maritime Theatre," in Franklyn Griffiths (ed.), Arctic Alternatives: Civility or Militarism in the Circumpolar North (Toronto: Science for Peace/Samuel Stevens, 1992), 211-236. 6 Willy 0streng, "Political-Military Relations among the Ice States: The Conceptual Basis of State Behaviour," in Griffiths (ed.), Arctic Alternatives, 33. 7 Quoted in Romm, Defining National Security, 3. Richard H. Ullman, "Redefining Security," International Security 8, No. (Summer 1983), 129-153. Stephen J. Del Rosso, Jr., reports that Ullman's statement caused "hardly a ripple" in official thinking at the time. See his "The Insecure State: Reflections on 'the State' and 'Security' in a Changing World," Daedalus 124, No.2 (Summer 1995), 186. Prominent among Ullman's precursors were Robert McNamara, The Essence of Security: Reflections in Office (New York: Harper and Row, 1968); Lester Brown, "Redefining Security," WorldWatch Paper 14 (Washington D.C.: WorldWatch Institute, 1977); and Maxwell D. Taylor, "The Legitimate Claims of National Security," Foreign Affairs 52, No.3 (April 1974),592- 594. Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962); Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons," Science 162 (1968), 1243-1248; Barry Commoner, The Closing Circle: Nature. Man and Technology (New York: Bantam, 1971); DonneHa H. Meadows et aI., The Limits to Growth: A Report for the Cluh of Rome's Project on the Predicament of Mankind (New York: New American Library, 1972); Independent Commission on Defence and Security (Palme Commission), Common Security (London: Pan, 1982); and United Nations, Department of Disarmament Affairs, Report of the Secretary-General, Concepts ofSecurity (New York: United Nations, 1986). 10 Jessica Tuchman Mathews, "Redefining Security," Foreign Affairs 68, No. 2 (Spring 1989), 162-177. II World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission), Our Common Future (London: Oxford University Press, 1987). On Soviet new thinking, see Franklyn Griffiths, "Current Soviet Military Doctrine," in Murray Feshbach (ed.), National Security Issues of the USSR: Workshop 6-7 March /986, NATO HQ, Brussels. Belgium (Dordrecht: Martinus Hijhoff, 1987) 241-258, and Eduard Shevardnadze "Ekologiya i diplomatiya" [Ecology and Diplomacy], Literaturnaya gazeta (22 November 1989). The subsequent U.S. cascade is evident in the some Notes 309

500 items listed in the frrst report of the Environmental Change and Security Project, Environment and Security Debates: An Introduction (Washington, D.C.: The Woodrow Wilson Center, Spring 1995). 12 Mikhail Gorbachev, The Speech in Murmansk (Moscow: Novosti Press, 1987). The original is in Izvestiya (2 October 1987). \3 Romm, Defining National Security, provides an overview of several of the issue-areas (the economy, the environment, energy, drug trafficking) in the U.S. discussion. On population, see for example Alex de Sherbinin, "World Population and U.S. National Security," in Environment and Security Debates, 24-39. 14 Janne E. Nolan (ed.), Global Engagement: Cooperation and Security in the 21st Century (Washington D.C.: Brookings, 1994). IS National Security Strategy of Engagement and Enlargement (Washington D.C.: The White House, February 1995), I and 7. The 1996 Strategy was not substantially different. 16 Mary Douglas and Aaron Wildavsky, Risk and Culture: An Essay on the Selection of Technological and Environmental Dangers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993). A brilliant reading of the Soviet threat in American Life is to be had in William Pfaff, "Reflections: The Soviet Myth," The New Yorker (6 November 1978), 172-178. Following the collapse of socialism, Martin Malia sees in the ecological cause a new candidate for millennial utopianism complete with central ecoplanning for the collective planetary interest of humankind. Martin Malia, The Soviet Tragedy: A History ofSocialism in Russia, 1917-1991 (New York: The Free Press, 1994), 519-520. 17 See Environment and Security Debates, 92-105. Reviews of the U.S. discussion are to be had in Geoffrey D. Dabelko and David D. Dabelko, "Environmental Security: Issues of Conflict and Redefinition," Ibid., 3-13, and Geoffrey D. Dabelko, "Ideas and the Evolution of Environmental Security Conceptions," Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the International Studies Association, San Diego, CA, 16-20 April 1996. Also Geoffrey D. Dabelko and PJ. Simmons, "Environment and Security: Core Ideas and U.S. Government Initiatives," The SAIS Review 17, No. 1 (Winter/Spring 1997); Marc A. Levy, "Is the Environment a National Security Issue?" International Security 20, No. 2 (Fall 1995); and the rejoinder to Levy from Thomas F. Homer-Dixon," Ibid. No. 3 (Winter 1996), 189-194. 18 Discussed in Dabelko, "Ideas and the Evolution of Environmental Security Conceptions. " 19 Ibid. See aiso the statements from various agencies including the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the Environmental Notes 310

Protection Agency, as cited in Environment and Security Debates, 83-86, and, on Russian nuclear cleanup in Arctic waters, Kent Butts, "National Security, the Environment, and DOD," in Environmental Change and Security Project Report, Issue 2 (Washington D.C.: The Woodrow Wilson Center, Spring 1996), 26. 20 "Agreement Reached on Environmental Security Plan," News Release 430- 96 (Washington D.C.: Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Public Affairs), 18 July 1996). See also the letter from the three agency heads, 18 July 1996, conveying the MOU to Secretary Warren Christopher, and his reply of8 August 1996 to Carol Browner of the EPA. 21 Environment and Security Debates, 3-39, and 63-78. 22 Ibid., 47-58 and 83-86. 23 Ken Conca, "In the Name of Sustainability: Peace Studies and Environmental Discourse," in Jyrki K!ikOnen (ed.), Green Security or Militarized Environment (Brookfield: Dartmouth Publishing, 1994), 7-24. 24 Dabelko, "Environmental Security: Parameters." 2S Ibid. 26 For example, the Secretary of State avoided the term altogether in a major statement of U.S. policy at Stanford University, 19 April 1996. "American Diplomacy and the Global Environmental Challenges of the 21st Century," Environmental Change and Security Report Issue 2 (1996), 81-85. 27 Al Gore, Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit (New York: Houghton Mimin, 1992); Dennis Pirages, Global Technopolitics (Pacific Grove: Brooks-Cole, 1989) and ]'jrages "Social Evolution and Ecological Security," Bulletin of Peace Proposals 22, No.3 (Summer 1991), 329-334. Tim Wirth, Under Secretary of State for Global Affairs, also shares an ecological perspective: Congressional Record - Senate 8-8936-8938 (28 June 1990), and "Sustainable Development: A Progress Report" (12 July 1994), excerpted in Environment and Security Debates, 54-55. 28 Dabelko, "Ideas and the Evolution of Environmental Security Conceptions." 29 See however Murray Feshbach and Alfred Friendly Jr., Ecocide in the USSR (New York: Basic Books, 1992), Laurie Garrett, The Coming Plague: Emerging Diseases in a World of Balance (New York: Farrar/Straus, 1994), and Garrett, "The Return of Infectious Disease," Foreign Affairs 75, No. I (JanuarylFebruary 1996) which cites change in the ecological relationship between microbes and humans, 72-73. 30 Thomas F. Homer-Dixon, "On the Threshold: Environmental Changes as Causes of Acute Conflict, International Security 16, No.2 (Fall 1991), 76- 116, and "Environmental Scarcities and Violent Conflict," Ibid. 19, No.1 (Summer 1994), 5-40. Homer-Dixon headed the Project on Government, Notes 311

Population and Security, and was principal investigator for the State Capacity Project of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences while then, as later, Director of the Program on Peace and Conflict Studies at the University of Toronto. 31 President Clinton commented, "[W]hen you look at the long-run trends that are going on around the world - you read articles like Robert Kaplan's article in The Atlantic a couple of months ago, that some say it's too dour - .. .if you really look at what's going on, you could visualize a world in which a few million of us live in such opulence we could all be starring in nighttime soaps, and the rest of us look like we're in one of those Mel Gibson "Road Warrior" movies ... I was so gripped by many things that were in that article, and by the more academic treatment of the same subject by Professor Homer-Dixon ... " Also: "To bring about shared prosperity, as Professor Homer-Dixon has written, the nations of world simply must move forward on many fronts at one time." Remarks to the National Academy of Sciences, 29 June 1994, in Environment and Security Debates, 51-52. 32 Interview, Toronto, 2 April 1996. In his view, the project on Environment, Population and Security is now driving the U.S. debate. Papers produced by the project and sent out to a list of 1500 officials and others are all written by Canadians. For a critique of thinking that would replace communism with "chaos" as the prime concern of U.S. foreign policy, see Jeremy D. Rosner, "The Sources of Chaos: The Latest Bad Foreign Policy Idea," The New Democrat, (November 1994),20-22. 33 Conca, "In the Name of Sustainability," which offers a critique of "ecological security," and Daniel Deudney, "The Case Against Linking Environmental Degradation and National Security," Millennium 19, No.2 (Winter 1990),461-476. 34 c. Boyden Gray and David B. Rivkin Jr., "A 'No Regrets' Environmental Policy," Foreign Policy 83 (1991), 47-65; and Stephen Walt, "The Renaissance of Security Studies," International Studies Quarterly 35, No.2 (Winter 1991), 211-239 who, aside from a brief reference to economics, made the point simply by defining security in military-political terms. This however is a waning position. Gary D. Vest, Principal Assistant Deputy Under Secretary in the Department of Defense, reports that, "DOD's view of environmental security is comprised of the following: (I) ensuring environmentally responsible action by military units wherever they may be; (2) ensuring adequate access to land, air and water to conduct a defense mission; (3) protecting DOD's war-fighting assets (people, equipment, facilities); (4) understanding where environmental conditions contribute to instability. and where the environment fits into the war and peace equation; (5) bringing defense-related environmental concerns to the development of national security; (6) studying how defense components can be used as instruments of U.S. global environmental policy." Environment and Security Notes 312

Debates, 83. See also Kent Hughes Butts, "Why the Military Is Good for the Environment," in Klik6nen, Green Security, 83-109. 35 See Hans Bruyninckx, "Environmental Security: An Analysis of the Conceptual Problems in Defining the Relationship Between Environment and Security," Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Studies Association, Acapulco, Mexico (March 1993). 36 "Report on a Joint U.S.-Russia EcologicallEnvironment Seminar," Washington D.C., 15-19 May 1995 (Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Defense, 1995). See also Peter Gziewski and Alan Chong, ,. Military Activity: The Case of Radioactivity in the Arctic," in Daniel Deudney and Richard Matthew (eds.), Contested Ground: Security and Conflict in the New Environmental Politics (Albany: SUNY Press, in prep.). 37 Arctic Systems: Natural EnVironments. Human Actions. Nonlinear Processes (Oslo: lASC Secretariat, 1996). 3& On decoupling, see Franklyn Griffiths, "Epilogue: Civility in the Arctic," in Griffiths (ed.), Arctic Alternatives, 279-309. 39 Warren Christopher, speech to Woodrow Wilson Center environmental breakfast, 14 January 1997. Text to appear in Report 3 of the Center's Environmental Change and Security Project. As with Christopher's Stanford University address of April 1996, many good things are announced or set in motion under the heading of "environmental diplomacy," but the interconnections between environment and "security" are, as such, only very loosely recognized. 40 The negotiation that produced the AEPS began in 1989, on a Finnish initiative, and ended with a multilateral declaration in June 1991. For the founding document, see "Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy," Arctic Research ofthe United States 5 (FalI 1991),29-35. Whereas other states sent delegations ready to do business at the first negotiating session, the United States was represented by junior staff from the embassy in Helsinki. Subsequently the U.S. commitment to the talks lagged well behind that of other participants. On the negotiations, see Oran R. Young, Creating International Regimes: Arctic Cases. Generic Processes (in prep.), esp. ch 4. Whereas the AEPS takes the form of a standing conference or process, two Arctic multilateral organizations were also created in the early 19905: the International Arctic Science Committee (1990), a non-governmental body representing national science establishments; and the Northern Forum (also 1990), which unites territorial governments from around the circumpolar North and as far south as Sakhalin. 41 "Canada Hosts Inauguration of Arctic Council," Government of Canada News Release, No. 166 (19 September 1996). The Arctic Council proposal was floated as a what-if proposition by the Canadian Prime Minister in Leningrad in November 1989, and announced as a commitment by the Notes 313

Minister of External Affairs in a speech made in Ottawa in November 1990. For background, see Arctic Council Panel, To Establish an International Arctic Council: A Framework Report (Ottawa: Canadian Arctic Resources Committee, 1991). For recent comment, see Oran R. Young, The Arctic Council: Marking a New Era in International Relations (New York: The Twentieth Century Food, 1996); and David Scrivener, "Environmental Cooperation in the Arctic: From Strategy to Council," Security Policy Library I (Oslo: The Norwegian Atlantic Committee, 1996). 42 Statement by Christine D. Shelly, Acting Spokesman: United States Announces New Policy for the Arctic Region (Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Spokesman, 29 September 1994). See also Robert Senseney, "U.S. Arctic Policy Aims for Circumpolar Cooperation," Witness the Arctic 3, No.2 (1995), 1-2. Witness is published by the Arctic Research Consortium of the United States, at Fairbanks, Alaska. 43 Interviews with Raymond V. Arnaudo, former Polar Chief, in London, I I May 1995, and with Robert S. Senseney, current Chief, in Washington D.C., I November 1995. 44 The release of ice-thickness data was very largely the doing of then Senator Gore in 1991. Dabelko, "Ideas and the Evolution of Environmental Security Conceptions. " 45 Arnaudo interview. 46 Ibid. 47 Interview in Cambridge, U.K., 17 February 1996 with Lawson W. Brigham, former Commander and head of policy planning, USCG. Brigham retired in 1995, having skippered the Polar Sea to the North Pole the year before. 48 Ibid. 49 Ibid. so Arnaldo interview. SI Brigham interview. To "sec" the point here would be to endorse the value of international regulation of the Arctic marine environment. Nevertheless, the Navy does assist global scientific research in the Arctic, as has been indicated. As well, the Office of Naval Research manages the Arctic Nuclear Waste Assessment Program in cooperation with Russia and several other countries ... ANWAP Prepares Risk Assessment," Witness the Arctic 3 No.2 (Autumn 1995), 10. 52 Ibid. 53 Brigham Interview. Also interview in Washington D.C., at U.S. Coast Guard HQ, 2 November 1995, with Lt. Commander Stephen M. Wheeler, Ice Notes 314

Operations Division. Whether or not to refer to "environmental security" is seen by Brigham as a problem in the "tactics of terms." 54 Arnaudo interview. Arnaudo is also of the opinion that the Arctic has stood "at the bottom" of the u.s. pollution prevention agenda. 55 Interview with Gene Delatorre, International Affairs Director, Environmental Restoration and Waste Management, U.S. Department of Energy, in Washington D.C., 1 November 1995. 56 Arnaudo interview. 57 Senseney interview. 58 Arnaudo interview. 59 Senseney interview. 60 Arnaudo and Senseney interviews. 61 Arnaudo interview. Arnaudo also reports that in preparing the 1994 Arctic policy statement the money people caused him "much grief." 62 Senseney interview. See also US. Discussion Paper: Sustainable Development (Office of the Polar Affairs Chief, I November 1995). 63 Senseney interview. Michael Schneider, Senior Advisor to the Under Secretary for Global Affairs, suggests that environmental security need not compete with or take away from sustainable development: Whereas the latter is a core belief with sweeping implications, the former connotes regulatory action by diverse government agencies to defend and protect the environment. Interview, Washington D.C., 1 November 1995. 64 Terms of reference for PAME are to be found in "Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy." See also "Report to the Arctic Ministers: PAME Working Group Publishes Findings," Arctic Bulletin No.1 (1996), 5-6. The Arctic Bulletin, published quarterly by the World Wide Fund for Nature, is a useful source of comment on the AEPS. 65 AEPS. Working Group on the Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME), Draft Report to Ministers, 27 November 1995 (Oslo: The Norwegian Ministry of the Environment, 1995). 66 "Report to the Arctic Ministers." 67 "Inuvik Declaration on Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development in the Arctic," Government of Canada Communique/News Release (21 March 1996). 68 This opinion was offered for consideration in the Draft Report to Ministers 11,94-96. See also Scrivener, Environmental Cooperation in the Arctic, 10- 12. Notes 315

69 Issued as Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS). Protection of the Marine Environment (PAME) Working Group, "Arctic Ocean Shipping Regime," September 1995. See "Discussion Paper on the International Integration of Arctic Rules," prepared for working group meeting, Calgary, 21-22 March 1994, and "Summary Minutes: Polar Code Drafting Plenary Session, St. Petersburg, 15-18 October 1996." Both documents originate with Transport Canada, Prairie and Northern Region, Marine, Ottawa. 70 Brigham interview. 71 Ibid. 72 Arnaudo interview. 73 Ibid. 74 Senseney interview. 7S Wheeler and Brigham interviews. 76 Environmental NGOs such as the Audubon Society, the Environmental Defense Fund, and the World Wildlife Fund have joined with U.S. nath~e and health groups in an Arctic Network to shape government policy on some of the AEPS working groups. The Network issues a newsletter entitled Leads: Arctic Network News Summary from Anchorage. Young, Creating International Regimes.

NOTES FOR CHAPTER 6

Ib Faurby and Nikolaj Petersen, "The Far North in Danish Security Policy," Paper for panel on "Resources and Security Issues of the Far North" I.S.A. 29th Annual Convention, St. Louis, 29 March - 2 April 1988,49. Nikolaj Petersen, Gren/and i global sikkerhet (Copenhagen: SNU, 1992),52. Faurby and Petersen, "The Far North in Danish Security Policy," 2-3 and 49. 4 Ibid.,2. Ibid., 2. 6 Nikolaj Petersen, "Denmark, Greenland and Arctic Security," in Kari M{)ttHla (cd.), The Arctic Challenge. Nordic and Canadian Approaches to Security and Cooperation in an Emerging International Region (BoulderlLondon: Westview Press, 1988), 68. 7 Faurby and Petersen, "The Far North in Danish Security Policy," 3. 8 Petersen, Grenland i global sikkerhet, 51-53. Notes 316

9 On the Defence of Greenland see Clive Archer, "Greenland and the Atlantic Alliance," Centre Piece, No. 7 (Aberdeen: Centre for Defence Studies, 1985). 10 "Folketingets forhandlinger, col. 8342, 5 March 1987," Folketingstidende 1986-87. II Faurby and Petersen, "The Far North in Danish Security Policy," 7. 12 J0rgen Taagholt, "Gr00lands Sikkerhetspolitik i et Historisk Perspektiv," Paper to be published by the Danish Atlantic Committee (in prep.), 18-19. 13 Ibid., 20. 14 For a more detailed discussion see Willy 0streng, "The Soviet Union in Arctic Waters. Security Implications for the Northern Flank of NATO," Occasional Paper No. 36 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1987). IS Michael McGwire (ed.), Soviet Naval Deployment: Capability and Context (New York: Praeger, 1973),405. 16 Archer, "Greenland and the Atlantic Alliance," 46. 17 "Reds Issue Hudson Bay Threat," Montreal Daily Star (18 August 1959); and "New Dangers in the North," Ottawa Evening Journal (11 August 1958). 18 Gordon Brown, "Arctic ASW," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings 88, No.3 (March 1962). 19 "Reds Issue Hudson Bay Threat." 20 Willy 0streng, "The Strategic Balance in the Arctic Ocean - Soviet Options," in William Gutteridge (ed.), European &curity, Nuclear Weapons and Public Confidence (London: Macmillan Press, 1982), 125-154. 21 CBS Report from London at the NATO Conference, 6.30 P.M. Atlantic Time 10 May 1977. 22 International Herald Tribune (27 June 1977). For a general discussion of this point see Carl G. Jacobsen, "Soviet Strategic Interests and Canada's Northern Sovereignty" Orae Extra-Mural Paper, No. 4 (Ottawa: Department of National Defence, February 1978), 72-87. 23 Erling Bj01, "The Arctic in Danish Perspective," in C. Bertram and J.J. Holst, New Strategic Factors in the North Atlantic (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1977), 88. 24 Bj01, "The Arctic in Danish Perspective," 89. 25 Lars Toft Rasmussen, "Greenlandic and Danish Attitudes to Canadian Arctic Shipping," in Franklyn Griffiths (ed.): Politics of the Northwest Passage (KingstonIMontreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1987), 148. 26 Archer, "Greenland and the Atlantic Alliance," 48. Notes 317

27 G. Leonard 10hnson et aI., "United States Security Interests in the Arctic," in William E. Westennayer and Kurt M. Schusterich (eds.), United Siaies Arctic Interests. The 1980s and 1990s (New York: Springer, 1984),291. 28 Petersen, Gr(Jnland i global sikJcerhel, 38-39.

29 Moses Olsen, "Greenland and EF," Demo.~ Debate 2 (1972),8. 30 See Willy 0streng. "Reaching Agreement on International Exploitation of Ocean Mineral Resources (With Special Reference to the Joint Development Area between Jan Mayen and Iceland)," in Mark J. Valencia (ed.), Geology and Hydrocarbon Potential of the South China Sea and Possibilities of Joint Development (New York: Pergamon Press, 1985), 555-572. 31 John Fairlamb, The Evolution of Icelandic Defence Decision-making 1944-81, PhD dissertation, University of Southern California (1981). Sec also Fairlamb, "Icelandic Threat Perceptions," Naval War College Review No. 5 (September/October 1981). For a more thorough discussion of the capelin war see: 0streng, "Reaching Agreement on International Exploitation of Ocean Minerdl Resources," 555- 572. 33 See the articles in the Norwegian daily Ajtenposten: "Keflavik til Jan Mayen?" (12 July 1980); and "Sovjet-kommentar til konflikten Island-Norge" (8 August 1980). 34 Petersen, Gr(Jnland i global silckerhet, 51. 35 H.C. Bach and 10rgcn Taagholt, "Gr0nland og polomrMet - sikkerhetspoiitisk set. Perspektiver for forsvarets opgaver," Serien: Forsvaret i samfundet, FKO Pub 493-73, (Vedbrek: FKO, 1976). 36 For a most thorough discussion of this division of competence see Fredrik HarbofT, "Gr0Dland og FreT0yenes stilling i dansk utenrikspolitikk" in Nikolaj Petersen and Christian Thune (eds.), Dansk udenrigspolilisk Arbog 1990 (Gylling: Jurist- og 0konomforbundets Foriag, 1991),57-68. 37 Franklyn Griffiths and Oran R. Young, "Sustainable Development and the Arctic," Working Group on Arctic International Relations, Impressions of the Co-Chairs, Second Session I1ulissat and Nuuk, Greenland, 20-24 April 1989, Reports and Papers I (\989), 11. 38 Faurby and Petersen, "The Far North in Danish Security Policy," 40-44. 39 Grrimlandsposten No. 22 (1995). 40 Taagholt, "Gr0Dlands Sikkerhetspolitik i et Historisk Perspektiv," 33. 41 Faurby and Petersen, "The Far North in Danish Security Policy," 40. 42 Taagholt, "Gr0Dlands Sikkerhetspolitik i et Historisk Perspektiv," 32. Notes 318

43 Henrik Lund, "Introduction," in Paul Claesson (ed.), Granland - Middelhovels perle. Et indblik i amerikansk atomkrigsforbredelse (Copenhagen: Eirene, 1983). 44 Ibid. 45 Finn Lynge, "Greenland. Its people and society," Speaking Notes for the International Court of Justice. Maritime Delimitation in the Area between Greenland and Jan Mayen, Danish Delegation, The Hague (12 January 1993), 34. 46 Ibid., 35. 47 Fridtjof Nansen, Pd ski over Gronland. Eskimoliv (Oslo: Aschehoug Forlag, 1942),58. 48 Taagholt, "Grenlands Sikkerhetspolitik i et Historisk Perspektiv," 13. 49 Inuit Circumpolar C01iference 1, No.1 (June 1987), 12. 50 Lund, "Introduction." 51 Svend Adsersen, "Den gnmlandske sikkerhetspolitiske debat" FlGdestrategier og nordisk sikkerhed~politik 2 (1986), 36. 52 Faurby and Petersen, "The Far North in Danish Security Policy," 42. 53 Lynge, "Greenland. Its people and society," 35. 54 Dalee Sambo," Sustainable security: An Inuit perspective," in Jyrki Kakonen (ed.), Politics and Sustainable Growth in the Arctic (Brookfield: Dartmouth Publishing, 1993), 51. 55 Ibid.,62. 56 Ibid., 54. 57 Petersen, GrfJnland i global sikkerhet, 42. 58 Ibid., 45. 59 Rasmussen, "Greenlandic and Danish Attitudes to Canadian Arctic Shipping," 148. 60 Cited from Rasmussen, "Greenlandic and Danish Attitudes to Canadian Arctic Shipping," 148. 61 Ibid. 62 Lynge, "Greenland. Its people and society," 27. 63 Griffiths and Young, "Sustainable Development and the Arctic," 11. 64 Moses Olsen, "Greenland and EF," 8. Notes 319

65 For a thorough discussion of this project see Jennifer Lewington, "Lessons of the Arctic Pilot Project," in Griffiths (ed.), Politics of the Northwest Passage, 163-180. 66 Cited from Rasmussen, "Greenlandic and Danish Attitudes to Canadian Arctic Shipping," 150. 67 Lewington, "Lessons of the Arctic Pilot Project," 178-180. 68 For a more extensive discussion of APP see Rasmussen, "Greenlandic and Danish Attitudes to Canadian Arctic Shipping," 149-155. 69 S.1. Boyakova, V.N. Ivanov, G. Osherenko et aJ., "IV.4.]: Influences of the Northern Sea Route on Social and Cultural Development of Indigenous Peoples of the Arctic Zone of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)," INSROP Working Paper No. 49 (Lysaker: The INSROP Secretariat, 1996), 64-65. 70 David Scrivener, "Environmental Cooperation in the Arctic: From Strategy to Council," Security Policy Library 1 (Oslo: The Norwegian Atlantic Committee, 1996), 18. 71 Rasmussen, "Greenlandic and Danish Attitudes to Canadian Arctic Shipping," 155-157. 72 Ibid., 155-157. 73 Tbid., 157. 74 Gail Osherenko, "Social and Cultural Impact of Indigenous Peoples of Expanded Use of the Northern Sea Route," in H. Kitagawa (ed.), Northern Sea Route; Future & Perspective. The Proceedings of INSROP Symposium Tokyo '95 (1-6 October 1995), (Tokyo: Ship & Ocean Foundation, 1996),343- 344. 75 Lynge, "Greenland. Its people and society," 32. 76 Lewington, "Lessons of the Arctic Pilot Project," 179. 77 TaaghoIt, "Gnanlands Sikkerhetspolitik i et Historisk Perspektiv," 33. 78 Griffiths and Young, "Sustainable Development and the Arctic," II. 79 Principper og perspektiver i dansk udenrigspolitik - Dansk udenrigspolitik pa ve) mot or 2000 (Copenhagen: The Danish Foreign Ministry, June 1993), front page and 19. 80 Ibid., 8. 81 Independent Commission on Disarmament and Security Issues under the Chairmanship of Olof Palme, Common Security: A Programme for Disarmament (London: Pan Books, 1982),294. 82 Department of State, "U.S. Arctic Policy" Fact Sheet 5, No. 52 (Washington D.C.: Bureau of Public Affairs, 26 December 1994). For a discussion of this Notes 320

policy see: Robert Senseney, "U.S. Arctic Policy Aims for Circumpolar Cooperation, Witness the Arctic 3, No.2 (Autumn 1995), 1-2. In chapter 5 of this boqk, Franklyn Griffiths make an indcpth discussion of this policy and its impact on Arctic developments. 83 Prine ipper og perspektiver i dansk udenrigspolitik, V. 84 See Willy 0streng, "Organiseringen av den Euro-Arktiske Barentsregionen: FormAl, Funksjon og Potensiale, in Nils Chr. Stenseth and Ingunn B. Lid (eds.), Barentsregionen - Europas spiskommer (Oslo: Notaro Gyldendal, in prep.). 85 Hans Henrik Bruun, "Oansk udenrikspolitik efter den kolde krig med srerligt henblik pA 0stersjoperspektivet," Det sikkerhelspolitiske bibliotek No. II (Oslo: The Norwegian Atlantic Committee, 1993), 11. Italicized by this author. 86 For a discussion of this aspect see 0streng, "Organiscringen av Den euro• arktiske Barentsregionen." 87 Ib Faurby, "Oansk udenrigs-og sikkerhedspolitik i et nyt Europa" Aktuelle utenrikssporsmtil No. 1 (Oslo: The Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, April 1992), 30. 88 Principper og perspektiver i dansk udenrigspolitik, 83. 89 Ibid., 191. 90 Ibid., IX. 91 Scrivener, "Environmental Cooperation in the Arctic," 18. 92 Archer, "Greenland and the Atlantic Alliance," 57. 93 Ibid., 58.

NOTES FOR CHAPTER 7

The citation is taken from Franklyn Griffiths, Chapter 3 in this volume. See Willy 0streng, Chapter 6 in this volume. This also goes for Sweden, Finland and Iceland. 4 See Franklyn Griffiths, Chapter 5 in this volume. Oran R. Young, The Arctic Council: Marking a New Era in International Relations (New York: The Twentieth Century Fund, 1996),9. 6 See Griffiths, Chapter 5 in this volume. Notes 321

Ibid. Ibid. 9 Iver B. Neumann and StAle Ulriksen, "Norsk forsvars- og sikkerhetspolitikk," in Torbj0TI1 Knutsen, Gunnar M. S0Tb0 and Svein Gjerd~er (eds.), Norges utenrikspolitikk (OslolBergen: CappeleniChristian Michelsens Institutt, 1995), 102. 10 For a more thorough discussion of this aspect see: Steinar Andresen and J0rgcn Wettestad, "International Problem-Solving Effectiveness. The Oslo Project Story So Far," International Environmental Affairs. A Journal for Research and Policy 7, No.7 (Spring 1995), 127-149. II Barry Buzan, People. States and Fear - An Agenda for International Security Studies in the Post-Cold War Era (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991). 12 Ibid. \3 Griffiths, Chapter 3 in this volume. 14 For a discussion of this distinction see Willy 0streng, Chapter 1 in this volume. 15 For these concepts see 0streng, Chapter 1 in this volume. 16 Point 1 in "Declaration on the Establishment of the Arctic Council," Arctic Bulletin No.4, (1996),4. 17 For a discussion of this aspect see 0streng, Chapter I in this volume. 18 Canada and the Circumpolar World: Meeting the Challenges of Cooperation into the Twenty-first Century, Draft report (Ottawa: The House of Commons Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Trade, February 1997),78-79. 19 For a definition of civility see Willy 0streng, Introductory Chapter in this volume. 20 Raphael Vartanov, Alexei Roginko and Vladimir Kolossov, Chapter 2 in this volume. 21 Ibid. 22 See 0streng, Introductory Chapter in this volume. 23 See Vartanov, Roginko and Kolossov, Chapter 2 in this volume. 24 Willy 0streng, "INSROP: A Multi-and Crossdisiplinary Challenge," The INSROP Newsletter 2, No. 3 (Lysaker: The INSROP Secretariat, December 1994), l. 25 See Vartanov, Roginko and Kolossov, Chapter 2 in this volume. 26 See 0streng, Introductory Chapter, and Vartanov, Roginko and Kolossov, Chapter 2 of this volume. Notes 322

27 See Willy 0streng, Chapter 4 in this volume. 28 See Griffiths, Chapter 3 in this volume. 29 See Vartanov, Roginko and Kolossov, Chapter 2 in this volume. )0 For a definition see 0streng, Introductory Chapter in this volume. 31 See Vartanov, Roginko and Kolossov, Chapter 2 in this volume. Ibid. 33 Griffiths, Chapter 3 in this volume. 34 0streng, Chapter 4 in this volume. 35 Ibid. 36 Vartanov, Roginko and Kolossov, Chapter 2 in this volume. 37 See Willy 0streng, Chapter 6 in this volume. 38 For a definition see 0streng. Introductory Chapter in this volume. 39 Samerettsutvalget, "Urfolks landrettigheter etter folkerett og utenlandsk rett" Norges offentlige ulredninger 5 (1997). 40 Johan Eriksson, "The Partitioned People: International Borders as a Saami Predicament," in Jan Ake Dellenbrant and Ulf Wiberg (eds.), Euro-Arctic Curtains (Umea: CERUM, 1997), 163-202. 41 For an indepth analysis of the Greenlanders' rights see: Lise Lyck (ed.), "Socio-Economic Developments in Greenland and in other Small Nordic Jurisdictions," New Social Science Monographs (Copenhagen Business School, 1997). SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

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0streng, W., "The Strategic Balance and the Arctic Ocean: Soviet Options," Cooperation and Conflict 1 (1977). INDEX

Arctic Environmental Protection -A- Strategy (AEPS), xiv; 18; 39; 40;

Akunnaaq, 216 128; 130; 193; 195; 197; 198; 199; Alaska, 13; 37; 40; 98; 195; 200; 201; 201; 221; 228; 236, see also 220;226;236 Rovaniemi Process Aleyut, 196 Arctic Monitoring Assessment Program America, xii; 10; 42; 58; 73; 105; 183; (A MAP), xiv; 15; 39 208;210;213;214;216;223;233; Arctic Ocean, xi; 3; 10; II; 12; 22; 24; 236;260 29;33;36;37;38;50;63; 71; 74; American Academy of Arts and 88; 94; 98; 99; 123; 130; 180; 198; Sciences, 186 212; 214; 216; 258; 281, see also American Association for the Polar Sea Advancement of Science, 185 Arctic Pilot Project (APP), ix; xiv; 226; American Coast Guard, 26 227;228;229;230;236;259 AMOCO, 199 Arctic rim countries. 72; 85 Anchorage, 15; 40 Arctic Security, vii; viii; x; xiii; 21; 22; Andreyev Bay, 92 29; 31; 34; 38; 43; 51; 58; 61; 66; Antarctic Treaty, 28 169;207;239;242;244;251 Anti Ballistic Missile (ABM), xiv; 209 Arctic Shipping Pollution Prevention Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW), xiv; Rcgulations (ASPPR), xiv; 129 58; 74; 75; 151; 212; 213; 215; 216 Arctic States, I; 2; 5; 7; 13; 14; 15; 16; Archer, Clive, 213; 236 19;22;28;30;34;35;36;40;41; Arctic Aboriginal Leaders' Summit 45;48;49; 136; 173; 180; 193; 197; (ALS), xiv; 42; 227; 236; 265 201;241;242;243;251;253;254; Arctic bioregion, xi; 2; 8; 9; 13; 16; 18; 259;260;261;262;281 47; 243; 261, see also Arctic Sustainable Development ecogeographica1 region Initiative, 40; 196 Arctic Circle, 6 Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act Arctic compartmentalization, 28 (AWPPA), xiv; 105; 123; 124; 125; Arctic Council (AC), xiv; 18; 40; 41; 126; 128; 129 43; 45; 47; 48; 94; 106; 128; 193; Arkhangelsk, 83; 89; 96; 151; 166; I 70 194; 195; 196; 236; 243; 251; 263; Armstrong, Terence, 24; 56 265 Association of Aboriginal Peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East Index 356

of the Russian Federation (RAPON), Barcntsburg, 158 40;227;228;236 barrier strategy, 213; 216; 217 Ataqatigiit party, 229 Battle Griffin, 157 Atassut party, 222; 224 Bear Island, 145 Atomflot, 96 Beaufort Sea, 12 Belarus. 151 -B- Bellona, 91; 96

Baffin Bay, 212; 216; 226; 230 Bering Strait, 2; 24; 171 Baffin Island Oil Spill Project (BIOS), Black Sea, 67; 74; 141; 151 xiv; 9; \0 British Gas, 99 Ballistic Missile Early Warning System Brookings Institution, 182 (BMEWS), xii; xiv; 209; 2\0; 211 Brookings report, 183 ballistic missile submarine (SSBN), 24; Brown. Lester, 181 50; 58; 73; 139; 212; 213; 216 Brundtland, Gro Harlem, 95; 182 ballistic missiles, 57; 58; 139; 180 -C- Baltic Sea, xiv; 67; 151; 234 Baltic Sea Cooperation (BSC), xiv; 234; Canada, 12; 36; 37; 38; 65; 80; 99; \03; 235 104; \06; 108; 109; 1 \0; 111; 112; Baltic Sea Council, 234 114; 116; 117; 118; 119; 120; 121; Barents Council, 165; 166; 167; 169; 122; 123; 124; 125; 126; 128; 129; 258;259 163; 193; 197; 198; 199; 205; 210; Barents Euro-Arctic Region (BEAR). 215;220;226;229;231;233;236; ix; xiv; 42; 43; 44; 45; 147; 160; 241;242;247;253;259

161; 162; 163; 164; 165; 166; 16~ Canada 21 : Canada and Common 168; 169; 170; 171; 173; 174; 175; Security in the Twenty-First 176; 177;235;254;258;259;262; Century, 110; 120 263;265 Canadian archipelago, 123; 217 Barents Festival, 168 CanadianCoastGuard,103; 129; 199 Barents Perspektiv, 168 capelin war, 217 Barents Quadrangle, xi; 137; 138; 143; Carson, Rachel, 181 147; 148; 150; 155; 174; 175; 176; Central Arctic, 13; 21; 28; 29 207;218;242 Central Arctic Basin, 13; 28 Barents Sea, xi; 26; 59; 88; 90; 137; Central Information Agency ( CIA), 186 138; 143; 144; 146; 151; 155; 157; Chemobyl, 62; 167 167; 169; 171; 235; 242; 260 Children of the North, 78 Index 357

China, 45; 80 Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Chretien, Jean, 243 Treaty, 95 Chukchi Sea, 11;24;281 comprehensive security, xii; 21; 29; 86; Chukotka, 77; 81; 82; 83; 89 102; 147; 171; 174; 247; 248; 249; Circumpolar Board of Navigation, 130 251;252;253;254;255;257;263 civil security, 21; 43; 44; 118; 184; 248; Conference on Security and 249;250;252;256;258;262;265 Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), 108; civilianization, 21; 39; 40; 44; 46; 48; 116; 117; 234 49; 50; 163; 169; 173; 220; 235; Congo, 149 236;239;246;250;253;258;260; Congress, 57; 184; 186; 192; 195 262;265 Conoco,99 civility, 7; 16; 18; 19; 47; 48; 54; 113; Conservation area of Arctic Flora and 129; 185;222;231;232;237;253; Fauna (CAFF), 8; 39 264;265 Convention on the Regulation of Clinton, Bill, 93; 189; 192; 194; 243 Antarctic Mineral Resources Club of Rome, 181 (CRAMRA),6 coating of security, 253 Conventional Forces Europe (CFE), 32; Cold War, vii; xi; 5; 16; 17; 21; 22; 23; 34; 151 24;25;26;28;29;30;31;33;34; cooperative security, xii; 31; 49; 53; 64; 37;42;43;48;49;50;60;61;64; 105; 109; III; 112; 116; 117: 118; 85; 93; 94; 95; 105; \09; 110; III; 119; 121; 122; 129; 182; 251; 252; 116; 119; 121; 135; 136; 137; 143; 254;256;258;260 146; 147; 148; 149; 150; 152; 153; coordinate political region, 46; 47; 48 154; 156; 158; 161; 162; 163; 164; Copenhagen,205;221; 236 166; 168; 169; 174; 175; 179; 180; core of security, 248; 263 181; 182; 183; 184; 191; 193; 207; Crimea, 68 210;211;213;217;218;221;222; 227;232;234;235;236;247;249; -D-

257;258;263;264 Dabelko, Geoffrey, 188; 189 collective security, 48; 105; 108; 109; Danish Folketing, 219 III; 112; 113; 149; 161;253 Danish Parliament, 209 common security, 105; 1\0; III; 112; Danish Straits, 207 113; 116; 119; 120; 121; 136; 164; Davis Strait, 212; 220; 226 175;232;237;252;253 Defense Council, 70 Common Security Council, 121 Commoner, Barry, 181 Index 358

Delta-class submarine, 22; 58; 90; 213; Environmental Change and Acute 215 Conflict Project, 186 demilitarization, 120; 141; 147 Environmental Change and Security demilitarized status, 28; 143 Project, 186 Denmark, 36; 128; 156; 165; 193; 205; Environmental Change and Security 207;208;209;211;212;213;217; Report. 186 218;220;229;231;232;233;234; environmental damage, 6; 7; 8; 15; 62; 235;241;242;253;259 232;261 Department of Defense (DOD), 186; environmental degradation, 6; 9; 13; 30; 194;200;243 49; 62; 121; 135; 183; 186; 188; deterrence, 105; 108; 109; 139; 140; 189; 191; 198; 243; 245; 262 147; 155;208;210;241;248 environmental interest community. 15 Dickson, 170 environmental preservation, 44; 48; Distant Early Warning (DEW), xii; 58; 174;219;233;237;259 210; 211 environmental protection. I; 16; 18; 21; 22;29;43;44;47;64;82;84;86; -E- 103; 106; 125; 130; 176; 194; 196;

Earth Day, 182 197; 198;202;233;243;246;260 East Central Europe, 66 Environmental Protection Agency, 186; East Siberian Sea, II 195 Eastern Europe, 73 environmental security, 1; 7; 15; 16; 19; Eastern Siberia, 80 40;43;47;53;62;78;79; 86;88; ecocide,62 89; 97; 99; 100; 102; 103; 104; 105; ecogeographical boundaries, 13 113; 115; 116; 118; 119; 122; 125; ecogeographical region, 8; 15, see also 126; 127; 128; 130; 132; 168; 176; bioregion 181; 184; 186; 187; 188; 190; 195; ecological security, 186; 196; 197; 198; 196; 197; 199; 201; 237; 243; 244; 200;202;203 246;247;248; 251;261 economic security, 81; 87; 115; 182; Estonia, 151 248;256;263 Eurasia, 10 ecosystems management, 132 Eurocentrism, 112 Egypt, 27 Europe, 5; 29; 58; 59;64;66;73; 86; Ellesmere Island, 216 103; 105; 108; 109; 117; 151; 153; Emergency, Prevention, Preparedness 162; 169; 170; 173; 213; 234; 259 and Response (EPPR), 39 European Community (EC), 220; 224; 225;226 Index 359

European Parliament (EP), 220 Germany, 129; 163; 199 European Union (EU), 165; 166; 173; Glasnost, 31 232;235 global climate change, 114 exclusive cooperative security, 251 global commons, 112 extended security, 49; 117; 122; 125; Global Stewardship Initiative (GSI), 133; 136; 137; 148; 150; 152; 155; 185 175; 176; 179; 181; 184; 185; 186; global warming, 7; 105; 127; 179; 182; 191; 192; 207; 235; 241; 243; 245; 245 248;249 globalization, 57; I \0; III EXXON,I23 Godal, Bjorn Tore, 135 Exxon Valdez, 98 Golovko, Arseny, 137 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 29; 31; 34; 38; 47; -F- 53; 61; 64; 65; 71; 73; 182; 241

Faeroe Islands, 205; 207; 220 Gore, AI, 189; 194 Far East, 5; 40; 77; 78; 80; 87; 103; Gosatomnadzor, 96 171; 227; 259 Goskomsever, 5; 33; 78; 79 Far Eastern Shipping Company, 171 Granberg, Alexander, 4; 170 Far North, 63; 67; 71; 77; 87 Grayling, 90 Federal Council, 76 Great Britain, 163; 217 federalization, 66; 81 greenhouse effect, 12 Fenno-Scandinavia, 42 Greenland, 13; 29; 37; 38; 128; 131; Finland, 42; 65; 67; 86; 96; 129; 145; 205;206;207;208;209;210;211; 156; 160; 161; 164; 165; 166; 193; 212; 213; 214; 215; 216; 217; 218; 199;220;234;261;281 219;220;221;222;223;224;225; Finnmark, 139; 140; 145; 156; 157; 226;227;228;229;230;231;232; 166; 171; 175 233;235;236; 237;241; 242;263; Fleet Commander, 75 265 Forrestal, James, 180 Greenland-Iceland-United Kingdom France, 129; 163; 199 Gap (GIUK-gap), 22; 58; 90; 212; FridtjofNansen Institute (FNI), 2; 3; 213;214;216;217;218 II; 33 Griffiths, Franklyn, xvii; 16; 46; \03; Frydenlund, Knut, 139 179;241;243;247;259;265 Gulf Canada, 99 -G- Gulf Stream, 170

Georgia, 15 I Index 360

-H- 194;222;226;227;233;236;264; 265 Hansen, H.C., 211 integrated core of security, 248 Hardin, Garrett, 181 integration region, 46; 239; 260; 262 Hannonization Talks. 130; 131; 199; Inter-Agency Arctic Policy Group 200 (lAPG), 196 hegemonialism, 23; 25; 227 Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile hegemonical politics, 26 (ICBM), 210 Heilongjiang, 45 Interdepartmental Committee for high politics, 6; 7; 17; 47; 132; 157; Circumpolar Affairs, 107 163; 166; 176; 226; 233; 237; 240; International Aboriginal Peoples' 244;246;248;256 Organization (lPO), 40; 41; 42 Hokkaido, 45 International Arctic Science Committee Holst, Johan Jergen, 136; 171; 173 (IASC), 37; 39; 42; 43; 45; 65 Home Rule Act, 219; 220; 221 International Atomic Energy Agency Home Rule Government, 220; 221; 225; (IAEA), 93; 94 226; 227; 228; 229; 230; 231; 233; International Convention for the 236;237 Prevention of Pollution from Ships, Home Rule Greenland, 205; 207; 217; 198 219;220;221;224;225;226;227; International Court of Justice, 124 228;229;230;231;233;236;237; International Geophysical Year, 35 241;263 International Maritime Organization Hudson Bay, 214, 215 (IMO), 94; 129; 130; 197 Hudson Bay Approach, 214, 215 International Northern Sea Route -1- Programme (INSROP), v; xvii; 2; 3; 33;86;87; 88;89;92;98; 177;256; Iceland, 159; 165; 193; 212; 213; 217; 258;259 220;225;281 international security, 30; 58; 73; 107; Iceworm, 211 108; 109; 110; 111; 112; 113; 117; inclusive cooperation, 240; 245 118; 121; 122; 133; 136; 140; 148; indigenous government, 260 161; 173; 182; 263 indigenous knowledge, 40; 41; 198 Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC), indigenous participation, 40 40; 106; 197;220;222;227;228; indigenous peoples, 18; 39; 40; 41; 42; 236;265 45; 62; 70; 78; 82; 84; 160; 168; Itteqqortoormiit, 228 Index 361

-J- Landstinget, 222 Lapland, 166 Jameson Land, 228 Laptev Sea, II; 24; 88 Jan Mayen, 139; 217 Latvia, 151 Japan, v; 36; 45; 80; 163 Lena, 3; 281 joint political value base, 240 Lena river, 3 joint conceptual foundation of politics, Leningrad, 65 240 Lithuania, 151 -K- Lloyd, Trevor, 36 London Convention (LC), 92; 93; 94; Kamchatka, 77; 81 9S Kaplan, Robert, 189 low politics, 164; 240; 244; 245; 246; Kara Sea, 10; 24; 74; 86; 91; 98 256 Karelia, 166 Lund, Henrik, 221 Keflavik, 212; 217; 225 Lynge, Finn, 222 Khrushchev, Nikita, 147 Kirkenes, 145; 146; 160; 165; 166; 167; -M- 168; 169; 173 Magadan, 77; 81; 83 Kirkenes Declaration, 160; 165; 166; Maritime Strategy, 212; 216; 218 167; 169; 173 Mathews, Jessica, 182 Kola Inlet, 138; 143; 207; 213 Melville Bay, 220 Kola Peninsula, 22; 32; 38; 58; 68; 74; Mestersvig, 217; 218 89; 91; 95; 137; 138; 139; 141; 142; Middle East, 149 143; 145; 150; 151; 161; 174; 207; military security , 16· , 27· , 31· , 38· , 43· , 49· , 213; 241; 261; 262 50; 74; 85; 87; 106; 110; 116; 193; Kolossov, Vladimir, xvii; 53; 256; 264 208;235;242;243;249;250;251; Komi, 15; 82; 83; 98 253; 255; 256 Komineft, 99 minimal political region, 46 Kozyrev, Andrei, 66; 96 Mohawk, 127 Krasnoyarsk, 81 Moldova, 151 Kremlin, 37 Molotov, V. M., 145 Kresta, 139 Moscow, xvii; 31; 82; 83; 85; 131; 157; Kuramin, Viktor, 5; 33 161; 214 -L- Motzfeldt, Jonathan, 221

Land Management Committee, 79 Index 362

~urrnansk,29;30;31;32;33;37;38; Nordland, 157; 166; 171 43;48;53;64;65;66;76;89;92; Norilsk, 89; 261 93; 96; 139; 151; 163; 166; 167; Norrboten, 166 169; 170; 173; 182; 241; 248; 249; North America, 42; 58; 105; 208; 210; 251; 254; 261; 262 213;216;223;233;236;260

~urmansk initiative, 30; 38; 53; 64; 65; North Atlantic, 5; 58; 159; 212; 213; 66; 169 218

~urrnansk Shipping Company, 170 North Atlantic Treaty Organization

~urrnansk speech, 33; 38; 64; 65; 173; (NATO), 26; 29; 38; 59; 73; 86; 182 108; 111; 137; 140; 142; 144; 145;

148; 149; 152; 154; 155; 15~ 157; -N- 158; 180; 193;205;207;208;209;

Nansen, Fridtjof, 2; 3; II; 33; 222 214; 215; 217; 224 Narssarsuaq, 209 North East Passage, 171; 259 Narvik,170 North Norway, 137; 146; 155; 157; National Defense Education Act, 181 171;242;261 National Defense Highways Act, 181 North Pacific, 5 National Oceanic and Atmospheric North West Passage, 35; 105; 123; 229; Administration (NOAA), 197 259 National Security Act, 180 Northern Dimension, 235 National Security Advisor to the Northern Europe, 29; 59; 64 President, 70 Northern Fleet, 29; 31; 32; 38; 56; 59; National Security Council, 180; 186; 74;75; 76;91;92;96;97; 137; 138; 189; 194 139; 141; 146; 150; 157; 213; 260 National Security Policy of the Russian Northern Forum (NF), 18; 40; 42; 44; Federation, 70; 81 45;47;65; 85; 196; 197;20~258; National Security Strategy, 183 259;263 Ncncts, 83; 84; 166 Northern Sea, v; xvii; I; 2; 21; 25; 26; Nikitin, Aleksandr, 97 29; 33; 44; 56; 61; 64; 92; 103; 127; Non Governmental Organization 132; 170; 177; 180; 197; 200; 227; (NGO), 39; 40; 91; 96 256 non-provocative defence (NPD), 140; Northern Sea Route (NSR), v; xvii; I; 141 2; 3; 4; 5; \0; II; 13; 15; 16; 18; 19; Nordic countries, 90; 157; 170 21; 23; 24; 25; 26; 27; 29; 33; 44; Nordic Sami Council, 165 49; 50;51;53;56;60;61;6~ 86; 88; 92; 97; 102; \03; 104; 127; 132; Index 363

135; 136; 137; 150; 169; 171; 172; Overseas Countries and Territories 173; 177; 180; 197; 200; 207; 227; (OCT), 225 228;230;239;254;255;256;257; ozone layer depletion, 7 258;259;260;261;262;281 Northern strategic bastion, 74 -p-

Northwest Passage, 35 Palme Commission, 110; 181; 182; 232 Norway, xvii; 3; 11; 33; 36; 38; 42; 59; Panama Canal, 5 65; 93; 95; 96; 129; 130; 135; 136; Parliamentary Council of Western 137; 138; 139; 140; 141; 142; 143; Norden, 220 144; 145; 146; 147; 149; 150; 151; Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 59 153; 155; 156; 157; 158; 159; 160; Partnership for Peace (PiP), 156 161; 163; 164; 165; 166; 169; 171; Peace and Conflict Studies Program, 173; 174; 175; 176; 186; 193; 199; 186 207;208;217;220;234;236;241; Pechenga, 261 242;254;260;261;263 Pechora River, 98 Norwegian Sea, 22; 38; 74; 90; 213; perestroika, 62; 71; 93 216;217 Peter the Great, 151 Novaya Zemlya, 2; 59; 95; 170 Pew Charitable Trusts, 185 nuclear contamination, 89; 92; 94; 167 Poland, 163; 234 nuclear dumping, 89; 94; 96; 187 Polar Sea, 105; 126, see also Arctic nuclear warhead, 73; 210 Ocean nuclear waste, 88; 91; 92; 94; 95; 97; policy of openness, 147 186; 187 policy of regional multi laterality, 147 Nunavut, 106; 131 political security, 53; 115; 118 Nuuk, 221; 224;229;233; 236 pollution prevention, 124; 125; 126; 129; 187; 197; 198 -0- POMOR,157 Ob, 3; 8S;9S; 99 precautionary action, 19; 127 Okhotsk, SO precautionary principle, 13 Ottawa, 112; 123; 131; 194; 214; 229; principle of exclusiveness, 256 233 principle of inclusiveness, 256 overall regional security regime Program on Science and International (ORSR), 143; 145; 147; 14S; 157; Security, 185 174; 175; 176;207;218;242 Project on Environment, Population and Security, 185 Index 364

Protection of the Marine Environment Rovaniemi process, 39; 40; 221. see (PAME), 39; 130; 197; 198; 200 also Arctic Council Pyramiden, 158 Russia, 4; 24; 25; 33; 34; 42; 48; 50; 54; 66; 67; 68; 69; 70; 71; 72; 73; -Q- 74;76; 78;79;80;81;82;85;86;

Qaanaaq, 209 87;89;90;91;92;93;94;95;96; Qaqortoq, 221 97; 99; 100; 101; 103; 129; 131; 136; 137; 141; 142; 144; 150; 151; -R- 153; 156; 160; 161; 163; 164; 165; 166; 169; 173; 179; 186; 191; 194; radioactive contamination, 86; 90; 96; 195; 197; 198; 199; 208; 210; 227; 97 234;235;241;242;256;257;259; radioactive dumping, 92 261; 262; 263 radioactive leakages, 90; 150 Russian Federation, 40; 67; 69; 70; 76; radioactive pollution, 90 79;81;82;83;84;227;255 radioactive waste, 31; 54; 76; 91; 92; Russian Navy, 73; 74; 87 93; 96; 97; 161; 262 Russian North, 2; 4; 5; 13; 42; 67; 71; Rapid Reaction Force (RRF), 149 80;82;89;96; 100;249;259;261 realpolitik, 64 Ryzhkov, Nikolay, 30; 146 rear deployment strategy, 22 reassurance, 108; 140; 147; 155; 208; -S- 209 Red Army, 56 S.S. Manhattan, 123; 229 regional government, 15; 18; 42; 203; Saami Council (sq, 40; 197; 227; 228; 240;258;260 236, see also Samctinget regional security, 21; 44; 49; 66; 140; Sakha, 83; 89;227; 228 141; 143; 146; 147; 154; 160; 163; Sakhalin. 77 180;207;233;234;253;254 Sambo, Dalce. 223 regionalization, 21; 39; 40; 42; 44; 46; Sametinget, 263. see also Saami 48; 49; 50; 60; 118; 163; 166; 167; Council 169; 173; 174; 234; 235; 239; 243; sectoral principle, 58; 70; 71; 72 246;250;251;253;258;259;265 Security Council. 70; 121; 180; 186; Republic of Korea, 45 189; 194 Reykjavik, 217 security dilemma, 140; 141; 147; 176 Roginko, Alexei, xvii; 53; 256; 264 security doctrine, 70; 76; 241 Rothschild, Emma, 179 Index 365 security policy, 7; 15; 43; 49; 55; 58; State Committee on Environmental 61; 69; 70; 76; 101; 102; III; 112; Protection, 78 135; 136; 137; 147; 148; 150; 152; State Duma, 70; 72; 97 153; 154; 155; 158; 166; 167; 174; Station Nord, 216 175; 176; 180; 181; 184; 188; 193; Stockholm Conference, 182 201;205;206;207;219;220;221; Stoltenberg, Thorvald, 161 222;223;224;233;236;241;242; Strategic Air Command, 210 244;245;252;254 Strategic Air Command Atlantic security regime, 85; 137; 143; 156; 207; (SACLANT), 207; 208 218 Strategic Defense Initiative (SOl), 209 Senior Arctic Officials (SOA), 41 Strategic Environmental Research and Severodvinsk, 73; 91 Development Program, 189 shared security, 114; 252 submarine-launched ballistic missile Shevardnadzc, Eduard, 217 (SLBM), 58; 213; 214 Siberia, 23; 40; 80; 95; 99; 227 Suez, 5; 27 Siberian rivers, 2; 4 Supreme Soviet, 82 Simon, Mary, 106 sustainable development, 16; 18; 39; Siumut party, 224; 229 40; 47; 50; 79; 82; 104; 105; 106; SOSUS, 213 182; 184; 187; 189; 190; 194; 196; Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 37 197;200;202;233;246;265 Soviet Ministry of the Merchant Marine, sustainable security, 223; 231; 232; 33 236;237;241;264;265 Soviet North, 5; 22; 37; 61; 77; 227 Svalbard, 13; 22; 38; 137; 139; 140; Soviet State Commitee for Science and 141; 142; 143; 145; 146; 147; 155; Technology (GKNT), 38 158; 159; 160; 207; 242, sec also Soviet Union, 25; 31; 34; 36; 38; 48; Spitsbergen 54;55;57;58;59;65;66;67;69; Svalbard Treaty, 140; 143; 145; 147; 73; 88; 94; 98; 105; 111; 135; 137; 158 139; 140; 141; 142; 143; 144; 145; Sweden, 42; 129; 156; 160; 161; 164; 146; 147; 149; 150; 158; 164; 180; 165; 166; 193; 199; 220; 234; 261; 182; 186; 193; 208; 209; 210; 213; 281 236; 241; 254; 258; 263, see also USSR -T-

Special Economic Region, 83 Te1emark, 149 Spitsbergen, 141, sce also Svalbard terrorism, 182; 183; 186; 187 St. Petersburg, 65; 130; 151 Index 366

The Arctic Ice Dynamics Joint 211;212;213;214;216;217;218; Experiment (AIDJEX), 36 221;222;224;225;226;227;229; The Norwegian Storting, 146 232;233;236;241;242;243;245; The Polar Bear Agreement, 36; 60 251;253;254;259;262;281 The Polar Experiment (POLEX), 35; 36 University of Toronto, xvii; 186; 189 Thule, 205; 209; 210; 216; 218; 225; Urals Republic, 84 226;232;234;236 Usinsk,99 Tomahawk, 74 USSR, 23; 25; 36; 38; 53; 55; 57; 58; transnationalization, 246 59;60;63;64;65;66;67; 71;76; Troms, 136; 140; 153; 156; 157; 166; 78; 82; 86; 93; 109; 138; 139; 145; 171 258, see also Soviet Union Tromso, 146 Typhoon-class submarine, 22; 23; 59 -v-

Vadso, 146 -u- Vardo, 146 u.s. Coast Guard, 195; 200; 201 Vartanov, Raphael, xvii; 53; 94; 256; U.S. Navy, 22; 36; 186; 195; 197; 198; 264;281 212 Versailles, 141 U.S.S. Grayling, 90 Vladivostok, 171 Ukraine, 73; 151 Ullman, Richard, 181 -w-

UN Global Atmospheric Research Wallace, Henry A., 34 Programme (GARP), 35 Warzaw Pact, 29 United Kingdom, 129; 199; 212; 213 Washington, 186; 192; 193; 194; 200; United Nations Convention on the Law 217;233;242;243;245;251;281 of the Sea ofl982 (UNCLOS), 63; White House, 183; 194; 201 72; 124; 125; 126; 129, 144 Woodrow Wilson Center, 186 United States, 22; 24; 26; 34; 36; 37; Working Group on Arctic International 58;65; 70;71; 73; 81;90; 93; 95; Relations (WGAIR), 37 100; 103; 104; 105; 108; 109; 123; World Bank, 98 124; 129; 151; 157; 163; 173; 179; World War II, 5; 21; 22; 24; 29; 34; 35; 180; 181; 182; 183; 184; 185; 187; 48;51;53;55;56;57;58;85; 104; 188; 189; 190; 191; 192; 193; 194; 108; 137; 150;207;210;253 195; 196; 197; 198; 199; 200; 201; World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 100 202;203;205;207;208;209;210; Index 367

-y-

Yablokov Report, 93 Yablokov, V. A., 93; 99 Yakutia, 82; 83; 89; 230 Yakutsk,81 Yankee-class submarine, 58; 213 Yeltsin, Boris, 4; 33; 83; 93; 95; 96; 170 Yenisei, 3; 88 Young, Oran, xvii; 45; 46

-0-

0streng, Willy, I; II; 21; 135; 144; 205;239 -A-

Alesund, 130 ENVIRONMENT & POLICY

1. Dutch Committee for Long-Term Environmental Policy: The Environment: Towards a Sustainable Future. 1994 ISBN 0-7923-2655-5; Pb 0-7923-2656-3 2. o. Kuik, P. Peters and N. Schrijver (eds.): Joint Implementation to Curb Climate Change. Legal and Economic Aspects. 1994 ISBN 0-7923-2825-6 3. CJ. Jepma (ed.): The Feasibility ofJoint Implementation. 1995 ISBN 0-7923-3426-4 4. FJ. Dietz, H.RJ. V, lIebergh and J.L. de Vries (eds.): Environment, Incentives and the Common Market. 1995 ISBN 0-7923-3602-X 5. J.ETh. Schoute, P.A.} inke, ER. Veeneklaas and H.P. Wolfert (eds.): Scenario Studies for the Rural Environn. ent. 1995 ISBN 0-7923-3748-4 6. R.E. Munn, J.W.M.la I lviere and N. van Lookeren Campagne: Policy Making in an Era of Global Environm. 'ntal Change. 1996 ISBN 0-7923-3872-3 7. E Oosterhuis, E Rubik ani G. Scholl: Product Policy in Europe: New Environmental Perspectives. 1996 ISBN 0-7923-4078-7 8. J. Gupta: The Climate Change Convention and Developing Countries: From Conflict to Consensus? 1997 ISBN 0-7923-4577-0 9. M. Rolen, H. Sjoberg and U. Svedin (eds.): International Governance on Environ- mentallssues. 1997 ISBN 0-7923-4701-3 10. M.A. Ridley: Lowering the Cost of Emission Reduction: Joint Implementation in the Framework Convention on Climate Change. 1998 ISBN 0-7923-4914-8 11. GJ.1. Schrama (ed.): Drinking Water Supply and Agricultural Pollution. Preventive Action by the Water Supply Sector in the European Union and the United States. 1998 ISBN 0-7923-5104-5 12. P. Glasbergen: Co-operative Environmental Governance: Public-Private Agreements as a Policy Strategy. 1998 ISBN 0-7923-5148-7; Pb 0-7923-5149-5 13. P. VeIlinga, E Berkhout and J. Gupta (eds.): Managing a Material World. Perspectives in Industrial Ecology. 1998 ISBN 0-7923-5153-3; Pb 0-7923-5206-8 14. EHJ.M. Coenen, D. Huitema and L.J. O'Toole, Jr. (eds.): Participation and the Quality of Environmental Decision Making. 1998 ISBN 0-7923-5264-5 15. D.M. Pugh and J.V. Tarazona (eds.): Regulation for Chemical Safety in Europe: Analysis, Comment and Criticism. 1998 ISBN 0-7923-5269-6 16. W. 0streng (ed.): National Security and International Environmental Cooperation in the Arctic - the Case of the Northern Sea Route. 1999 ISBN 0-7923-5528-8

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